History of the new time. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Free library / Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

History of the new time. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. FEATURES OF THE PERIOD OF NEW TIMES IN THE CONTEXT OF WORLD HISTORY

The main feature of the Modern Age in Europe was the emergence of absolutism during the period of the decay of traditional society at the end of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. with the achievement of its heyday in the XVII century.

Absolutism - a form of government in which the supreme power unlimitedly belongs to one person - the monarch. Under absolutism, the attempts of the old feudal nobility to preserve their independence are suppressed. England and France are the first European states to have absolute monarchies at the beginning of the Modern Age. In Germany, feudal fragmentation persisted for a long time. The formation of a single national state in Italy also proceeded gradually throughout the entire period of the New Age due to the presence of many independent city-republics.

In Sweden, Spain and Portugal, the process of formation of absolutist states in the initial period of the New Age was more successful than in other states of Europe.

Features of the Modern Age period in Asia

In Asia, the most powerful states in the Modern Age were the Ottoman Empire (in Asia Minor), the Mughal Empire in India, the Qing Empire in China (formed by the Manchu Qing dynasty, which ruled until 1911), the Tokugawa shogunate in Japan, which established itself at the end XVI - early XVII centuries. after the victory of Ielsu Tokugawa, the shogun, over the specific princes of Japan.

In the first half of the XVII century. The government of Shogun Iemitsu Tokugawa took a series of measures to isolate Japan from the outside world. Decrees were issued on the expulsion of Europeans from the country and the prohibition of Christianity. The policy of "closing" the country was caused by the desire of the authorities to prevent the invasion of Japan by Europeans and the desire to preserve old traditions and feudal orders.

A similar policy was pursued by the Qing emperors in China, when in 1757 by a special decree all ports except Guangzhou were declared closed to foreign trade. The reason for the "closure" of China was the fear of the authorities that the contacts of Chinese merchants with foreigners could undermine the traditional foundations of society. But the isolation of China did not save from the invasion of Europeans in the future and dependence on Western countries.

The most active at the beginning of the Modern Age was the penetration of Europeans into India, its southern part, where there was no single state, but small principalities ruled by rajas prevailed. The Portuguese were the first to capture the coastal cities of India (Diu, Goa, Bombay), then the British and the Dutch followed them.

Features of the Modern Age in Africa and America

In Africa, by the beginning of the Modern Age, there were no such strong and large states as in Europe, so the Europeans relatively easily captured those lands where there were deposits of silver, gold, and other natural resources. The most active Europeans penetrated into North Africa, which was closer to Europe. Here, after the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, several small states were formed.

In America, before its discovery by Columbus, there were several states - Maya, Incas, Aztecs, which were conquered in the XNUMXth century. the Spaniards and the Portuguese. Ancient traditional societies existed in these states, various crafts and even non-ferrous metallurgy were developed. Farming was primitive, with the use of hoeing.

The colonization of America, during which the ancient culture of the Indians was destroyed, continued until the middle of the XNUMXth century. And by the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries. the majority of the Indian population of America turned out to be feudally dependent on the European colonialists - the Spaniards, the Portuguese, the French, etc.

2. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NEW TIME PERIOD

The significance of the period of the New Age for the development of human society as a whole is very great. In the period of modern times, strong absolutist states were formed in Europe, having national borders, one dominant religion (the religion of the monarch), and one indigenous nationality. At the same time, within the boundaries of its state, absolutism could restrain the destructive wars of "all against all." At the same time, under the influence of changes in economic life, the composition of society also changed: the bourgeoisie grew in numbers and strengthened its influence on the political life of states, the decline of the landed aristocracy, the weakening of the peasantry began.

With the growth of the bourgeoisie, there was an increase in entrepreneurship, traditional methods of managing the economy began to give way to the capitalist way of life, and capitalism began to develop. The main content of the Modern Age period was the gradual destruction of the traditional society and the emergence of the features of a new, industrial society, which is characterized by the growth of industrial production.

The significance of the New Age period is also great due to the Great geographical discoveries made by the Spaniards, the Portuguese, the British, etc. Great geographical discoveries became possible in European countries. They were dictated by both economic and scientific goals in the knowledge of the Earth. The discovery of the New World (America) and the first trips around the world influenced the economic development of European countries. The influx into Europe of a large amount of precious metals and various goods contributed to the development of manufactories and trade, and then to the destruction of traditional methods of farming and the development of capitalism. As a result of the industrial revolution in Europe, a rapid growth in factory production began with an increase in the number of workers and owners of these industries - manufacturers, breeders.

Church reform

The development of the new European society led to the realization of the need for church reform. For many believers, the secularization of consciousness and awareness of their dignity has led to a denial of the role of the church and priests as mediators between God and man. Believers began to speak out for the reform of the church, for the right to communicate with God themselves, to pray and read the Bible in their native language. At the same time, a movement of Protestants arose. As a result, Europe was split by religious wars, and then the position of theology weakened, it gradually gave way to the dominant place in the sciences of nature and man. In the XVIII century. in Europe, a scientific revolution began, which led European society to the realization that reason and experiment are the decisive means of assessing the truth of knowledge. The educated people of Europe began to consider the world as a machine operating without the constant intervention of God or evil spirits, they learned to look for an explanation of the causes and patterns of phenomena and processes with the help of mathematics and the laws of mechanics.

The period of modern times is of great importance as a period with frequent revolutions in Europe and America, which prepared the foundation for future legal states, where the rights of the individual were regulated not by tradition, but by law. The reasons for the revolutions were different: the discrepancy between the interests of different segments of the population, the clash of different worldviews, the desire for national and state independence. So it was in the Netherlands, England, the English colonies in North America and France. Revolutions started when governments were late with reforms.

3. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA AND THE SEA ROUTE TO INDIA

Portugal and Spain were the first among European countries to undertake the search for sea routes to Africa and India. Various segments of the population were interested in opening these routes, but first of all they were nobles, merchants, clergy and kings of these countries. As a result of the war with the Moors and Arabs, which went down in history under the name Reconquista, in Portugal and Spain a special social stratum of small landed nobles, hidalgos, was formed, for whom the war was the only occupation. Numerous militant nobles, left idle after the Reconquista, posed a serious danger to kings and cities, since they could easily be used by large feudal lords in the fight against the unification of the country and the strengthening of royal power. Therefore, the kings of Portugal and Spain sought to captivate the nobles with the idea of discovering and conquering new countries and trade routes. The Portuguese were the first to enter the ocean routes. The sea route to India was laid by the Portuguese gradually at the end of the XNUMXth century, during the last decade.

On May 20, 1498, Portuguese ships under the command of Vasco da Gama, sent by King Manoel, reached the coast of India. With the opening of the sea route to India, Portugal acquired a priority position in the European market and began to master the entire maritime trade of South and East Asia.

Dependence of the colonies on the mother countries

In 1492, the Spanish kings Ferdinand and Isabella sent an expedition of three caravels under the command of Christopher Columbus on a long voyage across the Atlantic Ocean in order to open a western route to India and East Asia. At the same time, Columbus was appointed "admiral and viceroy of all the lands that he will open in these seas-oceans." On October 12, 1492, 69 days after leaving the Spanish port of Palos, Columbus' caravels reached San Salvador, one of the islands of the Bahamas group, located off the coast of a new mainland unknown to Europeans. Since then, this day is considered the date of the discovery of America. In total, Columbus made four expeditions to America. He believed that he had reached the shores of Southeast Asia, and called the lands he discovered India, and their inhabitants Indians.

After Columbus, other Spanish conquistadors, in search of gold and slaves, continued to expand Spain's colonial possessions in America, mainly in its central part (Isthmus of Panama, Yucatan, Mexico). Active actions to seize new territories in Mexico, the state of the Aztecs, were carried out by a Spanish detachment led by hidalgo Hernando Cortes.

In the 30s. 200th century another Spanish conquistador, Francisco Pizarro, at the head of a detachment of 40 people, undertook the conquest of the "golden kingdom", the state of the Incas in Peru. Later in the early XNUMXs. XNUMXth century Spanish conquistadors conquered Chile, and at the end of the XNUMXth century. - Argentina (or rather, territories, because then these states did not exist).

In the same century, in the 30-40s, the Portuguese conquered Brazil, which was discovered by Cabral in 1500 during his unsuccessful expedition to India (at that time there was no such state yet, native tribes lived there).

Having opened the sea route to India, the Portuguese captured several settlements on the Malabar coast (South India) at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. The Portuguese could not advance further along the coast, because they did not have sufficient forces. Following the Portuguese, the Dutch, French and British rushed to India. The Dutch were engaged exclusively in trade, not interfering at all in the life of the Indians. The Dutch exported spices from India in large quantities, which were very much appreciated in Europe.

4. CONSEQUENCES OF THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES

The discovery of new coasts, islands, continents was not a matter of chance; the navigators of Europe set off well prepared, they had tools, they were familiar with astronomy and geometry, they had maps with accurate indication of points. The navigators' ships were built taking into account the centuries-old experience of European navigators. Christopher Columbus made four sea expeditions in his life. As a result of these voyages, they discovered: the islands of the Caribbean, Central America and the northern coast of South America. Naturally, the main merit of this navigator was the accidental discovery of a new part of the world, the reason for which was the search for a western route to India.

The geographical discoveries of this time include the results of the activities of Magellan. The expedition, which he led in 1519-1521, having made the first trip around the world, finally proved that the Earth has the shape of a ball. It became obvious that, having circled the Earth, it was possible to return to the port of departure.

As a result of the Great geographical discoveries, the old ideas about the world, the Earth were destroyed, they were replaced by new, more reliable knowledge. The idea of the Europeans about the sphericity of the Earth was confirmed, ideas about its size and people living on different continents became more accurate. This created good prerequisites for the development of geography, astronomy, and history.

Great geographical discoveries and trade Thanks to geographical discoveries and the development of the World Ocean, a single world market began to take shape, trade relations were established between many countries and continents. This contributed not only to the formation of the international market and its development, but also to the establishment of cultural exchange between different countries, as well as the penetration of Europeans into the little-developed corners of the Earth. New trading centers appeared as the main sea routes moved from the inland seas to the oceans, the Mediterranean, and with it Venice and Genoa began to lose their former importance. But the new ocean ports - Seville, Lisbon, London, Antwerp, Amsterdam - have grown and taken over the world trade.

The great geographical discoveries marked the beginning of the creation of the first colonial empires with their robbery and destruction of the indigenous population, the death of the ancient culture of the peoples of the New World (America). A flood of precious metals poured from the colonies into Europe, which, on the one hand, led to a revival of entrepreneurial activity, and on the other hand, to a price revolution - a fall in the price of gold and an increase in the price of all other goods, which caused a deterioration in the situation of buyers, and there were many of them. The position of employees, petty officials and poor nobles especially worsened.

Thanks to geographical discoveries, the everyday food of Europeans has also changed. The menu includes potatoes, tomatoes, beans. With the development of fisheries in the Atlantic, Europeans began to eat more fish - cod and herring. Europeans also joined the new drinks - tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa.

The great geographical discoveries broke the isolation of the two worlds, brought together two societies: the emerging industrial and traditional. Naturally, the industrial society had a leading position in this process, especially the influence of European society on the traditional societies of Asia and Africa manifested itself in the developing processes of colonization. Since that time, world history has been acquiring its own common development trends, and the prerequisites for the formation of a single world community have been laid.

5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STRUCTURE OF EUROPEAN SOCIETY AT THE END OF XV - BEGINNING OF XVI CENTURIES

At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI centuries. the division of European society into three estates was preserved: the first - the clergy, the second - the nobility, the third - all other segments of the population. The old formula clearly defined the place of each estate in the life of states: "The clergy serve the kings with prayers, the nobility - with a sword, the third estate - with property."

The first and second estates were considered privileged - they did not pay taxes and owned land. Together they made up a smaller part of society. Only nobles were appointed to the highest church positions. The top of the nobility was the titled nobility, "represented to the court." It was the smallest part of society. These people lived on royal gifts and pensions.

Nobles were also appointed to officer positions in the army, and the officers had to document that four generations of their ancestors were nobles. In connection with the beginning of the use of firearms (guns, cannons, mortars, etc.), chivalry began to gradually decline. Knightly armor did not protect against bullets and shrapnel, and a knight in armor was an excellent target in battle because of his sluggishness and low maneuverability.

The most difficult fate fell on the share of the third estate. Its composition was motley: peasants, ordinary townspeople - artisans, hired workers, day laborers. The bourgeois also belonged to this class: bankers, shipowners, merchants, owners of manufactories, officials, lawyers. They paid all taxes. Among the bourgeois there were a lot of rich people who lent money to the kings, but they did not have political rights.

If we compare the number and composition of the estates in the states of Europe for the period of the late XV - early XVI centuries, we can find very noticeable differences. For example, in Italy, where there were many independent city-republics, the number of merchants, artisans, owners of manufactories, workshops, shipowners significantly exceeded other classes, and economic relations were different. In France and Spain, peasants were numerous, as well as (relatively) small-scale nobles, feudal lords. In Germany, where there was no strong imperial power, some lands were headed by spiritual rulers. In the same country there were many monasteries and churches that had large plots of land. Accordingly, the structure of society was different in composition and number of estates. But basically it was the same three estates - the clergy, the nobility and the third estate with a predominance of the peasantry.

Late XV - early XVI centuries. - folding absolutism

in England towards the end of the fifteenth century. the royal power lost its once strong position, the separatism of the nobility flourished, relying on armed feudal squads. Powerful magnates subjugated the local government and the courts. Many territories, cities and individual representatives of the nobility during the political struggle in the XV century. achieved wide liberties and privileges. The English Church, subject to Rome and having its own law and courts, was not subject to the control of royal power.

In France, the basis for the strengthening of royal power during this period was the destruction of the political organization of the medieval estates. The position of the French nobility was characterized by a gap between the aristocracy and the viable part of the middle nobility. Fundamental changes have taken place in the cities. The social stratification of the urban community noticeably increased in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. The emergence of early capitalist relations leads to the transformation of the urban elite and the people into pronounced opposite poles.

6. REFORMATION IN GERMANY

The great geographical discoveries changed the life of European society, and some church dogmas were refuted. The discoveries of scientists also contributed to the refutation of church teachings about the universe. In the XVI century. under the influence of discoveries, new ideas of humanists, new Christian doctrines appear, a large number of believers begin to depart from Catholicism and search for new worldview guidelines, the formation of new branches of the Christian religion. As a result, there was a split in the Roman Catholic Church with the formation of new Christian churches. This process was called the Reformation. Reformation comes from the word "reform" - transformation, reorganization. Concerning the Catholic Church

Reformation It is a movement to rebuild the church. This process occupies a whole epoch in the history of modern times. The Reformation is often referred to as the religious revolution.

Revolution - this is a steep coup, a turning point in people's lives. The Reformation was a revolution in the field of consciousness. The main reason for it was the crisis of the Catholic Church. The world changed, people changed, but the Catholic Church remained the same. Public prayers in Latin, fasting, cults of saints and relics, strict observance of rituals instead of the true faith - this no longer satisfied many, pushing them to search for another church, simpler and more sincere. Simultaneously with the growing changes in European society, there was a process of secularization of consciousness. This process consisted in the conversion of human consciousness to earthly worldly life. Man began to think not only about the divine, not only about the afterlife - his thoughts turned to everyday, real life. In the man of the era of the New Age, a thirst for knowledge, vigorous activity woke up. This manifested itself primarily in attempts to change the world around him: the transformation of nature, the reorganization of society, self-improvement.

The attempts of the Catholic Church to increase its vast wealth led to the growth of the spirit of profit in it, and this was not combined with Christian doctrine. Most of the papal officials engaged in shameless extortion. Without bribing the papal authorities and officials, it was impossible to draw up a single document in the papal office. They did not go to Rome without rich gifts - not only the cardinals, but also the pope himself took bribes. In the XVI century. trade in indulgences for the remission of sins of past and future deeds in Catholic countries took on the character of trade in simple goods and carried the spirit of self-interest and profit.

The actions and policies of the Catholic Church were especially indignant in fragmented Germany. The feudally fragmented Germany of that time was a collection of lands headed by spiritual rulers.

In the absence of a strong imperial power capable of protecting their subjects, as, for example, in France, they could not limit themselves in their own arbitrariness. As a result, various religious movements began to spread in German society, where the main emphasis was not on the external ritual expression of religiosity, but on the internal individual aspiration of a person to God.

Germany became the birthplace of the Reformation, where this movement was supported by some of the princes, the townspeople, and the peasantry. The German princes were dissatisfied with the interference of clergy in their affairs (moreover, they were not averse to appropriating part of the church lands), the townspeople were dissatisfied with the extortions of the monasteries located in the urban district, and the peasants with the increase in church holdings and huge extortions.

7. PEASANT WAR IN GERMANY (1524-1526)

The level of socio-economic and political development of Germany by the beginning of the XVI century. second only to the Netherlands and England. The growth of cities led to the intensive activity of agriculture, which began to bring more income. Landowners increased the old peasant duties and invented new ones. At the same time, the Reformation engendered in the minds of a part of the people a belief in the possibility of change. Caused by the strengthening of feudal oppression Peasant War 1524-1526 in Germany intertwined with the Reformation. For the peasant masses, the Reformation was not only a religious movement associated with the renewal of religious doctrine, but also inspired hope for real socio-political transformations. A priest became the leader and ideologist of the popular Reformation Thomas Munzer (1490-1525). He called for the overthrow of the feudal system and the establishment of a just order. The main regions that were affected by peasant unrest were: Swabian-Black Forest, Franconian, Thuringian-Saxon. In the summer of 1524, the peasants in southern Germany were the first to rebel. Soon the uprising spread to other parts of the country. The peasants, supported by some of the townspeople (especially the plebeians), stormed noble castles and monasteries and captured many cities. The hatred of the peasants for the princes was manifested in the burning of monasteries and castles of feudal lords. Only the part of the burghers and knights that joined the rebels adhered to the tactics of agreement with the feudal lords.

The very first and most decisive program of the rebels was the "Article Letter", the author of which was Müntzer and his associates. This document was based on the requirements of complete property equality, the creation of a free republic. A more moderate reform project was proposed by the authors of "12 Articles". The demands expressed in these articles were very reasonable, fair and could not be called unrealistic. The authors insisted on the abolition of fines for damage caused by livestock to fields, as well as new hardships imposed on the peasantry, demanded free hunting, restoration of old communal liberties. They no longer wanted to be the property of their owners; reminded them that Christ redeemed them too with his sufferings. Moreover, they demanded from preachers chosen by the community to teach them the right faith. In the twelfth paragraph of this program, a desire was expressed to confirm all these requirements with passages from Holy Scripture. In general, the program of the rebels demanded the abolition of serfdom, the reduction of feudal extortions and corvee, and the free use of communal lands. Another ideological document of the rebels, which became a project of imperial reform, was "Geil-Bronn program", prepared Wendel Hipler. It reflected the interests primarily of wealthy citizens and provided for the introduction of a single coin, a unified system of weights and measures, as well as the elimination of internal customs barriers in the interests of the development of trade and entrepreneurship. The "Heil-Bronn Program" was aimed at centralizing the German state. The lack of a single strong leadership and the inability to unite peasant detachments into one large army ultimately led to their defeat. The fragmentation and isolation of the peasants of each region led to the fact that, acting independently, they were unable to help each other when the nobles went on the offensive.

In May 1525, near the city of Frankenhausen, Munzer's detachment was defeated. Soon the peasant uprising was brutally suppressed by the troops of the Swabian League. The peasants resisted for the longest time in Tyrol under the leadership of M. Geismair. The defeat of the peasant war led to increased reaction, the power of the princes, and the consolidation of the political fragmentation of Germany.

8. DISTRIBUTION OF THE IDEAS OF REFORMATION IN EUROPE

The era of the Reformation is the last chronological period of the Renaissance, completing this progressive upheaval in the development of European culture.

Reformation - This is a broad religious and socio-political movement that unfolded at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. in Germany and aimed at the transformation of the Christian religion. The Reformation takes its origins in Germany, and then covers a number of European countries. It led to the falling away from the Catholic Church of England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Finland, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and partly Germany.

The Reformation gave rise to the third branch of Christianity after Orthodoxy and Catholicism - Protestantism. All supporters of the Reformation - in any of its forms - are called Protestants.

Protestantism is usually understood as a set of independent and diverse religions, churches, differing from each other in dogmatic and canonical features. Protestants do not recognize Catholic purgatory, they reject Orthodox and Catholic saints, angels, the Mother of God; the Christian triune God occupies a completely monopoly position among them.

The difference between Protestantism and Catholicism and Orthodoxy lies in the doctrine of the direct connection between God and man. According to the Protestants, grace comes to a person from God, bypassing the church, "salvation" is achieved only through the personal faith of a person and the will of God. This doctrine undermined the dominance of spiritual power over the secular and the dominant role of the church and the pope.

In northern Germany, the princes carried out a reform of the church in their domains on the principles proposed by Luther. They closed monasteries, seized church lands. The prince became the head of the church in his principality. This church became known as Lutheran.

In 1555, after a long war between the Protestant princes and Emperor Charles V, the Peace of Augsburg was concluded. As a result of this, complete freedom in matters of religion was recognized for the princes. From now on, they themselves could decide what to believe in their subjects. Thus, the principle "whose power, that is religion" was established.

The Protestants of Switzerland and the Netherlands went much further than the Lutherans. The founder of the most consistent reformation doctrine, which served as the ideological basis of the anti-feudal revolutions, was a Genevan preacher John Calvin (1509-1564). The central tenet of Calvinism is the dogma of absolute predestination, according to which the fate of man in earthly life and eternal life has been prepared since the creation of the world. In fact, every Calvinist believed that he was God's chosen one, predestined to salvation and eternal bliss. Confirmation of Divine election is, according to Calvin, success in worldly affairs, in particular in trade. Moderation and frugality were considered the main virtues by Calvinists. The Calvinist Church persecuted its opponents very cruelly.

Thus, the term "reformation" primarily expresses that essential side of the movement, the center of which is criticism and attack on the monopoly position of the Catholic papal church and its teaching in the political, ideological system of the then European society. The revolutionary course of the reform movement manifested itself as the decisive battle of the European philistinism against feudalism.

The reasons for the Reformation were:

1) the growth and development of bourgeois relations;

2) promotion of individualism;

3) registration of state independence of European countries, the desire to separate from the Catholic Church.

The Reformation undermined the spiritual and economic foundations of Catholicism and caused the emergence of new Christian churches, the split of Europe, the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).

9. REFORMATION IN SWITZERLAND. CALVINISM

In the 20-30s. XNUMXth century Lutheranism penetrates into Sweden, Norway and Denmark. But the Reformation found particularly fertile ground in neighboring Switzerland, and it was here that it took the next step in ideological and organizational terms. Here, new systems of Protestantism were developed and new Reformation church organizations were created.

The progressive strata of the burghers sought to transform Switzerland into a federation with centralized power, where the leading place would be in the urban cantons. Like the serfs, they were interested in the secularization of monastic lands. The authority of the Catholic Church in Switzerland by this time had already been thoroughly undermined due to the abuses, debauchery and ignorance of the clergy. The city plebs also suffered from the arbitrariness of the ruling elite and the extortion of the church. At the same time, the dominance of the guilds and patriciate in the cities, the presence of noble, municipal and especially monastic land ownership, which exploited the labor of the feudal-dependent peasantry, the dependence of some cities and allied lands on spiritual and secular lords testified to the strength and vitality of feudal relations. This led to the formation of irreconcilable contradictions in the urban cantons. Thus, the ground was largely prepared for the Reformation.

Questions of church reformation were raised differently in Switzerland than in Germany. Here there was no oppression of the emperor, princely power, and the Catholic Church was much weaker. But the problems of mutual relations between the Swiss cantons, Switzerland and neighboring countries, which sought to put the mountain passes through which trade flows went under their control, were acute.

A successful continuation of Lutheran endeavors in Switzerland was the reformation of Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin. After the decline of the first wave of the Reformation (1531), a second wave rises, associated with the personality of the French theologian John Calvin, who spent most of his life in Switzerland. Calvin, under the influence of Luther's ideas, renounced the Catholic Church and joined the Protestant movement. In Switzerland, he wrote his main treatise, “Instructions in the Christian Faith,” his dogmas expressed the interests of the most daring part of the then bourgeoisie.

CalvinismHowever, it further simplified Christian cult and worship, giving the church a democratic character (election of the leadership of the church by the laity), and separated it from the state. Calvin takes the same positions as Luther, i.e., from his point of view, earthly life is the path to salvation, in this life the highest virtue is patience. However, he emphasizes the greater possibility of the Christian's active involvement in earthly affairs. Participation in secular goods is associated with the ownership of property and its increase; only moderate use of wealth is necessary in accordance with God's will.

The basis of Calvinism is the doctrine of divine predestination. Calvin simplified and strengthened this teaching, bringing it to absolute fatalism: some people are predestined by God to salvation and heavenly bliss even before birth, while others are predestined to death and eternal torment, and no actions of a person, nor his faith is able to correct this. A person is saved not because he believes, but because he is predestined for salvation. Divine predestination is hidden from people, and therefore every Christian must live his life as if he were predestined to salvation. Criticism of luxury and idleness turned into a denial of artistic creativity, literature and art, into a ban on all amusements and entertainment.

Calvin reduced the freedom of conscience and interpretation of the Bible proclaimed by the Reformation to freedom from Catholicism, not allowing criticism of his teaching.

10. COUNTER-REFORMATION

Counter-reformation - is a church-political movement in Europe in the mid-1517th - early 1546th centuries. led by the papacy, directed against the Reformation. This is also a set of measures taken during the reforms of the Roman Catholic Church in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. and aimed at suppressing the Protestant Reformation and the return of territories and populations that had fallen away from Catholicism (the term “Counter-Reformation” was introduced by the German historian Leopold von Ranke). In the early period of the Reformation (XNUMX-XNUMX), when the course of events was largely determined by Martin Luther, neither of the opposing parties clearly understood the seriousness and duration of the gap. The Catholics hoped that they would return the lost rebels to the bosom of the church, and the rebels themselves were confident that they could subjugate the entire church. The Catholic revival, especially noticeable in Spain and Italy, led under Pope Paul III to increased Catholic opposition to Protestant proselytism.

The Council of Trent (1545-1563) officially rejected Protestant dogmas. The theological thought of the Counter-Reformation was summed up by Roberto Bellarmino in “Discourses on Controversial Questions of the Christian Faith...” (1586-1589), which represented Catholicism’s response to the challenge of early Protestantism. Pope Paul III and his successors led the Catholic forces; the most energetic of the Catholic leaders were Pius V (1566-1572) и Sixtus V (1585-1590). The Catholic sovereigns of Europe collaborated with them, and above all Philip II of Spain (1556-1598), Bavarian Dukes of the House of Wittelsbach and Emperor Ferdinand II (1619-1637). The tools of the Counter-Reformation were the Inquisition (under Paul III in 1542, its supreme authority was created in Rome - the Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Ecumenical Inquisition, or the Holy Office) and the Index of Forbidden Books. The leading role was played by the newly created monastic orders - the Capuchins and Jesuits.

The Counter-Reformation succeeded in stopping the expansion of Protestantism in much of Europe. In Spain and Italy the success was complete, in Ireland and Poland - close to it, although in these countries (especially in Poland) a fair part of the clergy was covered by Protestantism. Failure awaited the Counter-Reformation in the Scandinavian countries: England and Scotland. And if in England and Scotland a large group of Catholics survived thanks to the exceptional patience of believers, then in the Scandinavian countries the Roman Catholic Church completely lost its position. In France, after the bloody religious wars in the XVI century. a compromise was reached, expressed in the Edict of Nantes (1598), which gave the Huguenots the right to freely practice their religion and retained most of their civil rights. In 1685, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes and expelled from France all Protestants who refused to obey him. In Germany and Austria, where by 1550 nine-tenths of the population had departed from Rome, the Counter-Reformation, under the leadership of Peter Canisius, succeeded in stopping the spread of Protestantism and winning back a significant number of believers; Catholics have had similar successes in Switzerland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and other parts of Central Europe. In the Netherlands, loyalty to Rome forced the Southern provinces to secede from the Northern and remain loyal to Spain, resulting in the emergence of Protestant Holland and Catholic Belgium.

During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) Catholicism seemed to triumph in Germany, but the situation changed dramatically when the French troops, under the orders of Cardinal Richelieu, and the Swedish troops, led by King Gustavus Adolphus, entered the war on the side of the Protestants. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) sealed the religious schism in Western Europe.

11. FRANCE IN THE XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries

By the end of the 15th century, having completed its unification, France became the largest state in Europe in terms of population (XNUMX million people). In terms of economic development, it surpassed Spain, Southern Italy, and the Scandinavian countries, but lagged behind Holland and England.

In the first half of the XVI century. the king decided the most important matters, consulting only with a narrow circle of close associates who were members of the royal council. The king himself, without the consent of the Estates General, introduced new taxes. But on the ground, the nobility still had a great influence.

First, the Lutheran faith penetrated into France, and by the middle of the XNUMXth century. there were many supporters of Calvinism. Calvinists in France were called Huguenots. Their leaders were close relatives of the ruling Valois dynasty - the Bourbons and Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. At the head of the Catholics was a noble family from Lorraine (a region in eastern France) - the Dukes of Giza.

The religious wars in France began during the reign of Henry II's younger sons: Charles IX and Henry III. They lasted about 30 years (1562-1594). As a result, the Bourbon dynasty established itself on the throne in the person of King Henry IV, a cunning and resourceful man who changed his religion several times in order to survive and gain power.

Louis XII was succeeded by his cousin and son-in-law, the Count of Angouleme.

Francis I (1515-1547) was the embodiment of the new spirit of the Renaissance. During the reign of Francis, the following main events took place: a successful campaign in Italy in the year of the coronation (1515), culminating in the victorious battle of Marignano; the conclusion of a special agreement with the pope (the so-called Bologna Concordat of 1516), according to which the king began to partially manage the property of the French church; unsuccessful attempt

Francis proclaimed himself emperor in 1519, when his significant financial resources could not withstand competition with the funds of the Fugger bankers who supported Charles; his ostentatious meeting with Henry VIII near Calais (then still part of England) on the famous “Field of Cloth of Gold” in 1520; and, finally, the second campaign in Italy, which ended with the defeat of the French army at the Battle of Pavia (1525).

Henry II succeeded his father on the throne in 1547. His wife was Catherine de Medici, a representative of a family of famous Italian bankers. After the untimely death of the king, Catherine played a decisive role in the politics of France for a quarter of a century, although her three sons officially ruled: Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III.

The policy of persecution of Protestants, begun by Francis I and tightened under Charles, ceased to justify itself. In 1562, an open confrontation of the parties began, punctuated by periods of truces and agreements, according to which the Huguenots were given a limited right to be in certain areas and create their own fortifications. Charles IX organized a terrible massacre of his opponents on the eve of St. Bartholomew's Day on the night of August 23-24, 1572. Henry of Navarre managed to escape, but thousands of his associates were killed. Charles IX died two years later and was succeeded by his brother Henry III. The leaders of the Catholics formed a "league" against him, wishing to enthrone their leader, Henry of Giza. Unable to withstand the confrontation, Henry III treacherously killed both Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. Henry III quickly moved to the camp of his other rival, Henry of Navarre, where he was soon killed by a fanatical Catholic monk.

The end of the religious wars was completed by the Edict of Nantes in 1598. The Huguenots were officially recognized as a minority with the right to work and self-defense in some areas and cities.

During the reign of Henry IV and his famous minister, the Duke of Sully, order was restored to the country and prosperity was achieved.

12. REFORMATION IN ENGLAND

The immediate cause for the beginning of the Reformation in England was the refusal of the Pope to allow Henry VIII to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. And the reason for this was that she was the aunt of the German emperor Charles V. Since the pope did not want to aggravate relations with him at that moment, it is quite natural that he rejected the request of the English king. In response to the refusal of Pope Henry VIII issued in 1534 an act of supremacy (which means "supremacy" in Latin). The king was declared the head of the English church, as a result of which all Catholic dogmas and rites were preserved, but the king took the place of the pope. The episcopate became the backbone of the absolute monarchy. In 1536 and 1539 monasteries were closed and monastic property was confiscated: buildings, gold and silver utensils and, most importantly, vast monastic lands.

Sheep breeding and cloth production have long been the main occupations of the British and an important source of income for the royal treasury. The English called the cloth "the most precious product of the kingdom." Wool prices have been on the rise. Sheep grazing required extensive pastures. Therefore, landowners seized communal wastelands and pastures, forbade peasants to graze cattle there. Dissatisfied with this, they tried in various ways to take away the allotments from the peasants: they drove the peasants from the land by force, destroyed their houses, demolished entire villages. The forcible removal of peasants from the land was called fencing.

Having seized peasant lands, the nobles raised huge flocks of sheep on them. To cultivate the fields and care for livestock, they hired agricultural workers - farm laborers. The “new nobles” abandoned their knightly armor and sat down to their account books. Some of them started weaving, leather and other enterprises. Tens of thousands of people driven from the land joined the ranks of vagabonds and beggars. The government passed cruel laws against them, which included whipping, branding with a hot iron, and even the death penalty as punishment. Most of these people joined the ranks of the reform movement in England.

England achieved great success during the reign of the smart, cautious, well-educated Elizabeth I. Under her, the English church, independent of Rome, finally took shape, which was called the Anglican. In 1559, when she ascended the throne, the organizational structure of the Church of England was established in forms that have largely survived to this day. During these 30 years there have been many changes, but the English have always been of the opinion that their church is not new, but the same church that has existed in England for more than a thousand years; its reform was carried out to return to the model of the church presented in the New Testament. In support of this continuity, the English refer to their doctrine, priesthood and liturgy.

But despite this, as a result of the reform movement in England, a number of serious changes were carried out. The parishioners received the Bible in English, and the clergy began to teach them to regard it as the highest authority in matters of faith and life. Divine services were now conducted in the local language. The Church of England insisted on the independence of national churches in internal affairs, on the right of churches to act at their own discretion in relation to rituals and liturgical practice. The pope's jurisdictional claims over English territory were rejected. Nevertheless, due to the dual nature of its reformation, the Church of England claims to be called both Catholic and Protestant.

13. SPAIN AT THE TURN OF THE XV-XVI CENTURIES

In the XV-XVI centuries. The Spanish colonial empire is formed. This process began with the voyage of Columbus in 1492 and the discovery of the New World, in connection with which the foundation of the Spanish colonial empire was laid. Not only Spain laid claim to possessions that became colonies of Spain. First of all, Portugal was a strong opponent. But in 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas was concluded on the division of overseas possessions between Spain and Portugal. This treaty, however, did not prevent Spain from subsequently significantly expanding the scope of its empire. France returned the border provinces of Catalonia to Ferdinand, and Aragon firmly held its position in Sardinia, Sicily and southern Italy.

Skillfully created family ties also contributed to the strengthening of the position of the Spanish Empire. In 1496, Isabella arranged the marriage of her son and daughter with the children of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg. In 1496, the son of Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian of Habsburg, Philip the Beautiful, married Juana, Princess of Castile and Aragon. After the death of Isabella's son, the right to inherit the throne passed to her daughter Juana, the wife of the emperor's heir, Philip. When Juana showed signs of insanity, Isabella wished to make Ferdinand regent of Castile, but after the death of Isabella in 1504, Juan and Philip reigned on the throne, and Ferdinand was forced to retire to Aragon. After Philip's death in 1506, Ferdinand became regent for Juana, whose illness was progressing. Under him, Navarre was annexed to Castile. Ferdinand died in 1516 and was succeeded by his grandson Charles, son of Juana and Philip. Charles, born in Ghent in 1500, inherited the Habsburg possessions in Germany and the Netherlands. And after the death of Philip the Handsome in 1506, he became not only the ruler of the Netherlands, but also the King of Spain, Carlos I. In 1519, resorting to bribery, he became Emperor Charles V.

At the time when Charles was a minor, and later during his frequent departures to fulfill his duties as king of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, the government of the Netherlands was transferred to relatives, and then the country had to almost completely take over the financing of the Habsburg wars against France. However, Charles V annexed several more provinces of the Netherlands to his lands through peace agreements and seizures: Friesland in 1524, Utrecht and Overijssel in 1528, Groningen and Drenthe in 1536, Gelderland in 1543. He took measures to centralize the country , establishing the Privy Council, which had great administrative and financial powers, as well as management and finance councils for the provincial states, and formally united the 17 Dutch provinces and the Duchy of Burgundy in the so-called. Burgundian Ring within the Holy Roman Empire. As in Germany, he tried to stop the spread of the ideas of the Reformation in the Netherlands, and more successfully, because here among the adherents of the new faith there were no princes who would defend it from the emperor. Charles V forcefully suppressed the uprising of the revolutionary Anabaptists in Ghent in 1539-1540, and the cities of the Netherlands were deprived of their historical privileges and self-government. Nevertheless, during his reign the country prospered, and Antwerp became the most important center of European trade. Protected waters, such as the Zuider Zee and the arms of the Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt, attracted fishermen who built small coastal towns. To protect against floods in cities, the construction of durable dams was undertaken. The lands reclaimed from the sea were set aside for arable land.

14. POWER OF CHARLES V

Spanish king Charles I (r. 1516-1556) became Holy Roman Emperor. He succeeded his grandfather, Maximilian I, under the name of Charles V in 1519. Under his rule were Spain, Naples and Sicily, the Habsburg lands in Belgium and the Netherlands, Austria and the Spanish colonies in the New World. Spain became a world power, and Charles became the most powerful monarch in Europe. During his reign, Spain was involved in problems that had very little to do with her national interests, but most directly with the establishment of the power of the Habsburgs.

As a result, the wealth and army of Spain were thrown to fight the Lutherans in Germany, the Turks in the Mediterranean, and the French in Italy and the Rhineland. Charles failed to contain the invasion of the Turks and prevent the establishment of Lutheranism in Germany. But, on the other hand, he was more fortunate with the implementation of church reforms, which were adopted by the Council of Trent, held in 1545-1563. Charles's wars with France began with victories, but ended in defeat. Overcoming the difficulties of the first years of his reign, Charles gained authority as a monarch.

After the abdication of Charles from power in 1556, the Austrian possessions passed to his brother Ferdinand, but, despite this, most of the empire went to his son Philip II (reigned 1556-1598). Philip was raised in Spain and, despite his German origin, was considered a true Spaniard. Not as brave as his father, he was cautious, stubborn, and yet convinced that God had entrusted him with a mission to contribute to the final triumph of Catholicism. However, over the long years of his reign, he was haunted by a series of failures. Politics in Belgium and the Netherlands led to revolution (1566) and education in 1579-1581. Republic of the United Provinces.

Attempts to draw England into the sphere of influence of the Habsburgs were also unsuccessful. Finally, in 1588, outraged by the predatory attacks of English sailors on Spanish merchants and the help of Queen Elizabeth to the Dutch, he equipped the famous "Invincible Armada" to land troops on the northern coast of the English Channel. This enterprise ended with the death of almost the entire Spanish fleet. Intervention in the religious wars in France probably prevented the Huguenot from becoming French king, but when Henry IV converted to Catholicism, Philip was forced to withdraw his troops. Major achievements of his policy include the inheritance of Portugal in 1581 and the brilliant naval victory over the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto (1571), which undermined the naval power of the Ottomans.

In Spain, Philip maintained the previous administrative system. Such measures contributed to the fact that he further strengthened and centralized royal power. However, his decrees were often not implemented. The reason for this was a highly developed bureaucratic system, which absorbed all good undertakings in its routine. Under him, the feared Spanish Inquisition was stronger than ever. Cortes were convened less and less often, and in the last decade of Philip's reign the Aragonese were forced to give up their freedoms under pressure from royal power. In 1568, Philip undertook persecution of the Moriscos (forcibly baptized Muslims), etc. provoked their rebellion. It took three years to suppress the rebellion. The Moriscos, who were engaged in commodity production and trade and held in their hands a significant part of the industry and trade in southern Spain, were evicted to the inland barren regions of the country.

15. NETHERLANDS REVOLUTION

When Charles V abdicated in 1555, he gave 17 Dutch provinces, as well as Spain and its colonies, to his eldest son Philip. Philip II took an even more intransigent stance against Dutch separatism. The Dutch nobility, both large and small, as well as the cities, were indignant at Philip II's use of the country's financial reserves for Spain's military operations against France. The king's attempts to remove them from participation in the reign caused indignation, as well as the fact that he listened to the advice of Cardinal Granvella, and not the more judicious viceroy, half-sister of Philip II, Margaret of Parma. The most powerful of the nobles, holders of the Order of the Golden Fleece and members of the Council of State, in 1562 demanded the resignation of Cardinal Granvella. For the first time, the system of government of Philip II, which was based not on the nobility, but on the Spanish army stationed in the Netherlands, was questioned.

The speech of the nobles in the State Council in 1566 was followed by a protest of the petty nobility against the policies of Philip II. 300 representatives of the lower nobility submitted a petition to the viceroy, in which they demanded the restoration of the "liberties" of the country and the softening of the "posters" against heretics. Not having sufficient forces to suppress such massive opposition, the king dismissed Granvella.

In 1567, Philip II sent the Duke of Alba to the Netherlands, who succeeded Margaret of Parma as governor. The Duke of Alba was given the task of cracking down on the rebels and eradicating dissent.

Alba arrested and executed the counts of Egmont and Horn, who led the noble opposition in the Council of State. The most prominent representative of the opposition, Prince William of Orange, later named William the Silent, fled to Germany, where he led the resistance and organized military campaigns against Alba. All of them were unsuccessful, but Prince Wilhelm did not stop the fight.

In 1574, the inhabitants of Leiden managed to win a brilliant victory over the Spaniards who were besieging the city. William of Orange became the recognized leader of the resistance to foreign domination. He relied on the support of the Calvinists, although he advocated religious reconciliation and religious tolerance, and also defended the traditional privileges of the provinces. His goal was to expel the Spaniards and unite the 17 provinces of the Netherlands into a single free state.

Attempts by William of Orange to reconcile different segments of the population culminated in the convening of the Estates General in Ghent in 1576, where all 17 provinces accepted the text of the so-called. Peace of Ghent. According to this document, the provinces were united under the leadership of William of Orange, although the supreme power of King Philip II was recognized. The Estates General voted for the withdrawal of foreign troops, the introduction of a more liberal form of government, and the abolition of "posters" against heretics. However, the new governor Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, sent by Philip II to the Netherlands in 1578, prevented the implementation of the political course of William of Orange by declaring the prince outlaw. Farnese pursued a softer policy towards Protestants than Philip II, but was unable to suppress the resistance. Several provinces located north of the Rhine united with the cities of Flanders and Brabant and signed the Union of Utrecht on January 23, 1579, declaring their intention to fight to the end for political independence and religious freedom. In 1580, Philip II declared William of Orange his enemy. In response, the Estates General of the seven northern provinces declared that from now on they would not recognize Philip II as sovereign. The act of deposition of Philip II was signed on July 26, 1581.

16. CULTURE OF EUROPE AT THE END OF XV - BEGINNING OF XVI CENTURIES

The heyday of art in Germany at the beginning of the XVI century. associated with the Reformation. The head of the leading artists here was Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) - portrait painter, as well as a master of engravings. Durer created a series of illustrations for the last book of the Bible - the Apocalypse ("The Revelation of John the Theologian").

The heyday of art in Holland was associated with the victory of the Dutch Revolution. Orders for paintings were now made not by the church (there were no icons in Protestant churches), but by wealthy citizens who wanted to decorate their homes. In Holland, such genres of painting as portrait, landscape, still life developed. All his life he worked tirelessly, but the great master of painting died in poverty Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669). One of his best paintings is “The Return of the Prodigal Son.”

From the end of the XNUMXth century the flowering of art in Spain began, often called the "golden age" of Spanish culture. The most prominent artist of this period was Diego Velazquez (1599-1660). He painted both ceremonial portraits of the king, his family and the highest nobility, and paintings dedicated to the common people (“Spinners”).

Second half of the XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries - the time of the greatest rise of the fine arts in Italy, where during this period the best features of humanism appeared in the works of three great contemporaries.

Florentine Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was an encyclopedically developed person: a brilliant painter and scientist, architect and sculptor, musician and poet. As an artist, he was most interested in man, his feelings and thoughts ("Mona Lisa"). Leonardo da Vinci was also an engineer-inventor, far ahead of his time. He developed devices that can be called prototypes of a parachute and a helicopter, a submarine and a diving suit.

The great figure of this time was Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) - sculptor, painter, architect, military engineer and poet.

In the central square of Florence, Michelangelo's statue of "David" was installed. Michelangelo did a grandiose job of frescoing the ceiling and walls of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. He also designed the huge dome of St. Peter's in Rome. Beautiful works of the artist filled with harmony and quiet sadness Raphael Santi (1483-1520). His most famous painting is the Sistine Madonna.

Many humanist writers sharply condemned the feudal order and substantiated in their writings the possibility of the existence of a new just society.

English writer Thomas More (1478-1535) was the founder of a new genre of literature - a utopian novel, a story about a better, more just structure of human society. During this time, the great writer lived and worked William Shakespeare (1564-1616). Deep penetration into human psychology ensured Shakespeare's works a long life.

His immortal novel "Don Quixote" the great Spanish writer Miguel Cervantes (1547-1616) created while in jail on false charges. The works of Shakespeare, Cervantes and other authors became the basis for the work of writers of the New Age.

A crushing blow to the picture of the world of medieval man was dealt by a Polish scientist Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543). He came to the conclusion that the Earth is not the center of the universe, but rotates together with other planets around the Sun. Italian thinker Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) developed the teachings of Copernicus. According to the views of J. Bruno, not only the Earth, but also the Sun is not the center of the universe. Bruno was tried by the Inquisition and burned at the stake in Rome.

Bruno's fate was avoided at the cost of renouncing his views. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) - the inventor of the telescope. The laws of planetary motion have been calculated Johannes Kepler (1571-1630).

17. THE DECLINE OF SPAIN AND THE RISE OF ENGLAND

Although Spain was still considered a world power after the death of Philip II, it was in a state of crisis. There were several main reasons for this crisis. Above all, international ambitions and commitments to the House of Habsburg drastically drained the country's resources. It would seem that the income of the kingdom, which increased due to receipts from the colonies and was huge by the standards of the 1557th century, should have ensured the country's comfortable existence for many years to come. But Charles V left huge debts, and Philip II had to declare the country bankrupt twice - in 1575, and then in XNUMX.

At the end of his reign, the tax system began to have a devastating effect on the life of the country, and the government was already barely making ends meet. A negative trade balance and short-sighted financial policies have taken a toll on trade and entrepreneurship. Due to the huge influx of precious metals from the New World, prices in Spain significantly exceeded European prices, so it became profitable to sell here, but unprofitable to buy goods. The complete ruin of the domestic economy was also facilitated by one of the main sources of state income - a ten percent tax on trade turnover.

In 1588, the Spanish king equipped a huge fleet of 130 sailing ships and sent it to the coast of England. The confident Spaniards named their fleet the "Invincible Armada". English ships attacked the Spanish fleet in the English Channel. The naval battle lasted two weeks. The heavy, clumsy Spanish ships had fewer guns than the English and were used primarily to transport troops. Light, high-speed English ships, managed by experienced sailors, put enemy ships out of action with well-aimed artillery fire. The storm completed the defeat of the Spaniards. The inglorious death of the "invincible armada" undermined the naval power of Spain. Dominance on the seas gradually passed to England.

Philip III (1598-1621) и Philip IV (1621-1665) failed to change the situation for the better. The first of them concluded a peace treaty with England in 1604, and then in 1609 signed a 12-year truce with the Dutch, but continued to spend huge sums of money on his favorites and entertainment. By expelling the Moriscos from Spain between 1609 and 1614, he deprived the country of more than a quarter of a million industrious inhabitants.

In 1618, a conflict broke out between Emperor Ferdinand II and Czech Protestants. started Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), in which Spain sided with the Austrian Habsburgs, hoping to regain at least part of the Netherlands. Philip III died in 1621, but his son Philip IV continued his political course. At first, the Spanish troops achieved some successes under the command of the famous general Ambrogio di Spinola, but after 1630 they suffered one defeat after another. In 1640, Portugal and Catalonia rebelled simultaneously; the latter drew off Spanish forces, which helped Portugal regain independence. Peace was achieved in the Thirty Years' War in 1648, although Spain continued to fight France until the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659.

The sickly and nervous Charles II (1665-1700) became the last ruler of the Habsburg dynasty in Spain. He left no heirs, and after his death the crown passed to the French Prince Philip of Bourbon, Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV and great-grandson of Philip III. His assertion on the Spanish throne was preceded by the all-European War of the "Spanish Succession" (1700-1714), in which France and Spain fought England and the Netherlands.

18. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE XVI-XVII CENTURIES

The essence of the grandiose social changes that took place in Europe after 1500 can be summarized as follows:

1) Europe and European civilization as a whole have become the economic, technological and military-political leader of the world community;

2) this breakthrough of Europe to world domination was achieved (unlike previous eras) on a fundamentally new technological basis and was associated with an industrial revolution that occurred initially in the Western European and North American regions. It was the appearance of machines that predetermined the economic and military predominance of Europeans over other civilizations;

3) European civilization began to show after 1400 a never-before-seen desire to expand its institutions and values on a global scale. Thus, European civilization became the first world civilization, creating a world market and turning non-European peoples into its colonies or semi-colonies;

4) the leading position of Europe would not have been possible without grandiose social changes in Western Europe. In this region of the planet, the bourgeoisie for the first time took power into their own hands, gradually pushing the traditional social strata (nobility, peasantry, clergy) into the background;

5) the social upheaval in modern Europe was also accompanied by a change in consciousness, the emergence of a new type of personality, the bourgeois personality.

How did all these grandiose changes affect international relations? Yes, directly:

1) international relations for the first time became truly global;

2) international politics became an appendage of European politics - the fate of the world was actually decided by a handful of great European powers, while non-European countries and peoples (as well as, by the way, small European countries) meant absolutely nothing, being just an object of the hegemonic aspirations of the aforementioned great powers;

3) the structure of international relations has undergone radical changes, especially in Europe. Petty feudal lordships, like huge feudal empires, gradually became a thing of the past; they were replaced by national states, which became the main subject of international relations in modern times;

4) foreign policy gradually became more and more bourgeois, becoming bourgeois not only in goals, but also in methods.

In contrast to the pre-bourgeois or non-bourgeois personality, the bourgeois is distinguished by activity in the reorganization of this worldly, created world.

A sign of the New Age was the rise of the principle of national interest, which was taken as the basis of foreign policy planning. The concept of the national interest, formulated in rational terms of realism and the balance of power, marked a decisive break with medieval views of international relations. All these changes were associated with a change in the social structure of the leading European powers: the national bourgeoisie that came to power sought to put not only domestic, but also foreign policy at its service.

The ratio between economic and military power has also changed radically. For many millennia, the relationship between economic prosperity and the military-political power of the state was by no means direct. The capitalist era for the first time established a direct and immediate relationship between the level of economic development of the state and the level of its military power and, consequently, the role it plays in the international arena. Moreover, it was in the New Age that the state began to actively use economic levers to achieve its foreign policy goals.

19. THIRTY YEARS WAR (1618-1648)

Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) - This is a series of military clashes, mainly in Germany, as a result of which the contradictions between Catholics and Protestants, as well as issues of intra-German relations, gradually escalated into a European conflict.

The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 with a Protestant uprising in Bohemia against the future Emperor Ferdinand II, engulfing the last phase of the Dutch Revolution after 1621, fought from 1635 due to a clash of French-Habsburg interests.

Usually there are four main stages of the Thirty Years' War. Czech, or Czech-Palatinate period (1618-1623) begins with an uprising in the Czech, Austrian and Hungarian possessions of the Habsburgs, supported by the Evangelical Union of German Princes, Transylvania, Holland (Republic of the United Provinces), England, Savoy. By 1623, Ferdinand managed to deal with the Bohemian uprising and, with the help of Spain and Bavaria, conquered the County of Palatinate under Frederick V. However, his German aspirations and alliance with Spain caused alarm in European Protestant countries, as well as in France.

В Danish period (1624-1629) the North German princes, Transylvania and Denmark, supported by Sweden, Holland, England and France, opposed the Habsburgs and the League. In 1625, King Christian IV of Denmark resumed the war against the Catholics, acting as the leader of the anti-Habsburg coalition organized by the Dutch. In 1629, after a series of defeats from Tilly and Wallenstein, Denmark withdrew from the war and signed the Lübeck Treaty, after which the power of the emperor reached its highest point.

During the Swedish period (1630-1634) Swedish troops, together with the German princes who joined them and with the support of France, occupied most of Germany, but then were defeated by the combined forces of the emperor, the Spanish king and the League.

In 1635, the civil war in Germany ended with the Treaty of Prague, but resumed the same year, because France entered the war, having concluded an alliance treaty with Sweden and the United Provinces against the Habsburgs. Five years of negotiations ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia, but the French-Spanish war continued until the conclusion of the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659).

The Thirty Years' War ended the historical epoch. She decided the question raised by the Reformation - the question of the place of the church in the public life of Germany and a number of neighboring countries. The second most important problem of the era - the creation of nation-states on the site of the medieval Holy Roman Empire - was not resolved. The empire actually collapsed, but not all the states that arose on its ruins had a national character. On the contrary, the conditions for the national development of the Germans, Czechs, and Hungarians have deteriorated considerably. The increased independence of the princes prevented the national unification of Germany, and consolidated its split into a Protestant north and a Catholic south.

The Peace of Westphalia was a turning point in the foreign policy of the Austrian Habsburgs. Its main content in the next 250 years was the expansion to the southeast. The rest of the participants in the Thirty Years' War continued their former foreign policy line. Sweden tried to finish off Denmark, swallow Poland and prevent the expansion of Russian possessions in the Baltics. France systematically took possession of the territories in the empire, without ceasing to undermine the already weak authority of the imperial power here. Rapid rise was to be Brandenburg, who in the second half of the XVII century. became dangerous for its neighbors - Sweden and Poland.

20. STATEMENT OF CAPITALIST RELATIONS IN ENGLAND

England, earlier than other European countries, embarked on the capitalist path of development. Here the classic version of the establishment of bourgeois relations was realized, which allowed England already at the end of the 16th-18th centuries. take advanced capitalist positions and seize world economic leadership. The main role in this was played by the fact that the field of development of English capitalism was not only the city, but also the countryside. The village in other countries was a stronghold of feudalism and traditionalism, but in England, on the contrary, it became the basis for the development of the most important industry in the 16th-18th centuries. - cloth making.

Although in the XVII century. England remained predominantly an agrarian country, the development of capitalism found its manifestation in agriculture, industry and trade. Indicators of the development of capitalism in agriculture were the strengthening of the new nobility, which transferred its economy to the capitalist rails and actively participated in trade and money relations. Most of the nobility began to engage in entrepreneurial activities, creating sheep farms and turning into a new bourgeois nobility - the gentry. In an effort to increase income, the feudal lords turned arable land into profitable pastures for livestock. They drove off their holders - the peasants (fenced) and thereby created an army of paupers - people who had no choice but to become civilian workers.

In addition, an indicator of development in agriculture was the social stratification of the peasantry, in the course of which the categories of wealthy yeoman peasants emerged; freeholders (land owners); copyholders (tenants) and kotters (landless peasants). In industry, evidence of the development of capitalism was considered the rapid development of manufacturing production and the decomposition of the medieval guild system. In the first three decades of the seventeenth century there was a rise in all branches of English industry, especially cloth and mining.

In the sphere of trade, indicators of the rapid development of capitalism were seen primarily in the creation of trading companies for foreign trade, both regulated (company of merchants-adventurers) and joint stock (Moscow Company, East India Company). The expansion of economic interrelations within the country between various sectors of the economy, between individual regions meant an increase in the capacity of the domestic market, its development and further growth.

One of the most important features of the social structure of England on the eve of the revolution was the established alliance between the bourgeoisie and the new bourgeois nobility. The development of the capitalist structure in England led to the aggravation of class contradictions and the division of the country into supporters and opponents of the feudal-absolutist system. Absolutism was opposed by all bourgeois elements: the new nobility (gentry), who aspired to become full owners of the land by abolishing knightly holdings and speeding up the process of enclosing; the bourgeoisie itself (merchants, financiers, industrial merchants, etc.), who wanted to limit royal power and force it to serve the interests of the country's capitalist development. But the opposition drew its main strength from the dissatisfaction with its position of the general population and, above all, the rural and urban poor. The defenders of the feudal foundations remained a significant part of the nobles (the old nobility) and the highest aristocracy, who received their income from the collection of old feudal rents, and the guarantor of their preservation was the royal power and the Anglican Church.

21. GLORIOUS REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND

"Glorious Revolution" - the name of the coup d'état of 1688-1689, accepted in historical literature. in England (the removal from the throne of James II Stuart and the proclamation of William III of Orange as king), as a result of which the rights of the crown were limited.

At the end of the 1670s. the parliamentary opposition in England took shape in the Whig party, and the supporters of the king were called the Tories. The former relied on the nobility and the bourgeoisie, while the latter relied on the old feudal nobility, the royal court, and officials.

Under James II (1685-1688), the feudal-absolutist reaction to the opposition assumed its most ferocious character. General fear for their safety prompted even a significant part of the Tories to recoil from the king. Opposition leaders prepared a conspiracy to expel James and invite the stadtholder of Holland, William of Orange, to the English throne. The organizers of the coup hoped that William of Orange would not claim supremacy over parliament, and in addition, his invitation to the throne would provide England with a union and alliance with Holland against France.

In November 1688, William of Orange landed with an army in England. James II fled to the protection of Louis XIV. In early 1689, Parliament elevated William of Orange to the throne, and in the autumn of that year adopted a Bill of Rights that deprived the king of the right to repeal or suspend laws issued by Parliament, impose taxes and raise an army without the consent of Parliament. The Bill of Rights finally secured in England the supremacy of Parliament over royal power and the regime of a limited constitutional monarchy. This document legally formalized the completed coup d'etat and laid the legal foundations for the constitutional monarchy, that is, bourgeois statehood, which began to take shape in England as a result of the revolution of the middle of the 1688th century. The coup of XNUMX and the Bill of Rights were an expression of compromise between the nobility and the bourgeoisie and contributed to the further capitalist development of the country.

The consequences of the English Revolution were important. As a result of the revolution and coup of 1688, the new nobility and the bourgeoisie were able to use state power to accelerate the capitalist development of the country by carrying out massive enclosures and driving peasants off the land, profitable government loans, taxation, colonial conquests, and encouragement of trade and industry. The consequence of this was that England was the first to survive the industrial revolution and subsequently became the first great industrial capitalist power, far ahead of other European states in its development.

Despite the limited nature of the coup of 1688, it was important for the subsequent development of English capitalism. The establishment of a constitutional monarchy meant real access to power for the big bourgeoisie and the bourgeois nobility. For the propertied classes of England, the "Glorious Revolution" of 1688 really did a lot, providing them with the possibility of unlimited accumulation of capital at the expense of the masses of the people of Great Britain itself and due to the robbery and ruthless exploitation of the population of its many colonies scattered in different parts of the world.

The main result of the coup - the strengthening of the constitutional monarchy - corresponded to the needs of bourgeois progress in the country, meant the transfer of supreme power to parliament, in whose hands legislative and partially executive functions were concentrated, curtailed by the king. With the final elimination of absolutism, the coup consolidated in the political sphere the successes of the revolution of the middle of the XNUMXth century.

22. ENGLAND IN THE XNUMXTH CENTURY. RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS

The Restoration of 1660 is explained by the strengthening of conservative sentiments in the ranks of the English bourgeoisie, as well as among the English new nobility, satisfied with the transformation of their feudal landed property into unlimited bourgeois property and the expansion of their land ownership in England and especially in Ireland. The bourgeoisie and gentry feared new mass movements that threatened their property. For these layers, the fact that Charles II returned to England not as an absolute monarch, but on contractual terms, was also significant. With the Breda Declaration of April 4, 1660, Charles II promised a political amnesty, freedom of religion, and the preservation of the right of ownership of property acquired during the revolution. Arriving in England, the new king confirmed a number of important constitutional acts, such as the Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and the statutes on the exclusive right of Parliament to approve taxes. Charles II promised to rule the country jointly with Parliament. The king did not have a permanent army, with the exception of the palace guard and a relatively few detachments stationed as garrisons in various parts of Scotland and Ireland. Deprived of the crown lands, confiscated and sold during the revolution, Charles was financially entirely dependent on parliament, which assigned a certain amount for the maintenance of the king and his court according to the so-called. civil list.

Charles II, his brother and heir to the throne, Duke of York, James, their chief adviser, Chancellor Earl of Clarendon, and other gentlemen soon discovered a clear desire to restore the pre-revolutionary political order. In England, the state Anglican Church was completely restored to the detriment of Presbyterianism and Independent sects. All “regicides” were excluded from the promised amnesty, which included not only participants in the tribunal that tried Charles I in 1649, but also all republicans, principled opponents of the monarchy. In January 1661, a group of English Anabaptists led by the cooper Thomas Venner rebelled. After its suppression, the government began systematic persecution of democratic sects, among which the memory of the good old cause in England, that is, the revolution of the 40s, still remained. XVII century

The restoration government also broke its promises regarding the preservation of the property of the new landowners. Part of the confiscated lands was returned to their former owners - the lords and the Anglican Church.

The position of the peasant holders as short-term tenants, whom the lord could drive off the land at any time, was later specifically formalized by the Restoration Parliament in a new act of 1677. This opened a direct path to further mass expropriation of the peasantry. The process of enclosing during the restoration intensified. The new masses of peasants turned into landless paupers, farm laborers, manufacturing workers or emigrants.

The Restoration government, headed by the Earl of Clarendon, had to reckon with the capitalist development of England, with the strengthening of the economic power of the bourgeoisie. Mercantilist policy pursued by Oliver Cromwell in the 50s. XVII century., Continued in the first years of the Restoration. A number of parliamentary acts of the 60-70s. XNUMXth century categorically forbade the export of raw materials (wool, leather, flax, various ores, etc.) and at the same time the import into England of foreign industrial products - cloth, linen and lace.

During the Restoration, the colonial possessions of England in America and India continued to expand. Two trade wars were fought with Holland - in 1665-1667 and 1672-1674, which were, as it were, a continuation of the first Anglo-Dutch war of 1652-1654.

23. FEATURES OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE ON THE EVE OF THE GREAT FRENCH REVOLUTION

In the XVIII century. France saw the development of capitalist relations. In the middle of the century, the development of industry, trade, and, to a lesser extent, agriculture accelerated.

There were also changes associated with capitalist development in the social structure of society, social thought and public consciousness. In the middle and second half of the XVIII century. increased social differentiation of the peasantry. A minority of prosperous peasants stood out from his midst, who ran a sound economy on their own and rented land, hired workers from the growing mass of landless peasants.

In the XVIII century. the development of trade and capitalist relations in industry accelerated. On the eve of 1789 scattered manufacture became the predominant form of industry. The size and number of large centralized manufactories also grew. The enrichment of the French bourgeoisie was facilitated by the growth in the turnover of domestic and foreign trade. The monopolies of privileged companies, internal customs duties and differences in measures of weight, length and volume in different provinces delayed the further development of trade and industry, the development of the domestic market.

The development of the capitalist structure was accompanied by the growth of the economic strength and social significance of the bourgeoisie. But in the second half of the century, the role of the most economically advanced commercial and industrial bourgeoisie also increased markedly. By the end of the XVIII century. the number of workers also increased, among which the "domestic workers" of scattered manufactory predominated. Wage workers concentrated in the cities, where they had every opportunity to exist.

Further capitalist development demanded more and more insistently the abolition of feudal relations and the establishment of bourgeois landed property. This natural process came into growing conflict with the dominant feudal-absolutist system. The deepening and aggravation of this conflict is the most important feature of the French history of the XNUMXth century. Absolutism could not develop in the XNUMXth century. economic policy that met the new conditions.

The formation of the all-French market ran into the remnants of feudal fragmentation, which the absolutist monarchy was unable to overcome: the confusion and chaos of the administrative and judicial system, special rights and privileges of individual provinces, the absence of a unified system of weights and measures, internal customs on land and river routes.

In contradiction with the needs of bourgeois development was the persisting system of civil inequality and class privileges, which placed the clergy and nobility in an exceptional position, freeing them from paying basic taxes.

The deep decline of French absolutism was a reflection of the general crisis of the feudal-absolutist system. During the XVIII century. the aristocratic opposition to absolutism revived and acquired great political weight. Its conductors were the parliaments, headed by the Parisian. In the 50-60s. XNUMXth century they demanded that parliament be given direct control over legislation; in essence, it was a program to limit absolutism in favor of the privileged classes.

As a result of the Seven Years' War, France lost almost all of its colonies. And the reign of Louis XV intensified the financial crisis of the state. Most reform attempts have failed completely or partially. The result of the contradiction between absolutism and capitalist development was the Great Bourgeois Revolution, which began in 1789.

24. BEGINNING OF THE GREAT FRENCH REVOLUTION

The root, deep-seated cause of the revolution was the contradiction between the productive forces and the feudal production relations that dominated the country, which had reached its maximum acuteness. Feudalism could no longer ensure their further growth and objectively turned into a brake on them. The people sensed this primarily in the strengthening of feudal oppression. Was not satisfied with their position and the bulk of industrialists, merchants, merchants. They were subject to significant taxes and fees, which went mainly to the needs of the upper strata of society, the maintenance of the royal court and the privileged classes. The government has repeatedly carried out the so-called. squeezing sponges: a wealthy businessman, under some pretext, mostly illegal, was imprisoned and released only after he paid a significant ransom. The domestic market was extremely narrow for industry, since the peasantry (the main part of the country's population) almost did not buy manufactured goods. Trade was hindered by a great many internal customs. Manufactory production was constrained by shop regulation. Foreign trade, primarily colonial, was artificially concentrated in the hands of a small group of privileged merchants who shared their income with the court nobility. The main part of the nobility and the upper clergy sought to preserve the existing system.

Not without reason they saw the main instrument of its defense in the feudal-absolutist state. Meanwhile, an understanding of the need for profound changes has matured in the country. The bourgeoisie was also preparing for them - economically and politically the most influential and most organized and, no less important, educated social group in the anti-feudal movement. It was then that in France the bourgeoisie began to be called bankers, tax-farmers, owners of manufactories, merchants and, in general, big businessmen; before the bourgeoisie, the bourgeois were considered native townspeople.

In 1788, France was struck by a deep economic crisis. As a result of another crop failure, the peasants and the urban poor of most of the country were under the threat of starvation. Production was curtailed, and many thousands of urban workers were left without work. Peasant unrest began, which soon spread to the cities. What was new in these events was that in a number of places the soldiers refused to act against the people.

Shaken by numerous crises, of which the financial crisis was the most obvious, the royal government of France unsuccessfully attempted reforms, at the same time increasing the tax burden, but could not change the situation for the better. The dissatisfaction of the nobles with encroachments on their primordial privileges and the decline of political influence; intensified in 1787-1788. unrest of parliaments - the highest judicial institutions of France, which were traditionally in opposition to the absolutist regime; popular movements, generated by hunger and high prices - all this forced Louis XVI to convene the Estates General, which had not met since 1614.

General States - an advisory body of three chambers - one from each estate (clergy, nobility and the third estate, which united all the rest - from the big bourgeois to the peasant). The election programs of the deputies of the Estates General demanded not partial financial reforms, but a general revival of the country, decentralization of power, liberalization of all aspects of life. The deputation of the third estate was especially strong. The Estates General were solemnly opened at Versailles on May 5, 1789.

25. MAIN STAGES OF THE GREAT FRENCH REVOLUTION

On June 17, the deputies of the third estate of the Estates General declared themselves the National Assembly. The king's attempt on June 23 to disperse the Assembly failed. On July 9, other deputies joined the Assembly, and it proclaimed itself the Constituent Assembly.

The threat of reprisal against the assembly caused a popular uprising in Paris. On July 14, 1789, the fortress-prison Bastille, a symbol of absolutism, fell. A wave of "municipal revolutions" swept across the country, during which new elected bodies of city government arose. The army of the revolution was created - the national guard, headed by Lafayette.

At a night meeting on August 4, the Assembly announced the complete destruction of the feudal order and the abolition of the oldest seignial rights and privileges. The remaining feudal duties of the peasants were subject to redemption beyond their strength.

The principles of the new society were defined in the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen", adopted on August 26, 1789. It proclaimed the sovereignty of the nation, universal brotherhood, freedom and equality of all people.

The “Declaration” served as a preamble to the text of the constitution, the development of which continued until September 1791. At the same time, internal resistance to the revolution intensified. On June 21, 1791, the royal family tried to secretly flee abroad, but were identified and detained in the town of Varennes. The Varenna crisis finally compromised the constitutional monarchy: in the enlightened circles that formed around Condorcet and Brissot, the word “republic” was heard for the first time. In addition, the crisis caused a further rise in the popular movement.

On July 17, a mass demonstration demanding the abdication of Louis XVI was shot on the Champ de Mars in Paris. In an attempt to save the monarchy, the Assembly allowed the king to sign the finally adopted constitution and, having exhausted its powers, dispersed.

In the new Legislative Assembly, which, according to the Constitution, did not include the previous deputies, a different balance of power emerged. The royalists and liberals were replaced by figures from two rival clubs - the Feuillants, supporters of a constitutional monarchy, led by the leaders of the Assembly Condorcet and Barnave, and the Jacobins. Among the latter, more and more disagreements arose, which led to the emergence of factions of Girondins and Montagnards. The first grouped around deputies from the Gironde department Brissot, Vergniaud and others (hence the name “Girondists”). The leader of the latter was Robespierre.

The country's foreign policy situation became more and more complicated. Hoping that the war, which France must inevitably lose, could stop the revolution, Louis XVI, relying on the Girondins, took a risky step. At his suggestion, in April 1792, France declared war on Austria, which was soon supported by Prussia. The consequences turned out to be directly opposite to the goals: the war sealed the fate of the monarch himself; ultimately sent Brissot and his companions to the scaffold; brought Robespierre to power.

On September 21, 1792, legislative power passed to the Convention, in which two political factions competed. On the one hand - Brissot, Vergniaud, Buzot and other Girondins. On the other hand, there are the Montagnards, who often came to the Convention directly from the headquarters of the insurgent Commune: Robespierre, Collot d'Herbois, Billot-Varenne, Demoulins, Saint-Just, Marat. Among them, Danton is the number one figure in the new ministry, the Provisional Executive Council. Between the mountain (Robespierre's supporters) and the Gironde there is a "plain", or otherwise a "swamp", ready to support those who are stronger. At the center of the confrontation was the question of the fate of the king. The mountain, which insisted on the death penalty, won: on January 21, 1793, the king was guillotined in Paris on the Place de la Révolution, now the Place de la Concorde.

26. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE JACOBIN DICTATORY IN FRANCE

Further disengagement in the revolutionary camp, the economic crisis, the onslaught of the popular movement, external and internal opposition to the revolution, the uprising of the peasants of the Vendée brought the republic to the brink of death. As a result of a popular uprising in Paris on May 31 - June 2, 1793, the dictatorship of the Montagnards was established, called Jacobin dictatorship.

The Jacobites undertook a number of measures aimed at the final undermining of the feudal system, completely eliminating all surviving seigneurial rights and securing the land they cultivated for the peasants. They fixed the fixed prices and maximum wages demanded by the sans-culottes and made forced loans of billions from the rich.

The attack on the Catholic Church continued and the republican calendar was introduced. In 1793, a constitution was adopted, which was based on universal suffrage, but its introduction was postponed due to the critical situation of the republic, and as a result it did not take place.

The Jacobin dictatorship demonstrated a complete rejection of liberal principles, showing a model of state intervention in various spheres of society. Industrial production and agriculture, finance and trade, public festivals and the private life of citizens - everything was subject to strict regulation. However, it was unable to contain the further deepening of the economic and social crisis. In September 1793, the Convention put terror on the agenda. The Committee of Public Safety sent its representatives to all hot spots, endowing them with unlimited powers. The terrible machine of the former deputy of the Constituent Assembly, Guillotin, already tested in practice, worked without fail. When she could not cope, executions were used.

The Jacobin dictatorship relied on a broad front of social forces that had taken shape in the struggle against the royalist counter-revolution and against the Girondins—the revolutionary middle and petty bourgeoisie, the majority of the peasantry and the plebeian masses. At first it was also supported by a part of the big bourgeoisie, which had risen during and as a result of the revolution and wanted its lasting victory.

In the socio-economic field, the Jacobin dictatorship carried out the regulation of the sphere of circulation, established under the pressure of the masses of the people. At the same time, the Jacobin government rejected the radical leveling demands of the plebeians and the peasant poor.

The Jacobin dictatorship was a new stage in the relationship between the revolution and the church. The struggle against the church began to develop into actions against the Catholic religion itself. The forcible abolition of the Catholic cult could not win the support of the people. On December 6, 1793, at the insistence of Robespierre, the Convention confirmed the freedom of worship and banned "violence and threats" incompatible with it.

But the struggle against common enemies, which rallied various social forces around the Jacobins, was nearing completion. Under these conditions, the contradictions and struggle within the Jacobin bloc itself escalated.

Several camps took shape within the Jacobin bloc. This is the leading core of the ruling Jacobin party - the Robespierists, in the autumn-winter of 1793, a trend of "indulgent", or moderate, took shape among the Jacobins. Georges Danton became the leader of this trend. The "indulgent" sought to mitigate and speedily abolish the regime of the revolutionary dictatorship. The "indulgent" revolutionaries opposed the "extreme" revolutionaries, who sought strict observance of the laws, further leveling measures, and intensification of terror. These camps clashed more and more bitterly on major political issues. The struggle reached a critical point in the spring of 1794.

27. THE COLLAPSE OF THE JACOBIN DICTATORY IN FRANCE

By the end of 1793, the policy of revolutionary terror in France had seized not only the rebellious provinces, but the whole country. Revolutionary tribunals, spreading far and wide, in dealing with a growing stream of cases, issued only two decisions - full acquittal or the death penalty. Among those sentenced to death were people of completely different strata of society - this is the "widow of Capet" Marie Antoinette, and the former Duke of Orleans, the same Feuillants, Girondins, "mad", Dantonists, Hebertists. Regardless of the goals pursued by the convicts, one fate befell those who defended the old order, and those who stood at the origins and made the revolution.

Having dealt with the enemies, Robespierre concentrated maximum power in his hands. But mass repressions led to the isolation of him and his closest associates in the Convention: Couton, Saint-Just, Loeb, Robespierre Jr. The successes of the revolutionary armies on all fronts have deprived the policy of terror of any logical justification. Left, right and "swamp" of the Convention united to fight the tyrant. The coup d'état on 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794) put an end to the Jacobin dictatorship. Its leaders died under the knife of the same guillotine.

The Thermidorian coup marked the beginning of the gradual fading of the revolution. The regime of the Directory, established by the constitution of the third year (1795), partly returned to what the revolution left in 1789. The search for political balance led to the creation of a bicameral legislature and two-stage elections. However, these measures were designed to protect the interests not of the former aristocracy, but of the new big proprietors born of the revolution.

With a general trend towards political stabilization, the regime of the Directory at the same time reflected the further development of the revolutionary process. The confiscation of emigrant lands continued. The separation of church and state was proclaimed (1794). In the autumn of 1795, Barras and Bonaparte defeated the royalist rebellion in Paris, which became an unconditional success for the policy of the Directory. The Italian campaign of the French armies marked the beginning of revolutionary expansion in Europe.

The abolition of maximums and regulation of income, the abolition of assignats, carried out by the Directory, were inevitably accompanied by rising prices and speculation. The nouveaux riches (the new rich), the "golden youth" gained more and more influence, salons flourished, where the center of political life moved. The Jacobin Club was destroyed. The economic crisis caused the last surge of popular movements in the germinal and prairial of year III (April - May 1795). With their defeat, the masses left the French political scene for a long time. The intensification of the reaction was accompanied by the "white terror", which in many ways resembled the settling of old scores. However, it differed significantly from the "Red Terror" of the Robespierists. It did not have special institutional forms - tribunals. It was not covered by special legislative acts and, obviously, had a different scale. The growing craving for stability, for the consolidation of those forces that were enriched and joined to power as a result of the revolution, led to a military coup on 18 Brumaire (November 9-10, 1799) and to the establishment of the dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte.

The coup of 18 Brumaire, which put an end to the history of the French Revolution, surprisingly coincided with the end of the XNUMXth century. The Great Revolution ended the Age of Enlightenment, but it also largely determined the political and social processes of the next century, far beyond the borders of France itself, as well as the fate of many European states of that time.

28. RESULTS OF THE GREAT FRENCH REVOLUTION

French Revolution 1789-1794 was indeed a great revolution. It did away with the feudal system, with the remnants of the Middle Ages, and paved the way for the development of a new, progressive system for that time - capitalism. The Great French Revolution also put an end to the monarchy, established a new order that promotes the development of both the economy and social thought, art, science - all areas of the material and spiritual life of French society.

Over the next century, revolutionary movements in Europe and America used the experience of the Great French Revolution - its slogans of freedom, equality and fraternity, its practical actions to establish bourgeois democracy and order.

The French Revolution took place almost a century and a half later than the English. If in England the bourgeoisie opposed the royal power in alliance with the new nobility, then in France it opposed the king and the nobility, relying on the broad plebeian masses of the city and the peasantry.

The participation of the popular masses left its mark on all the outstanding events of the revolution; it was at their request and under their direct pressure that the most important revolutionary acts and measures were carried out. The revolution developed along an ascending line, and it achieved its boldest and most effective results in 1793 during the Jacobin dictatorship, when the influence of the popular masses was strongest. Based on this experience, the founder of scientific communism, K. Marx, in the middle of the XNUMXth century, developed a theory about the need for the dictatorship of the proletariat in making a socialist revolution.

The bourgeois-democratic content of the Great French Revolution was to "cleanse" the social relations (orders, institutions) of the country from the Middle Ages, from serfdom, from feudalism. The successes of this revolution led to the rapid growth of capitalism and at the same time contributed to the formation and growth of the proletariat. The French Revolution, despite its enormous progressive role and revolutionary influence on most countries and peoples, was bourgeois-limited in its results. It did not abolish the exploitation of man by man, but only replaced feudal forms of oppression with capitalist ones.

Under the influence of the events of the French Revolution, the Third Republic in the XIX century. made the Marseillaise her anthem and the tricolor flag her banner. At the Sorbonne (University of Paris), the teaching of the course of the French Revolution was introduced, a special scientific journal was founded, and the publication of archival documents from the time of the revolution of 1789-1794 began with state subsidies. Since that time, researchers have begun to rely on a wide range of scientific material, and not by chance that arose in the 80s. 1789th century the school of the history of the French Revolution was called "scientific". The first work in France that paid due attention to the socio-economic history of the Great French Revolution was the "Socialist History" by J. Jaurès. This book was based on the use of a huge archival material on the revolution of 1794-XNUMX. and was written by J. Zhores for ordinary workers and peasants.

The Great French Revolution "gave birth" to a great figure, the future Emperor of France - Napoleon Bonaparte, the creator of a vast empire at the beginning of the 1789th century. in Europe. Napoleon's comrades-in-arms were people from among the common people who went through the harsh school of the revolution of 1794-XNUMX, they were also his support in advancing to power. Thus, the Great French Revolution was an important and main prerequisite for the creation of the Napoleonic Empire.

29. FORMATION AND COLLAPSE OF THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE

In 1802, Napoleon became consul for life. In May 1804, Napoleon was proclaimed “Emperor of the French,” and in May 1805 in Milan, in the Duomo Cathedral, he was crowned King of Italy.

In 1800, Napoleon made the second Italian campaign, during which the French army defeated the Austrian at the Battle of Marengo. As a result of this campaign, Genoa and Piedmont (the kingdom of Sardinia) were annexed to the French possessions. In 1805, in the battle of Ulm, the Napoleonic army defeated the Austrians, and in November of this year, Napoleon entered Vienna and settled in the imperial palace. In December 1805, 120 km from Vienna, during a fierce battle near the village of Austerlitz, Napoleon won a decisive victory over the Austrian and Russian armies.

In 1806, Napoleon made a campaign with his huge army to Prussia, where he defeated the Prussian army in the battle of Jena. He imposed an indemnity on Prussia and took away part of the territory, and from its Polish possessions he created the Duchy of Warsaw, dependent on France.

In 1808 the French army invaded Spain. Napoleon installed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. After the Peace of Tilsit, a chain of puppet states arose around the borders of France, ruled by the relatives of the emperor.

In 1804 the famous Civil Code, or Napoleonic Code, was published. It proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, the inviolability of person and property, freedom of conscience, etc. This Code was distributed throughout all European countries that were part of the Napoleonic Empire.

Napoleon's campaign in Russia

Napoleon conceived a plan according to which in 1812 the Grand Army was sent on a campaign against Russia with the main goal of forcing Alexander I to conclude an agreement with France, under which Russia would participate in the continental blockade of England. June 22, 1812 Napoleon's Grand Army crossed the Russian border and moved to

Moscow. In the main battle at Borodino, Napoleon was unable to defeat the Russian army, commanded by Kutuzov. Having occupied Moscow, he did not wait for the signing of the peace treaty on his terms. With the onset of cold weather, the Napoleonic army left the burning city and was forced to move back.

Led by Russia, a new coalition arose, which included England, Prussia, Sweden, Spain and Portugal. Napoleon created an army of several hundred thousand people. As a result, in the decisive battle of October 16-19, 1813 near Leipzig - the “Battle of the Nations” - Napoleon’s army was defeated. On March 31, 1814, coalition troops entered Paris.

Napoleon was forced to sign an act of renunciation, but left the imperial title, after which he was sent into an honorable exile on the small island of Elba off the coast of Italy. Louis XVIII, brother of the executed King Louis XVI, was proclaimed King of France. But on March 1, 1815, Napoleon, with his loyal guardsmen and close people, landed in the south of France and moved to Paris. King Louis XVIII fled. But Napoleon managed to stay in power for only 100 days. On June 18, 1815, the battle of Waterloo near Brussels took place, which the French army lost. Napoleon signed his abdication for the second time. This time he was stripped of his imperial title and exiled to the tiny island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, where he died on May 5, 1821, under mysterious circumstances.

As a result of the redrawing of the former empire according to decisions Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 the territory of France was returned to the borders of 1792, in addition, she had to pay a huge indemnity.

30. EDUCATION IN ENGLAND

Many of the ideas characteristic of the entire "age of Enlightenment" originated in England. One of these ideas was the idea of the "natural man", put forward by Hobbes. For the enlighteners of the 18th century. “natural man” turns into a kind of abstraction of “man in general” - a being that is fundamentally rational, good and social. The thinkers of the new bourgeois England seemed to rehabilitate the “natural man”, speaking out against coercion in both the political and religious spheres.

England is the birthplace of deism - belief in a "spiritual being"

England is the birthplace of deism, that is, the rationalistic belief in a "supreme being" who rules the world in accordance with the "natural" - physical and moral - laws created by him.

The idea of "natural man" in its enlightening understanding lies at the heart of philosophy John Locke (1632-1704) - the first major thinker of the new bourgeois England. Locke's political views are set forth in his "Two Treatises on Government", written under the influence of Hobbes and at the same time in polemic with him. Like Hobbes, Locke in his theory of the state proceeds from the fact that modern society was preceded by a state of nature and that the association of people in social unions arose as a result of their voluntary agreement - the social contract.

Locke puts the principle of the political sovereignty of the people at the basis of his theory of the state, recognizing his right to change state power if it violates the social contract and encroaches on natural human rights - personal freedom and property.

Locke's political theory had a tremendous revolutionary impact on the social thought of the European continent. It was further developed by Rousseau and was reflected in the legislation of the French bourgeois revolution.

In the XVIII century. Classical English political economy emerged. Its largest representative was Adam Smith (1723-1790). Smith's economic teaching develops in the general mainstream of the ideas of the English Enlightenment. In a society of free competition, A. Smith sees order as if established by nature itself. He believes in the possibility of reconciling all private interests and opposes any government intervention in the economic life of the country.

Representatives of the radical democratic trend in the English Enlightenment were Thomas Pan, Price, Priestley, and especially Godwin, who for his time was the most consistent opponent of the English social order. In his work "On Political Justice" William Godwin (1756-1836) considers state power only as a necessary evil, which must disappear as a result of "intellectual and moral progress." The only acceptable form of the state, according to Godwin, is democracy, which ensures the complete equality of all citizens before the law.

Aggravation of social contradictions in the second half of the XVIII century. caused the emergence of a new literary trend in the English Enlightenment - sentimentalism. Its characteristic feature is the appeal to feeling as the highest principle of life. Sentimentalism reflected the first doubts about the rationality of the new system of life. An early manifestation of these sentiments in English literature was the so-called. cemetery poetry of Thomson, Gray, Young, Crabb and others. Peasant poetry occupies a special place in English literature of the Enlightenment in the work of the Scottish folk poet Robert Burns (1759-1796), who glorified the work of the peasant, condemned religious fanaticism, the power of money and the vices of class society.

31. EDUCATION IN FRANCE

A special place among the French thinkers of the XVIII century. occupies in its class positions an early herald of a materialistic worldview, a utopian communist Jean Meslier (1664-1729). In the only work he left, “Testament,” he sharply criticized not only the social relations of feudal France, but also the foundations of class society as a whole. In his philosophical views, Meslier is a materialist and an atheist.

Another representative of the French Enlightenment Charles Louis Montesquieu stood on the positions of deism, recognized the existence of God as a rational origin and creator of the world. However, trying to reveal the laws of social development, he, in contrast to religious-idealistic ideas, sought to find the foundations of society within the limits of natural connections, without turning to God.

The political views of Montesquieu, in particular his doctrine of the division of legislative, executive and judicial powers between independent, but controlling each other instances, were progressive in nature, since they were directed against the feudal-absolutist order. Social doctrine was set forth by Montesquieu in his essay On the Spirit of the Laws.

The most prominent leader of the moderate wing of the French Enlightenment was Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet) - (1694-1778). Voltaire, in collaboration with Diderot and D'Alembert, actively participated in the creation of the Encyclopedia. Voltaire was in the position of deism - God is for Voltaire the prime mover and legislator of the Universe, its highest intelligent creative principle. Voltaire believed that faith in God was necessary as the basis of morality and a rein for the masses. Voltaire sees the origins of religion in the ignorance of people and in the selfish interests of churchmen who use the most cruel means (the Inquisition) in order to protect their power and their wealth in alliance with the aristocracy.

A new stage in the development of the French Enlightenment

A new stage in the development of the French Enlightenment of the XVIII century. there was activity Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), ideologist of the revolutionary petty bourgeoisie. His ideas, expressed in the works “On the Causes of Inequality”, “On the Social Contract, or Principles of Political Law”, etc., subsequently, during the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, had a significant influence on the Jacobins, who proclaimed Rousseau as their ideological predecessor . In his essay “On the Causes of Inequality,” Rousseau substantiates the legitimacy of a popular uprising aimed at overthrowing the despotic system. Rousseau stands for private property, more evenly distributed, excluding the extremes of wealth and poverty.

The task of explaining nature from itself and considering man as part of nature attracted the minds of the most prominent French thinkers of the Enlightenment. In accordance with the successes of the natural sciences, they further developed the teachings of the materialists of the XNUMXth century. Matter is primary, it is uncreative, indestructible and is the only reality, the basis of the diversity of everything that exists. Consciousness is considered as a product of matter, one of its properties inherent in highly developed organisms.

French Enlightenment Materialists

Prominent French materialist thinkers were: Denis Diderot (1713-1784), physician Julien Aufray, La Mettrie (1709-1751), Paul Holbach (1723-1789), Claude Andrian Helvetius (1715-1771). The heyday of French materialists dates back to the 50s and 60s. XVIII century and is closely connected with the publication of the Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, which became the ideological focus of the entire Enlightenment camp.

32. EDUCATION IN GERMANY

At the end of the XVII century. in Germany, a new influential trend of pietists arose, rejecting ritual and learned theology.

Gottfried Arnold (1666-1714) and other more courageous figures among the Pietists already stood, in essence, on the positions of deism - a rationalistic religion that rejected, along with Christian ritual, the doctrine of Divine revelation. Pietism gradually degenerated into a mystical-ascetic sect that highlighted the ideas of humility and renunciation of one’s personality.

A prominent figure in the German Enlightenment was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716). Leibniz's philosophy is one of the directions of objective idealism, but it contains elements of dialectics, in particular, an understanding of the inextricable connection between matter and movement, the individual and the universal. His doctrine of "pre-established harmony" means, in essence, the recognition that everything in the world is good and reasonable.

The philosophical views of Leibniz were brought into a new system by his student Christian Wolf (1679-1754). Wolf gave them a more pronounced rationalistic character. Wolff's significance specifically for Germany lies in the fact that he created German philosophical terminology.

The central figure of the German Enlightenment was Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781). Lessing expressed his views on the meaning of religion in the brochure “Education of the Human Race,” published anonymously in 1780. Here he conveys the idea that humanity, like every individual person, goes through a series of stages of organic development. The dominance of religion, faith in Divine revelation testifies to the immaturity of human society. However, religion is not only a heap of nonsense and delusions. The stages of its development depend on the historical level of culture; they lead to the highest stage - the era of the “eternal gospel” - reason, the stage of a social system in which people will maintain order without any state coercion.

Lessing's ideas were developed Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803). In his famous “Ideas for the Philosophy of the History of Mankind,” he developed the idea that the organic development of nature, according to the creator’s plan, necessarily passes into the history of mankind. In it, the cultures of various peoples, from primitive to the most developed, act as steps in the ascent of the human race to a state of humanity, that is, true humanity, education and enlightenment.

The development of the German Enlightenment is clearly expressed in the philosophy Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). For Kant, enlightenment is a higher stage in human development, when he is freed from the pressure of external authority on his thoughts, achieves the ability to freely and limitlessly use his reason and dares to use it to know everything that exists. In his work “Critique of Pure Reason” (1781), Kant laid the foundations of the so-called. transcendental philosophy, which transfers dialectical development into the realm of pure thinking.

According to Kant, everything that seems natural to us belongs to our contemplation and reason, can be thought by our mind, but is in no way a reflection of external reality. Cognition is limited to the world of phenomena. The true essence of any thing - the "thing in itself" - is inaccessible to our knowledge. The philosophical position of Kant is ambivalent. The objectively existing, though unknowable, "thing in itself" is a remnant of materialism in his teaching. Hence the presence of criticism of Kant's philosophy from the right and from the left - from the idealists and materialists.

33. IDEAS OF ENLIGHTENMENT IN LITERATURE AND ART

In the XVIII century. in Europe, a broad cultural movement arose, known in history under the name Enlightenment. It was an expression of bourgeois opposition against all manifestations and remnants of feudalism in social relations, the state system and the dominant ideology that hampered the development of capitalism.

The ideas of the Enlightenment were widely reflected in the literature and art of the leading European countries. In Germany, the main center of the literary movement in the first half of the Enlightenment century was Saxony, especially the commercial and university city of Leipzig. The activities of an influential propagandist and theorist of classicism took place here. Gottscheda (1700-1766). Gottsched rebelled “in the name of reason” against medieval fantasy; his indisputable merit is the struggle for a clear and correct German language, for the restoration of the direct connection between theater and literature, for raising the German theater to the level of the European theater of that time. During the Age of Enlightenment, the German writer-educator created his works Woland (1733-1813). His contemporaries called him the “German Voltaire,” whom he really resembled in his elegance of style, wit, bold attacks against official hypocrisy and some other traits of talent.

Under the influence of enlightenment ideas, the realistic work of German portrait painters took shape. Anton Graf (1736-1813) и Johann Friedrich Tischbein (1722-1789). The most prominent place in German art of the 18th century. belongs to the music represented in the first half of this century by the courageous, full of deep feeling work of Bach and Handel - outstanding German composers. The development of German music was closely connected with the Reformation.

Contemporary of Bach G.F. Handel (1685-1759) wrote more than 40 operas, of which the most famous was the opera "Rodalisto".

During the Age of Enlightenment, the Austrian composers Gluck, Haydn and Mozart created their magnificent musical works. Wonderful musical compositions are widely known V.A. Mozart (1756-1791): "Requiem", opera-comedy "The Marriage of Figaro" (1786), opera-drama "Don Giovanni" (1787) and philosophical fairy-tale opera "The Magic Flute" (1791).

French fiction of the Enlightenment took an important step towards a realistic depiction of reality. In the works of Voltaire and Rousseau, French fiction merges directly with the progressive social thought of the Enlightenment. The struggle for new aesthetic ideals reaches its climax during the heyday of Diderot and the Encyclopedists.

Architecture, painting, sculpture, music - all these types of art also experienced the fruitful influence of the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment. Clarity and simplicity, harmony and proportionality of all parts of the architectural composition - this is what the architects, who were influenced by enlightenment thought, aspired to. Representatives of the democratic trend in painting were French artists Chardin (1699-1779) and Greuze (1725-1805).

The merit of the reform of the Italian theater in the spirit of the Enlightenment belongs to Carlo Goldoni (1707-1793). In his comedies, Goldoni points out the efficiency, enterprise and family virtues of the bourgeois.

By the end of the XVIII century. the bourgeoisie of Europe had become so strong that they expected from the art of the Enlightenment a call to feat, glorification of civic prowess, heroism of struggle.

34. POLITICAL MAP OF EUROPE IN THE XNUMXTH CENTURY

The influence of two wars - the “Northern” and the “Spanish Succession” - on the formation of the political map of Europe in the 18th century.

The political map of Europe in the 1701th century underwent repeated changes. Great influence on the formation of the political map of Europe in the XVIII century. had a long war: for the "Spanish inheritance" - 1713-1700. and the Northern War in 1721-1714. As a result of these wars, three states that acted in the XNUMXth century. as great powers - Spain, Holland and Sweden - at the beginning of the XVIII century. lost their former position. XNUMX was the final year for the gradual decline of Spain. This year there was a division of Spanish possessions in Italy and the Netherlands. Holland, which was in the middle of the XVII century. at the zenith of its power, after a few decades, it was forced to cede to England its most important trading and colonial positions. The military power of Sweden was broken in the first quarter of the XNUMXth century, during the Great Northern War. As a result of the Treaty of Nystadt, Sweden lost part of its lands in the Baltic states: Estonia and Livonia. The accession of the Baltic States to Russia put an end to the struggle of the northern powers for possession of it.

During the 18th century. Russia gained dominance in the Baltic and Black Seas, while at the same time its closest neighbors in the west and southwest - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Poland) and the Ottoman Empire - were increasingly declining.

Strengthening Prussia, England and Russia in the 18th century.

In Central Europe, the kingdom of Prussia, despite the dispersion of its lands, became a first-class military power. Gradually, step by step, it increased its territory at the expense of Poland, Sweden, small German principalities and even

Austria. The rise of Prussia weakened the position of the Austrian Habsburgs in Germany; in addition, the latter were forced to concentrate their main efforts on the fight against the Turks and on strengthening their patchwork empire. Therefore, the Habsburgs for a number of decades actually broke away from Germany, with which they were connected only by the title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, which became hereditary in their house. The most important interests of the Habsburgs were in Hungary and the Slavic lands taken from Turkey, in the Southern Netherlands and Northern Italy, where they established themselves instead of Spain from 1714.

Hegemony in Western Europe in the mid-18th century. passed from Spain to France, but already in the first half of the 18th century. As a result of wars with England and its allies, France lost its dominance and also lost its most important colonies in America and India. By the middle of the 18th century. England took first place among the states of Western Europe. Thanks to the rapid pace of capitalist development, it emerged victorious from the long struggle with France for supremacy on the seas, for trade and colonial dominance.

Italy in the 1748th century remained fragmented into several states. These included: Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia), Venice, Genoa, Papal States, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany (whose capital was Florence), the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Duchy of Modena, the Duchy of Milan, the Duchy of Parma. Due to fragmentation, the Italian states found themselves in the first half of the XNUMXth century. under the yoke of Spain, and somewhat later - Austria. The wars between the Bourbons and the Austrian Habsburgs, either dying down or flaring up again, raged on the territory of Italy almost continuously until XNUMX. As a result of these conflicts, most of Italy was captured by Austria.

35. THE WAR FOR THE "SPANISH HERITAGE" AND ITS RESULTS

The last Habsburg is king Charles II (1665-1700) had no offspring. The reason for the conflict over Spanish possessions was the dispute over dynastic rights that arose in connection with "Spanish marriages". Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold I were married to the sisters of Charles II and were counting on the transfer of the Spanish crown to their offspring.

But behind the disagreements over hereditary rights, the aggressive aspirations of the strongest states of Western Europe were hidden. The real causes of the war were rooted in the contradictions between France, Austria and England.

Charles II and the most influential Spanish grandees were afraid of a break with France. In 1700, Charles II died and a French prince, the Duke of Anjou, ascended the Spanish throne; in April of the following year, he was crowned in Madrid under the name of Philip V. Soon Louis XIV recognized the rights of Philip V to the French throne with his charter and occupied the border fortresses of the Spanish Netherlands with his troops. The rulers of the Spanish provinces received orders from Madrid to obey all orders of the French king as if they came from the Spanish monarch. Intending to undermine the trading power of England, Louis XIV wrote to Philip V in Madrid that the time had come to “exclude England and Holland from trade with the Indies.” At the same time, the privileges of English and Dutch merchants in Spanish possessions were abolished. To weaken France, the naval powers (England and Holland) entered into an alliance with Austria, France's main enemy on land. Austria sought to seize Spanish possessions in Italy and the Netherlands, as well as Alsace. Prussia also joined the coalition.

The course of the war

Hostilities began in the spring of 1701. In 1703, Archduke Charles (the Austrian pretender to the Spanish throne) landed in Portugal with the troops of the allies, which immediately submitted to England and concluded an alliance with her and a trade agreement on the duty-free importation of English goods into Portugal.

In 1704, the English fleet bombarded Gibraltar and, having landed troops, captured this fortress. An ally of France, the Duke of Savoy went over to the side of Austria. The French offensive in Southwest Germany was halted by Anglo-Dutch troops under the command of the Duke of Marlborough. Joining up with the Austrians, they inflicted a severe defeat on the French at Hochstadt.

In 1706, the French army suffered a second major defeat at Turin from the Austrians under the command of Prince Eugene of Savoy. The following year, Austrian troops occupied the Duchy of Milan, Parma, and most of the kingdom of Naples. Only in 1709 did the French troops take revenge in a bloody battle near the village of Malplyake, where the allies (British, Austrians, Germans) suffered huge losses, but the war clearly went on with a preponderance in favor of the latter.

The English fleet captured Sardinia and Menorca, in America the British captured Acadia. The Austrian Archduke Charles landed in Spain and proclaimed himself king in Madrid.

The Tory party, which was in power in England, leaned towards peace with France. Without devoting Austria to the cause, the British and Dutch governments entered into secret negotiations with France and Spain. In March 1713 was signed Peace of Utrecht, which put an end to French claims to hegemony in Western Europe. England and Holland agreed to recognize Philip V as king of Spain on the condition that he renounce all rights to the French throne for himself and his descendants. Spain abandoned Lombardy, Sardinia, the Kingdom of Naples in favor of the Austrian Habsburgs, and ceded Sicily to the Duke of Savoy, Geldern to Prussia, and Menorca and Gibraltar to England.

36. ORIGINS OF NEW IDEOLOGICAL AND POLITICAL TRENDS AND TRADITIONS IN THE XNUMXTH CENTURY

The Reformation is the main source of new ideological and political trends in the XNUMXth century.

In the Middle Ages and early modern times, almost all teachings, the creators of which sought to explain the essence of various processes in society, were basically religious. In those days, religion answered all the questions that people might have. But as civilization developed, human thought gave rise to more and more new questions that required a secular, that is, non-religious, answer and explanation. Of course, religious truths are sublime and noble, but they are also speculative, not connected with what life constantly made us think about. The Bible did not give direct answers to questions about social inequality and the reasons that give rise to it. Therefore, social teachings began to appear, designed to answer a variety of questions that arise in everyday life.

Reduction of the religious basis of new ideological and political movements in the 17th century.

The main source of new ideological and political currents in the XVIII century. was the era of the Reformation, which caused a revival and activation of social thought. In particular, the "95 Theses" of Martin Luther, which received wide distribution and response in Europe, had a huge impact on this process. The great geographical discoveries and the successes of natural science are another source of ideological and political trends in the XNUMXth century, since they had a great influence on changes in the worldview of society, bringing some clarity to the picture of the universe. They shook the old religious ideas about the surrounding world, its origin and development.

But many new social teachings were based on religious postulates and legends. For example, "God created everyone equal" - the idea of social equality arose, on which human society and, accordingly, the state should be based; The biblical legend of paradise also gave rise to the idea of a bright future for mankind - the creation of an earthly "paradise" on the basis of equality, brotherhood and justice, and universal prosperity.

A number of new ideological and political trends in the XVIII century. arose as a response to church obscurantism and the courts of the Inquisition on a wave of public protest. After all, not only apostates-heretics, "witches" and "sorcerers" fell on the fires of the Inquisition, but also supporters of the true faith in God - Jan Hus, Joan of Arc, etc.

In the XVIII century. the strong influence of religion was still preserved, therefore, many ideological and political movements and traditions were based on deism - a rational belief in God - combined with science, with a scientific justification of faith.

The influence of enlighteners on the revival and activation of public consciousness

Vividly expressed the situation in the society of the 1760th century. Polish thinker Stanislav Konarski, who wrote in XNUMX: “We complain about unjust and often shamelessly corrupt courts, about unpunished perjuries that have almost become a habit, about unbearable insults from those more noble and powerful, about the fact that there are many tyrants everywhere and tyranny over the weaker... Each citizen seems to think about nothing else, as long as he feels good, and let the rest perish..."

The most widely new ideological and political currents in the XVIII century. were distributed in the advanced highly developed countries of Europe - England and France, where there were often popular uprisings and revolutions. France gave the world outstanding thinkers of that time - Montesquieu, Diderot, Voltaire, Rousseau and others, who, through their work, contributed to the revival and activation of public consciousness not only in Europe, but also in other parts of the Earth.

37. EVOLUTIONARY AND REVOLUTIONARY WAYS OF DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIETY

Why are progressive changes accelerating rapidly in some societies, while others are frozen at the same economic, political and spiritual level? Mankind has always wanted to accelerate the development of the economy and society as a whole. But in different countries they achieved this in different ways - some by waging wars of conquest, others by carrying out progressive reforms aimed at transforming society and the economy. In the course of the history of the development of mankind, two ways of the development of society were determined - revolutionary and evolutionary.

Evolutionary path (the word "evolution" comes from the Latin word meaning "deployment") - the path of peaceful non-violent transformation of society was to calmly, without jerks and attempts to "jump over time", to help progress, i.e. to catch its main directions and to support them in every possible way, to quickly adopt the best practices of other states.

Supporters of the revolutionary path believed that for the sake of a good goal, a "bright future" (heaven on earth), all means are good, including violence. At the same time, in their opinion and conviction, everything that stands in the way of progress must be immediately discarded and destroyed. Revolution is generally understood as any (usually violent) change in the nature of the government of society. A revolution is a total change in all aspects of life that takes place over a certain period of time (usually short), a radical change in the nature of social relations.

Revolution (from the late Latin term, meaning "turn", "revolution", "breakthrough of gradualness") - this is a change in the internal structure of the system, which becomes a link between two evolutionary stages in the development of the system, this is a fundamental qualitative change, i.e. a leap. At the same time, reform is part of evolution, its one-time, one-time act. This means that evolution and revolution become necessary components of socio-historical development, forming a contradictory unity. Usually evolution is understood as quantitative changes, and revolution - as qualitative ones.

Each reformer of society understood "progress" in his own way. Accordingly, the "enemies of progress" also changed. It could be kings and presidents, feudal lords and bourgeois (for Peter I they were boyars), but the essence of this direction has always remained the same - to act quickly and mercilessly. The violent path, the path of revolution (in Latin - "coup") almost certainly turned out to be associated with destruction and numerous victims. In the process of development of socio-political thought, the views and practices of the supporters of the revolutionary path became more and more fierce and merciless. But still, until about the end of the XNUMXth century, before the French Revolution, the theory and practice of ideological and political currents developed mainly in the spirit of evolutionary views. To a certain extent, this was due to the cultural and moral traditions of the Renaissance and humanism, and then the Enlightenment, which rejected violence and cruelty.

Unique are in the late XVII - early XVIII centuries. reforms of Peter I, who began with cutting the beards of the boyars and ended with severe punishments in relation to the opponents of the reforms. These reforms of the Russian emperor were in the spirit of the revolutionary path of development of society. Ultimately, they contributed to significant progress in the development of Russia, strengthening its position in Europe and the world as a whole for many years to come.

38. THE BIRTH OF LIBERALISM AND CONSERVATISM

During the XVII-XVIII centuries. in the evolutionary direction of socio-political thought, two main trends arose and took hold - conservative and liberal. Initially, they developed in England - the country of the oldest and most stable political traditions. The term itself "liberalism" appeared in Spain only at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. But the liberal tradition arose as early as the middle of the XNUMXth century, during the struggle of the English parliament for its rights.

Respect for these freedoms, respect for the inalienable rights of the individual, are at the heart of liberalism. A kind of "set" of these rights had already been formed by that time along with the development of society. The first of these was the right to freedom of religion. The question about him is still in the XNUMXth century. was decisively set by the Reformation, which led to the spread of Protestant religions in Europe. Then, in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, the problem of substantiating and securing the right of a person to property, as well as to private enterprise, came to the fore. The most convincing justification for this right was John Locke. He is considered to be the "father of liberalism". Even before Locke, English thinkers wrote about natural human rights, including the right to property. James Harrington (1611-1677) и John Milton (1608-1674). The human right to property, substantiated by Locke and his associates, was then enshrined in the legislation of leading European powers and the United States. But the formal recognition of this right for an individual was not enough for everyone to have property. And its dimensions could not be the same.

Thus, life made urgent the problem of expanding the rights of the individual. The main one was to become the right to influence the policy of the state, that is, the right to elect and be elected to state governing bodies. Participants in the European revolutions in the XNUMXth century fought for this right, and then in the next - the XNUMXth century.

Even earlier, traditions of conservatism arose (from Latin conservatio - "to protect, preserve"), the essence of which is to preserve the established traditional society, everything old and reliable, proven by the experience of decades and centuries. Therefore, the practice of conservatism has existed for about as long as the state and politics have existed. But conservatism as a doctrine, implemented in politics thoughtfully and systematically, and not just out of a desire to change nothing, took shape only by the second half of the XNUMXth century, when the Tory party, conservative in essence, existed in England for about a century. The basic principles of conservatism were formulated by the English publicist and philosopher Edmund Burke (1729-1797). He insisted on the inviolability of traditions illuminated by experience, because only by relying on them can stability and peace be maintained in society. No reforms, Burke believed, should encroach on age-old foundations. He saw the ideal of reform in the English “Glorious Revolution”. At first, Burke adhered to liberal views, but when the revolution broke out in France, he sharply condemned the claims of the bourgeoisie to power and the “bloodthirstiness of the mob.”

Under the influence of a series of revolutions in Europe later, in the XNUMXth century, there was a convergence of the positions of liberalism and conservatism. A number of liberals moved to the position of conservatism. At the same time, the confrontation between the evolutionary and revolutionary directions of socio-political thought came to the fore, which gave rise to another trend - radicalism. It assumed the most decisive struggle for bourgeois reforms, becoming in its own way a development of liberalism. Some thinkers of the time said that liberalism is moderate radicalism.

39. BIRTH OF INDUSTRIAL CIVILIZATION

By the middle of the XVIII century. in England, the totality of the changes taking place in society led to the birth of a new industrial civilization. Its name is associated with one of the most important factors of those years - industrialization. Industrialization is commonly understood as the process of active introduction of machines into a variety of industries. Industrialization was made possible by the Industrial Revolution. Gradually, this process covered all leading European countries, as well as the United States.

One of the main and most important signs of the new civilization, which has not lost its significance even today, has become modernization. As for modernization, it is customary to understand the desire to master all the newest, most modern of the general complex of achievements of human thought, which was formed in the historical period under consideration. Literally translated, the word "modernization" means "modernization".

In the initial period of the existence of an industrial civilization, the leading countries themselves created everything new and modern in industrial production, culture, technology, paving the way to unexplored areas of science and economics. The task of the states following them was simpler - for them, modernization was reduced to the speedy mastering of the achievements and experience of the advanced countries in general. But the content of industrial civilization was not limited to the introduction of machines into production and modernization. In a broader sense, we can say that modernization covered all areas of the life of the new industrial society. This meant the secularization of consciousness (or otherwise "secularization"), and the growth of cities, and the widest range of ideas and scientific achievements laid down by the Age of Enlightenment, and new trends in political life, and much more. The main phenomenon of the new civilization was a fundamental change in human consciousness, the mentality of emerging societies.

The industrial society was more and more permeated with the spirit of entrepreneurship, calling on people to work tirelessly, make great discoveries and ingenious inventions, leave their native places and move across the seas and oceans in search of a better life. The man of industrial civilization aspired to the legally guaranteed possession of private property, and this was a completely natural feeling. A person's property is what he created or earned with his labor, energy and talent. This is what he will pass on to his children and grandchildren. The inviolability of property is one of the basic principles of bourgeois society. In an industrial society, yesterday's peasants and artisans became merchants and entrepreneurs, made a military, and sometimes even a political career. At first, only a few managed to make such an ascent, to make a career, then - to tens, hundreds, thousands. The most striking example of this was the development of industrial society in North America. There was an expansion of political, legal and economic rights and freedoms.

People not only valued these rights - they were considered the basis, the guarantee of existence. Because of the encroachment of the king on the rights of parliament, a revolution and civil war broke out in England. Bourgeois-democratic rights and freedoms, their constant improvement ensured the stability and sustainability of industrial civilization. The spread of industrial civilization to other countries of the world occurred either as a result of colonization, or in the course of mutual trade and economic cooperation.

40. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND IN THE XNUMXTH CENTURY

Already in the middle of the XVIII century. in England, the prerequisites for an industrial revolution were created, i.e., the replacement of manual production by machine production, the transition from manufactory to a factory system of production, and the formation of a modern industrial proletariat and bourgeoisie. The main technical condition for the transition to machine production was centralized manufacture, in which the production process was reduced to simple and monotonous operations with the help of a detailed division of labor. The economic prerequisite for the industrial revolution was the enormous concentration of capital. As a result of the robbery of the colonies and of England itself, enormous wealth accumulated in the hands of the English bourgeoisie, which could be invested in industry.

The most important social prerequisite for the industrial revolution was the completion of the agrarian revolution. XNUMXth century was the period of the disappearance of the peasantry as a class of small producers, independent in terms of production. The lands were concentrated in the hands of a few large landowners. The agrarian revolution led to the expansion of the domestic market.

The expansion of the domestic market was also facilitated by population growth: from 1702 to 1800. The population increased from 5,5 to 9 million people. In addition, England's numerous colonies were a huge market for various goods. To ensure trade relations with the colonies and other countries of the world, merchant ships and warships were needed to ensure the security of trade routes.

The revolution began in England, primarily in the cotton industry, with the invention in 1767 of a mechanical spinning wheel, which worked with the help of a water wheel (water machine). Then a new type of spinning machine appeared, combining the advantages of a mechanical spinning wheel and a "flying" shuttle, which was invented back in 1733 by the mechanic John Kay. The mechanical spinning wheel was invented by the weaver Hargreaves. The new spinning machine was called "Crompton's mules". Cartwright improved the spinning machines, and his new mechanical loom replaced the labor of forty weavers.

New inventions were quickly mastered by enterprising businessmen. There were new enterprises - factories. The use of a water engine forced the construction of factories along the rivers, which presented certain inconveniences. Only the James Watt steam engine, which has become widespread since the late 70s. XVIII century, allowed to build factories anywhere.

Soon, machine production is being introduced into other important industries. Metallurgy, based on charcoal, was on the verge of disaster due to lack of fuel. But at the beginning of the XVIII century. a method of smelting ore on coal with an admixture of quicklime appeared, and at the end of the 1784th century. for the first time, iron was obtained from cast iron by the puddling method proposed in XNUMX by Kort. These innovations not only improved the smelting of iron, but were the impetus for the expansion of coal mining, and this, in turn, forced industrialists to think about improving the means of communication to connect the places of extraction of coal, iron ore with metallurgical industries.

The construction of canals began, since the transportation of heavy loads by water was much cheaper. Already at the end of the XVIII century. almost the whole country was cut through by canals, connecting the most remote corners of England with the sea.

By the end of the 17th century. industrial production increased significantly. Pig iron production increased from 350 tons in 1740 to 125 tons in 079, coal production - from 1796 tons in 2600 to 1700 million tons in 10. New industrial areas developed - Lancashire, Wales, Yorkshire.

41. NORTH AMERICAN COLONY WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE

The main prerequisite for the rupture of the thirteen North American colonies with England was the development of capitalism in them. The immediate cause that caused the mass movement against the metropolis in the 60s. XVIII century, and then the revolutionary war against her in 1775, was the policy of increased pressure and oppression that England began to implement in the colonies after the Seven Years' War.

In search of additional sources to cover the budget deficit resulting from the Seven Years' War, the British government introduced direct and indirect taxation of the population of the American colonies. Having met with stubborn opposition, it decided to ensure the obedience of the colonies with the help of armed force. The policy of the metropolis infringed on the interests of not one class in the colonies, but of all classes. Such actions of the British authorities, as the deployment of troops in the colonies and the stamp duty law, caused a mass movement of protest, which went on at an increasing pace from 1765.

On March 5, 1770, the first bloody clash between Americans and British troops took place on the streets of Boston: six workers were killed and as many wounded. A special public body formed in Boston, called the Committee of Correspondence, seized the actual power in this city and appealed to other colonies to follow its example.

In the spring of 1773 similar committees were formed in Virginia and other colonies. In the winter of 1774-1775 armed detachments began to spring up spontaneously in the colonies. In the first battles at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the British troops encountered the tactics of loose formation. The partisans fired accurately from behind trees and buildings, while remaining invulnerable; during the fighting, the British lost a third of their soldiers. These events served as a signal for the widespread seizure of weapons by the people. Thus began the uprising against England.

On May 10, 1775, the II Continental Congress met, which stated the state of war with England and on June 15 decided to organize the army. George Washington, a wealthy Virginian planter, was placed at its head.

In the main seat of the uprising, Massachusetts, the insurgent detachments immediately surrounded Boston, the stronghold of the English troops, and kept it under siege for almost a year, until the English soldiers were taken out by sea. The regular American army was recruited from volunteers who joined it for a certain, often short, term. Washington's army was reduced every military winter, and replenished with new sets in the summer. Despite these difficulties, she generally fought successfully against the trained regular troops of the British. American soldiers were aware that they were defending their native lands, felt the active help of the population, especially partisan detachments, and themselves used partisan tactics. During the first war year, a number of colonies declared themselves independent states (states).

During the war, the unity of the colonies was forged, the American nation was born. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the "Declaration of Independence". This day has become an American national holiday. But the war continued until October 19, 1781, when the English army of Cornwallis capitulated. Great military assistance to the Americans in the war of independence was provided by France, as well as Spain and Holland. Russia expressed support for the war of the American colonies for independence by sending two squadrons of warships to the shores of America (USA).

42. NORTH AMERICA IN THE XNUMXTH CENTURY

In 1607, an English expedition founded the settlement of Jamestown on the southern part of the North American coast of the Atlantic Ocean, which became the center of the English colony of Virginia. In 1620, a group of English settlers landed much further north and founded the colony of New Plymouth, which marked the beginning of New England. North America was at that time inhabited by Indian peoples who stood at various levels of the primitive communal system. The neighbors of the European colonists were mainly the Iroquois and Algonquins. Between the northern and southern English colonies, almost simultaneously with them, Dutch colonies arose on the Hudson River and Manhattan Island. In 1638, New Sweden was founded in what is now the state of Delaware.

In all the colonies, there were certain representative bodies, elected by a more or less wide circle of property-owning settlers. Management in New England was oligarchic and theocratic. All affairs were handled by representatives of the richest families in close collaboration with the most influential priests. In the crown colonies, the state was, as in the metropolis, the Anglican Church. When Puritan Massachusetts became a crown colony, it was forced to abandon its former religious exclusivity.

Popular movements often took on a religious form in the colonies, as in England. Such was the movement spearheaded in the middle of the seventeenth century. Roger Williams. This Salem priest, who belonged to the most radical currents of independence, preached the equality of all people regardless of race, the complete separation of church and state and freedom of conscience, the idea of popular sovereignty in civil government.

The attitude of the colonists to the Indians

The Indians met the first English colonists in general friendly. The Pilgrims from New Plymouth could have perished without the friendly help of the Indians. The first generation of Massachusetts colonists lived in peace with the Indians, but then an inevitable struggle began: the English colonies existed mainly by agriculture, they needed land and took it away from the Indians by all means.

During the XNUMXth century Indian uprisings against the colonialists flared up very often, but they were brutally suppressed. The colonists proved to be stronger than the Indians, and by the end of the colonial period, their tribes, who lived between the coast and the Allegheny Mountains, were mostly pushed back or exterminated.

Colonization of Canada

The development of Canada by the French took place on a smaller scale than by the British in the rest of North America. Back in 1535, Jacques Cartier declared Canada the possession of the French king. Henry IV (King of France) in 1600 granted "the companies of Canada and Acadia" the exclusive right to establish settlements and trade in the St. Lawrence basin.

In 1608, the city of Quebec was founded, the center of the fur trade. In 1628, the "Company of 100 Members" receives extensive trading privileges in return for the obligation to annually deliver 200-300 workers of various professions to Canada and keep them here for three years. Economically, Canada was underdeveloped compared to the 13 English colonies in North America. In 1763, Canada was conquered by the British, and in the war against the French, they attracted Indian tribes to their side as allies.

England constantly hampered the economic life of the North American colonies. The colonies were intended to remain a market for various goods and a source of raw materials, as well as funds for England. The pressure from England intensified especially after the victory of the English bourgeoisie in the revolution of the XNUMXth century.

43. NATIONAL LIBERATION MOVEMENTS IN LATIN AMERICA

The basis of the colonial system in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Latin America was the seizure of land and the serf exploitation of the Indian population, which was completely dependent on European secular and spiritual feudal lords.

In Mexico, half of the cultivated land belonged to the Catholic clergy, and the local population paid numerous taxes and performed unlimited corvee duties in favor of the state.

The mining of precious metals played a huge role in the brutal exploitation of the labor force of the local population of Latin America. During the three centuries of Spanish rule (XVI-XVIII centuries), gold and silver were exported from Latin America for a total of 28 billion francs.

In the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Latin America, slave labor was widely used, mainly in the silver mines and in the plantation economy. The main contingent of slaves in Latin America were Negroes forcibly captured in Africa.

The struggle of the peoples of Latin America against colonial oppression and exploitation took various forms. It was expressed in numerous uprisings of slaves and Indians, in the desire of feudal lords of Spanish origin (Creoles) and the nascent bourgeoisie to separate from Spain and Portugal and create their own independent states in Latin America.

Revolts of Indians and blacks in the 18th century.

The uprisings of the Indian population in Latin America in a number of cases, especially in the XNUMXth century, had not only a liberation character (against Spanish domination), but also an anti-feudal orientation.

In 1780-1781. The rebels in Peru, led by Tupac-Amaru, expelled the Spanish colonialists from a significant part of the country, established the power of their elected chiefs instead of the Spanish administration, and made an attempt to create an independent Indian state. Fugitive slaves in Brazil as early as the XNUMXth century. founded the Republic of Palmaris and for several decades in a stubborn struggle defended their independence.

It took on a long and stubborn character in the second half of the 1781th century. liberation struggle of the Indian population of Latin America. In XNUMX, an uprising broke out in New Granada, caused by an increase in taxes. The Indians of the surrounding villages joined the rebellious inhabitants of the city of Socorro. The rebels came close to the capital of the viceroyalty of Bogota, and the frightened authorities hurried to announce tax cuts. However, the subsequent split in the camp of the rebels allowed the Spanish authorities to defeat them.

By 1797, the uprising in the Venezuelan town of Coro was brutally suppressed. An inspiring example, especially for the black population of Latin America, was the black uprising that began in 1791 in the western (French) part of the island of San Domingo. The liberation war in North America had a great influence on the popular struggle in the Spanish colonies of Latin America. The Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution became the banner of struggle for Latin American patriots. The discontent of landowners, merchants, officers, officials and intelligentsia - natives of colonies in Latin America - was expressed in numerous conspiracies against the power of the colonialists, but they failed due to isolation from the people. And only at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. The liberation struggle of the peoples of Latin America acquired wide scope with the formation of independent states.

44. CHINA IN THE XVI-XVIII CENTURIES

Since ancient times, the Chinese considered their state to be the center of the world. They called it the middle, or heavenly, state. All the surrounding peoples were barbarians for the Chinese and were considered as subjects of the emperor. In the XVI-XVIII centuries. Korea, Vietnam, Burma, Tibet were vassals of China.

At the head of the Chinese state was the emperor, who had unlimited power, which he inherited. In governing the country, the emperor was assisted by the state council, which included his relatives, scientists and advisers. The government of the country was carried out through three chambers. The first chamber included six departments: ranks, rituals, financial, military, department of punishments, department of public works. The other two chambers prepared imperial decrees and oversaw ceremonies and receptions in honor of the emperor.

A special chamber of censors controlled the actions of officials throughout China. The country was divided into provinces, which were divided into districts and counties, they were ruled by officials of various ranks.

The Chinese state bore the name of the ruling dynasty in the country: from 1368 to 1644. - "empire of the Ming dynasty", since 1644 - "empire of the Qing dynasty".

By the beginning of the XVI century. China was already a state of high culture with a developed education system. The first stage of the education system was the school, where boys studied, whose parents could pay for education. After the final exam in elementary school, it was possible to enter a provincial school, where the study of hieroglyphs continued (and there are about 60 thousand of them in Chinese, 6-7 thousand were memorized at school, learned people knew 25-30 thousand), as well as students mastered calligraphy - the skill to write beautifully and clearly with ink. Students of the school memorized the books of ancient authors, got acquainted with the rules of versification and compilation of treatises. At the end of their studies, they took an exam - they wrote a poem in verse and an essay. Only an educated person could become an official.

Among the Chinese officials there were many poets and painters. In China in the 16th century. Crafts for making silk and porcelain were already developed. Porcelain products and silk fabrics were decorated with various designs using high-quality paints.

The three main pillars of the Chinese state for many centuries were three teachings: Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius developed his teachings in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., and it occupied an important place in the worldview of the Chinese in the 16th-18th centuries. Traditional society in China was built on the Confucian principles of filial piety and respect for elders. Loyalty, humility, kindness and compassion, a high sense of duty, and education were the main features of a noble and worthy person.

Founder of Taoism Lao Tzu - expounded his teachings in the book "Tao de jing". Gradually, Taoism turned from a philosophy into a religion ("dao" in Chinese - "the way"). Taoism taught that a person can escape the torment of hell and even become immortal. To do this, one must follow the principle of "non-action" in one's life, that is, step aside from active social life, become a hermit, seek the true path - Tao.

Buddhism entered China from India at the beginning of the XNUMXst millennium CE. e. and by the XNUMXth century. had a very strong position and a huge impact on the life of traditional society. By this period, many temples and Buddhist monasteries were built in China.

All three teachings were of great importance for maintaining and strengthening the foundations of the Chinese state, they were the main pillars of traditional Chinese society.

45. EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL SITUATION OF CHINA IN THE XVI-XVIII CENTURIES

By the 15th century under the Ming Dynasty, the Chinese Empire covered the territory of the modern interior provinces of China and part of Manchuria. China's vassals were Korea, Vietnam and Tibet. The country was divided into XNUMX large administrative divisions. They were ruled by officials appointed by the central government. In the XVI-XVIII centuries. The growth of the productive forces in China was reflected in the development of handicrafts, the improvement of agricultural techniques, and the further development of commodity production and monetary relations. In the feudal Minsk Empire, elements of new, capitalist production relations appear - manufactory is born and develops. At the same time, reasons were at work that hindered China's social development. These primarily include the high rate of feudal exploitation, which led to the poverty of the peasants, as well as the existence of closed rural communities, where agriculture was combined with home crafts. On the other hand, the invasion in the XVII century. The Manchus and their seizure of power in China, accompanied by a long war and the destruction of the productive forces, led to the barbaric and hermetic isolation of the country from the outside world, which could not but have a sharply negative effect on the pace of China's progressive development.

At the end of the XVI - beginning of the XVII centuries. The Ming Dynasty in China was in decline. Those close to the emperor who ruled the state plundered the state treasury. The cost of maintaining a huge number of officials and a magnificent imperial court required the introduction of more and more taxes.

Overthrow of the Ming Dynasty. Manchu conquest of China.

From the end of the 1644th century in the territory of modern Northeast China, the Manchu tribe strengthened, creating their own state there. At the beginning of the XVII century. the Manchus began to raid China, then subjugated a number of neighboring tribes and Korea. They then went to war with China. At the same time, major peasant uprisings were taking place in China. The rebel army defeated the government troops and entered Beijing, as a result of which the Ming dynasty ceased to exist. Frightened by everything that was happening, the Chinese feudal lords opened access to the capital to the Manchurian cavalry. In June 1911, the Manchus entered Beijing. Thus, the Manchu Qing dynasty, which ruled until XNUMX, established itself in China. Unlike the previous conquerors, the Manchus did not dissolve among the local population (even mixed marriages between Manchus and Chinese were forbidden), but secured an isolated and privileged position for themselves.

According to the form of government, Qing China in the XVII-XVIII centuries. was despotism. At the head of the state was the emperor - Bogdykhan, endowed with unlimited power.

The Qing dynasty waged endless wars of conquest. By the middle of the XVIII century. she conquered all of Mongolia, then annexed to China the state of the Uighurs, located south of the Tien Shan, the eastern part of Tibet. Conquest campaigns were repeatedly undertaken in Vietnam and Burma.

European merchants tried to gain free access to China long before the formation of the Qing Empire. The first to appear in China were the Portuguese, who in 1537 founded the colony of Macau on the southern coast of China. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. English and French merchants began to appear in Chinese ports. But the Manchu authorities decided to limit trade with foreigners and, for this purpose, issued a decree of the Qing emperor in 1757, according to which all ports except Guangzhou were declared closed to foreign trade. This was the beginning of China's isolation.

46. FEATURES OF THE SPIRITUAL CULTURE OF CHINA IN THE XVI-XVIII CENTURIES

During the period of the Ming Empire in China, philology and history were especially developed. Gu Yan-wu, who owns the "Pentateuch on Phonetics" - a classic work on historical and modern phonetics, as well as other works on history, economics, philosophy, philology, etc. .

During this period, official historiography developed: dynastic histories were published, and continuations of the chronicle "The Universal Mirror Helping Management", begun in the XNUMXth century, were compiled.

An important geographical work of that era is the work of Gu-Yan-wu entitled "The Book of the Shortcomings and Benefits of Regions and Destinies in the Celestial Empire." This essay gave not only a geographical description of the country, but also illuminated the socio-economic situation of China.

Spiritual culture of China in the XVI-XVIII centuries. developed under the strong influence of the ideas of Confucianism. The creator of this doctrine is a thinker Confucius (551-479 BC). The teachings of Confucius are the teachings of what a person should strive for. A social system created on the basis of reason, according to the thinker, should enable a person to engage in self-improvement and benefit everyone. The state, according to Confucius, is a large family, where the younger must obey the elder (commoner - noble).

The most famous Chinese philosopher of the early XNUMXth century. was Wang Yang-ming. Wang Yang-ming argued that the real world does not exist outside of our consciousness, that the whole world, all things are a product of the spirit or heart. According to Wang Yang-ming, the criterion of truth is subjective consciousness; a person has innate knowledge, intuition, which helps to know the truth. The idealism and intuitionism of Wang Yang-ming had their numerous followers not only in China, but also in Japan, where this teaching has been around since the 17th century. became one of the main philosophical movements.

Books in China were printed in private and public printing houses, and they could easily be bought. A newspaper was published in the capital, reporting on court life, imperial decrees, etc. In addition to coins, paper money was in circulation, which greatly surprised European merchants.

There were many poets among Chinese officials, especially during the Ming Dynasty. Poems were sent instead of letters, putting them in fish-shaped envelopes. In versification they competed at feasts. In the XVI-XVIII centuries. Numerous poetry works have been published. Most of the poets were painters. Pictures were painted on paper or silk, some were hung on the walls, others were examined on the tables, gradually unfolding the scroll. The favorite motifs of the paintings are the heroes of legends and tales, "mountains and waters", "flowers and birds". At the same time, hieroglyphic inscriptions - wishes - were made on almost every picture.

In this era, only an educated person could become an official. The state allocated scholarships to prepare for examinations for higher academic degrees. Such an examination was held in the capital under the supervision of court academicians. Candidates wrote essays on philosophical and historical topics. Those who reached the highest degree could occupy the highest government positions. The way up, to the "high society" of society, was opened through education.

In China of that era, there were many provincial schools, whose students memorized the books of ancient authors, including Confucius, and got acquainted with the rules of versification and compilation of treatises. At the end of their studies, they took an exam - they wrote a poem in verse and an essay. China XVI-XVIII centuries. was a country of high spiritual culture and enjoyed great respect in the world.

47. INDIA IN THE XVI-XVIII CENTURIES

Political fragmentation and feudal strife at the beginning of the 1526th century. in India, they made it easier for the ruler of Kabul (Afghanistan), Babur, to conquer vast Indian territories from Kabul in the west to the borders of Bengal in the east. In 20, Babur invaded India with a XNUMX-strong army, won several battles and laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire. Having become emperor (“padishah”), Ba-bur put an end to feudal strife and provided patronage to trade. Under Babur's successors, the Mughal Empire continuously expanded its possessions. By the end of the XNUMXth century. it included almost all of India except the southernmost tip of the peninsula, and eastern Afghanistan. (The word “mogul”, distorted in the Indian manner, i.e. Mongol, became in India the name of part of the Muslim military-feudal nobility, and outside India - the name of the dynasty of Babur’s descendants established on the Delhi throne. These sovereigns themselves did not call themselves moguls.)

The religion of the conquerors who came to India was Islam, but the bulk of the population, about 3/4, professed Hinduism. Islam became the state religion of the Mughal Empire, the religion of the majority of the feudal nobility. Muslim rulers could rule India for several centuries, remaining representatives of a numerical minority of the population, because their policy was no different from that of the Hindu princes. They also guarded law and order, levied taxes, allowed "infidels" in exchange for their observance of the laws to live according to their customs.

The Mughal Empire reached its peak during the reign of Akbar (1556-1605). He went down in history as the true builder of the Mughal Empire, a talented reformer who sought to create a strong centralized state. Akbar carried out government reforms. This ruler attracted all the large landowners (Muslims and Hindus) and traders to his side, and encouraged the development of crafts and trade. In the first years of his reign, he carried out a tax reform, establishing a tax for peasants equal to one third of the harvest, and abolishing the positions of tax farmers, while the peasants paid the tax directly to the state. In addition, the tax was not collected from the entire property, but only from the cultivated area. Akbar's religious policy was to recognize all religions as equal. Akbar also became famous as a patron of art. On his orders, scholars and poets translated works of the Hindu epic into Persian. Akbar's "peace for all" reforms strengthened the Mughal Empire.

After Akbar's death, his successors failed to continue the policy of creating a strong centralized state. Indian society was too fragmented: caste division, Hindu and Muslim religions, many nationalities and peoples who were at different levels of economic and cultural development.

The empire was also weakened by the fact that it waged endless wars of conquest, caused by the need to grant more and more lands to the nobility, always ready for rebellions. But the more the territory of the empire grew, the weaker the central power became.

Crisis and collapse of the empire in the 18th century.

From the beginning of the XVIII century. the power of the padishahs became symbolic. The provinces were separated one by one. The emperors lost real power, but it was acquired by the princes of the regions of the empire. In 1739, the cavalry of the Persian conqueror Nadir Shah plundered Delhi and destroyed most of the inhabitants of the capital. Then the northern part of India was flooded by the Afghans. In the first half of the XVIII century. India effectively returned to a state of fragmentation, which facilitated European colonization.

48. STRENGTHENING THE POSITION OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY

XVI century ended brilliantly for England. Industry, shipbuilding, shipbuilding, and maritime trade have achieved great success in their development. The Reformation movement in the country helped strengthen absolute royal power. After the defeat of the huge Spanish squadron of the “invincible armada”, dominance of the seas gradually passed to England off the English coast. This European country turned into a strong maritime power, which was rightly called the “mistress of the seas.” The British began penetrating India from its southern regions - the Madras region, where small principalities were located. These were the prerequisites for the founding of the East India Company in 1600 by the British. At first, the East India Company was engaged only in trade - it sold the famous high-quality English cloth to the local population of India and purchased spices. Pepper, cloves, and saffron were in particular demand. For this purpose, trading posts were established by the East India Company in different places in India. In 1690, the British built the fortified walled city and port of Calcutta on land granted to them by the Mughal Emperor. Gradually, Calcutta became the main support center of the East India Company. Calcutta was located in a very convenient location from an economic and strategic point of view - on the shores of the Bay of Bengal and in the delta of the Ganges River.

The East India Company, which was successful in trading and receiving large profits, also acquired large landed estates, which were controlled by the governor-general, and built fortresses and created troops to protect them. The military units consisted of hired Indian soldiers (sepoys), armed and trained in the European way. These troops were under the command of British officers.

Taking advantage of the feudal fragmentation in southern India, the East India Company constantly expanded its possessions, while organizing plantation farms in the occupied territories. On plantations, the British, using local Indians as cheap labor, grew those crops that were in great demand in the metropolis and on the world market. In particular, tea, tobacco, jute, oilseeds, spices (pepper, cloves, saffron, etc.) were grown. The East India Company was also engaged in the training of employees, officials recruited from among the children of the local nobility, and the most gifted children of wealthy Hindus were sent to study in the metropolis. The trained personnel then worked in the system of the East India Company. This is how the position of the English East India Company gradually strengthened. From the middle of the XVIII century. the possessions of the East India Company turned into a real colonial empire. In 1757, the British captured Bengal, which marked the beginning of a large-scale conquest of the entire country by troops in the mercenary service of the East India Company.

In addition to plantations, the East India Company also owned various mines, salt mines, woodworking workshops, in which sandalwood, bamboo and other valuable species were processed with the further manufacture of various products from them.

To ensure uninterrupted stable ties with the mother country and other countries, the East India Company acquired merchant ships and warships. By the end of the XVIII century. this company had a real fleet of various ships and ships. Warships were used to protect cargo carried on merchant ships.

49. JAPAN IN THE XVI-XVIII CENTURIES

In early modern times, Japan had a rigid class system. The state established the rules of life for all classes and strictly monitored their observance. All the inhabitants of the country were divided into four classes: warriors, peasants, artisans and merchants. Courtiers, clergymen, doctors and scientists, as well as pariahs - untouchables who performed the dirtiest work, were not included in the estates. There was a strict hierarchy in this class system, in which samurai warriors occupied the upper level (at the turn of the 10th-XNUMXth centuries, together with their families, they made up about XNUMX% of the country's population). Belonging to this estate was inherited, it included senior military leaders, princes, rich feudal lords, ordinary soldiers, high and low officials. In the XNUMXth century finally took shape the "code of honor" of the samurai - "bushido", according to which they had to lead a harsh lifestyle, be content with little, engage only in military affairs, be unquestioningly obedient and faithful to their master (great feudal lord, prince) up to the readiness to accept death through ritual suicide (hara-kiri) at his first request or in the event of his death. But at the beginning of the XVIII century. the first signs of the disintegration of the estate system appeared. In particular, there were such samurai who, for various reasons, abandoned their duties and lost their livelihood.

The bulk of the population were peasants who belonged to the second stage of the class system of Japan. The sustenance of the warrior class depended on them. The peasants could not leave their farms; their lives passed in hard work and poverty. They grew rice, sowed wheat, barley, millet, as well as cotton, tobacco, tea, etc. The peasants dressed in clothes made from hemp and cotton (women wove and sewed clothes). Government decrees prescribed peasants what to eat and how to dress. And although the peasants worked tirelessly, they were always in debt, and if there was a crop failure and there was no rice to pay the tax, they had to turn to moneylenders and borrow money against the future harvest. When things got really bad, the peasant sold the land (although this was prohibited by law) or even abandoned it and went to look for a better life. If a peasant received permission to leave the village, then the entire community had to cultivate his land and pay taxes for him.

The third and fourth estates in society were artisans and merchants. Most of the craftsmen lived in the cities, but there were also itinerant craftsmen who roamed the villages. As a rule, the son inherited the father's profession.

As for the merchants, in the XVI-XVIII centuries. the authorities did not like them and were wary of them. Merchants were at the very bottom of the class hierarchical ladder, they were considered "parasites" who themselves did not produce anything. However, the development of a commodity-money economy led to an increase in this estate and an increase in its wealth. Neither samurai, nor peasants and artisans could do without their services: they borrowed money, they were sold surplus grain and handicrafts. Merchants lived according to the rules they established on the money they received from daily trade. The rules of the Japanese merchants included: getting up early, devotion to the family business, working overtime, frugality, good health. All this was supposed to contribute to the accumulation of money and capital. Developed in Japan in the XVI-XVIII centuries. commodity-money relations gradually led to the disintegration of the estate system.

50. FEATURES OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF JAPAN IN THE XVI-XVIII CENTURIES

In the struggle for power between feudal factions in Japan at the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries. won Ieyasu Tokugawa.

In a short time, he managed to subjugate all the appanage princes of Japan and take the title of shogun (the title of the military ruler - commander of Japan in 1192-1867). From that time on, the Tokugawa shoguns became the sovereign rulers of Japan. They remained in power for the next 250 years.

Under the shoguns, the imperial dynasty was deprived of real power. The imperial court was forced to bow before their might. By moving the princes (Japanese "daimyo") to new lands and confiscating the lands of the recalcitrant, the shoguns strengthened their power.

The imperial family was not allowed to own land, and a rice ration was allocated for its maintenance. At the imperial court there were always officials who watched everything that was happening. Honors were paid to the emperor, but at the same time it was emphasized that it was not appropriate for the divine emperor to "condescend" to any kind of communication with his subjects. Tokugawa argued that "the shogun indicates all state duties and does not need the permission of the emperor when dealing with government affairs."

Strong central authority

The shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty sought to strengthen the central government primarily in the interests of their home. They were very rich, because they received from 13 to 25% of the state's income. To strengthen the central power, Tokugawa established his control over large cities, mines, foreign trade, etc. Tokugawa introduced a hostage system, this was necessary for him in order to subjugate the princes and keep them under control.

He built a new capital - the city of Edo - and demanded that each prince live in the capital for a year, and for a year in his principality. But, leaving the capital, the princes had to leave a hostage at the court of the shogun - one of their close relatives.

Japan's "shutdown" policy

In the 30s of the XNUMXth century. The government of Shogun Iemitsu Tokugawa took a number of measures to isolate Japan from the outside world. Decrees were issued expelling Europeans from the country and banning Christianity. The shogun's decree read: "For future times, as long as the sun illuminates the world, no one dares to land on the shores of Japan, even if he were an ambassador, and this law can never be repealed on pain of death." It was also stated that “any foreign ship that arrived on the shores of Japan was subject to destruction and its crew to death.”

The policy of “closing” the country was caused by the desire of the authorities to prevent the invasion of Japan by Europeans and the desire to preserve the old traditions and feudal order intact. After the “closure” of the country, Japan’s trade relations with Europe ceased. Some exceptions were allowed only in relation to the Dutch; communication continued with neighboring Asian countries, and above all with their closest neighbors - Korea and China. The country's rulers tried to prevent the destruction of traditional society by force. But the “closure” of Japan accelerated the destruction of the class system, because local merchants, having lost their traditional occupation, began to buy land from bankrupt peasant owners and open various workshops in the cities, hiring hired workers. Merchants also hired former samurai warriors to participate in their business, either as guards or as office workers. This is how the emergence of new economic relations began in Japan.

51. FEATURES OF SPIRITUAL AND CULTURAL LIFE OF JAPAN

The "closing" of Japan by the shoguns to Europeans made ties with China prevalent. Much was borrowed by the Japanese from Chinese culture and from the whole life of Chinese society in general. So, in Japan, the manufacture of paper, porcelain, silk, book printing, etc. was established. The success of book printing in Japan in the 1648th century. contributed to the development of literacy. Among the urban population of this country, stories of an entertaining and instructive nature were popular. But at the same time, the government made sure that criticism of the shogun did not get into the print media. In XNUMX, when a book containing disrespectful remarks about the shogun's ancestors was printed in the printing house of an Osaka bookstore, the owner of the shop was executed.

Religion of Japan

The ancient religion of Japan was Shintoism (translated "Shinto" means "the way of the gods"). There are many gods in Shinto, but the main deity is the sun goddess Amaterasu, from whom the Japanese emperors supposedly descend. Therefore, secular rulers were revered as messengers of heaven, and their authority was indisputable. Shintoism was used in Japan to strengthen the power of the emperor, who became from the XNUMXth century. the high priest of this religion. But in the XVI-XVIII centuries. In Japan, the position of Buddhism is strengthening, which was due to Chinese influence. At the beginning of the XVII century. Shogun Tokugawa declared Buddhism the state religion, each family was assigned to a particular temple. Buddhism had a great influence on the formation of the inner world of people in Japan. According to this teaching, the whole life of a person is a continuous path of suffering, grief, sadness, the cause of which is unsatisfied earthly desires. Buddhism called on believers to constant self-improvement, pointed out that the path to salvation is in the hands of the person himself, regardless of his social status. In Japan of that era, religious tolerance was popular - different religious beliefs coexisted side by side - Shintoism and Buddhism.

The cultural life of Japan was characterized in the XVI-XVIII centuries. the development of poetry, painting, music and folk theater - kabuki ("song and dance"). At the imperial court, poets and poetesses competed in art. The ability to write poetry, play musical instruments, and draw was mandatory for an educated person. Books on the history of Japan were printed and distributed ("Kojiki" - "records of ancient deeds"), "Annals of Japan" - "Nihongi" - a complete collection of myths, legends, and historical events. In the 17th century The folk theater of kabuki ("song and dance") arose, but the Japanese government persecuted this theater, fearing the spread of free thought, while it banned women's and youth troupes, and since then only men have performed in the kabuki theater. Samurai were not allowed to attend kabuki, and this determined the composition of the audience. The profession of an actor at that time was classified as despicable: they were forbidden to go beyond the theater district and were required to wear clothes of the established pattern. Although there were decrees prohibiting peasants from watching theater performances (the authorities were afraid that, having seen a better life than theirs on stage, they would want to leave the village), they were able to see performances by traveling actors. But the pilgrimage to one of the main temples of the country brought special joy to the Japanese. This was practically the only opportunity in my life to leave the village for a while and see the world around me with my own eyes. Japanese painting of that time was dominated by images of landscapes of the sacred Mount Fuji, cherry blossoms, the sea, etc.

52. MUSLIM COUNTRIES IN THE XVI-XVIII CENTURIES

Muslim countries in the XVI-XVII centuries. were represented by two main states - the Ottoman Empire and Iran (or Persia, then the state of the Safavids). By the end of the XV century. The Ottoman state, as a result of the aggressive policy of the Turkish sultans and the military-feudal nobility, turned into a vast feudal empire. It included: Asia Minor, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Bosnia, Herzegovina and vassal Moldavia, Wallachia and the Crimean Khanate.

At the beginning of the XVI century. The main objects of the aggressive policy of the Turkish feudal lords were Iran, Armenia, Kurdistan and all the Arab countries. The Ottoman Empire reached its greatest power by the middle of the XNUMXth century. under the sultan Suleiman I (1520-1566), called by the Turks the Lawgiver (Kanuni).

In the second half of the XVI century. The Ottoman feudal empire spread over three continents. Within the boundaries of this empire, the vast territories of South-Eastern Europe, Western Asia and North Africa were forcibly included.

By the middle of the XVII century. the crisis and decline of the Ottoman Empire, which began at the end of the 1683th century, was clearly indicated. The Ottoman Empire did not have internal unity. Its individual parts differed sharply from each other in ethnic composition, language and religion of the population, and even among Muslims there were various groups (in particular, Wahhabis, Sunnis, Shiites). The defeat of the Turkish troops under the walls of Vienna in XNUMX hastened the crisis and decline of the Ottoman Empire.

In the XVIII century. The Ottoman Empire suffered several defeats in the Russian-Turkish wars of 1735-1739. and 1787-1791, as a result of which the disintegration of this state continued. Peasant unrest in Turkey itself also contributed to this process.

The decline of the Ottoman Empire was reflected in the position of the Arab countries that were part of it. In Arabia, for example, a broad religious and political movement arose - Wahhabism, which set as its goal the complete expulsion of the Turks from the Arabian Peninsula.

At the beginning of the 1510th century. On the territory of Iran and Transcaucasia, a vast Safavid state arose, the core of which was Azerbaijan. The formation of a strong Safavid state was met with hostility by its neighbors - the Uzbek state of Sheibani Khan, which emerged at the end of the XNUMXth century. in Central Asia, and the Ottoman Empire. In XNUMX, in the battle of Merv (in the state of Khordean), the Safavid army defeated the troops of Sheibani Khan. As a result of this war, the Safavids captured the state of Khorasan (it included most of the territory of Afghanistan). Frequent military clashes with the Ottoman Empire at the beginning, middle and end of the XNUMXth century were especially important for the Safavid state. The restoration of the power of the Safavid state took place under the Shah Abbas (1587-1628), nicknamed the Great.

In the second half of the XVII century. relative economic growth observed in Iran, the state of the Safavids under Shah Abbas I, his successors - Sefi (1629-1642) и Abbas II (1642-1666) gives way to decline. The foundations of this state were shaken mainly by uprisings in the Iranian regions proper and by the liberation movements of the peoples conquered by the Safavids. After the assassination of Nadir Shah (1747), civil strife resumed in Iran. The Iranian state broke up into a number of independent possessions, the rulers of which waged a fierce struggle among themselves. This struggle continued, with some interruptions, until the very end of the XNUMXth century.

53. "EUROPEAN IDEA" AND THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA 1814

The political basis of the "European idea", put forward by the victorious countries (over Napoleon) - England, Russia, Austria and Prussia, consisted in the restoration and strengthening of the old monarchical order in the countries previously conquered by Napoleon; the weakening of France and the creation of guarantees against the restoration of Napoleonic empires and attempts at new conquests; the redistribution of both the colonies and European countries in the interests of the victorious powers and the widespread struggle against the revolutionary movement in all European countries without exception. The practical expression of the "European idea" was the international Congress of Vienna, which it was decided to convene in 1814. This decision was made during the signing by Russia, England, Austria and Prussia - the main participants in the coalition on March 1, 1814 of an agreement to bring the war with Napoleonic France to victory and the conditions of the proposed peace.

The official meetings of the Congress of Vienna began on November 1, 1814 and ended on June 9, 1815.

216 representatives of European states gathered in Vienna, among them were Russian and Austrian emperors, Prussian, Danish, Württemberg and Bavarian kings, ministers, chancellors, and major political figures. The most important role at the congress belonged to Alexander I and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich. The defeated France was represented by Talleyrand.

One of the important features of the Vienna Congress was that for the first time it covered all European powers (except Turkey) with a system of international diplomatic relations.

At the Congress of Vienna, the political program of the Russian Emperor Alexander I was announced, the main provisions of which are:

1) to return to every nation the full and free enjoyment of its rights and institutions;

2) place all nations and ourselves, their sovereigns, under the protection of a common Union;

3) provide for us, sovereigns, and protect nations from the ambitions of conquerors. Thus, the practical implementation of the “European idea” consisted in the creation of a pan-European union, which would become a guarantee of peace and order in Europe. Alexander I at the Congress of Vienna, as the victorious emperor of Napoleon, demanded:

1) to keep for Russia the Duchy of Warsaw, to which he promised a constitution and a national army;

2) destroy the independence of Saxony with its further transfer to Prussia.

Secretly from the Russian Emperor, Talleyrand (minister of the French king of Bourbon) and Prince Metternich (Austrian Chancellor) on the sidelines of the Congress of Vienna formed a coalition against him, a formal offensive alliance from Austria, France and England, joined by three minor powers (Sweden, Spain, Holland) . At the same time, the contingents of almost half a million allied army were determined, Prince Schwarzenberg drew up a plan of military action, and the opening lines of the campaign (against Russia) were assigned. But these plans were not implemented due to Napoleon's escape from the island of Elba at the end of February 1815 with a further victorious campaign against Paris, which he entered without encountering much resistance.

The triumphant return of Napoleon to Paris and the threat of a new war forced the renewal and strengthening of the former coalition of four powers - Russia, England, Prussia and Austria. In May 1815, Alexander I left Vienna for Heilbronn to wait there for the Russian army advancing towards the Rhine. In June 1815, in a battle in the potato fields near the village of Waterloo in Belgium, Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat from the combined forces of the coalition.

54. "HOLY UNION" AND ITS ROLE IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

In 1815, when the Congress of Vienna ended, the Russian, Prussian and Austrian monarchs signed an agreement on "Holy Alliance". The essence of this agreement was that each of the participants assumed the obligation to achieve strict implementation of the decisions of the Congress of Vienna. Subsequently, other European monarchs joined the Holy Alliance. Until 1822, congresses of the Holy Alliance were regularly convened. England did not join the Holy Alliance, although it actively supported it.

The role of Russia in the "Holy Alliance" was the main and special in nature. “The act of the “Holy Alliance” had an extremely harmful and, moreover, bilateral effect on Western and Eastern Europe, on Russia. The crazy government reaction that arose on the Western European continent after the Congress of Vienna, which Russia had nothing to do with, was placed under the protection of Russian bayonets.

Alexander I, who marched across Europe with the banner of the liberator of Europe, the savior of sovereigns and peoples from French oppression, was at the congresses the oppressor of the same Europe, the sentry of foreign thrones against the peoples. Russia assumed historical responsibility for the personal affairs of her sovereign, which had long been a dark spot on her. On the other hand, such whimsical twists and turns of foreign policy were reflected in the internal life of Russia by a deep discord between the government and the best elements of society, with people's expectations, even with a sense of truth and duty. This discord created one of the gloomy epochs, which were in our history the last 10 years of the reign. No country has ever deserved such grateful solicitude on the part of its government as Russia deserved in 1812-1815. Her victims in the war "(Klyuchevsky V.O. Lecture LXXXIV, Publishing house of socio-economic literature, M., 1958).

The post-Napoleonic arrangement of the world, carried out on a conservative basis, turned out to be fragile. Some of the restored feudal-aristocratic regimes soon began to burst at the seams. The "Holy Union" was active only for the first 8-10 years, and then actually broke up. Nevertheless, the Congress of Vienna and the "Holy Alliance" ensured for several years a general peace in Europe, tormented by the nightmare of continuous wars.

After the death of Alexander I, the new Emperor of Russia, Nicholas I, declared himself free from the obligations of the "Holy Alliance". At the same time, Russia ceased to guard the Western European order created by the Congress of Vienna, leaving this matter to those who were more closely concerned with it.

At the last Verona Congress of the "Holy Alliance" (October 20 to December 14, 1822), opinions agreed only on the question of the Greek uprising. It was condemned by all members of Congress. On other issues, a sharp struggle began. The contradictions between the powers, especially between capitalistically developed England, whose foreign policy was dictated by the bourgeoisie, and the less industrially developed countries, where semi-feudal relations were still strong, shook the foundations of the "Holy Alliance". His ideas and decisions were extremely unpopular in all progressive strata of European society, with which their governments were forced to reckon. The growing liberal bourgeoisie in England sharply and constantly opposed the "Holy Alliance". The Congress of Verona and the intervention in Spain, where the revolution broke out, were the last joint acts of the members of the Holy Alliance.

55. THE CRIMEAN WAR AND THE BIRTH OF THE BALKANS CRISIS

When the revolutions of 1848-1849 died down, Nicholas I decided to strengthen the strategic position of his empire: to solve the problem of the Black Sea straits; strengthen Russia's influence in the Balkans.

Taking advantage of the dispute over the shrines (a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy about who will be the guardian of the especially revered churches in Jerusalem and Bethlehem), Nicholas I increased pressure on Turkey. In support of the demands, Russian troops were sent to Moldavia and Wallachia, which were in vassal dependence on Turkey. In response, the English and French squadrons entered the Sea of Marmara. Encouraged by this, the Sultan of Turkey declared war on Russia in October 1853.

Turkey planned to inflict the main blow in the Transcaucasus, counting on the assistance of Shamil. At the same time, it was supposed to land troops on the coast of Georgia. But this plan was thwarted by the decisive actions of the Russian fleet. On November 18, 1853, the Russian squadron under the command of P.S. Nakhimov in the Sinop Bay off the coast of Turkey defeated the Turkish fleet.

In January 1854, the Anglo-French squadron entered the Black Sea. In response, the Russian government withdrew its ambassadors from Paris and London. In March 1854, Russian troops crossed the Danube. At the same time, the Russian government rejected the ultimatum of England and France to leave Moldavia and Wallachia. On March 15 (27), 1854, England declared war on Russia. A day later, this was done by Louis Bonaparte, who by that time had managed to proclaim himself Emperor Napoleon III.

In the summer of 1854, the 60-strong Allied army landed on the deserted beaches of Evpatoria and immediately moved to Sevastopol. The Russian squadron was locked in the Sevastopol Bay by the Allied squadron. The Russian command decided to sink their ships in the roadstead in order to prevent the enemy squadron from approaching close to Sevastopol.

The defense of Sevastopol, the Russian naval base, lasted 349 days. The 75-strong Allied army fought against the 170-strong garrison of Sevastopol, and it steadily and constantly received ammunition and reinforcements by sea. Providing the Russian army with ammunition was complicated by the thaw in autumn, warm winter and spring. Great losses were caused to the Russians by the newest Allied small arms, which had a greater combat range and rate of fire than Russian smoothbore guns. In addition, one of the Russian armies remained on the southwestern border, since the threat of invasion from Austria remained.

End of the Crimean War. Parisian world The fall of Sevastopol predetermined the outcome of the war. At the end of 1855, Austria, threatening war, announced a number of tough demands. Emperor Alexander II went to peace negotiations. A peace congress opened in Paris. According to the Paris Peace Treaty, signed in March 1856, Russia lost only the islands in the Danube Delta and part of Southern Bessarabia. The most difficult condition for Russia was the prohibition to keep the navy in the Black Sea. Russia suffered a serious military defeat, which led to a significant weakening of influence in the Balkans. As a result, the Turkish genocide against the Slavic Orthodox peoples in the Balkans intensified. Until the new Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. The Balkan peoples were under the most severe yoke of Turkish rule. Turkish rule in the Balkans for a long time led to the economic backwardness of the Slavic peoples, stagnation in cultural life and science. The best representatives of the Slavs died in battles with the Turkish conquerors.

56. ENGLAND IN THE BEGINNING OF THE XIX CENTURY. THE STATEMENT OF CAPITALISM

England, which emerged victorious from the wars with its main rival - Napoleonic France, in 1815-1816. experienced all the consequences of a severe economic crisis. The enormous costs of the war greatly weakened the English economy. Europe, devastated by long wars, could not yet serve as an extensive market for British goods, especially textiles. The financial situation of England was heavily weighed down by the large national debt (by 1820 it amounted to about 30 million pounds sterling); 35% of the country's entire budget was spent on interest payments.

By the beginning of the 20s. XNUMXth century England overcame post-war economic difficulties and entered a period of industrial growth. The export of British goods increased, in particular, at the expense of the countries of Latin America, which freed themselves from the rule of Spain and Portugal and turned into an extensive market for British goods. The improvement of the economic situation has led to the weakening of political tension in the country. At the same time, some statesmen associated with bourgeois circles considered it more expedient to fight against the democratic movement not only with the help of repression, but also through the implementation of a series of reforms, especially since many of these reforms were in the interests of the industrial bourgeoisie.

1820-1848 were for England the time of development of the industrial revolution. Huge factory cities arose with industry that supplied the whole world with its products. New industrial areas appeared; how Lancashire and Yorkshire developed as centers of the cotton industry; the center of metallurgy grew in Birmingham and Sheffield; mining - in Wales. London, with a population of 2,5 million, has become the world's banking center.

From an agrarian country, England has become an industrial country. In 1811, the rural population accounted for another 35% of the total population of the country, and 30 years later - in 1841 - only 21%. England was covered with a network of highways and canals, which accelerated the pace of her life and the development of her entire economy. In 1811, the first steamboat was launched on the Clyde River, and in 1836 there were already 500 steamboats in English harbors. In 1823 the first railway connected the cities of Stockton and Darlington, in 1829 - Liverpool and Manchester.

A revival of international trade began, the delivery of industrial and agricultural raw materials from numerous English colonies - India, Australia, America, Africa - accelerated. The development of industry in England was facilitated by the influx of cheap colonial raw materials and the sale of expensive English goods on the world market (and not only sale in the colonies).

Between 1832 and 1850 the value of British exports rose from 36 to 71 thousand pounds sterling, the number of workers in textile factories alone increased over the years from 340 to 570 thousand people, and the entire population of England in 1851 numbered almost 21 million people, compared with 16 million in 1831

The main classes in England by the middle of the XIX century. became the working class and the bourgeoisie. Three-quarters of the population of industrial cities were factory and handicraft workers. During this period of time (and especially at the beginning of the XNUMXth century), the English bourgeoisie was in opposition to the ruling aristocracy and waged a constant struggle for parliamentary reform. In this struggle, the bourgeoisie relied on broad sections of the urban population, including workers who fought for universal suffrage.

This is how capitalism was established in England in the first half of the XNUMXth century, which began with the industrial revolution.

57. FRANCE IN 1815-1847

After the defeat of Napoleon's army at Waterloo, the Bourbons returned to the French throne. This time, on July 8, 1815, Louis XVIII entered Paris with an appeal in which he convinced the French that rumors about the restoration of tithes and feudal rights were "a fairy tale that does not deserve refutation. The king promised to "forgive past errors" and leave national property in property of those who acquired them during the revolution." But in August 1815 a new reactionary chamber of deputies was elected. Many figures of the revolutionary years and the Napoleonic period were killed without trial. Extraordinary tribunals have handed down more than 10 convictions in political cases. Up to 100 people were dismissed from the civil service, who were considered "unreliable" politically.

Louis XVIII, fearing a new revolutionary explosion in the country, was forced to dissolve in 1816 the "incomparable chamber." New elections brought victory to the moderate royalists, supporters of the constitution. But since 1820, and especially since the end of 1821, when the ultra-royalists came back to power, the reaction increased sharply. The electoral system was changed in a reactionary spirit, preliminary censorship was introduced, schools were placed under the supervision of bishops, 1815-1830. entered the history of France as Restoration period with political dominance in the country of the nobility and clergy. Under the Bourbons, large land ownership prevailed. During this period, the French economy - its agriculture and its industry - continued to develop along the capitalist path. The industrial revolution continued in France. Woolen, silk, metallurgical and some other industries rapidly increased their production. From 1815 to 1829 cotton consumption tripled. Coal mining from 1815 to 1830 doubled, and iron production tripled.

The industrial revolution and the development of capitalism in France led to intensified exploitation of the working class, the impoverishment and ruin of small artisans and handicraftsmen, and to the intensification of the class struggle.

The reactionary policy of the Restoration government, which primarily protected the interests and privileges of large landowners, the nobility and the higher Catholic clergy, had a negative impact on the economic development of France. Dissatisfaction was growing in the country with the dominance of the Jesuits at the Bourbon court, in the administration, in schools, and with the defiant behavior of former emigrant nobles who threatened the peasantry with the restoration of feudal order. The industrial crisis of 1826, and then the depression of 1829-1830, which coincided with a crop failure, worsened the already difficult living conditions of the working people: large masses of people in the cities were deprived of income, poverty and hunger reigned in the countryside. The consequence of this was the growth of revolutionary sentiments among the masses.

As a result of the July Revolution of 1830 in France, which lasted only three days, the bourgeoisie defeated the nobility, but the complete destruction of the monarchy was not part of its plans. The Duke of Orleans, who maintained close ties with the right-wing bourgeois liberals, was placed on the French throne.

Louis Philippe of Orleans was proclaimed first viceroy, and then on August 9, 1830, king of France. This is how the regime of the bourgeois monarchy was established in France. The establishment of this regime, in which the main role was played by bankers, stock exchange and railway "kings", owners of coal mines, iron mines and forests, a part of land owners associated with them, contributed to the industrial and economic development of France in 1830-1847.

58. REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN FRANCE

In 1847, the internal political situation in France escalated. This was caused by a commercial, industrial and financial crisis in 1847, which increased the need of the masses. 4762 firms went bankrupt, industrial production fell by 50%, and "Parisian industry" was paralyzed by 70%. This crisis had severe consequences for the workers. Unemployment took on a massive character and reached enormous proportions. At the same time, the petty and middle bourgeoisie and merchants were extremely dissatisfied. They wanted electoral reform and appealed to the government and parliament with petitions in which they demanded a reduction in property qualifications. On December 28, 1847, the session of Parliament began, in which the government's policies were criticized in both chambers. A part of the Orléanists from the so-called. dynastic opposition. Its supporters accused the government of bribery, wastefulness, betrayal of the national interests of France. However, the demands of the opposition were rejected, and the Chamber of Deputies passed a resolution approving the actions of the government. But in opposition to the krezhim of the July Monarchy were wide sections of the population of France. The Moderate Liberal Party put forward a demand for electoral reform.

On February 21, 1848, the government adopted and published a ban on any meetings, processions and demonstrations. However, on the morning of February 22, Parisians began to gather in crowds that, singing the Marseillaise, headed to the Bourbon Palace, where the Legislative Assembly was located. On the evening of February 22, the first armed clashes between the people and the troops and police began. By early the next day, the Parisians had erected 1500 barricades. On February 24, all important points of the capital fell into the hands of the rebels. King Louis Philippe renounced his rights to the throne and fled to England. The July Monarchy was overthrown. The people demanded the proclamation of a republic. A provisional government was created, consisting of nine republicans and two socialists. The government was headed by a moderate liberal, poet

Alphonse Lamartine. The republic was recognized by the clergy and the bourgeoisie. The provisional government abolished titles of nobility, issued decrees on freedom of the press, political assembly, the right for all citizens to join the national guard, and on the introduction of universal suffrage for men over 21 years old. The most liberal political regime was established in France.

But the economic crisis in the country continued. The interim government was unable to solve the problem of employment. The discovery of the so-called. national workshops for the unemployed, in which more than 100 people were accepted.

To get out of the financial crisis, the Provisional Government introduced a decree on a 45% tax. He caused a rise in discontent in the country. As a result, reactionary-minded representatives entered the Constituent Assembly.

The newly formed government after the elections launched an offensive against the workers of Paris - armed gatherings were prohibited. General Cavaignac was appointed to the post of Minister of War.

On June 22, 1848, the new government issued a decree on the dissolution of the national workshops, which was the reason for the start of the uprising of the Parisian workers. The fighting lasted 4 days - from 23 to 26 June. The troops of the Minister of War, General Cavaignac, crushed this uprising. After the suppression, democratic reforms were suspended. The new government shut down radical newspapers, clubs and societies. But universal suffrage was retained.

In the presidential election in December 1848, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, received the majority of votes.

The regime established after the revolution of 1848 was called the Second Republic.

59. FRANCE IN THE 1850-1860s SECOND EMPIRE

From the beginning of the election, Louis Napoleon took steps to strengthen the positions of his supporters, the Bonapartists. His goal was to restore the monarchy. To ensure support in the implementation of their goals, the Bonapartists promised the bourgeoisie and peasants an era of prosperity. In an effort to attract the army to his side, Louis Bonaparte placed his supporters in all important military posts. In October 1849, Louis Bonaparte formed a government almost exclusively of his supporters, which prepared the triumph of Bonapartism with police measures.

Taking advantage of the unpopularity of the Legislative Assembly in the country, the Bonapartists launched a struggle in the spring of 1851 to revise the constitution. They sought the destruction of articles that prohibited the re-election of the same person as the President of the Republic for a second term.

The bourgeoisie of France demanded a “strong government” and saw in Louis Bonaparte a guarantee of the stability of state power. In November 1851, Louis Bonaparte formed a new homogeneous Bonapartist government, and the Bonapartists began to prepare to disperse the Legislative Assembly. On the night of December 2, 1851, the most prominent figures and deputies of the bourgeois-republican Orléanist and legitimist camp were arrested. The Legislative Assembly was dissolved. To approve the coup d'état, a plebiscite was held on December 21, 1851, a survey of the population, as a result of which Louis Bonaparte received the support of the French.

On December 2, 1851, Louis Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor under the name of Napoleon III.

In 1852 a new constitution was adopted. From the former symbols of the revolution, a tricolor banner remained, from which the words were removed: "The French Republic. Liberty. Equality. Fraternity." The emperor became the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, could declare war and make peace, issue decrees and appoint to public positions. The ministers were subordinate only to the emperor. Local governments were highly dependent on the central government. The seal was under police control. The clergy, who supported Louis Napoleon, received enormous power in the country. Schools were under the supervision of the church, but the clergy sought to establish their control over higher education as well. The government carried out a "cleansing" of lecturers at universities, and many liberal and Republican professors were fired. Thus, the political regime of the Second Empire was established in France.

Over the years, the regime became more liberal: in 1859 an amnesty was declared for all persons convicted of political offenses; emigrants were able to return to the country; in the 60s. XNUMXth century Napoleon II restored freedom of the press and assembly; returned to the Legislative Assembly the right to propose laws; workers were allowed to form mutual aid societies. The authoritarian regime gradually developed into a democratic one.

The period of the Second Empire coincided with the rapid rise of capitalism in France. In the 50s. XNUMXth century new credit societies were founded and quickly began to develop. The industrial revolution was rapidly coming to an end, and manual labor in some branches of industry was replaced by machine labor. Mining, chemical and paper industries developed, gas production increased.

As a result of the industrial revolution, all industrial enterprises, banks, railways were concentrated in the hands of 183 families of France. In the countryside, the process of stratification of the peasants intensified: some of them grew rich, others became poor and went to the city. To ease social tension and create new jobs, Napoleon III organized large public works that were supposed to transform Paris and at the same time demonstrate the emperor's concern for his subjects.

60. ENGLAND IN 50-60s. XNUMXth century

By the 50s. 1851th century England becomes the "workshop of the world". In May XNUMX, the World Industrial Exhibition opened in London's Crystal Palace - the "Great Exhibition", as the British called it, which brought the country a brilliant success. Thousands of firms from dozens of countries brought samples of their products. But most of all, the stands of England stood out, where models of bridges and port facilities, models of ships and steam locomotives, cotton spinning machines, and operating telegraph machines were exhibited. This exhibition opened the beginning of the "golden age" in the development of industrial England. Having completed the industrial revolution, the country had no serious rivals either in industry or in trade.

In England, a network of railways developed rapidly, half of which belonged to the railway "king". In 1852, the Agamemnon was launched, the world's first propeller-driven steam ship. In 1865 the country had 5 steam ships, and their tonnage exceeded that of the sailing fleet. English ships were used by foreign countries to transport goods to the most remote parts of the world. The monopoly position of England on the world market, the use of the latest technology gave her the opportunity to produce cheaper goods that no country could compete with.

The number of banks grew rapidly, mainly lending to other countries, investing in the construction of factories, plants and railways in their own country and abroad. The English bourgeoisie was the richest and most powerful in the world, it was the first to export goods and huge amounts of money abroad.

In the village, however, the land still belonged to the landlords, who leased it to the farmers. Despite the increase in cultivated areas and the growth of agricultural products, English agriculture could not satisfy the growing needs of industry for raw materials, and the urban population for food. A continuous stream of raw materials and foodstuffs came to England from the colonies and from other countries.

During the period of economic prosperity, the position of the majority of English factory workers improved, and especially the skilled ones, who, in the course of the struggle for their rights, achieved a reduction in the working day and an increase in wages. England in the 50s and 60s. XNUMXth century the influence of liberal views on the development of society increased. Most of the employers realized the need for partial concessions, because in their memory were vivid memories of the protests of the workers in the "disturbing forties" years. The huge profits received in these years, including from the robbery of the colonies, made it possible to spend part of them on raising wages and improving the life of workers. In the same period, trade unions are created. Members of trade unions - trade unions were protected by insurance premiums from unemployment, illness, accidents.

In the 50-60s. XNUMXth century England was the richest and most powerful among all European states. British diplomats pursued the traditional course of foreign policy aimed at maintaining a balance in Europe, counteracting the rise of either France or Russia, which allowed Britain to "rule the seas", maintain its commercial primacy and colonial rule.

Foreign policy of England in the 1850-1860s. was colonial in nature. The most important part was India with a population of 300 million people. India was called the “jewel of the British crown” for its natural resources. During these same years, British troops waged wars of conquest in Iran and Afghanistan. In 1852-1853 England captured southern Burma. In the 1850-1860s. English colonization of Australia, New Zealand, Canada and West Africa continued. The colonies served as a source of cheap raw materials and food for England.

61. GERMANY IN 1815-1847

By decision of the Congress of Vienna (1815-1847), instead of the Holy Roman Empire, the basis of which was the German nation, the German Union was created, uniting 35 sovereign monarchies and 4 free cities - Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen and Frankfurt am Main. The representative body of the Union, the Bundestag, met in Frankfurt am Main, but its decisions were not binding on individual members of the Union. This Union did not set as its goal either the economic or political unification of the German people, but was a means for preserving the old order, the monarchist.

The forcibly and artificially tailored German Confederation could not become strong: Austria and Prussia were its strongest members, competing with each other for leadership in the Union, and in the future for leadership in a single German state. In 1815-1847. Germany remained an agricultural country. Many cities looked like during the Middle Ages, and their population rarely exceeded 4-5 thousand inhabitants. However, the reforms carried out by Napoleon I during the period from 1800 to 1814, when the German lands were part of the French Empire, did not go unnoticed. Capitalist methods of farming began to take root in both agriculture and industry. The most economically developed regions were the territories of the middle reaches of the Rhine - the Rhine-Westphalian provinces of Prussia, rich in deposits of coal and iron ore. Steam engines were actively used here, large industrial centers developed. By 1847, the capital of Prussia, Berlin, a city with a population of 400, became the largest commercial and industrial center. It concentrated 2/3 of the entire machine-building and cotton-printing production in Prussia.

In the 30-40s. 1834th century in the German states, factory production was actively developing, while a wealthy commercial and industrial bourgeoisie grew, and the number of hired workers increased. The economic development of Germany, including Prussia, was greatly hindered by customs barriers between the states that were part of the German Union. Therefore, in 18, at the initiative of Prussia, the German Customs Union was created, uniting 1847 states, but customs borders between other states of the German Union were still preserved, which led to a rise in the cost of goods transported through these borders. In the same years, railways were built, their length in 6 was about XNUMX thousand km.

The successful economic development of the German Union was hampered by internal contradictions and conflicts in its constituent states. The idea of creating a united German state was spreading more and more among the progressive, educated sections of the population. In particular, the German liberal bourgeoisie demanded the convocation of an all-German class representation, the strengthening and expansion of the Customs Union, and the abolition of Junker privileges. The question of the unification of the country became the main thing in the life of the Germans. But King Frederick William IV of Prussia was opposed to unification on the basis of constitutional government, which he notified the Landtag in 1847, when he turned to him for financial assistance. Then the Landtag, which consisted mainly of nobles, refused this assistance to the king, for which it was dissolved (the majority of the Landtag deputies were in favor of adopting a constitution).

In 1847, the world economic crisis broke out, which caused a sharp aggravation of the internal political situation in the German Union.

62. AUSTRIAN EMPIRE AND ITALY

By decision of the Congress of Vienna, held in 1814-1815, a territorial redistribution was carried out in the interests of the winning coalition. As a result of this redistribution, two Italian regions, Lombardy and Venice, went to Austria in 1815, while Austria itself was included in the new German Union, formed from 39 states.

The peasantry remained disenfranchised, corvée reached 104 days a year, and dues were also collected. The country was dominated by shop restrictions, there were internal customs duties. The Emperor of Austria Franz I, fearing the accumulation of rebellious workers, forbade the construction of new manufactories and factories in Vienna. There was strict censorship in the empire. The schools were under the control of the clergy. The political and spiritual oppression over the peoples of the empire was largely the result of the policy of Chancellor Metternich, who had enormous power and influence. In the 30-40s. XNUMXth century The Austrian empire stretched from Russia to the Balkans and the Alps in the west. It included the territories of Austria itself, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, as well as part of the territory of modern Romania, Poland, Italy and Ukraine. In these lands, a movement for state independence and national independence was constantly growing. The ruling Habsburg dynasty in Austria tried to preserve the empire at the cost of minor concessions to the peoples who inhabited it.

In the 40s. XNUMXth century The Austrian Empire entered a state of political crisis. National movements developed in the empire: liberation movements of the Slavic peoples and Hungarians, and unification movements in the Italian regions of Lombardy and Venice.

The industrial revolution that began in Europe at the beginning of the 30th century did not bypass Austria. It began in the most developed provinces - Lower Austria and the Czech Republic. It became a major commercial and industrial center in the 40s and XNUMXs. XIX century, Vienna, where the first factories appeared. But the scale of the industrial revolution in the Austrian Empire was modest. The development of industry in Austria was greatly hampered by internal customs barriers, as well as the complete lack of internal political unity due to interethnic contradictions and even conflicts. In addition, the position of feudalism was strong in the Austrian Empire.

By decision of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Italy, previously united under the rule of Napoleon I, was again fragmented into eight kingdoms and duchies, while the northeastern part - the Lombardo-Venetian region, was annexed to the Austrian Empire. The absolute power of the monarchs who joined the Holy Alliance was restored everywhere. In Italy in 1815-1847. semi-feudal nobility and clergy dominated. Political and customs borders lay between the Italian states. Each of the Italian duchies had its own special systems of measures, weights, its own monetary system, its own criminal and civil legislation.

The old feudal order held back the development of agriculture in Italy. Landless peasants were turned into poor tenants and farm laborers, while they received land for rent on share-cropping terms.

In the industrial development of Italy in 1815-1847. lagged behind not only England and France, but also Prussia. The main industry was the production of raw silk. Cotton production developed in the north of the country. Economic development was hampered by poorly developed transport. Back in 1807-1810. in the Italian states, secret revolutionary societies of the Carbonari began to be created, which aimed at uniting the country. After the Congress of Vienna, by 1847, this movement reached its apogee, they saw the solution to their problems in overthrowing the Austrian oppression and replacing autocratic monarchies with constitutional ones.

63. REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-1849 IN GERMANY AND ITALY

The news of the revolution in France hastened uprisings in the German states. On March 18, 1848, in the course of street fighting, the rebels defeated the royal troops.

The king was forced to withdraw troops from Berlin and agreed to the creation of a national guard. The uprisings in many German states also ended in victory. In southwestern Germany, peasants achieved the abolition of feudal orders. On May 18, 1848, the first meeting of parliament, the Frankfurt National Assembly, opened in Frankfurt am Main. In March 1849, he adopted an imperial constitution, an integral part of which were the “fundamental rights of the German people,” modeled on the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The legislative branch was to be represented by a bicameral parliament. The imperial throne and the post of chief executive were offered to the Prussian king, but Frederick William IV rejected the offer. Then the constitution was rejected by the leaders of many German states. This is where the revolutionary changes ended. All popular protests in defense of the constitution were suppressed, and in June 1849 the parliament was dispersed, including the Prussian National Assembly, created after the March events. A regime of police brutality has been established in Germany. However, the fear of a new revolutionary explosion forced Frederick William IV to issue a decree on the “granting” of a constitution, which consolidated the class system and the right of veto.

The revolution in Germany did not solve the main problem.

The aggravation of the economic crisis of 1847 in Italy led to a revolutionary explosion in its constituent states. The beginning of the revolution in Italy is considered to be January 12, 1848, when an uprising broke out in Palermo (Sicily). It spread throughout all Italian states and regions. As a result of the uprising in the spring, constitutions were introduced throughout Italy, except for Lombardo-Venice, which belonged to Austria. On March 18, 1848, the uprising began in Milan. After five days of bloody fighting, this uprising ended with the expulsion of Austrian troops. But the northern regions of Italy remained under Austrian rule. In March 1848, Venice rebelled and declared itself a republic. By September 1849, the Austrians suppressed the uprising in this city. Uprisings in Milan and Venice against Austrian rule shook the whole of Italy. Under pressure from the popular masses, the monarchs of the Italian states began to organize an armed struggle against Austria. King Charles Albert of Piedmont declared war on Austria. His main goal was the unification of Italy under the banner of the Savoy dynasty. The course of hostilities turned out to be unfavorable for the Italian coalition. The Italian monarchs were more afraid of their own people than of Austrian rule. As a result, the favorable moment for the defeat and expulsion of the Austrians from Italy was missed.

At the beginning of 1849, an uprising broke out in Rome, as a result of which a republic was proclaimed, and the power of the pope was abolished. The inspirers and active participants in the uprisings of the Italian people were Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini. The goal of their struggle was to achieve the independence of Italy, its unification and transformation into a democratic republic. In March 1849, the Piedmontese government again launched a war against the Habsburg Empire, but this time also failed to succeed. After the defeat, King Charles Albert of Piedmont abdicated in favor of Victor's son Emmanuel II. For more than two months, the defenders of the Roman Republic defended themselves, but the forces were unequal, and the resistance was stopped. The fall of the Roman and Venetian republics meant the defeat of the Italian revolution, but the popular movement for the unification of the country continued.

64. FORMATION OF THE NATIONAL STATE IN ITALY

The only Italian state where, after the suppression of the revolution, a constitutional structure was preserved, was the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont), in which a moderate liberal, Count, became the head of government since 1850. Camillo de Cavour (1810-1861). Cavour was a supporter of the English political system and economic reforms. Cavour began to carry out economic reforms that contributed to the development of industry, the construction of railways, highways, canals, and irrigation structures. Cavour's political program was to create a united Italy and liberate the country from Austrian rule. To achieve this goal, Camillo de Cavour pursued a policy of rapprochement with France and England. To implement his plans, Cavour in 1858 concluded a secret agreement with Napoleon III, which provided for the joint expulsion of the Austrians from Lombardy and Venice, for which Piedmont returned two provinces to France - Savoy and Nice.

The war with Austria began in 1859. The legendary general Giuseppe Garibaldi took an active part in the war against Austria. In May 1859, the combined forces of the French and Italians under the personal command of Napoleon III and D. Garibaldi defeated the Austrians in the battle of the village of Magenta and entered Milan. The last battle took place at Solferino on June 24, 1859. Austria was forced to conclude a peace treaty. Under the terms of this agreement, Austria ceded Lombardy to France, which Napoleon III then gave to the Piedmontese king, while Venice remained with Austria for now. The rulers expelled from there by the people were to return to Tuscany, Modena, Parma and the Page region.

Now Cavar had to end the struggle for the unification of Italy into a national state on his own. The National Assemblies elected in Modena, Tuscany and Parma decided to annex these duchies to Piedmont, to which the papal Romagna, in addition to Rome, had already joined. In March 1860, the first Italian parliament was convened.

But the struggle for a united Italy continued, and General Garibaldi took the main part in it, who, with a thousand volunteers, defeated the Neapolitan troops in Sicily in April-May 1860, and in August headed for Naples. The king fled from Naples, and Garibaldi rode into the jubilant city. But, fearing the growth of Garibaldi's influence, the king of Piedmont, Victor Emmanuel II, sent his troops to the Kingdom of Naples. At the insistence of Garibaldi, on October 21, 1860, a plebiscite was organized, as a result of which Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of the Kingdom of Naples. Garibaldi's army was dissolved by the government. By the will of the Italian electorate, in 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, consisting of Piedmont, the Kingdom of Naples, Sicily, and the regions united with them. According to the constitution of the Italian kingdom, almost all of Italy turned into a single constitutional monarchy with a parliament of two chambers. However, the process of unification of the country in 1861 was not yet completed. The Venetian region remained under the rule of Austria, and the secular power of the pope remained in Rome, which was guarded from the Italian people by the troops of Napoleon III.

In 1866, Italian troops defeated the Austrian army at the Battle of Sadov. After this defeat, Austria gave Venice and the Venetian region to the Italian kingdom. After the collapse of the Second Empire in France in 1870, the troops of Napoleon III left Rome, and the Italian army entered the Eternal City. Following the army, King Victor Emmanuel II also arrived. The unification of Italy in 1870 was completed. Rome became the capital of the united Italian kingdom.

65. FORMATION OF THE NATIONAL STATE IN GERMANY

After the defeat of the revolution of 1848-1849. the path of unification became real, in which the Prussian monarchy, which had a stronger position than the Austrian, played a leading role. Prussia was economically more developed than Austria, and even on her initiative, the German Customs Union was created in 1834, uniting 18 German states. Prussia was most suited to the role of leader in the forthcoming and necessary unification of all German states into a single national state. In 1861, the brother of the deceased Friedrich Wilhelm IV, Wilhelm I, became the king of Prussia. He sought to have a strong army, because he believed that the national unification of the country could only take place by force of arms.

To unite the country, William I needed a strong chancellor (head of government). To this end, he picked up a like-minded person - Otto von Bismarck, whom he appointed to the post of Chancellor in September 1862. His views on the path to the unification of Germany were outlined in a parliamentary speech: “... The borders of Prussia according to the Vienna Treaties hinder healthy state life; the great issues of our time are not resolved by speeches and decisions of the majority - but by iron and blood."

The first steps towards the unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia were wars with Denmark and Austria. In 1864, Prussia, in alliance with Austria, entered the war with Denmark with the aim of seizing the territories of Schleswig and Holstein. The Danish troops were defeated. Austria and Prussia received these lands into joint ownership. A little time passed, and Prussia, seeking to weaken Austria and eliminate its influence on the German states, in 1866 provoked a war against its ally. At the same time, Prussia attracted Italy to its side, which was promised the Venetian region in the event of Austria's defeat. As a result of a deceptive maneuver, the Prussian army invaded the territory of Austria and on July 3, 1866, near the city of Sadov (in the Czech Republic), imposing battle on the Austrian army, completely defeated it.

After this defeat, Austria was forced to leave the German Confederation and give up Schleswig and Holstein in favor of Prussia. At the same time, Bismarck also negotiated with the German states - Nassau, Hesse and Frankfurt, which, by their geographical position, wedged between the western and eastern possessions of Prussia. These states were annexed to Prussia by capture, and monetary compensation was allocated to their rulers.

After the removal of Austria from the German Confederation, Prussia took on the role of leader and initiator in the creation of the North German Confederation. In August 1866, 22 German states signed an agreement with Prussia on the formation of the North German Confederation. But at the same time, the member states of the Union retained the monarchical structure, their dynasties, armies, governments, laws and judicial orders. The North German Confederation was headed by the President, who was appointed by the Prussian King. The new union had its own constitution, its own parliament and the Union Council, which consisted of ministers and representatives from all states. Most of the deputies were from Prussia, because its population was four times the population of other German states. This ratio determined the leading role of Prussia in the North German Confederation.

Bismarck's success in the unification of Germany secured him broad support from all sectors of society. As a result of the unification of Northern Germany, the obstacles to the political and economic development of the German nation, as well as science and culture, were removed. But since the task of creating a German national state was solved by Bismarck, who hated any manifestations of democracy, a military bureaucratic monarchy arose in the center of Europe.

66. FRANCO-PRUSIAN WAR

At the end of the 60s. XNUMXth century Napoleon III's empire was in a political crisis. Within the country, the liberal opposition intensified, demanding the establishment of a republic. The dissatisfaction of the French society was caused by the adventurous foreign policy and the huge military spending of the government. The policy of Emperor Napoleon III was subjected to constant sharp criticism. A government crisis developed in France - the Second Empire barely held power in the country. In this situation, Napoleon III and his entourage decided that only a victorious war with Prussia, which claimed the role of leader in Europe, could save the situation. In addition, Napoleon III believed that the war would prevent the further unification and strengthening of Germany as France's main rival on the European continent.

Bismarck, who had considered war with France inevitable since 1866, wanted the war to start as soon as possible and was looking for a pretext. But at the same time, he wanted France to be the first to unleash a war, the result of which should be the strengthening of a nationwide democratic movement for the complete unification of Germany with the voluntary entry into an alliance with Prussia of the southern German states. The pretext for aggravating German relations with France was found by Bismarck in the summer of 1870, when a dispute arose over the possession of the Spanish crown between Emperor Napoleon III and King Wilhelm I of Prussia (on the basis of succession to the throne). At the same time, Bismarck gave a false report to the newspapers that the Prussian king treated the French ambassador disrespectfully. Bismarck's false message was the casus belli.

In France, an anti-Prussian political hysteria began, in which there were many speeches demanding a declaration of war on Prussia. At the same time, opponents of the war were branded "traitors", "Prussians".

As a result, on June 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia, despite the fact that the country was not ready for war: the defensive forts were not completed, there were few railways, there were not enough doctors and infirmaries, and mobilization was very difficult.

Prussia was better prepared for the war: firstly, mobilization took place in all states of the North German Union, secondly, the army was armed with the famous long-range Krupa guns, thirdly, transport and communications worked well, and there were sufficient provisions and ammunition . Napoleon III and Wilhelm I commanded their armies.

Having a well-armed army, Prussia began an offensive war, and France was forced to defend itself. From the very first battles, the French army suffered one defeat after another. A real disaster for the French army occurred on September 1-2 at Sedan (a place near the Belgian border), when it lost the battle and was surrounded in the Sedan fortress. After a fierce shelling of this fortress by Prussian artillery, the French army led by Emperor Napoleon III surrendered to the mercy of the winner. After the crushing defeat at Sedan, the Second French Empire ceased to exist. Prussian troops continued to advance deeper into France, and within a short time they occupied the entire northeast of the country. As a result, the Provisional Government of France signed an armistice with Prussia in January 1871 on humiliating terms. Later, a peace treaty was signed providing for the transfer of Alsace and more than a third of Lorraine to Germany, as well as the payment of 5 billion francs in indemnity, while German troops received the right to remain in northern France until it was fully paid. The French National Assembly approved these terms of the peace treaty.

67. REVOLUTION OF SEPTEMBER 4, 1870 IN FRANCE

The defeat of the French army led by Emperor Napoleon III on September 2 near Sedan caused an explosion of discontent in French society. The people laid the blame for the defeat in the war of 1870 on the emperor and his entourage. On September 4, 1870, a revolution broke out in Paris. The rebellious people demanded the establishment of a republic. The Parisian deputies, fulfilling the will of the insurgent people, gathered in the town hall, proclaimed a republic and formed the Provisional Government of National Defense. At the same time, hostilities were still ongoing, and on September 20, the Prussian army completely blockaded the capital of France. Besieged Paris was in a very difficult situation. The winter was cold, there was not enough coal, food. The people were starving. Because of the siege, industry was paralyzed. Business owners and merchants lost their income, and workers and employees - wages. There was nothing to pay for housing.

However, after the capture of Paris, defeat was inevitable, and the Prussians agreed to a truce so that the French could elect a representative assembly to negotiate. The Republicans advocated the continuation of the war, the monarchists - for the conclusion of peace. Since the Bonapartists were completely discredited, and the population in its mass was in favor of peace, the monarchists received the majority of seats in the National Assembly. Half of the monarchist deputies were legitimists who supported Charles X's heir, the Count of Chambord. The other half, the Orléanists, supported the grandson of Louis Philippe.

Provoked by the triumphant entry of Prussian troops into Paris, the Paris National Guard seized several cannons and refused to hand them over to army units sent by Thiers. Following the traditions of 1793, a revolutionary city government, the Paris Commune, was created, and Paris defied the National Assembly, essentially starting a civil war that lasted almost two months.

After the conclusion of peace in January 1871, the blockade of Paris was lifted, but the situation in the capital remained disastrous. The war was over, and the members of the National Guard were no longer paid. During the Prussian blockade, the government temporarily banned the collection of housing and debt payments from Parisians.

Now these benefits have been cancelled, but people did not have money. The Parisians were indignant at the government, holding it responsible for the current difficult situation and suspecting it of seeking to revive the monarchy. On March 4, 1871, the government demanded that the population urgently pay rent, threatening debtors with eviction from their apartments. The National Guardsmen, of whom there were about 1871 thousand people in Paris in the spring of 300, were once again demanded to surrender their weapons. On March 18, 1871, by order of the government, soldiers tried to capture the cannons of the National Guard located on one of the hills of Montmartre, but the people prevented them. The Parisians forced the soldiers to retreat, but the national guards arrested and on the same day shot Generals Lecomte and Thomas, who commanded the government troops. On March 18, the entire city, including government institutions, fell into the hands of the rebel Parisians. Upon learning of this, the head of government, 74-year-old Adolphe Thiers, his ministers, government employees and most representatives of the capital's wealthy population left Paris and moved to Versailles. In conditions of virtual anarchy, a spontaneous uprising occurred. Then the Central Committee of the National Guard took power into its own hands.

68. PARIS COMMUNE

Paris Commune - city government. March 26, 1871 (a week after the uprising of the Parisians), elections were held for the Paris Commune - the body of city government. Officials, journalists, doctors, lawyers, workers became members of the Commune. Many of them belonged to the followers of Proudhon (the theoretician and leader of anarchism), some were followers of the teachings of Marx. Many foreigners took an active part in the activities of the Paris Commune: the worker from Austria-Hungary Leo Frenkel, the Polish revolutionaries Yaroslav Dombrovsky and Valery Vrublevsky, the Russian revolutionary Pyotr Lavrov and others.

Reforms of the Commune

The leaders of the Paris Commune declared their desire to carry out reforms: to replace the standing army with an armed people, to introduce election and turnover of officials of the state apparatus, to separate church from state, to introduce free education, to organize labor fairly, etc. The Commune could not do much, but it freed the Parisians from debts on rent, returned without redemption to the owners things pledged in pawnshops, etc.

Since April 1871, armed clashes began between the fighters of the Commune and the Versailles troops. But the forces were unequal, since Bismarck began to return the captured French soldiers ahead of schedule, and Thiers used them to fight the Communards. In addition, the Versaillese received weapons and ammunition from the German command. The province did not support the Communards, because the government of Thiers kindled hatred for the Parisians, who "dared to revolt" when the enemy occupied part of the country. Both sides behaved very cruelly. Referring to the murder of the generals Lecomte and Thomas, the Versaillese shot the captured Communards. In response, the Paris Commune adopted a decree on hostages, which were wealthy Parisians suspected of sympathizing with the Versailles. Even the bishop and several priests were among the hostages. The cruelty of the Communards repelled many Parisians, especially since, as always happens in such cases, representatives of the urban "bottom" took advantage of the situation, seeing in everything that happened an opportunity to kill and rob.

On May 21, the Versaillese launched an assault on Paris. They managed to break into the city, because they were well armed. A fierce fight began. The Versaillese shot down the barricades erected by the Communards with cannons, and then broke through the gaps.

Communards defended every street, every house. Their resistance lasted until May 28, when the last defenders of the commune were shot at the stone wall of the Pere Lachaise cemetery. After that, the Versaillese unleashed a bloody terror against the members of the Paris Commune. Courts-martial operated in the city, and many Parisians were shot without trial or investigation. This week has gone down in French history as the "Bloody May Week". The losses of the Communards at the same time amounted to more than 30 thousand killed - those who died in battles and were shot during the terror, and the losses of the Versailles - only less than 1 thousand people. Especially many among the killed Communards were workers and artisans. In addition, the Versaillese arrested 36 thousand people, sent into exile in New Caledonia - 7,5 thousand people, including 31 women. Contemporaries of the Paris Commune had different attitudes to this event. For some, this is a cruel rebellion caused by anarchy, anarchy, almost a repetition of the Jacobin terror, for others - a great feat, an attempt to realize a utopian dream of a society where social justice and democracy will triumph. The Paris Commune once again showed the need for a political compromise between the government and the people.

69. ORIGIN OF UTOPIAN AND RADICAL TRENDS IN SOCIO-POLITICAL THOUGHT IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY

The prerequisites for the emergence of utopian and radical trends in socio-political thought in the first half of the XNUMXth century. there were revolutions in Europe at the end of the XNUMXth century, as well as socialist ideas about the need to abolish private property and protect public interests, and the ideas of egalitarian communism, which developed in many works of thinkers of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. This led to the emergence at the beginning of the XIX century. the teachings of Robert Owen, Henri Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier. These thinkers, concerned about the fate of the ruined artisans and workers of scattered manufactory, tried to create a picture of a new society and state where people would be protected and respected. Their socialist ideas were utopian, but they were popular among artisans and workers who were going bankrupt or losing their jobs.

Henri Saint-Simon (1760-1825) believed that economic crises hindered the progressive development of society. To get rid of them, Saint-Simon proposed creating a "new industrial system", a "society of industrialists", in which the interests of workers and entrepreneurs would coincide. Another representative of the trend of utopian socialism was Charles Fourier (1772-1837), who proposed to transform society with the help of associations of workers - phalanxes, which would combine industrial and agricultural production. In such phalanxes there will be no hired labor and no wages. All income is distributed in accordance with the amount of “labor and talent” invested by each person.

A well-known representative of the trend of utopian socialism was an English political and public figure Robert Owen (1771-1858), who in his works developed the idea of the need to replace private property with public property and the abolition of money. He drew up a project for a future society based on the free labor activity of people. Owen's students even created enterprises based on the principles of egalitarian communism, but they fell apart after some time due to many complications of a socio-economic nature.

In the teachings of Saint-Simon, Fourier and Owen, along with differences, there are also common features: the transformation of society should occur only peacefully on the basis of religious beliefs and the manifestation of the good will of people. Saint-Simon and Fourier also believed that private property should be preserved and serve all members of society, while strong state power was not needed. In addition, social utopians, in their desire to make everyone happy, sincerely considered it possible to completely regulate a person’s personal life, to dictate to him a mandatory course of action and behavior.

A pronounced radical trend in socio-political thought in the first half of the XNUMXth century. there was anarchism (from the Greek. anarcia - "anarchy"). Within anarchism, there were a variety of left and right movements: rebellious, some of which took the position of terrorist activity, and peaceful, for example, movements of cooperators in a number of European countries. But at the same time, in any of these currents, the main thing that was characteristic of anarchism was preserved: firstly, faith in the good sides of human nature, in the possibility of that communication between people, which is based not on violence and coercion, but on a free and loving relationship. to each other, and secondly, the conviction of the need to destroy the state power that exercises violence against the individual. During this period of time, the largest theoretician and figure of anarchism was Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865).

70. RISE OF SCIENTIFIC COMMUNISM

The harbinger of scientific communism was the English manufacturer Robert Owen, who adopted the teachings of the eighteenth-century materialist enlighteners. about the formation of the human character of their interaction, on the one hand, its natural organization, and on the other, the conditions surrounding a person throughout his life, and especially during his development.

On a purely business basis and commercial calculations, Owen's communism arose. Thus, in 1823, Owen drew up a blueprint for the communist colonies to eliminate Irish poverty and attached to it a detailed calculation of the required fixed capital, annual costs and expected income. Owen's transition to communist ideas occurred gradually in the course of his practical activities as a manufacturer. Owen tried to implement his communist ideas in America, where, in his opinion, there were the most favorable conditions. But this ended in failure - Owen spent all his fortune and then worked in a working class environment. In Owen's book "The Book of the New Moral World" there is a clearly expressed project of a communist society with an equal duty of work for all and an equal right to the product - equal, according to age. Owen, on the one hand, organized, as measures for the transition to a social system, cooperative partnerships (consumer and production), which later proved in practice the full possibility of doing without merchants and manufacturers, and on the other hand, workers' bazaars, in which products were exchanged with the help of paper money, the unit of which was the hour of working time. All this was proposed by Owen as a first step towards a more radical reorganization of the entire society - into a communist one.

The doctrine of the creation of a new communist society was further developed in the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. They were well acquainted with the communist ideas of R. Owen and his practical work in organizing communes (cooperative and industrial) and created their own new doctrine of the structure and development of society, called Marxism. The theory of the socialist revolution of K. Marx was as follows: over time, the impoverishment of the masses of the people will increase, and the wealth of the bourgeoisie will increase; this will lead to an intensification of the class struggle, the leadership of which should be assumed by the social democratic parties; at the same time, the socialist revolution will triumph in the highly developed countries, as a result of which the dictatorship of the proletariat will be established, private property will be abolished, and the resistance of the bourgeoisie will be crushed. Marxists considered the establishment of political freedoms, equality in rights, the participation of workers in the management of the enterprises where they work, the obligation of the state to regulate the economy in order to ensure the social rights of all citizens, to be the main principle of the new society.

The new Marxist doctrine was set forth in the program document of the "Union of Communists" (an international communist organization) created in 1847 - the "Manifesto of the Communist Party" and later works. The doctrine of the class struggle, of the communist revolution, of the historical mission of the working class as the "gravedigger of the bourgeoisie" forms the basis of Marxism.

Thus, the basis of scientific communism is Marxism. In order to put into practice the ideas of scientific communism, the First International, or the International Association of Workers, was created in 1864 with the participation of Marx, the main task of which was to rally the forces of the international proletariat.

71. FIRST INTERNATIONAL

The creation of the International Association of Workers - the First International was largely prepared by the previous activities of Marx, Engels and their associates, the formation of the first cadres of proletarian revolutionaries who left the ranks of the communist union, and the growing influence of the ideas of scientific communism.

The establishment of international proletarian ties was facilitated by the presence of French and German workers at the World Industrial Exhibition in London, organized in 1862. At a meeting in London on July 22, 1863 in St. James Hall, an agreement was reached on the creation of an international association.

The First International and the Brewing of a New Revolutionary Crisis in Europe

On September 28, 1864, in London, in the hall of public meetings of St. Martin's Hall, an international meeting was held under the chairmanship of the English radical professor of history Beasley. K. Marx, who was invited to this meeting, was on its presidium. The meeting proclaimed the founding of an international proletarian organization, elected a steering committee to carry out organizational measures and convene an international workers' congress in the near future. As a result of Karl Marx's active work, the new international organization based its program on a number of programmatic and organizational principles of scientific communism.

On September 3-8, 1866, the First Congress of the International Workingmen's Association was held in Geneva, which was attended by 60 delegates - representatives of the Central Council of the First International and workers' organizations in England, France, Germany, Switzerland. At this Congress, the supporters of Karl Marx fought against the Proudhonists, who reflected the mood of the petty-bourgeois strata of the working class in France, Belgium and some other countries. In bitter disputes with the Proudhonists, Marx's supporters, active participants in the congress - Jung, Dupont, Eccarius and other delegates to the Central Council of the First International managed to achieve the adoption of a number of points of the "Instructions" compiled by Marx as congress resolutions: on the international actions of the working class, on the 8-hour working day,

About children's and women's labor, about trade unions, about the liquidation of standing armies. At all the congresses of the First International, Marx and his supporters waged polemics and a stubborn struggle not only against Proudhonism, but also against the new anti-proletarian current of the petty-bourgeois-anarchist persuasion - Bakuninism.

By September 1866, the First International had tens of thousands of members in a number of countries - England, France, Belgium, Switzerland. In March 1870, the Russian section, consisting of revolutionary emigrants N.I., joined the First International. Utina, A.D. Trusova, V.I. Barteneva, E.L. Dmitrieva-Tomanovskaya and others.

Members of the First International took an active part in organizing the strike struggle, which intensified especially as a result of the economic crisis of 1866-1867, as well as in the open political struggle for the rights of workers in different countries. Sections of the 1st International published newspapers, various brochures with articles by K. Marx, F. Engels and their associates, in which fierce polemics and criticism of all varieties of anarchism-Proudhonism, Bakuninism were conducted.

Members of the First International were persecuted by the ruling circles of European countries and America, including trials against them. As a result of numerous arrests among the leadership of the First International, the position of the Marxists weakened, which led to a split in 1870. In 1876, the First International broke up into several associations with the formation of various parties, including social democratic ones.

72. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN THE USA

The industrial revolution in the United States was prepared in general by the socio-economic situation in the country, but its main and main prerequisites can be distinguished:

1) the presence of rich deposits of coal, iron ore and other minerals in the eastern and northeastern regions of the United States, which were English colonies in the XNUMXth century, before gaining independence;

2) a large influx of high-quality British goods and various products to the United States, which contributed to the development of the mining industry, and then the processing industry;

3) the complete absence of feudal fetters in the US economy. In the United States, as in no other European country at that time, there were neither feudal lords nor feudal orders.

Conditions for the development of industry in the United States were very favorable, especially in the north, northeast. In the south of the country, the development of industry and the capitalist economy was hampered by the dominance of plantation farms based on the use of slave labor.

Beginning of the industrial revolution The beginning of the industrial revolution in the United States falls on the 20-40s. 1825th century During this period, American entrepreneurs began to make extensive use of European technical achievements (and primarily English), put capital into circulation and hire skilled labor. Employment of skilled labor in the United States was especially favored in 1826-40, when the economic crisis broke out in England and Europe and huge masses of workers found themselves on the American labor market. And only two factors hindered the successful development of US industry in the XNUMXs. XNUMXth century

Firstly, this is the competition of English high-quality goods, and secondly, the departure of workers to the west of the country, where new territories and new mineral deposits were developed.

Industry development

A new stimulus and impetus for the rise of US industry was the construction of railroads, shipping canals, and then the development of water and rail transport.

In a country where new territories were being developed, there was a great need for vehicles - steam locomotives, carriages, steamships, and then cars. In 1825, the Erie Canal was opened, connecting Lake Erie with the Hudson River, while it connected the Great Lakes system with the Atlantic coast, and thousands of settlers used it to move to new lands. By 1840, the length of canals in the USA was 5 thousand km. The canal system opened up a cheap route for transporting farm produce to the eastern regions of the country. The steam engine of the talented inventor Oliver Evans began to be used in river transport. In 1838, the American steamships Sirius and Gray Western crossed the Atlantic Ocean, ushering in the era of steamship communications between the United States and Europe. At the same time, railways were actively being built in a western direction, to new development areas. By 1830, the eastern United States already had railways with a length of 6,5 thousand km. Railroads played a huge role in the development of American industry. Simultaneously with the construction of railways, locomotives were improved with an increase in power and traction.

All the successes in the development of US transportation were due to the need to create fast lines of communication between the growing number of factories, metallurgical and machine-building plants that were the vanguard of American industry. The greatest concentration of US industry was in the north and northeast, close to seaports and mineral deposits.

73. SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION IN THE USA IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY

Features of the socio-economic situation in the USA in the first half of the 19th century.

The American continent was populated by emigrants from the Old World (Europe), people with an active lifestyle who sought to get rich and secure a decent life. At the same time, a large-scale seizure of Indian lands took place with the displacement of the natives to less fertile lands or their extermination in the event of stubborn resistance by the settlers. The "liberated" lands in the south were occupied by planters, and in the north of the USA by farmers. In the first half of the XIX century. most of the Americans were employed in agriculture. The north and northwest were dominated by family farms, some of which produced products for sale. Farming spread westward in the wake of the continuous flow of European settlers.

With the development of industry, the number of workers, entrepreneurs, and employees grew. Cheap factory goods replaced homemade tools and clothing in farmers' homes. In the western part of the country, the market for manufactured goods from the east was constantly growing. A real revolution in agriculture was made by Cyrus McCormick's harvester, who designed it in 1832. For a long time, the ideal for Americans was the path of a farmer - "a man who has no owner."

The Industrial Revolution almost did not touch the South, where plantation farming predominated using slaves to grow cotton and other crops - tobacco, rice, sugar cane. During this period of time, there were about 4 million slaves in the United States, of which 2,5 million were employed in agriculture. Slaves were used not only on plantations, but also as domestic servants and artisans.

Enacted in 1809, the law prohibiting the importation of slaves was violated, and they were smuggled in.

At the same time, the law did not prohibit the use of blacks born in America as slaves. Prices for this living "commodity" were rising, and the prevailing ideology of racism did not condemn the status quo. The bulk of the slaves belonged to large planters. The southern regions of the United States were called so - the "black belt". The plantation aristocracy consisted of about 10 thousand families, and each of them existed at the expense of the labor of 50 or more slaves. But there were poorer slave owners who had from 1 to 5 slaves.

The plantation economy of the US South worked for the market and became part of American capitalism, its feature.

In the industrial North of the United States, the ideas of the Enlightenment were widely disseminated, which influenced the emergence of a negative attitude towards slavery in society. Therefore, since the 30s XNUMXth century in the United States, a massive nationwide abolitionist movement unfolded. The whole country was divided into supporters and opponents of slavery. Abolitionists provided assistance to blacks who fled from the planters to the North.

Slave uprising in 1831

Slavery destroyed Negro families - when slaves were sold, members of the same family often ended up with different owners. And yet, Negro slaves created their own special art, their own religion, and most of the slaves managed to keep their families together. Negro slaves responded to cruel exploitation and torture by rebellions or flight to the North of the USA or to Canada. The most severe in consequences was the uprising of the Negro Nat Turner in Virginia in 1831. This slave took seriously the words from the Bible: "The first will be the last, and the last will be the first" - and at the same time believed that he was destined by God to free his people. The uprising was brutally suppressed by the troops, it cost a lot of blood to both whites and blacks. Nat Turner was executed. But the uprisings continued until the victory of the North over the slave-owning South.

74. FOREIGN POLICY OF THE USA IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY

When the Revolutionary War ended, the US territory extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi, and by the middle of the 1803th century. it has already expanded to the Pacific Ocean. The expansion of US territory began in 15, when the US purchased Louisiana from France for $1803 million. This area was a huge area west of the Mississippi. The sale of Louisiana was authorized by Napoleon Bonaparte, who needed financial resources to wage wars of conquest in Europe. With the annexation of Louisiana in 1810, the size of the US territory almost doubled. When buying Louisiana, the Americans did not even realize its size, and the French did not know very well what they were selling. Further, US foreign policy takes on an aggressive character - in 1821-XNUMX. Its colony of Florida is captured from a weakening Spain. Florida has attracted the attention of the United States as an area with excellent natural conditions. The mild, warm climate that prevailed in this territory had a favorable effect on the productivity of the fertile land of Florida. In addition, there is a strategically important city - the port of New Orleans - in the Mississippi River Delta and on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. With the capture of Florida, the United States gained access to the rich countries of South America, and most importantly, to a huge market for American goods. The capture of Florida occurred gradually, with frequent incursions by American troops, pursuing either fugitive blacks or Indian tribes.

As the United States grew stronger economically, the aggressiveness of its foreign policy towards its closest neighbors increased. In 1818, the northeastern part of Louisiana, which belonged to England, was captured, and in 1842, a small “piece” of territory adjacent to the valley of the St. John River and bordering the northeastern US state of Maine, where there were extensive forests ( and American enterprises and people were in great need of timber).

Expansion of US territory by seizing land from Mexico

The planters of the US South were very attracted to the fertile lands of Texas, New Mexico and California, which belonged to Mexico. They initiated and subsidized the operation to capture Texas in 1845, and during the two-year war of 1846-1848. - New Mexico and California. After the capture of California in 1848, gold was found here, and the "gold rush" began. In 1846, the United States captured Oregon, which belonged to England, where there were large forest areas. As a result, by 1850 the territory of the United States had quadrupled, and the western border began to run along the Pacific coast.

As a result of large-scale seizures in the first half of the XIX century. The US economy received a strong impetus to further development.

US foreign policy in Latin America in the first half of the 1823th century. was aimed at supporting the liberation struggle of its peoples against the Spanish and Portuguese colonial regimes. At the same time, US assistance was expressed in the provision of weapons to Latin American rebels. The ultimate goal of US foreign policy in this region was to expand the market for American goods and increase influence on new states. The US foreign policy was based on the Monroe Doctrine - the American president, who in XNUMX put forward the formula "America for the Americans", which in fact meant "All America for the USA". At the same time, the idea was promoted that the United States is the protector of all Latin American countries. The United States included the whole of Latin America in its zone of interests and pursued an active foreign policy in this region.

75. CIVIL WAR IN THE USA. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SOUTH

In 1854, the Republican Party was formed in the USA, representing the union of the industrial bourgeoisie and farmers. She put forward a demand to prohibit the spread of slavery in the western developed lands and to distribute these lands free of charge to those who wish, as well as to establish high duties on the import of manufactured goods from Europe. In 1860, the Republicans nominated their presidential candidate Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865), and he became the sixteenth President of the United States. The planters did not want to come to terms with the election of an opponent of slavery to the presidency. Eleven slaveholding states rebelled - they left the Union and formed a confederation with its capital in Richmond (Virginia). So it began Civil War (1861-1865). The main issues in the war were slavery and the salvation of the Union of American States. Southerners were ardent supporters of slavery. The position of the central government of the northerners was defined by Lincoln: “My highest goal in this struggle is the salvation of the Union, and not the salvation or abolition of slavery.”

It seemed that the northerners had more chances for a quick victory: 22 million people lived in the northern states, only 9 million in the South, of which 4 million were blacks, and industry in the South was less developed. The southerners pinned their main hopes on the help of England and France, who were interested in American cotton. However, the war became protracted. On both sides, the armies were led by talented military leaders: Ulysses Grant for the northerners and Robert E. Lee for the southerners. Help for the northerners was provided by Russia, which was interested in the existence of a strong, united United States opposing England and France, which were its rivals.

As the war became protracted, Lincoln's government took drastic measures. In 1862, it introduced new taxes on the rich and passed a law confiscating rebel property. Two laws passed by Abraham Lincoln during the war were critical to the Northern victory. The first law was passed on May 20, 1862. It was a law on homesteads - plots of land that were provided to settlers in the United States free of charge or on preferential terms for the colonization of sparsely populated lands. The second law, which was of great importance, was the presidential decree on the emancipation of slaves. On January 1, 1863, slavery was abolished without any ransom. Then a mass conscription of blacks into the northern army was announced.

Defeat of the slave-owning South. Reconstruction of the South

In April 1865, an army of northerners surrounded the capital of the South, Richmond and took it by storm. The Southern army under the command of General Lee stopped resistance. The four-year bloody war ended in victory for the northerners. But five days after the South's surrender, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865, in a theater box by pro-slavery actor Booth. 1 million wounded and 600 thousand killed - this is the price of saving the Union of States and the abolition of slavery. In February 1865, Congress passed an amendment to the US Constitution that forever prohibited slavery in this country. Planters introduced “black codes” in a number of states, which created a semi-slave regime for those freed, the obligation to work for the previous owner. Southern racists created the Ku Klux Klan and other terrorist organizations that carried out lynchings, which killed and maimed blacks and white opponents of the old order.

The American Civil War played the role of a bourgeois revolution, the bourgeoisie asserted its political dominance, no longer sharing it with the planters. Great opportunities have opened up for the further development of the modernization process.

76. COUNTRIES OF ASIA AND AFRICA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XIX CENTURY

At the beginning of the XIX century. Asian countries were the objects of the expansion of England. She continued the colonial conquest of India, while destroying the foundations of the Indian economy and the ancient peculiar civilization. After the collapse of the Mughal Empire in India, several principalities were formed, which were gradually captured by England, starting with Bengal.

At the beginning of the XIX century. the British began to expand into Iran and Afghanistan, in their southern regions. Back in 1763, the ruler of Iran, Kerim Khan, concluded a trade agreement with the British, from that time the gradual penetration of the British began.

China at the beginning of the XNUMXth century was under the rule of the Manchu Qing dynasty, which pursued a policy of strengthening the feudal system. At the beginning of the XIX century. in China, the uprisings of peasants and townspeople, dissatisfied with the double oppression of the Manchu conquerors and their henchmen, the Chinese feudal lords, continue. The uprisings of the people were led and organized by secret religious societies, and every year the frequency of the uprisings and the scale increased.

At the beginning of the 1804th century. Relations between Turkey and Iran and Russia became greatly complicated due to the intensification of the liberation struggle of the Slavic peoples in the Balkans against the Turkish yoke and the struggle of the Christian peoples of the Caucasus against Iranian rule. This led to the war of 1813-1806. between Iran and Russia, and in 1812-XNUMX. between Russia and Turkey. In these wars, Türkiye and Iran were defeated. The strengthening of Russia's position in the Balkans and Asia with the victory in two wars led to the aggravation of the Eastern question. The situation in Turkey was also complicated by the open action of the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali against the Sultan.

Taking advantage of the weakening position of Iran during this period of time, the British intensified their expansion into the southern regions of this state. Moreover, back in 1801, England concluded two treaties with Iran - political and commercial. Under these treaties, Iran became an ally of England and took upon itself the obligation not to maintain any relations with the French. The Anglo-Iranian treaty was directed against both France and Russia.

But in May 1807, between Napoleonic France and Iran, an alliance treaty was signed, according to which Napoleon recognized Georgia as "legally belonging" to the Shah and undertook to force the Russians to leave Transcaucasia.

At the beginning of the XIX century. in all Asian countries, feudal orders and traditional societies dominated: internecine strife and local wars were observed; the expansion of England with the intensification of colonization in India was predominant.

African countries at the beginning of the 19th century.

By the beginning of the XIX century. The African continent was inhabited by various peoples, nationalities and tribes. The majority of Arabs lived in North, East and Northwest Africa. The eastern and southern parts of the continent were inhabited by numerous Bantu peoples, Zulu and Kaffir tribes belonging to the Negroid race. Negroid peoples and tribes also inhabited West Africa, the Hottentots and Bushmen - the southwest, the Malagasy - the descendants of Indonesian settlers - the island of Madagascar. All these peoples were at different levels of cultural, social and economic development. Among the most ancient states of West Africa are Ghana and Mali, which survived at the beginning of the XNUMXth century.

During this period of time, Tunisia and Egypt were in vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire, and Tripoli (Libya) was part of it.

They continued colonial conquests in Africa at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. England, France, Spain and Portugal, and between these states on this continent there were armed clashes. Simultaneously with the colonialists, Christian missionaries also penetrated African states.

77. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND CULTURE IN THE BEGINNING OF THE XIX CENTURY

To solve the technical and economic problems posed by industry, transport and agriculture, a new approach to natural phenomena was required. The development of trade and international relations, the exploration and development of geographical areas introduced a lot of new factual information into scientific circulation. They made it possible to fill in previously existing gaps in the picture of nature, to include those “missing links” that confirmed the existence of comprehensive connections of natural phenomena in time and space.

In higher scientific and technical education at the beginning of the XIX century. mathematics occupied a prominent place, since the need to apply it to solving practical problems put forward by natural science and technology (in the field of physics, chemistry, astronomy, geodesy, thermodynamics, kinematics of mechanisms, construction, ballistics, etc.) sharply increased.

The successes of descriptive geometry were directly related to the applied tasks of drawing up drawings of machinery, buildings, industrial and transport structures. In the same period of time, applied, or, as they said then, "practical" mechanics appeared, which studied the operation of machines, mechanisms and engineering structures and developed methods for their calculation (G. Monge, T. Jung).

Development of industry at the beginning of the 19th century. led to the emergence of theoretical and practical chemistry (A.P. Lavoisier, K.L. Berthollet). Moreover, scientific chemistry could receive further complete development after the victory of the doctrine of the molecular-atomic structure of matter.

Development of culture at the beginning of the 19th century.

Culture at the beginning of the XNUMXth century was formed in Europe and America under the dual influence of industrial development (coups) and bourgeois revolutions. In addition, a certain contribution was made to the development of culture and national liberation wars in Europe and America. All changes in society found a response in music, painting, poetry, prose, sculpture and architecture.

A common feature of the development of world culture of this period was the steady growth of international cultural exchange. It was due to the rapid development of world economic contacts, as well as the improvement of means of transport, communications and mutual information.

The development of literature and art in Europe and in the United States took place at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. under the sign of the struggle of classicism with church influence, which was of a reactionary nature. The art of classicism in the era of the bourgeois revolution was strictly rationalistic, that is, it required the complete logical correspondence of all elements of the artistic form to an extremely clearly expressed plan. A characteristic feature of classicism was the inviolability of certain aesthetic norms.

Classicism of the beginning of the 1789th century. was not a homogeneous phenomenon, in particular, for France after the revolution of 1794-XNUMX. characteristic was the development of revolutionary, republican classicism, which was embodied in the dramas of M.Zh. Chenier, in the early painting of David, etc. In the same period of time, the development of the philosophical and humanistic classicism of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland begins. Almost simultaneously with the new classicism at the beginning of the XIX century. a new direction of art has arisen - romanticism.

In contrast to the socio-political ideals of the classicists, the romantics put forward new heroes - rebellious solitary individualists, irreconcilably hostile to their environment, following unbridled spontaneous impulses of passions and despising any cold rationality. The spirit of revolutionary romance permeated the poems of Byron and Shelley, the works of Mickiewicz and Chamisso, the paintings of the young Delacroix and Goya, the works of the writer Germaine de Stael (1766-1817) etc.

78. DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL THOUGHT AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XIX CENTURY

At the beginning of the XIX century. Conservatism was an influential ideology in society.

Conservatism (from the Latin conservatio - "to protect, preserve") - this is a doctrine that arose back in the XNUMXth century, seeking to justify the need to preserve the old order. Its main principle is the preservation of traditional values: religion, monarchy, national culture, family. Conservatives recognized the right of the state to a strong power that subjugates the individual, and in the field of economic life - the right to regulate the economy, if necessary to preserve traditional values, but without encroaching on the sacred right to property. The conservatives recognized the possibility of carrying out "protective" social reforms, but only as a last resort. They did not believe in the possibility of social equality of all people, they advocated the preservation of estate and class differences. Almost all social legislation of the XIX century. was adopted by the Conservatives. The strongest position in society was held by the British Conservative Party (Tory).

Basic Ideas liberalism (from the Latin liberum - "relating to freedom") appeared in the Enlightenment (at the end of the XVIII century.) At the beginning of the XIX century. they were further developed both in theory and in the practical activities of a number of politicians. The main principle of liberalism is the human right to life, liberty, property, equality before the law, freedom of speech, press, assembly, and participation in the decision of state affairs. Considering the most important value of individual freedom, above all freedom from external coercion, the liberals defined its limits, laid down in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, as follows: everything that is not prohibited by law is allowed. But at the same time, the liberals believed that only those who are responsible for their decisions, that is, first of all, the owner, an educated person, can be free. The path of transformation for the liberals is the path of reform, but not of revolution, while they put forward the demand for limiting the activities of the state by law and proclaimed the principle of separation of the three branches of power. In the economic field, liberalism advocates a free market and free competition between entrepreneurs without intermediaries and without judges.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Along with liberalism and conservatism, socialist ideas about the need to abolish private property and protect public interests and the ideas of egalitarian communism, which were developed in many other works of thinkers of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, became popular in Western Europe. At the beginning of the XIX century. the teachings of Robert Owen, Henri Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier arose, who were concerned about the fate of the ruined artisans and workers of scattered manufactory, the movement of factory workers who sought to improve their working and living conditions. They tried to create a picture of a new society and state, where there would be no private property, poverty and enmity between members of society, where a person would be protected and respected. At the same time, utopian socialists believed that the transformation of society should take place only peacefully on the basis of religious beliefs and the goodwill of people, and private property should be preserved and serve all members of society, strong state power is not needed.

As the uprisings of 1848 in Europe showed, socialist ideas gained momentum at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. widespread and were very popular among the common people.

79. ENGLAND IN THE LATE XIX - EARLY XX CENTURIES

By the end of the XIX century. In England, there has been a slowdown in the pace of industrial development due to the increased export of capital from the country. English entrepreneurs and bankers preferred to invest their capital in countries where raw materials and labor were cheaper. The export of capital gave a profit five times higher than the income from foreign trade. As a result, the domestic industry often did not have the funds to upgrade obsolete equipment. After the unification of Germany, the young empire began to push England on the world market. German goods, which were cheaper than English ones, were in high demand in all countries. The sale of English goods in the young industrial states was also hindered by high customs duties, and England, by tradition, adhered to the rules of duty-free trade. And although the country's economy remained fashionable in the 90s. XIX century, its role as the workshop of the world was a thing of the past.

At the beginning of the XX century. in England, as in other countries, monopoly capitalism is developing. Powerful corporations and monopolies emerge, but family firms continue to play a significant role in the economy. The situation in agriculture becomes difficult - farmers who rented land from landlords could not compete with the flow of relatively cheap food coming into the country from the colonies. The unenviable position of the agricultural worker did not attract young people, and they went to work in the cities, replenishing the population of the slums.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. England continued its colonial conquests. She took possession of Burma, Nigeria, Somalia, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, established a protectorate over the island of Zanzibar and Egypt (after the suppression of an uprising in 1882 in Alexandria by British troops). Having bought shares in the Suez Canal, England established control over it, which ensured its dominance on the routes to India. In southern Africa, England created colonies - Cape, Natal and Basutoland. As a result of colonial conquests, the population and area of the British colonies by the beginning of the XNUMXth century. increased by more than one and a half times.

Economic crises in England in the late XIX - early XX centuries. exacerbated the internal political situation in the country - the labor movement became more active, new trade unions (trade unions) arose. The workers demanded the introduction of an 8-hour working day, pensions from the age of 60, the election of workers' representatives in parliament, etc.

The rise of the labor movement forced the government to carry out social reforms. From 1906 to 1916 in power in England were the liberals, who began moderate reforms in order to create a class world. The author of many reforms and their initiator was David Lloyd George.

The Laborites, who were in power at the beginning of the 8th century, achieved the establishment of an 70-hour working day for miners, pensions for the elderly who have reached 1904 years of age, introduced sickness, disability and unemployment insurance; entrepreneurs were forbidden to claim compensation from trade unions for losses suffered by corporations during strikes; at the expense of entrepreneurs introduced benefits in case of accidents at work. The head of the Labor government, Lloyd George, achieved the adoption of a law that would limit the veto power of the House of Lords. At the beginning of the XX century. exacerbated the foreign policy situation in Europe. Therefore, England agreed to conclude an agreement on a military alliance with France (in 1907), and in XNUMX an agreement was signed with Russia. This bloc was called the Entente (Triple Entente) and became a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance (led by Germany).

80. GERMANY AT THE LATE XIX - EARLY XX CENTURIES

By the end of the XIX century. German unification was completed. The new state included 22 monarchies that retained their autonomy, and 3 free cities - Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck. In the spring of 1871, the first Imperial Reichstag adopted a constitution that consolidated the leading role of Prussia in the empire. According to this constitution, only the Prussian king could be emperor of the German Empire. He led the armed forces, resolved issues of war and peace, appointed and dismissed the head of government (Reich Chancellor), approved or rejected all bills, convened and dissolved the imperial parliament - the Reichstag.

After the victory over France in 1871, the German Empire received Alsace and part of Lorraine - lands rich in iron ore and coal, which provided more opportunities for the development of heavy industry. In addition, France paid Germany a huge indemnity over the three post-war years - 5 billion francs. In addition to this, Germany removed enterprise equipment and means of transport from the occupied departments. All this together allowed Germany to begin modernizing its economy, and primarily its industry.

Rise of monopoly capitalism

In the 90s. 1910th century Monopoly capitalism emerges in Germany. At this time, large banking and industrial corporations are created, especially in heavy industry. Some of them become monopolies. By 9, XNUMX powerful Berlin banks concentrated in their hands half of all monetary deposits in the country. Domestic and foreign trade developed, German goods and capital were sent abroad. With the growth of industrial production, the urban population also grew. In agriculture, a process characteristic of the development of an industrial society took place: the peasants were dispossessed of land, some of them became farm laborers in the cadets and farms. Property stratification in the villages intensified, many peasants left for the cities, replenishing the ranks of the working class. Germany at the beginning of the XNUMXth century became an industrial power.

"New Deal" Bismarck and Wilhelm II In opposition to the Bismarck government were the Social Democrats and the trade unions under their influence. In 1875, at the unification congress in Gotha, the creation of a single Social Democratic Party of Germany took place, and the Gotha Program was adopted, which set as its goal the creation of a "free people's state" by peaceful means, through the organization of production workers' associations. Bismarck hated the Social Democrats, seeing them as a threat to public order, and led through the Reichstag the so-called. An exceptional law against the socialists, which prohibited the activities of not only the party, but also the workers' unions (which was meaningless, since it was impossible to destroy the labor movement). In the course of a stubborn struggle in the Reichstag, Bismarck achieved the adoption of three main laws: on insurance in case of illness, in case of injury, in case of old age and inability to work. The last law provided for the payment of a pension to workers over the age of 70, and the pension was appointed at the expense of the state. Bismarck's "New Deal" was marked by the conclusion in 1882 of the Triple Alliance, which, in addition to Germany, included Austria-Hungary and Italy, as well as by the intensification of new colonial conquests in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Along with the rapid economic development in the late XIX - early XX centuries. there was a militarization of the economy and enhanced armament of the army. Stirring up the nationalistic feelings of the Germans, the German Empire was preparing for the "big war", which was unleashed by it together with the allies in the Triple Alliance in 1914.

81. FRANCE IN THE XIX - EARLY XX CENTURIES

The economic development of France was hampered not only by a lack of financial resources, but also by a lack of raw materials and coal, machinery and equipment, which had to be imported from England and Germany. At the same time, the development of French industry was hampered by the low purchasing power of the peasants. 85% of peasant farms owned plots of land from 1 to 10 hectares, and many of the land was mortgaged in a bank. France at the end of the 70th century was still an agrarian-industrial country, because during this period of time the peasantry made up XNUMX% of the population.

Gradually, in the 80-90s. XNUMXth century France experienced an economic boom. As in other industrialized countries, large corporations were created in France. There were also large banking monopolies. As a result of this process, about two hundred families were formed in France, connected by business and family ties, which constituted a financial oligarchy. Significantly greater profit than industrial production, gave the export of capital to other countries.

Third republic

After the suppression of the Paris Commune, political reaction was rampant in France. Disagreements in the monarchist camp became the reason for the victory of supporters of the republic in the 1875 vote in the National Assembly. Thus, a constitution was adopted that established a republic in France. The Third Republic emerged and lasted until World War II. The highest legislative body was a bicameral parliament, consisting of the Senate - the upper house and the lower house - the Chamber of Deputies. Executive power belonged to the president and ministers.

Implementation of democratic reforms Since the end of the 70s. 1884th century France began a period of democratic reforms. In particular, a law on freedom of the press and assembly was adopted. In 80, a law was passed allowing the free activity of trade unions and strikes, and municipal councils were given the right to elect their mayor instead of the previously appointed official from the center. In the 1902s. 1910th century "school laws" were adopted, according to which the school was separated from the church, education became secular, and state educational programs were introduced. Since 70, the Republican Party, the Radicals, has been in power. Her great merit was the adoption of labor legislation. Under the new laws, workers received compensation for work-related injuries, they were entitled to mandatory weekly rest. In 65, a law was passed on pensions for workers and peasants, but not from the age of XNUMX, as in Germany and England, but from XNUMX.

Since the late 70s. XIX century French foreign policy was aimed at developing old colonies and capturing new ones. In North Africa, France captured Algeria, then Tunisia and Morocco. In West Africa, the French captured Senegal, Dahomey, part of Sudan, Mauritania and other states. As a result of the new conquests, a huge colonial empire was created, where over 20 million people lived. Using cheap labor, the French colonialists made large profits. The creation of a colonial empire gave rise to acute contradictions with England and Germany.

Socialist ideas became especially popular in France at the end of the 90th century. The Workers' Party of France was born. Its program, created on the basis of the teachings of K. Marx, called for a revolutionary transformation of society. In the XNUMXs. XNUMXth century in France, the activities of the anarchists, who committed a series of bloody assassinations, intensified, and the forces of revanchism intensified, which called for preparations for a war with Germany in order to return Alsace and Lorraine.

82. USA IN XIX - EARLY XX CENTURIES

After the end of the Civil War in 1865, the economic development of the United States began successfully. This was facilitated by the presence of a number of favorable conditions:

1) America was rich in natural resources and fertile land;

2) the use of cheap labor of blacks, Indians and Mexicans in enterprises brought high incomes;

3) in the USA there were no class restrictions, and nothing fettered a person's personal initiative;

4) the United States did not have belligerent neighbors that threatened security, and this exempted from excessive military spending.

All of the above contributed to the rapid development of American industry. Industries fell into the hands of small groups of entrepreneurs. Many corporations turned into monopolies. The largest Rockefeller and Morgan trusts emerged. The formation of trusts gained a special scope at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. Banks have acquired a huge influence in the economic and political life of the country. American corporations actively participated in the economic division of the world market into spheres of influence. The American economy achieved particular success in the first decades of the XNUMXth century. The strengthening of the monopolies meant the entry of American capitalism into the stage of imperialism.

The difficult situation in US agriculture in the 90s. XIX century.

But in US agriculture, the situation was very difficult. At the end of the XIX century. in agriculture, a process of stratification of farming was taking place; in 1880, almost 25% of farmers lost their farms and turned into tenants.

The situation of Indians and blacks in the USA at the end of the 19th century.

From the second quarter of the 23th century increased pressure on the Indian tribes. After another massacre arranged by the American government troops on December 1890, XNUMX, over the Indians, they were driven into territories that were called "reservations". Having gained freedom, black Americans did not receive equality with whites, since they officially introduced the separate existence of whites and blacks. Racism dominated everyday life.

At the end of the XIX century. the first protests began on the part of the workers. In 1886, there was a wave of strikes demanding an 8-hour working day, including May 1, 1886 in Chicago, where 350 thousand people went on strike, and on May 3, during a mass demonstration, the police shot at the workers.

The Republicans won the next presidential election, and in 1901 Theodore Roosevelt, who understood the need for reforms, became president of the country and began to implement them. Roosevelt led the fight against the dominance of monopolies in the US economy, while he gained fame as a "destroyer of trusts."

At the end of the XIX century. in the United States, the desire for territorial conquest is growing. This policy was based on the Monroe Doctrine, the American president, who put forward as early as 1823 the formula "America for the Americans." In 1893, the United States captured the Hawaiian Islands, which were of great strategic importance in the center of the Pacific Ocean. They were declared a territory of the United States. In 1898 the USA declared war on Spain. As a result of victory in this war, the United States acquired the island of Puerto Rico and control of Cuba. Then they captured the Philippines and the island of Guam. Having received strongholds on the outskirts of Asia, in 1899 the United States proclaimed the "open door doctrine", while "discovering China and then Japan, they demanded their share" in the division of China. Theodore Roosevelt is associated with big stick diplomacy. He urged American politicians to "speak softly, but hold a big club behind their backs." In 1912, the next US President Taft proclaimed the diplomacy of the dollar, once saying: "Dollars act as bayonets."

83. COUNTRIES OF ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE XIX - EARLY XX CENTURIES

Huge territories of Asia in the 1833th century. were turned by the European powers into colonies and dependent states. The exception was Japan, which for a long time was a "closed" country for Europeans. India was colonized by Europe earlier than other states of Asia, and England, represented by the East India Company, was the most active. The colonial regime in India had its own characteristics. In the XNUMXth century The entire territory of the country was in the hands of the British East India Company. In various ways, England pumped huge amounts of money out of India. There was a whole system of taxes that ruined the local population. In addition to taxes, there were government monopolies on salt and opium. In XNUMX, the trading activities of the East India Company were completely terminated, leaving only the management of the colony and the (English) army in India.

The English bourgeoisie began to make extensive use of India as a source of raw materials and a market for manufactured goods exported from the mother country.

After the great independence uprising in 1857, the East India Company was abolished, and India was governed from London by officials of a special ministry, and in India itself the head was the viceroy, appointed by the queen. In the XNUMXth century India finally turns into a market for English factory goods, as a result of which Indian hand weaving is in decline. The English factory industry eventually undermined the economy of traditional Indian society by destroying the Indian home industry. At the same time, English entrepreneurs prevented the normal development of the local factory industry, encouraging the development of the production of those crops that were exported to the metropolis as raw materials - cotton, jute, indigo, tea, wheat, spices, etc. Only at the end of the XNUMXth century. In India, factory production began to develop, Bombay and Calcutta became the largest industrial centers.

At the end of the XIX century. In India, the process of industrialization began, as a result of which the structure of traditional society was destroyed. The process of industrialization changed the composition of Indian society: artisan weavers disappeared, hired workers and the national bourgeoisie appeared, the middle class and the Indian intelligentsia formed.

In the second half of the XIX century. in India, the national liberation movement is intensifying, which was clearly manifested during the uprising of the sepoys in 1857, which quickly spread throughout the country. After its suppression by the British, the rebels waged a guerrilla war for a long time, which engulfed all of Central India. In 1885, the British administration, realizing the need for a compromise, allowed the creation of an all-Indian political organization. At the same time, the Indian National Congress (INC) was founded. Gradually, two political currents formed in the INC: "moderate" and "extreme". Both the "moderates" and the "extremes" defended the interests of the Indian people in their own way. At the beginning of the XX century. there is a revival and development of local Indian industry. But the colonialists in every possible way prevented this process of modernization, the creation of modern Indian industry, the development of industrial cities, and the democratization of the management system. During this period, the British expanded the plantations of crops such as tea, coffee, sugar cane and long-staple cotton, while beautiful forests were devastated, which led to ecological imbalance, soil erosion, landslides and floods.

84. CRISIS OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

The main causes of the crisis of the Ottoman Empire were:

1) frequent uprisings of the Balkan peoples against Turkish rule, starting from the beginning of the XNUMXth century. and throughout the XNUMXth century;

2) Russian-Turkish wars of 1828-1829, 1854-1856, 1877-1879, in which Turkey had heavy losses and expenses for waging wars;

3) the complication of the internal situation associated with the Janissary corps, which was hated by the people and turned out to be powerless in the war against the rebellious Greeks and other Balkan peoples. In 1826, by order of Sultan Mahmud II, the rebellious Janissaries were executed, and the corps was liquidated. After that, the Sultan began to create a new army on the European model. As a result, during the period of deterioration of the international position of Turkey, the sultan was left without the old army and was unable to create a new one. The result was the defeat in 1829 in the Russian-Turkish war. The position of Turkey during this period of time was further complicated by the performance of the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali, whose troops in 1832 in the battle near the city of Konya utterly defeated the Turks.

Exacerbation of the crisis of the Ottoman Empire

The consequence of all that happened was the emergence of the crisis of the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the 3th century. Sultan Mahmud II tried to bring the country out of the crisis and began a series of reforms. So, on November 1839, 70, the sultan's rescript (hatt-i-sheriff) was announced, which opened the period of reforms in Turkey, known as "tanzimat" (tanzimat-i-hairiye - "beneficial reforms"). These reforms were half-hearted, one-sided, they met with resistance from the secular and spiritual feudal lords, and as a result, according to their objective goals, they were never implemented. By the beginning of the 70s. XNUMXth century increased dependence of the Ottoman Empire on foreign powers. Foreign capitalists made extensive use of non-equivalent trade, unequal treaties, enslaving loans, and the capitulation regime. Moreover, in their hands was such an important lever of influence on the economy and political life of the country as the Ottoman Imperial Bank. In their operations and actions, they relied on the Turkish feudal lords and the comprador bourgeoisie, represented mainly by merchants of non-Turkish nationalities. To all the crisis phenomena was added a crisis in the country's agriculture, which was in decline. Only a small part of the cultivable land was sown, and the yields were extremely low. Significantly deteriorated in the XNUMXs. XNUMXth century position of the urban population.

Competition from foreign goods destroyed local crafts, and feudal orders hampered the development of capitalist production. The crisis of the Ottoman Empire deepened due to the intensification of the liberation struggle of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, who were still under Turkish oppression. The government's attempts to reduce spending on the state apparatus and education did not improve Turkey's financial situation; in October 1875, partial financial bankruptcy was officially announced. A significant deterioration in the position of the Ottoman Empire occurred after the uprising in 1876 in Bulgaria and the war with Russia in 1877-1878. Already in 1879, Türkiye declared its complete financial bankruptcy. The process of economic and political subordination of the Ottoman Empire to the European powers, and primarily England and France, accelerated. Ultimately, Türkiye turned into a semi-colony, a raw materials appendage of foreign states. Foreign firms have acquired a number of concessions to exploit Turkey's mineral wealth. After the financial bankruptcy of Turkey, England, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy became creditor countries.

85. FIGHT FOR THE INDEPENDENCE OF POLAND, THE CZECH REPUBLIC AND THE BALKANS

The revolution in Poland in 1848, which had as its goal the establishment of independence in Poland and its unification, ended in defeat. In February 1863, a convention was signed between Russia and Prussia on joint police measures against the Polish insurgents. Significant assistance to the rebels was provided by the Poles living in Galicia and Poznan (Austria and Prussia). Volunteers from different countries fought in the ranks of the Polish rebels - Russians, French, Italians, Croats, Hungarians, Germans. But the forces were unequal - the total number of rebels was only 15-20 thousand people. They were opposed by the tsarist army of 126 thousand people with 176 guns. The uprising was suppressed in 1864. According to its program and main driving forces, the uprising in Poland was a bourgeois-democratic revolution, although for a number of reasons it did not develop into a mass peasant movement. During the revolution of 1905 in Russia, the national liberation movement also intensified in Poland. In many places in Poland there were clashes with troops and police. Poland gained independence only after the revolution in October 1917 in Russia.

In the 1848th century The Czech Republic was part of Austria-Hungary (originally the Austrian Empire). The national liberation struggle of the Czech people intensified during the revolution of 1849-XNUMX. After the defeat of this revolution, the Czech people lost their elementary national rights.

The Czech national movement was led by a national party that represented the interests of the bourgeoisie. At the heart of its program was the demand for autonomy for the Czech Republic within the framework of the Austrian Empire. In 1869, Czech workers and artisans took an active part in anti-Austrian demonstrations. In October 1868, a state of siege was introduced in Prague, and police repression intensified. The Czech bourgeoisie, fearing the growth of the labor movement, for its part made efforts to limit the activities of camps (a new form of rebel movement - open-air meetings) and generally to weaken the activity of the proletariat. Thus, there was no unity in the Czech national liberation movement. Its activation occurred in 1905-1907. under the influence of the Russian revolution. The Czech Republic gained independence after the revolution in Hungary in 1918-1919. and the collapse of Austria-Hungary.

In the mid 60s. 1866th century a favorable environment was created for strengthening social and political ties between the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. In XNUMX, Serbia entered into an alliance with Montenegro for a joint struggle against Turkey.

At the end of June 1874, the governments of Serbia and Montenegro demanded that Turkey refuse to send punitive troops to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Turkey did not satisfy their demands, and on June 30 both Slavic states declared war on her. The outcome of the liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples depended not only on their own efforts, but also on the international situation, on the clash of interests of the major European powers in the so-called. eastern question. On April 24, 1877, the Russian government declared war on Turkey. As a result of successful military operations, Russian troops liberated Bulgaria. On March 3, 1878, a peace treaty was signed in San Stefano. But at the Berlin International Congress on June 13, 1878, England and Austria-Hungary, with the support of Germany, achieved a significant change in the terms of the San Stefano Treaty. As a result of the terms of the new treaty, areas with a large non-Turkish population remained under Turkish rule - Southern Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania, Thessaly, the Aegean Islands; Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

86. LATIN AMERICA NATIONAL LIBERATION STRUGGLE

The struggle of the Creoles against the Spanish colonizers. Formation of independent republics

At the beginning of the XIX century. in the Spanish colonies of Latin America, a patriotic movement of Creoles arose, striving for secession from Spain and the creation of independent states. In the colonies, the Creoles created secret organizations that illegally published and distributed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and other documents of the French Revolution. The defeat of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain by the Napoleonic army created favorable conditions for the rise of the liberation movement in the Spanish colonies. As a result of the success of the Creole national movement in Venezuela, in 1811 it was declared an independent republic. The leader and organizer of the liberation movement, S. Bolivar, issued decrees in which he promised to grant freedom to the slaves who joined the revolutionary army, and land to the peasants. As a result of the active actions of S. Bolivar, a combat-ready army was created. At the head of this army, S. Bolivar crossed the Andes in order to provide assistance to the neighboring country - New Grenada. During a fierce battle, the Spanish troops were defeated. Venezuela and New Grenada were united in 1819 into a single state - Great Colombia. In the same period of time, the liberation movement in Mexico grew and gained strength, where as early as 1810-1811. and 1811-1813. anti-Spanish uprisings broke out under the leadership of Hidalgo and Morelos. The Indians took an active part in these uprisings. After a long war of liberation, Mexico became an independent republic in 1821.

General Simon Bolivar fought for the creation of a democratic republic where the color of the skin of its citizens would not affect their position in society. But Bolívar's attempts to unite the newly independent states, which had a common language and religion, were unsuccessful. The establishment of his personal dictatorship caused resistance, which was expressed in numerous conspiracies and uprisings. As a result, the power of Bolivar was overthrown in Peru and Bolivia, then Venezuela and Ecuador separated from Colombia. Gradually, the influence and popularity of Bolivar dropped to a critical level, and at the beginning of 1830 he resigned.

As a result of the liberation struggle in Latin America, the following states were formed: Peru, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina (United Provinces of La Plata), Brazil, Bolivia, Venezuela, Colombia, United Provinces of Central America, Cuba, Mexico. In all independent states, except Brazil, a republican system was established. Brazil was at first an empire, and in 1889 it became a republic. During the XNUMXth century in the young independent states, a parliamentary system was established and constitutions were adopted, slavery was abolished. Political independence made it possible to do away with the numerous restrictions that fettered the economic development of the colonies. More favorable conditions were created for the development of the capitalist economy and entry into the world market, but the preservation of many features of traditional society and its values slowed down this process. In the independent Latin American states, in the course of the liberation struggle, the Inquisition was destroyed, as well as the estate system was liquidated and titles of nobility were abolished. Then the poll tax and forced labor service of the indigenous population were abolished in favor of private individuals, the state and the church, but the owners of latifundia retained huge estates and political power, and the peasants did not receive land.

87. MAIN FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE IN THE END OF THE XIX - BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURIES

Late XIX - early XX centuries. was a time of change in the social composition of society and sharp contradictions between its various layers, the time of the formation of new values and norms of behavior, was a turning point in world culture. In art, there was an intense search for other artistic forms, methods, techniques capable of capturing a picture of the new world.

Changes in society create conditions for the emergence of a new creative direction in art - critical realism. Realists are trying to understand the society of this era, to reveal the causes of the ugly phenomena of life, to display the surroundings in all the ugliness and severity of conflicts. At the end of the XIX century. accusatory motives sound stronger in works of art, the entire social system falls under the fire of criticism. Art seeks to reveal the laws of development of society. For the analysis of reality, the methods of scientific knowledge, the discoveries of medicine, biology, and social sciences are involved. Realists deepen the ideas of the creators of culture in the first half of the XNUMXth century. about the formative influence on a person of society, the environment, on the one hand, and the biological principle, heredity, on the other. Some realists mechanically transferred the laws that existed in nature to human society. Supporters of such views called themselves naturalists. Naturalism raised topics that were considered indecent and forbidden: the ugly side of life, the life of the "bottom people".

In the spring of 1874, little-known painters, rejected by the academic Salon of Arts and calling themselves independent, presented their works to the public. But their painting was met only by mocking laughter from visitors, and the newspapers were filled with articles with headlines: "Comic Exhibition", "Mockery", "Scribble", etc. The artists were given a nickname given in derision by one journalist - the Impressionists. The reason was the name of the painting by C. Monet "Impression. Sunrise" ("impression" in French impression). The impressionists were united by the desire to capture the variability of the beauty of the world around them. C. Monet was an outstanding impressionist. Widely known are his paintings "Rocks in Belle-Ile", "Hacks", "Poplars", "Rouen Cathedral", "Field of Poppies". At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. French artists created their canvases: C. Pissarro (1830-1903), O. Renoir (1841-1919) and others. During this period, famous writers worked: E. Zola (1840-1902), J. R. Kipling (1865-1936).

The development of musical culture in the late XIX century. associated with the work of composers, carried away by the discoveries of the Impressionists. A well-known French composer of that time Claude Debussy (1862-1918), who sought to recreate the changing face of nature.

The advent of cinema is an important event in the cultural life of the late XNUMXth and early XNUMXth centuries.

End of the 28th century was marked by an important event - the advent of cinema. The first screening of silent films took place on December 1895, XNUMX in one of the Parisian cafes. The inventors of cinema are the brothers Auguste and Louis Lumiere, who called their apparatus for displaying films "cinema". The first tapes looked like everyday photographs. In the first decade of the XX century. most of the films were made for booths, and the tapes were shot without preparation, there was no sound.

In general, the end of the XIX-beginning of the XX centuries. characterized as a period of modernization in the field of culture with the rapid growth of scientific knowledge, the formation in the minds of people of new ideas about the development of nature and society, the secularization of consciousness and the secularization of school education.

88. A NEW STAGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISM

By the 70-80s. 70th century in the most developed countries of Western Europe and the United States, free-competition capitalism has reached its pinnacle and prepared the transition to a new stage. In the last third of the XIX century. there are powerful financial and industrial corporations - joint-stock companies. This was due to the fact that the use of highly developed technology, complex and expensive equipment was possible only within the framework of large enterprises that appeared during the aggravated in the XNUMXs. XNUMXth century competition. Such enterprises were more efficient. The birth of large corporations was the result of a technical revolution: the use of new energy sources, new technologies, the development of transport and communications. Since at that time ideas about the inadmissibility of state interference in private property dominated in society, large enterprises began to solve the problem of regulating the production of goods and their sale. In order to avoid intense competition, industrialists began to negotiate among themselves about prices, the number of products produced, and even sales markets.

As a result of these actions, various forms of mergers of enterprises arose - cartels that determined prices and divided sales markets; syndicates - associations engaged in joint marketing of products; trusts, in which there was a complete unification of property for the joint production and marketing of products; concerns - associations of trusts or enterprises dependent on any monopoly group. Trusts and syndicates were already developing in the 80s and 90s. 1893th century In particular, the Rhenish-Westphalian syndicate created in 90 in Germany, which controlled more than half of the coal production in the country, was widely known. Trusts were actively created in the USA, where, for example, the Rockefeller oil trust produced XNUMX% of the country's oil production. In the event that an industrial or financial corporation concentrated in its hands dominance in any branch of the economy, it became a monopoly. But not all enterprises were monopolistic.

Thousands or tens of thousands of medium and small enterprises continued to exist in capitalist society - that is, the non-monopoly sphere of the economy. But the monopolistic sector of the economy became dominant. Free competition capitalism was replaced by monopoly capitalism, or imperialism.

Imperialism - a special stage in the development of capitalism, in which it seeks to spread its dominance in all areas of society - economic, political, ideological, cultural. English economist D.A. Hobson and the German Social Democrat R. Hilferding singled out the following signs of imperialism: a combination of free competition and monopoly; the merging of industrial and banking capital and the formation of a financial oligarchy; the predominance of the export of capital, in contrast to the former predominant export of goods; economic division of the world into spheres of influence; territorial division of the world; establishing a close relationship between the financial oligarchy and the government. The main mass of colonial conquests coincides with the period of monopoly capitalism. This is a struggle not only for markets and sources of raw materials, but also for influence in world politics. It was in connection with the intensification of colonial wars that the term "imperialism" received at the end of the XNUMXth century. wide walking. At first, with its help, the foreign policy of the capitalist countries was determined, and then the concept of "imperialism" spread as a definition of a new stage in the development of capitalism - monopoly capitalism.

89. CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1918)

Diplomatic preparations for the war for the redivision of the world began at the beginning of the 8th century. During this period of time there is an Anglo-French rapprochement. On April 1904, 1907, England and France concluded an agreement, the main content of which was the recognition of England's "rights" to rule in Egypt, and of France's "rights" to satisfy her claims in Morocco. This is how "cordial consent" (Entente cordiale) arose - the Anglo-French Entente. In 31, during the Anglo-Russian negotiations, a compromise was reached on controversial colonial issues, and on August 1907 of this year the agreement was signed. The conclusion of the Anglo-Russian agreement of XNUMX completed the creation The Entente - a military-diplomatic imperialist group of England, France and Russia, opposing another imperialist group - the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy), which was formalized earlier - in 1882. As a result of these events, Europe was finally split into two opposing each other military bloc. Preparations for the First World War were in full swing on both opposing sides.

In the prewar years of 1912 and 1913 The Balkan Peninsula was the scene of warfare: the 1st Balkan (October 9, 1912 - May 30, 1913) and the 2nd Balkan (June 30 - July 29, 1913). The first Balkan war began with the war of Montenegro against Turkey, and then Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece entered the war. On May 30, 1913, a peace treaty between the members of the Balkan Union and Turkey, worked out under pressure from the great powers, was signed in London. According to this agreement, the entire territory of European Turkey, with the exception of Albania, which stood out as an independent state, went to the participants in the Balkan Union. Bulgaria, dissatisfied with the decisions of the London Peace Treaty, June 29, 1913 began hostilities against the former allies. Thus began the second Balkan war. In a short time, Bulgaria was defeated and asked for peace. On July 30, 1913, a peace conference opened in Bucharest, and already on August 10, Bulgaria signed a peace treaty with Serbia, Greece and Romania.

On June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, the heir to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was killed by a member of the Serbian military-patriotic society "Black Hand", a high school student G. Princip. This became the reason for starting a conflict. Austria-Hungary, instigated by Germany, on July 23, 1914, delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, according to which demands were put forward that undermined the sovereignty of Serbia. On July 24, even before the expiration of the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, the Russian government decided to mobilize four military districts - Kyiv, Odessa, Moscow and Kazan, as well as the Black Sea and Baltic fleets. On July 25, 1914, Serbia responded to the Austrian ultimatum. This response-note of the Serbian government expressed readiness to resolve the conflict. Nevertheless, the Austro-Hungarian government declared that it was not satisfied and declared war on Serbia. On July 28, 1914, hostilities began on the Austrian-Serbian border. On July 29, the British government announced its readiness for war. In response, Germany began to carry out mobilization activities. On July 30, Tsar Nicholas II approved the decision on general mobilization in Russia. The decree to this effect was announced on July 31, and at midnight the German government presented Rossini with an ultimatum to stop the mobilization. A military clash between the major European powers became inevitable.

90. PROGRESS OF MILITARY ACTIONS IN 1914-1915

Germany declared war on France on August 3, 1914, and even the day before, on August 2, sent an ultimatum to the Belgian government to let German troops through Belgium to the French border. The Belgian government rejected the ultimatum and turned to London for help. On August 3, the British government sent Germany an ultimatum note - not to violate the neutrality of Belgium. Germany rejected this ultimatum. On the evening of August 3, the British government gave the order to start hostilities against Germany.

After the outbreak of the war, Bulgaria, Greece, Sweden, Switzerland, Norway, Denmark, Holland, Spain, Portugal, as well as Italy and Romania, which were allies of the Central Powers, declared their neutrality. Of the non-European countries, a number of states in Asia and Latin America declared US neutrality. Turkey, having formally declared neutrality, on August 2, 1914, signed a secret agreement with Germany, under which it undertook to act on its side and, in fact, transfer its army to the disposal of the German General Staff.

The first period of the 1914 campaign in the Eastern European theater was marked by two major operations - East Prussian and Galician. The first and second armies of the Russian North-Western Front began to advance into East Prussia on August 17, during the advance of the German armies on Paris. As a result of fierce fighting in East Prussia between the first Russian and the eighth German armies, the Germans were defeated. Only the passivity of the commander of the first Russian army, General Rannen-Kampf, gave the German troops the opportunity to avoid the final defeat. the second Russian army also advanced in the direction of East Prussia, in its southern regions, but this offensive ended in failure. As a result, the offensive operation of the Russian North-Western Front ended in failure, mainly due to poor supply and discord between the commands of the armies and the front, as well as the headquarters of the Supreme Commander. Russian losses were huge - about a quarter of a million soldiers and a large amount of weapons.

The battles on the Russian Southwestern Front also occupied an important place in the general course of the war in 1914. More than 100 divisions took part in the battles on both sides here. On August 18, 1914, the offensive of the Russian Eighth Army of General Brusilov began, and on August 23, a grandiose battle unfolded on this front, more than 300 km long. During the battles, the Russian army defeated the Austro-Hungarian troops, occupied Lvov and forced them to withdraw across the San River. Pursuing the enemy, the Russian troops pushed him back across the Dunaets River and to the Carpathians, blocking the largest Austrian fortress Przemysl. In the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian troops, an important role was played by the fact that soldiers of Slavic nationality, especially Czechs and Slovaks, surrendered in tens of thousands. The Galician operation, which lasted more than a month, ended with the victory of the Russian troops. For 33 days, Russian troops advanced 200 km deep into the territory of Austria-Hungary. In the autumn of 1914, Russian troops reached their starting positions for the invasion of Germany. By the end of 1914, it became clear that the war in Europe, both in the west and in the east, had acquired a predominantly positional character, the character of a war of attrition. The war became protracted for many reasons. First, the colonial powers of England and France had far greater human and material resources than Germany and her allies; secondly, the Czechs and Slovaks refused to fight against the Slavic brothers and surrendered to the Russian troops with all their weapons.

91. MILITARY ACTIONS IN 1915-1916

The Russian command considered the main strategic objective of the 1915 campaign to be the withdrawal of Austria-Hungary from the war. In April 1915, a powerful offensive of German and Austro-Hungarian troops began throughout this theater of operations - from the shores of the Baltic to the Romanian border near the city of Chernivtsi. In May 1915, the German army broke through the front in several places in the Eastern European theater. A large-scale retreat of Russian troops began. Poland, Galicia, and a significant territory of the Baltic states were abandoned. There were no active operations carried out in the Western European theater of operations. Moreover, W. Churchill, who was the Minister of the Navy at that time, made an attempt to seize the Black Sea straits, which was a clear violation of the allied agreements with Russia. In 1914-1915 The losses among Russian soldiers were very high, including prisoners. Number of Russian prisoners in Germany in 1914-1918. amounted to 1 million 400 thousand people, and every seventh tried to escape. During the German offensive, a critical situation for Russian troops developed near Vilna. But thanks to the skillful maneuvers of General M.V. Alekseev and the valor of the Russian soldiers managed to avoid encirclement. At the end of May 1915, at the front near Warsaw, the Germans launched their first gas attack. General A.I. Denikin, who served there, recalled that the Russian troops did not have gas masks; the attack was unexpected and in violation of international agreements. Despite the fact that 9 thousand people were poisoned, German troops were repulsed. Things went differently on the Caucasian front, where Russian troops managed to win a series of brilliant victories, as a result of which the Turkish army was on the brink of disaster. Seeing that they were losing the war, on April 24, 1915, the Turks committed a massacre of the Armenians. The victims of the genocide ranged from 800 thousand to a million people. By personal order of Nicholas II, the Russian-Turkish border was temporarily opened, and 375 thousand Armenians crossed into Russian territory. The position of the Turkish army became significantly more complicated after the Russian troops captured Erzurum, which was considered an impregnable fortress: it was located high in the mountains and was surrounded by three lines of forts. On the fifth day of the siege, Russian troops stormed the fortress on February 16, 1916.

In May 1916, a grand offensive of Russian troops began in Galicia, on a 340 km wide section of the South-Western Front, which went down in history under the name "Brusilovsky breakthrough". This military operation became a new word in the strategy of the First World War. For the first time in a positional war there was an offensive on the entire front, Brusilov's army advanced at a speed of 6,5 km per day, and by the fall of 1916 25 thousand km were occupied² territory of Galicia. Enemy losses amounted to 1,5 million people killed and wounded, almost 500 thousand people were captured. Only military assistance from Germany and inconsistency in the actions of the Russian armies, as in 1914, saved Austria-Hungary from final defeat. The Brusilov breakthrough meant a radical turning point in the First World War. It became clear that the countries of the Quadruple Alliance (Germany and Austria-Hungary were joined by Turkey and Bulgaria) were doomed to defeat. At the end of 1916, the United States broke off diplomatic relations with Germany.

Despite the losses, fatigue from the war, the Russian army by the beginning of 1917 was able to defend most of the territory of the Russian Empire, moving away only from the kingdom of Poland and the provinces in the Baltic states. She firmly held the approaches to Riga and St. Petersburg.

92. RESULTS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The First World War led to serious shifts in the economic situation of the entire colonial world, disrupting the international trade relations that had developed before the war. Since the import of industrial products from the mother countries was reduced, the colonies and dependent countries were able to organize the production of many goods that were previously imported from outside, and this entailed a more accelerated development of national capitalism. As a result of the war, great damage was done to the agriculture of the colonies and dependent countries.

During the First World War, the anti-war movement of workers intensified in the countries participating in the hostilities, which by the end of the war grew into a revolutionary one. A further deterioration in the position of the working masses led to a revolutionary explosion - first in Russia in February and October 1917, and then in Germany and Hungary in 1918-1919.

There was no unity among the victorious powers on the issues of the post-war order of the world. After the end of the war, France turned out to be the most powerful militarily. At the heart of her program for the redivision of the world was the desire to weaken Germany as much as possible. France sought to transfer the German western border to the Rhine, demanded from Germany a large sum to compensate for the damage caused by the war (reparations), to reduce and limit the German armed forces. The program for the post-war organization of the world put forward by France also included colonial claims to some German colonies in Africa, to part of the Asia Minor territories of the former Ottoman Empire. But the debt on war loans from the United States and England weakened the position of France, and she had to compromise with her allies when discussing issues of a peaceful settlement. The British plan proceeded from the need to eliminate the naval power of Germany and its colonial empire. At the same time, the British ruling circles sought to preserve a strong imperialist Germany in the center of Europe in order to use it in the struggle against Soviet Russia and the revolutionary movement in Europe, and also as a counterbalance to France. Therefore, there were many contradictions in the English peace program. The implementation of the English plan for the redivision of the world was also hampered by England's large debt to the United States of America for the supply of arms and goods during the war. Only the United States emerged from the war financially absolutely independently, and in economic development surpassed all countries in the world. Japan, Italy, Poland and Romania also made aggressive demands.

The peace conference opened in Paris on January 18, 1919. It was attended by 27 states that belonged to the camp of the victors. Soviet Russia was deprived of the opportunity to participate in this conference. At the Paris Peace Conference, the issue of establishing the League of Nations was resolved, designed to ensure universal peace by resolving emerging conflicts. The permanent members of the Council of the League of Nations were the five major victorious powers: the United States, England, France, Italy and Japan, and the four non-permanent members were to be elected by the Assembly from among the other countries that were members of the League of Nations. The charter of the League of Nations was signed by representatives of 45 states. The states of the German bloc and Soviet Russia were not admitted to it. Under the influence of the anti-war sentiments of the masses, the Paris Conference included in the Charter of the League of Nations an article providing for economic sanctions and collective military actions of the members of the League of Nations against the state that committed the aggression. In 1921, the Council of the League decided to counter the aggressor only with economic sanctions.

Authors: Alekseev V.S., Pushkareva N.V.

We recommend interesting articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets:

▪ Conflictology. Crib

▪ EU law. Crib

▪ Russian literature of the XX century in brief. Crib

See other articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets.

Read and write useful comments on this article.

<< Back

Latest news of science and technology, new electronics:

Artificial leather for touch emulation 15.04.2024

In a modern technology world where distance is becoming increasingly commonplace, maintaining connection and a sense of closeness is important. Recent developments in artificial skin by German scientists from Saarland University represent a new era in virtual interactions. German researchers from Saarland University have developed ultra-thin films that can transmit the sensation of touch over a distance. This cutting-edge technology provides new opportunities for virtual communication, especially for those who find themselves far from their loved ones. The ultra-thin films developed by the researchers, just 50 micrometers thick, can be integrated into textiles and worn like a second skin. These films act as sensors that recognize tactile signals from mom or dad, and as actuators that transmit these movements to the baby. Parents' touch to the fabric activates sensors that react to pressure and deform the ultra-thin film. This ... >>

Petgugu Global cat litter 15.04.2024

Taking care of pets can often be a challenge, especially when it comes to keeping your home clean. A new interesting solution from the Petgugu Global startup has been presented, which will make life easier for cat owners and help them keep their home perfectly clean and tidy. Startup Petgugu Global has unveiled a unique cat toilet that can automatically flush feces, keeping your home clean and fresh. This innovative device is equipped with various smart sensors that monitor your pet's toilet activity and activate to automatically clean after use. The device connects to the sewer system and ensures efficient waste removal without the need for intervention from the owner. Additionally, the toilet has a large flushable storage capacity, making it ideal for multi-cat households. The Petgugu cat litter bowl is designed for use with water-soluble litters and offers a range of additional ... >>

The attractiveness of caring men 14.04.2024

The stereotype that women prefer "bad boys" has long been widespread. However, recent research conducted by British scientists from Monash University offers a new perspective on this issue. They looked at how women responded to men's emotional responsibility and willingness to help others. The study's findings could change our understanding of what makes men attractive to women. A study conducted by scientists from Monash University leads to new findings about men's attractiveness to women. In the experiment, women were shown photographs of men with brief stories about their behavior in various situations, including their reaction to an encounter with a homeless person. Some of the men ignored the homeless man, while others helped him, such as buying him food. A study found that men who showed empathy and kindness were more attractive to women compared to men who showed empathy and kindness. ... >>

Random news from the Archive

Aqua Computer Kryographics Next full coverage water blocks 04.12.2018

Aqua Computer has unveiled the new Kryographics Next full-coverage water block series, which currently has models for the GeForce RTX 2080 and RTX 2080 Ti graphics cards in the reference version. It is noted that the novelties are the best Aqua Computer water blocks at the moment.

The base of the novelties is made of copper. Nickel-plated and pure copper versions will be available. According to the manufacturer, the base is milled from a single piece of copper and weighs 1,25 kg. As befits a full-coverage water block, Kryographics Next contacts not only the GPU, but also the power elements of the power circuits and memory chips.

The top of the Kryographics Next water blocks is made of clear acrylic and decorated with a decorative metal plate. Of course, not without customizable RGB lighting. The water block has 15 pixel (addressable) LEDs. You can control the backlight either using the Aqua Computers QUADRO controller or using the ASUS Aura Sync utility, of course, only when connected to an ASUS motherboard.

The manufacturer also offers reinforcing plates for the back of the video card for new water blocks. One of the plates will be standard, while the other is equipped with an additional copper heat pipe, passing in the area of contact with the elements of the power subsystem, and ending in a terminal for connecting fittings. The presence of a heat pipe should provide better cooling.

The basic version of Aqua Computer Kryographics Next water blocks for GeForce RTX 2080 and RTX 2080 Ti video cards is priced at 150 euros by the manufacturer. For the version with a nickel-plated base, you will have to pay 15 euros more. The standard reinforcing plate costs 33 euros, and with a heat pipe it costs 48 euros.

Other interesting news:

▪ Gravity and earthquake

▪ Robot tightrope walker

▪ Learning ability can be seen in the eyes

▪ The robot will find and neutralize a traitor colleague

▪ XNUMXD echography

News feed of science and technology, new electronics

Interesting materials of the Free Technical Library:

▪ section of the site Assembling the Rubik's Cube. Article selection

▪ article by Ernst Haeckel. Famous aphorisms

▪ article The most decorated regiment in the history of the United States was composed of soldiers of what nationality? Detailed answer

▪ Article Requirements for the organization of the workplace