History of modern times. Counter-Reformation (most important)

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History of modern times. Counter-Reformation (most important)

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10. COUNTER-REFORMATION

Counter-reformation - is a church-political movement in Europe in the mid-1517th - early 1546th centuries. led by the papacy, directed against the Reformation. This is also a set of measures taken during the reforms of the Roman Catholic Church in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. and aimed at suppressing the Protestant Reformation and the return of territories and populations that had fallen away from Catholicism (the term “Counter-Reformation” was introduced by the German historian Leopold von Ranke). In the early period of the Reformation (XNUMX-XNUMX), when the course of events was largely determined by Martin Luther, neither of the opposing parties clearly understood the seriousness and duration of the gap. The Catholics hoped that they would return the lost rebels to the bosom of the church, and the rebels themselves were confident that they could subjugate the entire church. The Catholic revival, especially noticeable in Spain and Italy, led under Pope Paul III to increased Catholic opposition to Protestant proselytism.

The Council of Trent (1545-1563) officially rejected Protestant dogmas. The theological thought of the Counter-Reformation was summed up by Roberto Bellarmino in “Discourses on Controversial Questions of the Christian Faith...” (1586-1589), which represented Catholicism’s response to the challenge of early Protestantism. Pope Paul III and his successors led the Catholic forces; the most energetic of the Catholic leaders were Pius V (1566-1572) и Sixtus V (1585-1590). The Catholic sovereigns of Europe collaborated with them, and above all Philip II of Spain (1556-1598), Bavarian Dukes of the House of Wittelsbach and Emperor Ferdinand II (1619-1637). The tools of the Counter-Reformation were the Inquisition (under Paul III in 1542, its supreme authority was created in Rome - the Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Ecumenical Inquisition, or the Holy Office) and the Index of Forbidden Books. The leading role was played by the newly created monastic orders - the Capuchins and Jesuits.

The Counter-Reformation succeeded in stopping the expansion of Protestantism in much of Europe. In Spain and Italy the success was complete, in Ireland and Poland - close to it, although in these countries (especially in Poland) a fair part of the clergy was covered by Protestantism. Failure awaited the Counter-Reformation in the Scandinavian countries: England and Scotland. And if in England and Scotland a large group of Catholics survived thanks to the exceptional patience of believers, then in the Scandinavian countries the Roman Catholic Church completely lost its position. In France, after the bloody religious wars in the XVI century. a compromise was reached, expressed in the Edict of Nantes (1598), which gave the Huguenots the right to freely practice their religion and retained most of their civil rights. In 1685, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes and expelled from France all Protestants who refused to obey him. In Germany and Austria, where by 1550 nine-tenths of the population had departed from Rome, the Counter-Reformation, under the leadership of Peter Canisius, succeeded in stopping the spread of Protestantism and winning back a significant number of believers; Catholics have had similar successes in Switzerland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and other parts of Central Europe. In the Netherlands, loyalty to Rome forced the Southern provinces to secede from the Northern and remain loyal to Spain, resulting in the emergence of Protestant Holland and Catholic Belgium.

During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) Catholicism seemed to triumph in Germany, but the situation changed dramatically when the French troops, under the orders of Cardinal Richelieu, and the Swedish troops, led by King Gustavus Adolphus, entered the war on the side of the Protestants. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) sealed the religious schism in Western Europe.

Authors: Alekseev V.S., Pushkareva N.V.

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