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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Geography. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
CONTENTS Ticket number 1 1. The modern political map of the world: the variety of countries in the modern world, their main types 2. Scientific and technological revolution: characteristic features and components Ticket number 2 1. The main forms of state government and the state-territorial structure of countries 2. The composition and structure of the world economy, their changes in the era of scientific and technological revolution Ticket number 3 1. Geographical environment and its role in the life of mankind 2. Factors affecting the distribution of productive forces and their change in the era of scientific and technological revolution Ticket number 4 1. Nature management. Examples of rational and irrational nature management 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of the countries of Western Europe. Ticket number 5 1. Types of natural resources. Resource availability. Assessment of the resource endowment of the country 2. The importance of transport in the world economy, modes of transport and their features. Transport and environment Ticket number 6 1. Patterns of distribution of mineral resources and countries distinguished by their reserves. The problem of rational use of resources 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of one of the countries of Western Europe (Federal Republic of Germany) Ticket number 7 1. Land resources. Geographic differences in the provision of land resources. Problems of their rational use 2. Fuel and energy industry. Composition, importance in the economy, features of placement. The energy problem of mankind and ways to solve it. Environmental issues Ticket number 8 1. Land water resources and their distribution on the planet. The problem of water supply and possible solutions 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of the countries of Eastern Europe Ticket number 9 1. Forest resources of the world and their importance for the life and activities of mankind. Management issues 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of one of the countries of Eastern Europe (Poland) Ticket number 10 1. Resources of the World Ocean: water, mineral, energy and biological. Problems of rational use of the resources of the World Ocean 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of the USA Ticket number 11 1. Recreational resources and their distribution on the planet. The problem of rational use 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of Japan Ticket number 12 1. Environmental pollution and environmental problems of mankind. Types of pollution and their distribution. Ways to solve environmental problems 2. Agriculture. Compound. Features of development in developed and developing countries. Agriculture and environment Ticket number 13 1. World population and its changes. Natural population growth and factors influencing its changes. Two types of population reproduction and their distribution in different countries 2. Crop production: location boundaries, main crops and areas of their cultivation, exporting countries Ticket number 14 1. "Population explosion". The problem of population size and its features in different countries. Demographic policy 2. Chemical industry: composition, significance, placement features. Chemical industry and environmental issues Ticket number 15 1. Age and sex composition of the world's population. Geographic differences. Gender and age pyramids 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of the countries of Latin America Ticket number 16 1. The national composition of the world's population. Its changes and geographical differences. The largest cities in the world 2. Mechanical engineering is the leading branch of modern industry. Composition, features of placement. Countries that stand out in terms of the level of development of mechanical engineering Ticket number 17 1. Placement of the population on the territory of the Earth. Factors affecting the distribution of the population. Most densely populated areas in the world 2. Power industry: value, countries distinguished by absolute and per capita indicators of electricity production Ticket number 18 1. Migration of the population and their causes. Influence of migrations on population change, examples of internal and external migrations. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of the PRC Ticket number 19 1. Urban and rural population of the world. Urbanization. Major cities and urban agglomerations. Problems and consequences of urbanization in the modern world 2. Livestock. Distribution, main industries, placement features, exporting countries Ticket number 20 1. World economy: essence and main stages of formation. International geographical division of labor and its signs 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of one of the countries of Latin America (at the choice of the student). Ticket number 21 1. International economic integration. Economic groupings of the countries of the modern world 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of African countries Ticket number 22 1. Fuel industry: composition, location of the main areas of fuel production. Major producing and exporting countries. Major international fuel traffic 2. International economic relations: forms and geographical features Ticket number 23 1. Metallurgical industry: composition, placement features. Major producing and exporting countries. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of one of the African countries (at the student's choice) Ticket number 24 1. Forestry and woodworking industry: composition, placement. Geographic differences 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of Asian countries Ticket number 25 1. Light industry: composition, placement features. Problems and development prospects 2. "Newly industrialized countries" of Asia ANSWERS TO TICKETS Ticket number 1 1. The modern political map of the world: the variety of countries in the modern world, their main types The formation of the political map of the world is a continuous process that fixes the course of development of human society. The main object is the state - a country, the main feature of which is state sovereignty. Changes on the political map are divided into two main groups: quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative shifts: 1) increment of territory (accretions); 2) territorial gains or losses due to wars; 3) unification or disintegration of states; 4) voluntary concessions (or exchange) of land areas by countries. Qualitative shifts: 1) the introduction of new forms of government; 2) acquisition by the country of political sovereignty; 3) change of socio-economic formations (in Marxism); 4) formation of interstate political unions and organizations; 5) the appearance and disappearance of so-called "hot spots" on the planet - centers of international tension, regional and local conflicts. In the formation of the political map of the world, the following five periods can be distinguished: 1) ancient; 2) medieval; 3) new; 4) newest; 5) modern. This periodization reflects the main patterns of development of the political map. The ancient period (before the XNUMXth century AD) is associated with the formation of the first states, the spread of the slave system. The medieval period (V-XVI centuries) is associated with the era of feudalism. In the new period (XVI century - World War I), the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries begins, it is associated with the development of the capitalist socio-economic formation. The newest period (World War I - early 1990s) is marked by major changes on the political map of the world, which were caused by: 1) two world wars; 2) the October Revolution and the creation of socialist states; 3) the collapse of colonial empires; 4) the emergence of socialist and capitalist camps. The Second World War divides this period into two eras. The first was marked by the appearance of the USSR on the world stage and the collapse of European empires, in the place of each sovereign states were formed: Poland, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary, etc. The second is associated with the collapse of colonial empires (Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, the USA, Japan), as a result of which more than 100 independent states arose in Asia, Africa and Latin America, as well as with the final formation of military-political blocs. (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) and the confrontation of the superpowers (USA and the USSR). The modern period (since 1990) is marked by a number of events that have changed the political map of the world: 1) the collapse of the socialist camp; 2) the collapse of the USSR into fifteen sovereign states; 3) reunification of the FRG and the GDR; 4) the collapse of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia; 5) breakup of Yugoslavia into Serbia (and Montenegro), Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina; 6) isolation from Ethiopia and Erotren; 7) the reunification of Hong Kong with the PRC. About 240 countries and territories are represented on the modern political map of the world, including more than 190 sovereign states. For sovereign states, the main factor is membership in the United Nations (UN), by the end of 1998 there were 185 such countries. The main criteria for the typology of countries are: a) the size of the territory; b) population; c) geographical location; d) the level of socio-economic development. All countries are divided into several groups according to the size of the territory: 1) giant countries with an area of more than 3 million km2 (Russia, Canada, China, USA, Brazil, Australia, India); 2) large countries (France, Germany, Algeria, Mexico, Pakistan); 3) medium (Great Britain, Iraq, Paraguay, Morocco); 4) small (Slovenia, Sierra Leone, Bhutan, Suriname); 5) microstates (Liechtenstein, Bahrain, Singapore). In terms of population, we can distinguish: 1) giant countries with a population of more than 100 million people (China, India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil, Russia, Pakistan, Japan, Bangladesh, Nigeria); 2) large countries; 3) medium; 4) small; 5) microstates. According to the peculiarities of the geographical position of the country, they are distinguished depending on their location relative to geographical objects: 1) ocean (Brazil, Spain - the countries of the Atlantic basin); 2) individual regions (Morocco, Algeria, Magraba countries); 3) continent (USA, Nicaragua, countries of America); 4) geographical zones (Ecuador, Tibet - equatorial countries); 5) neighboring states; 6) insular position (Philippines, Japan - the countries of the archipelago); 7) access to the sea coast (there are a total of 36 landlocked countries, for example: Hungary, Afghanistan, Paraguay). According to the level of socio-economic development, all countries can be divided into two main types: economically developed countries and developing countries. The developed countries include: 1) the countries of the "big seven" (more recently the "big eight") - the USA, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Canada, France, Japan and Russia; 2) highly developed small countries (mainly in Western Europe) - Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, 3) countries of "settlement capital" (former dominions of Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and also Israel); 4) countries with an average level of development of capitalism: Ireland, Finland, Spain, Portugal, Greece; 5) "new industrial countries": South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Thailand; 6) "post-socialist countries" of Eastern Europe and the Baltic States: the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Hungary, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, etc. Developing countries include: 1) the so-called key countries: India, Brazil, Mexico; 2) oil-producing countries: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Brunei, Qatar, 3) states of "concession development of capitalism" - mostly small island countries (Caribbean - Barbados, Jamaica); 4) "classical" developing countries, this includes almost all African countries, a number of Latin American and Asian states, 5) the least developed countries such as Ethiopia, Mozambique, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Somalia, Chad, Benin, Afghanistan, Bangladesh; 6) among the countries of the modern world, a special place is occupied by China (PRC), the largest country in the world in terms of population. 2. Scientific and technological revolution: characteristic features and components The development of human civilization in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries is associated with scientific and technological progress (NTP. The most dramatic shifts in this area became possible from the middle of the XNUMXth century, when the main features of the scientific and technological revolution (NTR) were clearly identified. The main features of the scientific and technological revolution are: 1) universality and inclusiveness; 2) acceleration of scientific and technological transformations, which is expressed in the reduction to a minimum of the time interval between theoretical scientific development, project, discovery and their introduction into production, in the constant updating of technology; 3) increasing the requirements for the level of qualification of labor resources, i.e., a gradual increase in the number of scientific workers and people of intellectual labor; 4) militaristic orientation of scientific and technological revolution; Science is the most important component of scientific and technological revolution. In addition to the fact that science provides a constant increase in the knowledge intensity of production (science intensity is measured by the level of costs for research and development in the total cost of producing a particular product). Science in the era of scientific and technological revolution is defined by: a) expansion of research and development (R&D); b) training of new scientific personnel (improvement of the education system). Technique and technology are the embodiment of scientific discoveries, the use of scientific knowledge. The main task of using new technical achievements is to increase the efficiency of production, its optimization (labor-saving, science-saving and order-protective functions). In the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, further development of engineering and technology is possible in two ways: 1) evolutionary - with further improvement of existing equipment and technology; 2) revolutionary - with the transition to a fundamentally new technique and technology. Thus, the "second wave" of the scientific and technological revolution is associated with the invention of the microprocessor in the 70s. XNUMXth century It is called the microelectronic and microprocessor revolution. The priority areas for the development of engineering and technology in the era of scientific and technological revolution are: a) introduction of new, mainly physical and chemical technological processes; b) the introduction of electronic computing technology, robots, flexible production systems (FPS); c) the development of quantum technology (lasers); d) production of new means of communication (orbital satellites, etc.); e) intensification of old methods of technology. Management in the era of scientific and technological revolution is designed to solve a number of problems: a) to ensure the coordination of the development of science, technology, technology and production (the development of cybernetics, the creation of a single global information space, including the worldwide computer telecommunications system - the Internet, geographic informatics - geoinformatics and geographic information systems (GIS); b) to provide modern production with qualified management personnel - managers who own the science of management and are freely oriented in the modern information space. Ticket number 2 1. The main forms of state government and the state-territorial structure of countries There are two main forms of government: monarchical and republican. Monarchy (from the Greek monarhiu - autocracy, autocracy) is a form of government in which the supreme power in the state is formally (fully or partially) concentrated in the hands of the sole head of state - the monarch and, as a rule, is inherited. There are currently 30 monarchies. Monarchies can be: constitutional, absolute, theocratic. Under a constitutional monarchy, the power of the monarch (king, prince, emir, sultan) is limited on the basis of the basic law of a given country - the constitution (legislative functions are transferred to parliament, executive functions to the government). Under an absolute monarchy, the power of the monarch is almost unlimited. There are relatively few absolute monarchies on the modern political map, most of them are concentrated in the Persian Gulf (Saudi Arabia, Brunei, Bahrain, Katan, the United Arab Emirates, Oman). Under a theocratic monarchy (from the Greek theos - god), the monarch, being both an absolute secular sovereign and the head of the country's church, concentrates both state and spiritual power in his hands. The republican form of government is the most widespread in the modern world, the vast majority of states have this particular form of government. Republic (from Latin respublicu, from res - business and publicus - public, nationwide) - a form of government in which all the highest bodies of state power are either elected or formed by national representative institutions (parliaments). There are two main types of republics: presidential and parliamentary. In presidential republics, the elected president is the head of state and head of government, endowed with broad powers (USA, Argentina, Brazil). In parliamentary republics, the main principle is the supremacy of the parliament, to which the government bears collective responsibility. Thus, it is not the president who is considered the head of state (although such a position often exists in parliamentary republics), but the prime minister of the government, who, as a rule, is the leader of the ruling party (having a numerical majority in the country's parliament) (Italy, Germany, Israel, India) . The main forms of administrative-territorial structure are: unitary and federal. A unitary state (from Latin unitas - unity) has such a form of administrative-territorial structure, in which the country has a single legislative and executive power, and its territory does not include self-governing entities (administrative units have only executive, but not legislative power) ). A federal state (from Latin ocderatio - union, association) has such a form of administrative-territorial structure, in which, along with a single federal law for the entire state and authorities, there are separate self-governing territorial units (provinces, provinces, lands, states, republics), having their own laws, as well as bodies of all branches of government. Currently, there are only 22 countries with a federal structure. 2. The composition and structure of the world economy, their changes in the era of scientific and technological revolution The world economy is a historically composed system of interdependent national economies, united by a system of international division of labor and interconnected by worldwide economic and political relations. There are several key stages in the history of the formation of the world economy: 1) the industrial revolution of the XVIII-XIX centuries; 2) the second industrial revolution at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries; 3) scientific and technological revolution of the second half of the XNUMXth century. The main components of the modern world economy are: a) a large machine industry that arose during the period of the first and finally formed during the period of the second industrial revolution; b) the global transport network and modern transport; c) the world market, which began its formation already in the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries and completed its formation at the turn of the XNUMXth and XNUMXth centuries. Thus, we can say that the system of the world economy (and the international division of labor) took shape in modern forms at the turn of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. The most important concept of the geography of the world economy is the international (geographical, territorial) division of labor (MRT), which is expressed in the stable production of goods and services in individual countries (or regions of the world) in excess of domestic needs based on the international market. The objective result of the international division of labor is a branch of international specialization. The degree of development of MRI is determined by the participation of individual countries in international exchange (it is highest in ecologically developed countries). The further development of international specialization is facilitated by factors associated with the development of scientific and technological progress: the acceleration of obsolescence of products, the growth in the capacity of enterprises, etc. In the era of scientific and technological revolution, intra-industry and technological specialization acquired particular importance. Thus, three main processes in the modern world economy can be distinguished: a) international economic integration; b) internationalization of economic life; c) globalization of the economy. To study the structure of the world economy, the interpretation of world history developed by the American sociologist Daniel Bell through the prism of technology and knowledge is usually used, according to which human society in its development goes through three successive stages: pre-industrial, industrial, post-industrial, each of which corresponds to a certain type of economic structure. It should be borne in mind that this division is primarily characteristic of the advanced countries of Europe and North America. The world economy can be characterized in terms of its sectoral structure. The main industries are: 1) industry; 2) agriculture; 3) infrastructure (transport and communications); 4) other industries (including services: tourism, business, information). In the era of scientific and technological revolution, there have been significant changes in the sectoral structure: the share of extractive industries is decreasing and the share of manufacturing industries is growing, science-intensive industries, primarily associated with the development of electronics, mechanical engineering, and the chemical industry, are of the greatest importance. In agriculture, the changes that have taken place on the wave of scientific and technological revolution are usually associated with the so-called "green revolution" - the transformation of the agricultural sector of the economy on the basis of modern agricultural technology. Scientific and technological revolution has had a great impact on the development of certain modes of transport. So, in the world cargo turnover, the out-of-competition first place belongs to sea transport (more than 60%), in the world passenger turnover - to road transport (about 75%), air transport is becoming increasingly important - the youngest and most knowledge-intensive. The territorial structure of the economy in developed and developing countries is not the same: in developed countries, the structure of the economy is saturated with industrial areas, urban agglomerations, transport hubs, etc. In developed countries, a special system of interconnected economic regions has developed, which include: 1) highly developed areas, or more favorable for science-intensive and non-manufacturing industries (California in the USA); 2) machine tool areas that emerged in the industrial era and are characterized by a high concentration of heavy industry enterprises (the Ruhr in Germany); 3) agrarian areas, which can be either backward areas with extensive development (southern Italy), or areas of intensive agricultural production (Netherlands, Denmark); 4) areas of new development, usually located in sparsely populated (North), hard-to-reach (mountains) regions, promising for one reason or another (availability of natural resources). In developing countries there is a so-called "colonial" type of territorial structure. Thus, the main center in developing countries is often the capital - the most developed region of the country; the auxiliary regions are the territories that ensure the participation of the country in the MRT, i.e., the regions of the mining industry and the regions of plantation agriculture. The rest of the country's territory, as a rule, retains the agrarian (pre-industrial) structure of the economy with the requirements characteristic of these areas: poverty, lack of infrastructure, etc. To obtain a general picture of the world economy, various models based on geographical and economic indicators are usually used. Thus, the model can be two-term, if we take into account socio-economic development: developed and developing countries. Combining geographical location and economic development, it is also possible to build a model of two elements: a developed North and a backward South. By highlighting individual centers in the world economy, it is possible to build a decimal model: 1) Western Europe; 2) North America; 3) China; 4) Japan; 5) new industrial countries of Asia; 6) India; 7) Brazil; 8) Russia and the CIS; 9) countries of the Persian Gulf; 10) Mexico. Ticket number 3 1. Geographical environment and its role in the life of mankind The geographical environment is a part of the earth's nature with which human society directly interacts in its life and production activities in a given historical period. The geographical environment is a necessary condition for the life of mankind, it serves as a source of resources, habitat, has a direct and indirect impact on all spheres of life of human society. The environment is the habitat and production activity of human society, it is the entire material world surrounding a person, including the natural and anthropogenic environment. Human society cannot exist outside the natural environment, especially since the dependence of man on nature does not weaken with the development of science and technology, only the needs and degree of influence of mankind on nature change. 2. Factors affecting the distribution of productive forces and their change in the era of scientific and technological revolution It is customary to single out two main classes of factors for the distribution of productive forces: the old ones, which arose in the industrial era, and the new ones, which became relevant in the era of scientific and technological revolution. 1. Natural conditions and resources. Natural conditions are those objects of the natural environment that are not directly involved in production. Natural resources are those natural elements (mainly minerals) that are involved in the production process as the main or auxiliary raw materials. 2. Territory. The territory factor, i.e. the size of the country, region, providing a particular structure of the economy, is one of the most important ... 3. Labor resources (socio-economic factor). This factor includes: the geography of the population, the territorial concentration of labor resources, the qualitative characteristics of human resources (belonging to the economically active population, qualifications, education, skills, national and religious affiliation, gender, age, etc.). In the era of scientific and technological revolution, the relocation of industries to sources of cheap labor resources, as well as global migrations of the working population, become relevant. 4. Technical and economic factors. Technical and economic factors determine the amount of costs for the production and circulation of finished products and raw materials in a given territory. In the era of scientific and technological revolution, the indicator of science intensity acquired the greatest importance. 5. Transport factor. The transport factor, which played a certain role in the industrial era, retained its significance in the post-industrial period: expanding economic ties, the latest transport forms areas of new development and overcomes the territorial gap between the areas of production and consumption of products. 6. Economic and geographical position (EGP). Usually, several types of economic and geographical position are distinguished: central, peripheral, border, deep, coastal, transit. One of the most profitable types of EGP is the coastal one, which not only did not reduce its importance in the era of scientific and technological revolution, but also increased it (industrial coastal complexes focused on imported raw materials - Rotterdam, cities of Japan). 7. Organizational and economic factors. They include: a) specialization of production; b) cooperation; c) combination; d) territorial concentration. 8. Features of socio-historical development as a factor in the distribution of productive forces have not lost their relevance in the era of post-industrial materialization and globalization. The following factors can be considered as new placement factors. 1. Science intensity factor. In the era of scientific and technological revolution, new forms of territorial organization of scientific research and technical developments merged: technoparks and technopolises. The technopark is a kind of agglomeration of science-intensive firms grouped around a large university, research institute, laboratory; the main task of this education is to minimize the time for introducing scientific ideas into production. Technopolis is a specially created integrated research and production town, a satellite of the industrial and scientific center, focusing on the development of the latest technologies, the selection of scientific personnel, and the development of high-tech industries. The presence of different centers in the era of scientific and technological revolution became one of the most important factors in the location of industry, not only science-intensive, but also industrial sectors. 2. Environmental factor. The environmental factor was mainly of a limiting nature: further concentration of production in the second half of the XNUMXth century. has become difficult due to: lack of territories, lack of natural resources, environmental degradation in the most urbanized and industrialized areas, rising costs for the treatment of industrial waste and emissions. Thus, after considering the old and new factors of the location of production forces, we can conclude that the leading role of scientific and technological revolution in the modern world economy. Ticket number 5 1. Types of natural resources. Resource availability. Assessment of the resource endowment of the country Nature as a human habitat (existence and activity) is the main source of meeting the needs of human society, acting as a supplier of the necessary resources. All natural resources can be divided into two main groups depending on the possibility or impossibility of their full or partial replenishment: 1) exhaustible; 2) inexhaustible (practically inexhaustible). Exhaustible natural resources, in turn, are divided into: Renewable, i.e. those that can be partially restored due to the regenerative forces of nature; non-renewable resources, their recovery is impossible (at least at this stage of scientific and technological development and in the foreseeable future). Renewable natural resources include: 1) land; 2) water; 3) biological. Non-renewable natural resources include mineral resources (minerals), which are divided into three main groups. 1. Fuel minerals; 2. Ore; 3. Nonmetallic. Inexhaustible natural resources are mainly sources of energy resources, which are currently used very little. Almost inexhaustible natural resources include: 1) solar energy; 2) the energy of ebbs and flows; 3) wind energy; 4) hydropower resources; 5) the energy of the internal earth heat. use subdividing them into: Resource availability is the ratio between the scale of use and the size of natural resources, expressed in the number of years required for the final use of a particular resource (or reserves per capita). Thus, the resource availability of a country is determined by: 1) the presence of natural resources on its territory (their quantity, composition, convenience for extraction, use, transportation); 2) the scale of development of natural resources. As a result of the uneven distribution of natural resources, different regions and countries of the world are characterized by different resource availability. According to the degree of resource availability, countries are distinguished: · the most resource-provided (Russia, USA, Canada, China, India); · satisfactorily secured (Sweden, Argentina); • low-income (they may also include developed countries, such as Japan); • provided with one or more resources (their export can become an industry of international specialization for the country, for example, the countries of the Persian Gulf are distinguished by oil reserves, Gabon - manganese). The main indicators taken into account when assessing the country's resource availability are: 1) the amount of natural resources; 2) the amount of natural resources per capita; 3) conditions for the allocation of resources (climatic zone, depth of occurrence); 4) profitability of resource development; 5) range of resources; 6) possibility of transportation; 7) the possibility of locating processing facilities in the places of extraction; 8) consequences for the ecology of the region. 2. The importance of transport in the world economy, modes of transport and their features. Transport and environment Transport is one of the leading branches of material production, forming the basis of the geographical division of labor. Transport can be characterized by: 1) the level and structure of the economy of the country or region; 2) location of productive forces in a region or country. There are two main types of transport systems: 1) the transport system of a developed region (country), which is distinguished by: a) high technical level; b) significant length and quality of communication lines; c) high mobility of the population; 2) the transport system of a developing region (country), characterized by: a) the predominance of one or two modes of transport; b) unsatisfactory density of the transport network; c) low mobility of the population; d) unsatisfactory technical condition of transport routes and park. All types of transport are usually grouped according to the geographical areas of its application: 1) land (land): road, rail, pipeline; 2) water: sea, inland water; 3) air. Transport is one of the most important sectors of the world economy, however, it is transport in the XNUMXth century. has become an international factor in environmental pollution. The environmental problems caused directly by transport include: 1) pollution of the atmosphere by exhaust gases (automobile, air transport); 2) "noise pollution" (all modes of transport); 3) constant growth of anthropogenic objects of transport purpose (roads, airports, etc.); 4) pollution of the hydrosphere by oil products and other substances (water transport). The main measures to protect the environment in the transport sector are: · electrification of railway tracks; transfer of vehicles to alternative (environmentally friendly) fuel sources; Restriction of the movement of vehicles in certain regions (environmental zones, densely populated cities); Improvement of transport technology (its ecology). Ticket number 6 1. Patterns of distribution of mineral resources and countries distinguished by their reserves. The problem of rational use of resources Mineral natural resources are a set of reserves (developed, explored, prospective) of minerals that can be used in various sectors of the economy to meet the needs of human society both in modern conditions and in the future. Mineral resources are exhaustible and non-renewable natural resources and are divided into three main groups: 1) fuel minerals: coal, oil, natural gas, other types of fuel and energy resources (including oil shale, etc.); 2) ore minerals: iron ore, non-ferrous metal ores; 3) non-metallic minerals: building materials, chemical raw materials (chemical elements mined in the earth's crust), precious, ornamental and technical stones, hydro-mineral resources (underground fresh and mineralized waters). One of the most important problems of modern society is the rational use of mineral resources, since with the non-renewability of this type of resources, their extraction and use are constantly expanding. Rational use of mineral resources involves: 1) comprehensive development of fossil raw materials (the fullest possible use of minerals); 2) recycling (re-use) of mineral raw materials. According to the degree of rationality and wastelessness, the following types of production are distinguished: absolutely waste-free (100% is an abstract, practically unattainable indicator at this stage of development of engineering and technology); waste-free (90-98%); low-waste (75-90%). 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of one of the countries of Western Europe (Federal Republic of Germany) At present, Germany is the most economically developed state in Western Europe. Economic and geographical position. The Federal Republic of Germany covers an area of 357 thousand km2 and is the fifth largest state in Western Europe (after France, Spain, Sweden, Norway). Form of government and administrative-territorial structure. The form of government of Germany is a parliamentary republic. According to the form of the administrative-territorial structure of the Federal Republic of Germany is a federal state. Each federal state has elected legislative bodies, the government. In terms of population, Germany leads among European countries, second only to the Russian Federation. It is home to more than 82 million people. The national composition of Germany is relatively homogeneous - Germans make up over 90% of the country's population. The official language is German (the language of the Germanic group of the Indo-European family). According to the confessional composition, Protestants (Lutherans) and Catholics are distinguished. Natural conditions and resources. The climate in Germany is predominantly temperate, maritime and transitional from maritime to continental (in the East); precipitation ranges from 600 to 1000 mm (annual averages). The most important minerals of Germany are: coal, brown coal, potash salts, iron ore, lead, zinc and others. Germany has access to the oil fields of the North Sea. The recreational resources of Germany are significant (especially cultural and historical sights: the main cultural eras of Western Europe (from the period of the Roman Empire) are represented on the territory of Germany, huge cultural values \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbare concentrated (including the Gothic cathedrals of a number of German cities). Economy. The level of economic development of Germany is one of the highest in the world; the country is in the top ten countries in terms of GDP per capita; occupies a worthy place in the GXNUMX, takes an active part in Western European politics and economic integration (within the European Union). The structure of the German economy is typical for countries at the post-industrial stage of development: agriculture - 2%, industry - 38%, services - 60%. Transport. The most important modes of transport in Germany are: automobile; railway; internal water; marine; · The country also has a network of air routes and pipelines. The non-manufacturing sector in Germany prevails in the economic structure, its most important sectors are: a) financial and banking services; b) tourism and hotel services; c) scientific developments; d) education (Germany is a country of classical university education). The environmental problems of Germany are typical for the countries of Western Europe: a) the disappearance of natural landscapes and the hypertrophy of anthropogenic landscapes; b) significant anthropogenic pollution of the environment. However, it is in Germany that there are the largest number of protected areas in Europe - 472 (total area 88 thousand km2- about 25% of the country). Ticket number 7 1. Land resources. Geographic differences in the provision of land resources. Problems of their rational use Land is one of the most important natural resources, used by man since ancient times to meet primary social needs. The earth as a natural object is characterized by: 1) irreproducibility; 2) limited land fund; 3) heterogeneity (certain properties of land in certain regions determine the profile of their economic use.) The totality of land resources in terms of area corresponds to the land surface of the planet (29% of the surface). The land fund of the world is 131 billion hectares, of which only 40% are in economic development (agricultural land and other anthropogenic landscapes). The rest of the territories, occupying 60% of the world's land fund, include: a) mountain ranges and ranges, plateaus, etc.; b) territories bound by permafrost, as well as glaciers and polar regions; c) deserts and semi-deserts unsuitable for agriculture; d) wetlands; e) jungle and taiga forests (tropical and equatorial forests of the southern belt and coniferous forests of the northern). In the structure of the world land fund, 5 main elements are distinguished, determining their sizes and percentages: 1) cultivated land (arable land, orchards, plantations) - 1450 million hectares (11%); 2) meadows and pastures - 3400 million hectares (26%); 3) forests and shrubs - 4100 million hectares (32%); 4) anthropogenic landscapes characterized by the final transformation of the environment - 450 million hectares (3%); 5) unproductive and unproductive lands (swamps, deserts, glaciers, etc.) - 3700 million hectares (28%). Among the measures for the protection of land resources, the following most important ones can be distinguished: 1) reclamation (restoration) of lands degraded under the influence of human economic activity; 2) slowing down the process of reduction of cultivated land: a) expansion of underground structures; b) increasing the number of storeys of buildings; c) minimizing the area of production facilities; 3) fight (up to a direct ban) against industrial, agricultural and household emissions polluting the Earth's lithosphere; 4) increasing soil fertility without harming the environment, as well as the use of alternative sources of products: products of chemical synthesis (protein and other substances), products obtained from the industrial cultivation of microorganisms. 2. Fuel and energy industry. Composition, importance in the economy, features of placement. The energy problem of mankind and ways to solve it. Environmental issues The entire history of human society, in a very simplified way, can be represented as a sequence of periods of use of various energy resources (various types of fuel and energy). The fuel and energy industry is a complex industry that has fuel and energy resources of various types as a natural basis and is subdivided as a single fuel and energy complex (FEC) into a number of sub-sectors: 1) extraction and processing of fuel resources (oil, gas and coal industry); 2) electricity production (thermal power industry, hydroelectric power industry, nuclear power industry, electric power industry using alternative energy sources); 3) distribution and transportation of fuel and electricity (including gas and oil pipeline transport, power lines). Thus, at present, the key sectors of the fuel and energy complex are: oil, coal and gas industries. In the era of the scientific and technological revolution, the electric power industry, the most science-intensive branch of the fuel and energy industry, acquired the greatest importance. The global structure of electricity generation is as follows: a) thermal power plants (TPP) - 60%; b) hydroelectric power plants (HPP) - 20%; c) nuclear power plants (NPP) - 18%; d) power plants using alternative energy sources (solar (solar), tidal, wind, geothermal) - 2%. Thus, it is clear that the use of fossil raw materials for the production of electricity predominates. Environmental protection within the fuel and energy industry is possible in the following areas: 1) a change in the existing structure of world energy production (the share of thermal power in the total air pollution is over 30%), i.e. the rejection of thermal power plants and the transition to other (including alternative) energy sources; 2) ensuring the safety of power plants (this is especially true for nuclear power plants); 3) more rational and economical use of primary energy resources, electricity; 4) total electrification of all industrial facilities and vehicles; 5) the gradual introduction and use of new energy sources (for example, biofuels: gas and diesel fuel based on vegetable oils, hydrogen fuel). Ticket number 8 1. Land water resources and their distribution on the planet. The problem of water supply and possible solutions Land water resources are the total amount of fresh water suitable for economic use (rivers, lakes, underground reservoirs, soil moisture, ice, canals, artificial reservoirs). Fresh water is approximately 3% of the total volume of the planet's hydrosphere, especially since the available and most convenient for economic use river waters (channel waters) - about 40 thousand km (with an annual consumption of 5 thousand km) are a minority in the total volume of fresh waters of the Earth, the vast majority of which is conserved in the glaciers of Antarctica, Arctic ice, mountain glaciers. The main consumers of fresh water at present are: a) agriculture (mainly in the field of artificial irrigation); b) industry and energy; c) public utilities. The distribution of fresh water resources on the planet is extremely uneven and is determined (for a particular region (country)): 1) the total volume of water resources (all fresh water of the region), including: a) natural water bodies (rivers, lakes); b) artificial reservoirs (reservoirs, canals); c) glaciers, underground waters and other sources of hydro resources; 2) the size of the river; 3) moisture circulation (pronounced water balance - the ratio of the amount of water evaporating from the land surface and the amount of water entering the land surface of a given region in the form of precipitation); 4) hydropower potential of a given region (country). The problem of water supply has become even more aggravated due to the constant growth of the population (especially in developing countries), and consequently, with an increase in the need for food products, which in many regions of the world can no longer be satisfied without the use of irrigated agriculture. Possible ways to solve the problem of shortage of hydro resources and water supply at present are: 1) reduction of water capacity: production processes; · agricultural production, which accounts for the majority of irretrievable losses of fresh water (artificial irrigation); the public utility sector; 2) search for new sources of water. The following activities are possible in this direction: desalination of sea water; · more active use of groundwater; redistribution of different stocks; collection of rain and melt water; · towing of icebergs from the polar regions; 3) reduction of pollution of the hydrosphere; 4) chemical and filtration treatment of wastewater (as well as water resources in economic circulation) up to the introduction of closed recycling water use. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of the countries of Eastern Europe Eastern Europe is a special sub-region of Europe, which is a single (and relatively narrow) territorial array stretching from the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea to the Adriatic and Black Seas. Modern Eastern Europe consists of 15 states, more than half of which were formed as a result of political and geographical shifts at the end of the XNUMXth century. The economic and geographical position of Eastern Europe is characterized by: 1) the coastal position of most countries in the region; 2) transit position between the countries of Western Europe and the CIS countries; 3) typical for Europe, the neighboring position of countries relative to each other ... The political map of the region is quite diverse: a) by the size of the territory; b) by the form of government; c) in the form of an administrative-territorial structure. d) in terms of the level of socio-economic development in the region, there are quite significant differences between individual countries. The population of Eastern Europe is noticeably smaller in quantitative terms than the population of Western Europe - about 140 million people. Ethnically dominated by Slavic peoples speaking the language of the Slavic group of the Indo-European language family. Among the peoples who speak the languages of other groups of the Indo-European family, the following stand out: Lithuanians and Latvians (Baltic group), Romanians (Romance group), Albanians (Albanian group), Estonians and Hungarians speak the languages of the Finno-Ugric group of the Ural family. As for the countries of Western Europe, the countries of Eastern Europe are characterized by low natural population growth. Natural conditions and resources. Most of Eastern Europe is located in the temperate zone. The amount of precipitation (annual averages) exceeds the evaporation or possible evaporation in almost the entire region. The relief of Eastern Europe is very diverse: there are extensive lowlands and mountain ranges. Cultivated lands predominate in the structure of the land fund; hydropower resources are great, including hydropower. Significant reserves of mineral resources are concentrated on the territory of Eastern Europe: a) primary energy resources; b) ore resources. Recreational resources are diverse: natural and recreational and cultural and historical sights. Industry. In most Eastern European countries, heavy industry emerged in the post-war period and there are currently 20 large industrial centers in the region. Engineering. Mechanical engineering is one of the leading industries in Eastern Europe. Chemical industry. The chemical industry in Eastern Europe is not a dynamic industry, but there are large chemical enterprises in some countries. The energy base of the region is made up of both domestic raw materials and imported ones. The metallurgical industry of the region works by exporting ore (ferrous metallurgy), non-ferrous metallurgy relies mainly on domestic raw materials. The timber industry, for objective reasons, is a secondary industry. Light industry is much more developed (the manufacture of cotton and woolen fabrics, the production of footwear, etc.). The region's agriculture is sufficiently developed to provide food for its own population, but its export potential is not fully utilized. As in Western Europe, Eastern Europe is characterized by similar types of agriculture: a) northern European; b) South European; c) Central European. Transport. The dominant mode of transport in Eastern Europe is rail. The most dynamically developing road transport (predominant in Western Europe), as well as maritime transport: the region has a large number of first-class ports. The development of inland water transport is of great importance for the region. Environmental protection. The environmental problems of Eastern Europe are typical for the entire continent: a) the gradual disappearance of natural and uncontrolled growth of anthropogenic landscapes; b) excessive pollution of the environment, especially in industrial countries and old industrial areas. In contrast to the countries of Western Europe, environmental programs in Eastern Europe are recorded unsatisfactorily. However, significant progress is already being made in protecting the region's environment (the norms and standards of the European Union play an important role in this). Ticket number 9 1. Forest resources of the world and their importance for the life and activities of mankind. Management issues Forest resources are one of the most important components of the planet's biosphere. According to the generally accepted classification, forest resources are classified as exhaustible resources, whose restoration is possible (renewable resources). Currently, forests occupy about 1/4 of the earth's land surface. World forest resources are evaluated by two main indicators: 1) forest cover - the ratio of areas covered with forests to the total area (the size of the world's forest area is about 4 billion hectares); 2) wood reserves, which include standing wood - available, not yet cut down forests. This indicator is determined by the amount of wood in m3 (modern wood reserves are estimated at 325 billion m3, annual growth - 5,5 billion m3, annual harvest - 5 billion m3). The provision of certain regions of the world with forest resources depends on many factors, including climatic, geographical, and anthropogenic. World forests are divided into four groups: 1) tropical and equatorial forests; 2) subtropical; 3) mixed and broad-leaved forests of temperate latitudes; 4) coniferous forests. The problems of providing the population of the Earth with forest resources and the problem of rational use of these resources are becoming more and more urgent nowadays. Every year, 125 km of forests are cut down all over the world, which ensures the global timber harvesting in the amount of 5 billion m3 (which in its degree almost corresponds to the volume of annual natural increase - 5,5 billion m3). Thus, there is a gradual reduction in the planet's forest area (over the past 200 years, the Earth's forest area has decreased by 2 times). The modern attitude to the forest resources of the Earth should contain two main points. 1. Protection of the planet's forest cover from the negative anthropogenic factors listed above. 2. Rational, integrated and recycled use of forest resources: a) integrated use of harvested raw materials (not only wood, but also leaves, branches, tree bark); b) reduction of losses during primary processing and further processing of wood (use of sawdust, second-rate and non-standard boards); c) reverse (secondary and multiple) use of forest resources, up to the introduction of non-waste technologies. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of one of the countries of Eastern Europe (Poland) The Republic of Poland is one of the leading states of Eastern Europe, playing an important role not only in the regional but also in the European economy. The economic and geographical position of Poland is characterized by: a) seaside; b) central position at the junction point of several sub-regions of Europe; c) neighboring and transit position. Natural conditions and resources. Relief. About 63% of the territory in the north and in the center of the country is occupied by the Polish Lowland. Of the hills, one can distinguish: the Baltic Ridge in the north, the Lublin and Lesser Poland Uplands in the southeast and south, the Sudetes, the Western and Eastern Carpathians along the southern border. The climate is temperate, moving from oceanic to continental (continentality increases from west to east). On the plains, 500-600 mm of precipitation falls, in mountainous areas - up to 1800 mm (on average in the mountains - 800-1000 mm). Inland waters are mainly represented by a dense river network belonging to the Baltic Sea basin. Form of government and administrative-territorial structure. Poland is a republic with a bicameral parliament. Since 1989, the President of the Republic of Poland has been considered the official head of state. According to the form of the administrative-territorial structure, Poland is a unitary state, subdivided into 49 territorial units. The population of Poland is one of the most homogeneous in Europe: over 98% are ethnic Poles who speak the Polish language of the Slavic group of the Indo-European language family. In addition to the Poles, Ukrainians and Belarusians live in the east of the country, Slovaks live in the south (other ethnic groups: Lithuanians, Russians, Jews are insignificant). The vast majority of the country's believers are adherents of the Roman Catholic Church, and Lutheran Protestantism is widespread in the north. In terms of population, Poland occupies a leading position among the countries of Eastern Europe - 38,7 million people. The share of urban population in Poland is relatively low for the European region - about 65%. Poland's economy is one of the most dynamic in the region. Poland's industry is the most important component of the general economic image of the country. The fuel and energy complex of Poland is characterized by: a) the use of both domestic (hard and brown coal, natural gas) and purchased (oil) fossil fuels; b) the predominance of thermal power plants in the production of electricity. Engineering. The following machine-building industries have received the greatest development in Poland: transport (marine vessels, automobiles, wagons, etc.), agricultural, electrical and radio-electronic, and the production of industrial equipment. Metallurgical industry. Ferrous metallurgy works on its own coke and imported ore raw materials. Non-ferrous metallurgy specializes in smelting: zinc, lead and aluminum, copper. Agriculture is typical of the Central European zone. Most of the products of the agricultural sector of the economy are produced by small individual farms. Crop production specializes in the following crops: potatoes, rye, barley, wheat, sugar beets. Vegetable growing and horticulture on an industrial scale exist in the south of the country and near the largest cities (Warsaw, Lodz) in the center. Animal husbandry is predominantly meat and dairy, pig breeding is highly developed, in the south of the country (in the Carpathians) there are separate areas with a predominance of mountain pasture animal husbandry. Transport in Poland is characterized by: 1) the predominance of rail transport; 2) significant development of road transport. 3) a developed system of inland waterways; 4) the great role of maritime transport in the country's economy. Poland, in terms of its economic and natural resource potential, ranks first not only among the Eastern European Baltic countries, but also among the countries of Eastern Europe. Ticket number 10 1. Resources of the World Ocean: water, mineral, energy and biological. Problems of rational use of the resources of the World Ocean The World Ocean occupies 70,8% of the planet's surface, being at the same time the most important part of the Earth's hydrosphere (96,4%). The oceans are one of the main sources of resources used to meet all groups of needs of human society. All ocean resources currently used and promising can be divided into 4 types: 1) water; 2) mineral; 3) energy; 4) biological. The water resources of the oceans are the entire volume of water contained in the oceans, seas, bays and straits. Sea water reserves are approximately 1370 million km. The mineral resources of the World Ocean can be divided into 2 main groups: 1) chemical elements contained in ocean water; 2) mineral resources of the ocean floor. The energy resources of the World Ocean are the energy of the natural processes occurring in it. All resources of this type are currently classified as alternative energy sources, but their potential is enormous. The biological resources of the World Ocean are the totality of the flora and fauna of the seas and oceans, the biomass of the ocean (over 140 species of animals and plants). The environmental problems of the oceans include: · Intensive involvement of the resources of the World Ocean in economic circulation; pollution of the waters of the seas and oceans; · reduction of biological productivity and opportunities for natural reproduction of ocean biomass due to unlimited fishing of seafood and the above types of pollution. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of the USA The United States of America is a state in North America, which occupies the 4th place in the world in terms of territory (9 thousand km). The United States has land borders with Canada (8893 km) and Mexico (3326 km). The territory of the military base in Guantanamo borders on Cuba (29 km). The economic and geographical position of the United States is characterized by: 1) coastal position; 2) neighboring position in relation to two states of North America - Canada and Mexico; 3) remoteness from the centers of the largest world wars and conflicts. The form of government in the United States is a presidential republic. In the form of the administrative-territorial structure of the United States - a federation of 50 states and 1 federal. Each state has: a) own legislation and legal system; b) legislative and executive authorities; c) an elected governor; d) own symbolism. In terms of population, the United States occupies the 3rd place in the world - over 280 million people. The ethnic composition of the United States is extremely diverse, but despite the fact that the American nation is a product of a mixture of immigrants from different parts of the world, the main ethnic groups can be distinguished: White Americans - 83,5%; African-Americans - 12,4%; · immigrants from Asia - 3,3%; Aborigines - 0,8%. The official language is English, which belongs to the Germanic group of the Indo-European language family. Among the believers stand out: Protestants - 56%, Catholics - 28%, Jews - 2%, other confessional groups - 4%. The USA is one of the most urbanized countries in the world: the share of the urban population exceeds 75%. In the field of urban settlement in the United States, two processes that determine the face of the country can be noted. 1. The emergence of megacities. 2. Suburbanization. The rural population of the United States is characterized by a farming form of settlement. Relief. About 40% of the territory of the United States is occupied by mountain ranges, plateaus and the Cordillera plateau. Between the Appalachians and the Cordillera are vast plains. The climate is predominantly temperate and subtropical continental. Precipitation is from 100 mm on the internal plateaus and plateaus to 3000-4000 mm on the East coast. Mineral resources in the United States are very diverse. Hydro resources. At present, inland water shipping lines have not lost their significance. Forest resources are severely depleted. The land resources of the United States are developed quite fully: most of the main territory of the country is cultivated land. At the beginning of the XX century. The United States has become the leader in terms of industrial production in the world. The structure of the US economy is typical for states that have entered the post-industrial path of development: a) agriculture - 2%; b) industry - 26%; c) the service sector - 72%. The US fuel and energy complex has significant reserves of domestic fuel raw materials: oil reserves - 3,8 billion tons, natural gas - 4,5 trillion m, coal - 3,6 trillion tons, and hydropower - 700 billion kW / h. However, over 60% of all US needs for minerals and fuel are covered by imports. The structure of electricity production in the United States is characterized by the predominance of thermal power plants: thermal power plants - 68%, hydroelectric power plants - 9,8%, nuclear power plants - 21,7%. US ferrous metallurgy is concentrated in the regions where the main iron reserves are located. Non-ferrous metallurgy is developed in the mountain states and near the energy complexes of the Tennessee and Columbia rivers. Mechanical engineering in the United States is territorially tied to large cities and agglomerations, for example, the country's megacities coincide with the three most important machine-building regions. The US chemical industry is one of the largest in the world. The main center of the oil and gas chemical industry is the states in the oil and gas basin of the Gulf of Mexico. The US agriculture is one of the most technically equipped and knowledge-intensive in the world. The main part of the production is provided by large private industrial-type farms. Over 53% of all marketable products produced by the agro-industrial complex fall on animal husbandry, 47% - on crop production. Fishing is developed (fish catch is about 4,5 million tons per year). US transport is a separate branch of the economy. It surpasses any country both in the length of the transport network and in the development of all types of transport. Among the modes of transport, the leader is undoubtedly automobile (6,3 million km of roads, over 200 million cars). Water transport is developed on the Great Lakes, the Mississippi and its tributaries, the Yukon River in Alaska. The country has a network of oil pipelines, mainly connecting the oil development area (Gulf of Mexico, California) with industrial centers. A major role is played by maritime transport serving US foreign trade. Developed air transport; transatlantic and transpacific lines are of particular importance. Foreign economic relations are extremely important for the American economy (the United States ranks first in the world in terms of foreign trade turnover). Over 15% of industrial production and about 40% of agricultural products are exported. The non-manufacturing sector (service sector) is the main branch of the American economy, providing over 80% of the total increase in employment in the country. The United States, both historically and economically, is by no means a single whole, but an extremely dynamic economy has now ensured a certain uniformity of the whole country both in terms of living standards and economic development. Ticket number 11 1. Recreational resources and their distribution on the planet. The problem of rational use In the total number of resources needed by human society for normal life, recreational resources have now become of great importance. Recreation (from Latin reсreutio - restoration) is understood as rest and restoration of human strength expended in the labor process, which are combined with treatment, restoration of health and activities consciously or instinctively aimed at this restoration. Recreational resources that directly or indirectly contribute to the restoration of physical, intellectual, creative forces and human capabilities include natural and anthropogenic phenomena and objects that can be used for recreation, tourism, and treatment. Recreation can be of two types: 1) passive: a) recreational and medical resources; b) recreational and health-improving resources; 2) active: a) recreational and sports resources; b) recreational and educational resources. There is another typology of recreational resources, namely, their division into natural and anthropogenic objects: natural and recreational resources and cultural and historical sights. There are several main natural and recreational resources. 1. Coasts of the seas, rivers, lakes involved in recreation. 2. Mountain ranges. 3. Forests. 4. Outputs of mineral springs and therapeutic mud 5. Natural and recreational areas are divided into: 1) green areas, parks and city squares 2) national parks, nature reserves and other protected areas. Cultural and historical sights include: 1) architectural ensembles and monuments; 2) museums. The problems of rational use of recreational resources include: 1) environmental problems; 2) problems associated with the irrational use of natural objects. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of Japan Among Asian countries, Japan occupies a special place: in addition to a unique and ancient culture, Japan has the most dynamically developing economy not only in Asia, but also in the Pacific region. The EGP of Japan is characterized by: a) position in the center of the Asia-Pacific region; b) insular position; c) neighboring position in relation to the largest civilizational center of East Asia. Japan's form of government is a constitutional monarchy. The highest body of executive power is the government. Japan is a unitary state divided into 9 regions, including 46 prefectures (2 prefectures are urban) and one metropolitan area. The population of Japan is homogeneous, over 99% of the population are ethnic Japanese. The official language is Japanese. Among the religious denominations, Buddhism and the national religion of Japan, Shintoism, predominate. In terms of population, Japan is one of the top ten countries in this indicator, ranking sixth in Asia (126 million people) and tenth in the world. The location of the Japanese archipelago at the junction of the Eurasian and Pacific lithospheric plates explains the instability of the earth's crust in the region (volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis). Japan's climate varies from temperate to tropical. In general, the climate is subtropical monsoon. Minerals are insignificant both in terms of the total number of reserves and in terms of assortment, therefore, Japan imports most of both fuel and other mineral raw materials. Among other natural resources, the most important are: a) forest; b) agroclimatic; c) hydro and, in particular, hydropower resources; d) the coast. Modern Japan is one of the most developed countries, a member of the GXNUMX. The fuel and energy complex of Japan is one of the most powerful in the world. The electric power industry is based on imported resources, and the share of nuclear power plants in the structure of electricity generation is large. Metallurgy develops on imported raw materials and fuel (over 95%). Leading sectors of the Japanese economy: 1) automotive industry; 2) shipbuilding; 3) electronics, micro- and radio electronics; 4) robotics; 5) production of computer technology, other science-intensive industries. Japan's agriculture currently provides the population's need for food by 87% (food imports account for 11% of the total). Smallholders predominate. Crop production provides the bulk of the production. Animal husbandry is a relatively new industry for Japan's agro-industrial complex. The number of cattle is 5,1 million heads, pigs - 9,5 million, poultry - 340 million. Fishing in Japan is the most developed food industry. The country occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of fish catch and seafood production (about 10 million tons annually). Transport in Japan is one of the most advanced in the world. All types of transport are developed in the country, excluding inland waterways and pipelines. The main foreign economic partners of Japan are the USA, the countries of East and Southeast Asia. Japan's non-manufacturing sector is characterized by a special development of tourism, infrastructure, management and financial services. The territorial and economic structure of Japan is heterogeneous and includes at least 3 elements: 1) the Pacific belt, concentrating 32% of the territory, 65% of the population, 80% of industrial production and 50% of agricultural production; 2) territories of new industrial development; 3) the peripheral zone, where the main forest, hydropower, and recreational resources of the country are concentrated. Ticket number 12 1. Environmental pollution and environmental problems of mankind. Types of pollution and their distribution. Ways to solve environmental problems Environmental pollution is understood as a complex of changes occurring in all spheres of the Earth under the influence of substances entering them, if this intake is due to human activity, unconscious or purposeful. Pollution of nature by the products of the vital activity of mankind can act as: 1) quantitative pollution, i.e., the return to the surrounding nature of those substances that exist in it in a natural state, but have undergone an industrial one; 2) qualitative pollution is the release into the environment of substances and compounds that are not natural, natural. In addition to this gradation, a typology of pollution is possible, taking into account the changes that they cause in each of the spheres of the planet, i.e., the division of all pollution into pollution: 1) lithosphere; 2) hydrosphere; 3) atmosphere. Pollution of the lithosphere is a set of all substances that are subjected to anthropogenic processing and entered the Earth's lithosphere, as well as the process of this entry. Pollution of the hydrosphere is a more complex problem for the modern world. Atmospheric pollution is a process that poses an immediate danger to all living beings on the planet, including humanity. The main ways to solve environmental problems included in the general set of environmental problems can be: 1) rational placement of the most dangerous, but necessary industries; 2) construction of treatment facilities; 3) destruction and processing of production waste and household waste; 4) land reclamation; 5) transition to less toxic types of fuel; 6) application of new environmental technologies. 2. Agriculture. Compound. Features of development in developed and developing countries. Agriculture and environment Agriculture is one of the most ancient and widespread spheres of human activity, the second (after industry) leading branch of material production, ensuring the satisfaction of primary human needs (food and, to a large extent, clothing). Agriculture is an indispensable element in the structure of the economy of any country, currently providing employment for more than 1 billion people worldwide. All its types are grouped depending on the predominance of the production of marketable products or domestic consumption products in them: a) commercial agriculture; b) consumer agriculture. Depending on the natural specifics, agriculture is divided into separate sectors: a) crop production (agriculture). b) animal husbandry (breeding of various types of farm animals). Agriculture in developed countries is characterized by: 1) significant development of commodity production; 2) intensive type of crop and livestock production; 3) a high level of mechanization, electrification, chemicalization; 4) an insignificant share in the structure of GDP (2-3%); 5) a small proportion of the economically active population of the country employed in this sector of the economy (2-5%) with high labor productivity; 6) the actual transformation of the national agro-industrial complex (AIC) into a modern agribusiness; 7) the introduction of the achievements of the "green revolution", which arose on the wave of the scientific and technological revolution in the 1950s-1960s. Agriculture in developing countries is characterized by: 1) predominantly traditional, consumer nature of production; 2) extensive animal husbandry and agriculture; 3) poor technical equipment of the agricultural sector of the economy; 4) a significant share in the structure of GDP (20-60%) while providing the population with agricultural products; 5) a large proportion of the economically active population of the country employed in the agricultural sector (40-90%); 6) monocultural specialization of individuals; 7) the insignificant role of these countries in world agriculture. Modern agriculture is one of the most important sources of threat to the ecology of the planet. Among the environmental problems caused by agriculture are: a) expansion of anthropogenic landscapes for agricultural purposes; b) the rapid destruction of the forest cover of the Earth; c) introduction of a large amount of pollutants into the lithosphere; d) pollution of the hydrosphere by agricultural effluents; e) destruction of the soil layer of the Earth and contributing to the deterioration of quality characteristics; f) violation of the natural balance in the zones of intensive agriculture of the industrial type. Ticket number 13 1. World population and its changes. Natural population growth and factors influencing its changes. Two types of population reproduction and their distribution in different countries At present, all habitable areas of land are inhabited by man. With the development of human civilization, namely at the turn of the 1st millennium BC. e. and 1 millennium AD. e., the total population (about 250 million people) was distributed as follows: a) 75% was concentrated in the largest civilizational centers; b) 25% - in other territories. Population explosion is a sociocultural demographic phenomenon caused by: 1) a sharp decrease in mortality in all age groups; 2) maintaining the birth rate at the same level in developing countries and reducing it in developed countries. However, already in the mid-1980s. the annual population growth of the Earth has decreased: there was a fact of completion of the demographic cycle, called the population explosion. The demographic transition is a process of successive changes in these three indicators, depending on the socio-economic development of countries. The process of demographic transition includes four types or phases. The first phase is characterized by: a) high mortality; b) high birth rate; c) low natural growth. The second phase is marked: a) a sharp reduction in mortality; b) maintaining the traditionally high birth rate; c) high natural growth. For the third phase are typical: a) maintaining low mortality; b) a decrease in the birth rate; c) moderate growth of natural increase. The characteristics of the fourth phase are: a) low mortality rate; b) the birth rate practically coinciding with it; c) zero natural increase. The most important concept in demography is the reproduction of the population. There are three main types of population reproduction. 1. Extended. 2. Simple. 3. Constricted. It is significant that in developed and developing countries natural population growth is influenced by different groups of factors. So, in developed European countries, socio-economic and psychological factors are decisive, in developing countries - socio-cultural. 2. Crop production: location boundaries, main crops and areas of their cultivation, exporting countries Crop production or agriculture is one of the two largest branches of agriculture, which still remains the dominant form of food supply for the Earth's population. Crop production is largely dependent on natural conditions, i.e. natural factors, which include: a) climatic conditions; b) quantity; c) the quality of land resources and others. Among the crops of agricultural plants, two main groups are distinguished. 1. Food. 2. Non-food. Depending on general agricultural factors, crop production can be: 1) commodity or consumer; 2) intensive or extensive. Among food crops, grains are the most important, occupying over 50% of all sown areas in the world. Wheat is the main bread of European civilization, it is currently cultivated in more than 70 countries. Rice is the main bread of the civilizations of Southeast Asia (Japan and China), rice is the second most important food crop, providing (like wheat) over 50% of human needs. Corn - the bread of the civilizations of Central America, now it is distributed throughout the globe. The most common food crops other than cereals are: 1) oilseeds; 2) tubers; 3) tonic - coffee; 4) sugar-bearing; 5) vegetables and fruits. Of the non-food crops, the most important are: 1) fibrous - cotton; 2) natural rubber; 3) narcotic; 4) tobaccos; 5) medicinal. Ticket number 14 1. "Population explosion". The problem of population size and its features in different countries. Demographic policy The population explosion is the process of a sharp increase in the population of the Earth, which has been observed since the 1960s, caused by a whole complex of demographic, economic, social, natural, and cultural factors. The main reasons for this phenomenon were: 1) a sharp decrease in mortality; 2) the preservation of the former indicators of fertility and natural population growth in most of the globe. The theory of demographic transition captures the ratio of three main demographic indicators: 1) mortality; 2) fertility; 3) natural population growth. The demographic transition is a four-stage process. The first stage reflects the demographic situation that existed on the planet approximately until the turn of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries: a) high birth rate; b) the accompanying high mortality; c) as a consequence - low natural growth. Characteristic features of the second stage: a) traditionally high birth rate; b) a sharp reduction in mortality; c) high natural population growth. The third stage reflects the changes that have taken place in developed countries under the influence of primarily socio-economic factors: a) a decrease in the birth rate; b) low mortality; c) moderate natural increase. Finally, the last, fourth stage is characterized primarily by the stabilization of the population in developed countries: a) low birth rate; b) low mortality rate; c) zero natural population growth or transition to simple reproduction. On the other hand, in some developed countries, the opposite problem is becoming more and more urgent: the expected reduction in the population, primarily economically active, in the near future. Thus, both developing and developed countries are faced with the task of ensuring a normal demographic situation. Demographic policy uses the following activities: administrative, propaganda. In developed countries, demographic policy is aimed at increasing the birth rate and natural population growth, the main measures. In developing countries, the state demographic policy is aimed at reducing the birth rate and natural population growth. The implementation of a demographic policy of both the first and second types is an extremely controversial and not always successful process. 2. Chemical industry: composition, significance, placement features. Chemical industry and environmental issues The chemical industry is a complex of industrial sectors, as a rule, characterizing the economy of the country in which it is located as dynamic and highly developed. The chemical industry is the most knowledge-intensive industrial sector. Usually, the chemical industry means industries with a wide use of chemical technology: 1) wood chemical industry; 2) chemical and pharmaceutical industry; 3) microbiological industry; 4) perfume industry; 5) the actual chemical and petrochemical industry. The chemical and petrochemical industries are divided into separate industries and industries, which can be combined into two main groups. 1. Basic chemistry. 2. Chemistry of organic synthesis. It is customary to distinguish four dominant regions of the chemical industry: 1) USA; 2) foreign Europe; 3) Japan; 4) CIS. The location of individual branches of the chemical industry depends on many factors: natural, economic, environmental, historical, etc. There are two main types of production in the chemical industry: 1) small enterprises of a pharmacological, household profile; 2) large chemical and petrochemical complexes that form centers and regions of the chemical industry. The chemical industry is the most dangerous source of environmental pollution. There are several factors of chemical pollution and measures to combat them: · high-quality pollution of the environment, which can be avoided by creating non-waste chemical production of a closed cycle; · irrational use of non-renewable exhaustible mineral fuel, this can be avoided by switching the production of organic synthesis chemistry to organic raw materials of plant origin; the danger of toxic emissions for all forms of life, including human life, which can be prevented by establishing strict control at the enterprises of the industry, as well as using typical methods of protecting the environment from emissions from industrial enterprises (rational placement, commissioning of treatment facilities and installations ). Ticket number 15 1. Age and sex composition of the world's population. Geographic differences. Gender and age pyramids The most important indicators characterizing the demographic situation in the country are the age and sex composition of the population. The typology of countries according to the age structure of the population is based on the main gradation of countries: developed; developing and corresponding types of reproduction: a) low rates of birth, death and natural increase; b) high birth rates, natural population growth, relatively low mortality rates. The age structure of the population is determined by its main component - the economically active population. In this case, two indicators must be taken into account. 1. Employment of the population. 2. Demographic. In developed and developing countries, the gender structure of the population is not the same. In developed countries, the gender structure of the population is characterized by: the predominance of the female population over the male. In developing countries, the predominance of the male population over the female is typical. The gender and age pyramid on the coordinates of the plane looks like this: 1) the abscissa shows the ratio of the male (on the left side of the diagram) and female (on the right) population in% of the total population, 2) on the y-axis - division of the population into age groups (as a rule, five- and ten-year periods are used). The right and left sides of the pyramid also differ depending on whether a country belongs to a developed or developing group. Thus, the right side of the pyramid of developing countries narrows towards the top (the percentage of women of middle and older ages in these countries is less than men of the same age groups), the right side of the pyramid of developed countries is vice versa. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of the countries of Latin America Latin America is one of the most important regions of the modern world, it is a special geopolitical integrity, including the South, Central territories, as well as the southern part of North America, a number of island states and territories of the West Indies, which got its name from the Latin basis of the Romance languages - Spanish and Portuguese, spoken by the vast majority of the region's population. The maximum length of the region from north to south is 13 thousand km, from west to east - 5 thousand km. The economic and geographical position is characterized by: · coastal position of the vast majority of countries in the region, excluding Bolivia and Paraguay; · the location of the region between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, which are connected by one of the two most important world sea channels (along with the Suez) - Panama; · relative proximity to the highly developed countries of North America - the United States and Canada. According to the size of the territory in the region, there are: 1) Brazil; 2) large countries - Mexico, Argentina; 3) medium; 4) small; 5) small. According to the form of government, all countries of Latin America are divided into: 1) republics, 2) the states that are part of the British Commonwealth (formally - the monarchy); 3) special territorial units with special administration, such as overseas departments of France. According to the form of the administrative-territorial structure, most of the countries of Latin America are unitary states. Most of the Latin American nations were formed as a result of mixing different ethnic groups. The linguistic composition of the population of Latin America is relatively uniform: five languages are official in all 33 sovereign states. The countries of Latin America are characterized by an extended type of population reproduction. From the point of view of the degree of urbanization, Latin America corresponds to the indicators of developed countries (76%). There are more than 200 large cities in the region, about 40 cities with a million inhabitants. The significant length of the region from north to south determined the presence of almost all climatic zones in it. Significant mountain ranges have determined the richness and diversity of minerals. About 50% of the area of the region is occupied by forests. Significant water resources. The industry of the region is developing extremely dynamically, although the share of agriculture in the structure of the economy of individual countries is still quite large. Mining stands out in the general structure of industry. The power industry in Latin America actively uses both domestic fuel resources and hydropower potential. Currently, the most dynamically developing branches of the manufacturing industry. Agriculture in Latin America, despite some modernization, remains typical of developing countries. Crop production is the leading branch of the agrarian sector of the Latin American economy. Animal husbandry provides about 35% of the region's agricultural output. The transport system of Latin America as a whole is typical for all developing countries, primarily due to its low technical equipment. The largest role is played by seaports. Among other modes of transport, road and air are the most developed. The structure of exports of Latin American countries is typical for developing countries and is predominantly raw materials. In addition to the already given division of Latin America into separate regions and the allocation of the three most developed countries, significant differences can be found in: the size of the territory; level of socio-economic development; population size. However, almost every country in the region retains the colonial type of territorial structure of the economy, which requires the efforts of regional policy aimed at eliminating this disproportion. Ticket number 16 1. The national composition of the world's population. Its changes and geographical differences. The largest cities in the world The national, or rather, the ethnic composition of the population of the modern world is extremely complex and is the result of a combination of historical processes of ethno- and sociogenesis. At present, the total number of ethnic groups of the Earth is estimated at 3-4 thousand, each of which has its own: The territory of habitation · historically developed stable forms of hostel; own language or dialect; · national consciousness; unique symbolic culture and religious features. States can be: 1) single-national. 2) multinational. The ethnic composition of the world's population is usually assessed according to two criteria: 1) the number of one or another ethnic group; 2) linguistic composition. The largest language family is Indo-European, whose languages are spoken by 150 peoples with a total population of more than 2,5 billion people. The Indo-European family, in turn, is divided into a number of language groups, among which the most important are: · Germanic; · Slavic; Romanesque; Iranian. The second most important is the Sino-Tibetan (Chinese-Tibetan) family, whose languages are spoken by about 1,5 billion people. The national question is one of the most complex in the modern world. It is especially relevant for multinational states, especially if some peoples in them are susceptible. 2. Mechanical engineering is the leading branch of modern industry. Composition, features of placement. Countries that stand out in terms of the level of development of mechanical engineering Modern mechanical engineering is the most complex and science-intensive industry. It originated during the Industrial Revolution. At present, mechanical engineering accounts for over 30% of the value of all industrial output. The industry employs about 100 million people. Mechanical engineering as a conditional complex of manufacturing industries is usually divided according to two criteria: 1) by the degree of science intensity; 2) Depending on the manufactured products. According to the degree of science intensity, there are: a) old industries b) new industries; c) new industries. Depending on the products produced, the industry is divided into: a) transport; b) electric power; c) agricultural; d) production of equipment for other industries; e) machine tool building; f) precise and complex mechanical engineering; g) production of military equipment and others. On the map of modern engineering, four largest regions can be distinguished, which produce over 90% of all engineering products in the world. These include: 1) North America; 2) European countries; 3) East and Southeast; 4) CIS countries. Among the largest machine-building centers of the world are: 1) Northeast industrial region of the USA; 2) Ruhr in Germany; 3) the Pacific belt in Japan; 4) Ural in the Russian Federation. In terms of the production of certain types of machine-building industry, the world leaders are: a) in the field of automotive industry: Japan, USA, Germany, France, Republic of Korea; b) for the production of television and radio equipment: China, Republic of Korea, USA, Japan, Malaysia; In most developing countries, engineering is: · branches of European, American, Japanese firms; assembly plants; · maintenance of transport, mining and agriculture, although the number of countries with their own machine-building complex is constantly growing. Ticket number 17 1. Placement of the population on the territory of the Earth. Factors affecting the distribution of the population. Most densely populated areas in the world The average population density of the Earth is approximately 44 people per km2. But the real distribution of the world's population depends primarily on the natural geographical conditions. Naturally, people preferred to populate in the first place the zones of temperate, subtropical and subequatorial climatic zones. Therefore, over 80% of the world's population settled on the plains, located at an altitude of up to 500 kilometers above sea level. The expansion of the territorial framework is associated with the following phenomena: 1. Active development of desert and semi-desert territories. In most cases, such intensive development is carried out with the help of large foreign capital. 2. Intensive development of economic activity in extreme northern conditions. 3. Human development of mountainous territories and places with rugged terrain. 4. Active introduction of man into the territory, yesterday still covered with tropical rainforests. 5. The inclusion of the World Ocean in the sphere of human economic activity, the use of its biological, mineral, chemical and other resources. The intensive development of the contact zone sea - land has led to the fact that half of humanity currently lives in a 200-kilometer strip along the sea coasts and islands. The development of the most labor-intensive branch of agriculture - rice growing - on irrigated lands has led to an intensive concentration of the population in East and South Asia. The density of the rural population in these territories exceeds 200 people per 1 km2, and in some areas reaches 1500-2000 people or more. That even the situation has developed in some areas of Europe and the USA, especially with highly developed industry. There is a population density per km2 also sometimes approaching 1000-1500 people. 2. Power industry: value, countries distinguished by absolute and per capita indicators of electricity production As the scientific and technological revolution advances, and especially the development of high technologies, including electronization, integrated automation, informatization, world electricity production is growing at a rapid and steady pace. Approximately 70% of the world's electricity comes from the countries of the North and 30% from the countries of the South. In the structure of electricity generation, special preference is given to thermal power plants. Their participation in the world electricity production is 62%. About 20% of the world's electricity production comes from hydroelectric power plants (HPPs). The third place in the production of electricity in the world is occupied by nuclear power plants (NPPs), which provide 17% of world output; they have been built and are already operating in 32 countries of the world. The so-called "soft" energy sources are also called alternative. In the developed countries of the world, plans for the development of solar energy seem to be more and more attractive. Geothermal energy is the most ancient source of alternative energy in terms of time of use. In 2000, there were about 400 blocks of such stations operating in the world. Ticket number 18 1. Migration of the population and their causes. Impact of migrations on population change, examples of internal and external migrations A huge influence on the number, composition and distribution of the population on Earth is exerted by its movements, that is, mechanical movement, called population migrations. The main reason for migration is, as a rule, economic; however, political, national, religious, ecological and other motives are not excluded. Population migrations are of various types, for example, the movement of masses of people within one country is called internal migration. External migration involves the movement of people to a new place of residence from one country or region to another, which invariably affects not only the population in them, but also many socio-economic spheres of life. Until the mid 50s. XNUMXth century emigration in Western Europe outstripped immigration. Then the situation began to change rapidly, and Europe became the world's largest center of population attraction. In the early 70s. of the last century, there were already 10 million immigrants, and in the early 90s - 15 million. The main reason for the transformation of Western Europe into a center of attraction for migrants is the interest in a solid income and in more comfortable working and living conditions. The results of the study of this issue showed that the majority of foreign workers prefer to settle in the main industrial areas and large cities. To date, Germany holds the lead in the number of immigrants in Western Europe. Following Europe, Asia also turned into a region of massive external migrations; to a greater extent this applies to Southwest Asia. First of all, it is necessary to mention Israel, which is often called the country of immigrants, since the Jewish population of this country increased from 650 thousand people in 1948 to more than 4 million people in the early 1990s. In the 1970s a significant focus of mass labor migration arose in the Persian Gulf countries, which became rich on the extraction and export of oil. In addition to mass labor migrations, mass migrations for political, religious and ethnic reasons also predominate in Southwest Asia. The United States deservedly bears the name of the country of immigration. The rapid expansion of the territory of the United States, its settlement and development created a constant additional need to receive more and more new human flows. After the First World War, along with labor migration, political immigration became of great importance - for example, the so-called first wave of Russian immigration, which consisted of those who were forced to leave Russia after 1917. A relatively new phenomenon in labor migration is the "brain drain". The meaning of this phenomenon is that qualified specialists of various professions from Asia, Latin America, post-socialist countries of Europe, from Russia and other CIS countries move for permanent or temporary residence (term stipulated by the contract) to the most economically developed countries, where they are guaranteed better working conditions and better wages. For example, in 1990 alone, 70 different specialists who previously lived in the CIS countries changed their place of residence and country. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of the PRC Today, the People's Republic of China is one of the most interesting regions of the world in terms of its development dynamics. The country with the largest population and vast territory demonstrates in the late XX - early XXI centuries. one of the highest rates of production development - about 10. At the end of the last century, China began to pursue an active demographic policy, which has already begun to give certain results. Over the past half century, China has gone from one of the most underdeveloped countries in the world to one of the world's most successful emerging powers. However, since the early 1980s the course of economic development began to change significantly, and one of the main tasks of internal reforms was the goal of feeding the growing population of the country. In this regard, decollectivization took place in agriculture, it became allowed to sell surplus products on the market. The Eastern Economic Zone is the most economically developed and significant for the further development of China. Heavy industry was developed in the Central Economic Zone. The Western Economic Zone is the weakest in China. The most densely populated province of Sichuan has become the backbone of China's agricultural production. Until now, China has remained largely an agrarian country, as agriculture employs about two-thirds of the entire working-age population. Due to the traditional socialist orientation of the economy in the PRC, emphasis is placed on the development of heavy industries. Its basis is formed by the coal industry. In terms of electricity generation, China ranks fourth in the world, with more than 70% of all energy coming from coal-fired thermal power plants. China has achieved great success in the development of ferrous metallurgy: today the country occupies the second place after Japan in steel smelting. Machine-building enterprises are located mainly in large cities, near seaports and metallurgical bases. The chemical industry mainly produces mineral fertilizers, household chemicals and pharmaceuticals. Shanghai remains one of the largest centers of the textile industry, but many textile factories have also been built in the cotton-growing regions. In connection with the rapid development of industry, one cannot but note a significant increase in the urban population at the end of the 1980th century. In the second half of the XNUMXs. here began the real "urban explosion". In less than a decade, China's urban population has doubled. In addition, in China, the population of not only cities and their suburbs, but also entire rural areas adjacent to cities began to be classified as urban. The negative aspects of the development of modern China include the low level of technology used in production. In addition, China is a weak competitor to highly developed countries in foreign trade. However, despite the difficulties experienced, the vector of development of modern China is undoubtedly directed upwards, and in the coming decades it may join the group of the most developed countries in the world and even possibly outstrip some of them. Ticket number 19 1. Urban and rural population of the world. Urbanization. Major cities and urban agglomerations. Problems and consequences of urbanization in the modern world The deepening of the process of social division of labor was expressed in the emergence of two main types of population with their own characteristics of development and functions - urban and rural. Urbanization (from lat. city) is the historical process of the emergence and development of cities, an increase in the share of the urban population, the spread of an urban lifestyle, the concentration of population and economic potential in cities. Today, more than 45% of the world's population lives in cities. The process of urbanization is characterized by some common features for all countries: the level, growth rates and forms of urbanization. The level of urbanization indicates how much of a country's population lives in cities. In countries with high industrial potential, urban population growth rates have declined markedly in recent decades and are now less than one percent per year. Modern urbanization is characterized by more complex forms of urbanization, the transformation of the usual "point" city into an urban agglomeration. In agglomerations, the functional outlines of the city are much more spacious than their administrative boundaries and often include nearby satellite cities, urban-type settlements, and rural settlements in the scope of their activities. In Western Europe, for example, in the UK, experts distinguish six of the largest agglomerations, or, as they are called here, conurbations. The population of super-large cities in developing countries is growing especially intensively; this phenomenon is called urban explosion. An equally important indicator is the quality of urbanization, that is, providing the population in cities with appropriate infrastructure, the level and availability of various types of services, the state of the environment and the entire social sphere. According to these indicators, economically developed countries are far behind the developing ones. And yet, despite the rapid development of cities, more than half of the world's population now lives in rural areas. The rapid growth of cities and the expansion of the territory occupied by them affect many components of nature. For example, the problem of air pollution is directly related to the increase in the number of cars, fuel consumption, as a result of which smog occurs in the city, acid rain falls, etc. Building sites involves the extermination of all natural vegetation and animals living in it. Agricultural lands are rendered unsuitable for cultivation. True, the losses of these territories are partially compensated by the plowing of virgin lands and an increase in their productivity with the help of agricultural technology. But these efforts will not always produce the desired effect. An important direction in reducing the negative impact of urbanization on the environment is attempts to limit the expansion of cities, concentrate construction within their existing boundaries, and rationally plan development and urban infrastructure. 2. Livestock. Distribution, main industries, placement features, exporting countries Like other branches of agriculture, such as crop production, animal husbandry is almost ubiquitous, and meadows and pastures occupy three times more land than arable land. Most of the livestock products come from temperate countries. The geography of world animal husbandry is primarily determined by the distribution of livestock, whose total population is approaching 4,5 billion heads. Three sectors play the main role in this. Thanks to the breeding of cattle (1,4 billion heads), milk and more than one third of meat are obtained in the countries of the world. Intensive dairy and meat and dairy cattle breeding is most widespread in the forest and forest-steppe zones of the temperate zone. Pig breeding makes it possible to obtain two-fifths of the world's meat production, since its livestock is about 1 billion heads. Breeding sheep (over 1 billion heads) of the meat-and-wool direction is typical for areas with sufficient moisture and a relatively mild climate, fine-fleeced and semi-fine-fleeced direction - for more arid regions. Every year, more than 220 million tons of meat are produced in the world - most of all pork, then beef, poultry meat, lamb. Every year the world produces 450 million liters of milk, 600 billion eggs, and 2,5 million tons of wool. Ticket number 20 1. World economy: essence and main stages of formation. International geographical division of labor and its signs The formation of the world economy took place over a long period of time. The first stage of its formation took place during the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. However, the leading role in the development of the world market belongs to the large machine industry that emerged in the late XNUMXth and early XNUMXth centuries. and allowed to produce products cheaper and more than necessary for the region. The core of the world economy is considered to be the international geographical division of labor (MGRT). An indispensable condition for MGRT is the growth of industries of specialization, which appear as a result of the peculiarities of the geographical location, natural conditions and resources, socio-economic conditions, and the process of the country's historical development. The world economy is a complex global all-encompassing system, the most characteristic features of which include a set of interacting national economies of all countries of the world, branches of the world economy covered by the global infrastructure, economic relations connecting all countries and regions of the world. The modern period of development of the world economy is characterized primarily by the strengthening of its unity and integrity, as well as its ever-increasing dynamism. There are several reasons for strengthening the unity of the world economy. Firstly, it is the obligation of international cooperation to solve urgent problems of the survival of mankind (for example, environmental, food). Secondly, the strengthening and in-depth comprehensive development of sustainable economic ties between the countries of the world. Cardinal changes in the socio-political and economic life of mankind have occurred with the development of the scientific and technological revolution (NTR). The success of the scientific and technological revolution had a significant impact on the change in the ratio of sectors in the structure of the economy: a) "primary" - agriculture and forestry, fisheries, extractive industries; b) "secondary" - manufacturing industries; c) "tertiary" - non-productive sphere (science, education, services and management, etc.). A change in the structure of the economy is immediately reflected, for example, in the structure of employment. The current stage is unique due to the direct merging of science and production, the result of which is a radical qualitative transformation of the world's productive forces and the transition to a post-industrial (information) structure of the economy. It is characterized by such factors as a high scientific and educational level of the population, the development of science-intensive industries (knowledge-intensiveness is an impressive cost for scientific development in the total cost of production), a developed network of service enterprises (banks, tourist centers, etc.) . For many decades, the spatial structure of the world economy was monocentric. In the post-war and especially in recent times, the spatial structure has become much more complex and turned into a polycentric one. A distinctive feature of the modern spatial structure of the world economy is the "center - periphery" ratio. The center accumulates the most advanced technologies and other innovations. The periphery is distinguished by inertia and archaism. The role of the "center" in the world economy is performed by the developed industrial countries of the world. The "periphery" of the world economy is made up of economically backward countries. Between the "center" and the "periphery" there is the so-called "semi-periphery", which consists of the post-socialist countries of Eastern Europe, Russia and other CIS countries, China, India, the newly industrialized countries of Asia and Latin America, and the oil-producing countries of Asia. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of one of the countries of Latin America (at the choice of the student) Brazil. This country is one of the largest in the world, ranking sixth in terms of population and fifth in terms of area. It is the largest state in Latin America. Natural resources are the main wealth of this country. In Brazil, on one of the greatest rivers in the world - the Amazon - some of the largest hydroelectric power stations have been built and are being built. Favorable natural conditions make it possible to grow significant crops of coffee, sugar cane and other heat-loving plants. A feature of Brazil is a sharply uneven settlement over the territory and significant urbanization of individual regions. The largest not only in Brazil, but also in the world are two agglomerations: Sao Paulo (18 million people) and Rio de Janeiro (12 million inhabitants). Experts predict that in the near future these two giants may merge into one metropolis. In recent decades, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy has been actively developing. Advances in mechanical engineering have been achieved mainly due to the participation in this industry of transnational corporations from Germany, Italy and, of course, the United States. An interesting feature: the country has established the production of industrial alcohol from sugar cane, as a result of which about half of Brazilian cars proper are powered by alcohol engines. Brazilian industry has achieved great success in the production of electronics and computer science systems, as well as weapons, which are exported to about 40 countries of the world. The food industry is very developed: today it employs about 1/5 of the able-bodied population. Agriculture traditionally plays an important role in the Brazilian economy: the country is the world's fourth largest exporter of agricultural products, which contributes about a third of all exports to the treasury. As you know, this country is the world's first producer and exporter of coffee, whose share today is approximately 12% of the country's total exports. Brazil is one of the world leaders in the production and export of sugar from sugar cane, is the largest producer of oranges and orange juice in the world. The areas of new development primarily include the Amazon. Thus, the main problem of Brazil lies in the existing imbalance of its development: economic, social, territorial. Ticket number 21 1. International economic integration. Economic groupings of the countries of the modern world One of the most important conditions for the development of international economic relations and one of the elements of the spatial structure of the world economy is international economic integration. International economic integration is a process of rapprochement and connection of the national economies of a number of countries linked by close economic cooperation. The countries included in the Asia-Pacific region are in a free trade zone, which provides for the elimination of tariff and quantitative restrictions on trade between countries. Wider integration involves the creation of a common market for capital, goods, services, labor; coordination of actions in the field of budgetary, social, regional policy; creation of supranational governing bodies, etc. Integration ties reached the most significant level in Western Europe, where a large territorial and economic complex was formed that united the national economies of 15 countries into the European Union (EU). In the North American region, a trade and economic union between the United States, Canada and Mexico (NAFTA) is being created. Integration processes are also taking place in Latin America, where an economic grouping of 11 countries has been formed - the Latin American Integration Association (LAAI). Intensive and diverse integration ties are also developing at an accelerated pace in the Asia-Pacific region, where one of the largest commercial and industrial complexes is being created - the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Organization, which unites 20 countries, including Russia (since 1997). A regional integration group, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), operates here. Impressive integration processes are also taking place in the CIS countries. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, which includes 12 countries (OPEC), has become a huge industrial economic grouping. Thus, international economic integration helps the integrating states to pursue a balanced domestic and foreign policy and more rationally develop their national economies. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of African countries The territory of Africa is 30,3 thousand km2 with a population of 820 million people. One of the important criteria for assessing the GWP of African countries is the presence or absence of access to the sea. Only three African countries retain a monarchical form of government, the rest are republics. The African continent has the richest supply of various minerals. The agro-climatic resources of the African continent are unequal and ambiguous. The hottest continent on the planet, on the territory of which water resources are distributed extremely unevenly. Its climate negatively affects agriculture and the very life of the population. In terms of total forest area, only Russia and Latin America have overtaken Africa. As you know, Africa is the world leader in terms of population reproduction, which is also due to the historical traditions of having many children. And this despite the fact that Africa has a rather high mortality rate. The ethnic composition of the population, which is extremely diverse, also creates many problems. Ethnographers have counted 300-500 ethnic groups and more in Africa. Africa is a region of spread of various ethno-political conflicts. The average population density in Africa (27 people per 1 km2) is much less than in the countries of foreign Europe and Asia. The Sahara contains the largest uninhabited territories in the world. In terms of urbanization, Africa still lags far behind other regions. In the sectoral structure, the share of industry and non-production spheres has noticeably increased. In many African (and not only) countries, such one-sidedness has reached the level of monoculture. Monocultural (mono-commodity) specialization - a narrow specialization of the country's economy in the production of one, as a rule, raw material or food product, intended primarily for export. Therefore, the place of Africa in the world economy is characterized primarily by two groups of industries. One of them is the mining industry. Another sector of the economy that determines Africa's place in the world economy is tropical and subtropical agriculture, which also has a pronounced export orientation. The territorial structure of the African economy has also undergone a number of changes. Along with the regions of high-value crop production and extensive pasture cattle breeding, several significant areas of the mining industry have already appeared. However, in general, in terms of its level of socio-economic development, Africa ranks last in the world among other major regions. Ticket number 22 1. Fuel industry: composition, location of the main areas of fuel production. Major producing and exporting countries. Major international fuel traffic The fuel and energy industry is a whole complex consisting of the fuel industry, electric power industry, fuel and energy delivery vehicles. Over the past two hundred years, the international fuel and energy industry has gone through two major stages of development. The first of them (XIX - the first half of the XX century) was predominantly coal-fired. The second stage became oil and gas. In the 80s. XNUMXth century the third (transitional) stage of its development has begun for the world energy industry, which is expressed in the transition from the use of predominantly exhaustible mineral fuel resources to inexhaustible resources. The oil, gas, and coal industries form the basis of the world's energy industry. Now 80 countries of the world are engaged in oil production. Natural gas is the cheapest and most environmentally friendly fuel. Leadership in world gas production certainly belongs to Russia, where the huge basin - Western Siberia - is located. The second place in gas production in the world belongs to the United States. The coal industry is the oldest branch of the fuel and energy complexes of developed countries. The main coal-producing countries today are: the PRC, which came out in 1991 in first place in the world (more than 1 billion tons per year), the USA, Russia, and South Africa. Basically, coal is consumed in the same countries where its deposits are being developed, so only 8% of the world's coal enters the world market. However, there have been changes in the structure of coal trade - the demand for coking coal is declining due to the slowdown in the development of metallurgy, and the demand for thermal coal is increasing. The main exporters of coal are the USA, Australia, and to a lesser extent South Africa, Russia, Poland, and Canada. The main importers of coal are Japan, the Republic of Korea and a number of European countries. 2. International economic relations: forms and geographical features After the collapse of the world colonial system, new economic relations began to take shape in the world. Developing countries ("third world countries") by the beginning of the last quarter of the twentieth century. became the initiators of the creation of a new economic order aimed at establishing normal, fair economic relations. However, a more important factor in changing relations between economically developed and developing countries was the strengthening of the influence and role of transnational corporations (TNCs). As a result, to date, about 17 thousand TNCs with their branches in other countries have come to control about a third of world production and trade. The creation of free economic zones (FEZ) in various countries of the world was also of great importance. The development of modern means of communication has led to a qualitative leap in the exchange of a wide variety of information between subscribers located at different ends of the globe, and this can be done almost instantly. Thus, the world information system Internet was created, the role of which is growing from year to year. However, developing countries almost do not have their own news agencies, since the complex information infrastructure is practically inaccessible to them. Today, the basis of international financial relations is the import and export of capital, international loans and borrowings, large cash investments, the purchase or sale of shares of the most famous and reputable companies. At the same time, a freely convertible currency must be present in international economic relations. Foreign financial investments are becoming more and more widespread. Today, the largest centers of credit and financial activity are the USA, Western Europe and Japan. The trade in licenses for the right to use inventions is also growing. In addition, the range of scientific and technical services provided to each other is expanding, as well as joint large-scale projects are being carried out - for example, in the field of space exploration or the development of the latest biotechnologies. A feature of the modern world community has become a sharp increase in international tourism. Ticket number 23 1. Metallurgical industry: composition, placement features. Major producing and exporting countries. Metallurgy and environmental issues For many decades, the volume of metal production almost primarily determined the industrial power of any state. In the 1970s the pace of development of the world metallurgical industry, as one of the most typical old industries, has noticeably decreased due to the outbreak of energy and raw material crises. And yet, for a long time, metallurgy has been one of the basic industries. The world geography of ferrous metallurgy has been formed under the influence of various types of orientation. For a century and a half, its orientation towards the Carboniferous basins dominated. Thus, the main metallurgical bases were created in the USA, Russia, Foreign Europe, Ukraine, and China. The second place in terms of "attractiveness" for metallurgists was occupied by an orientation towards iron ore basins. Japan, the USA, China, Russia, Germany, and Ukraine are now recognized as the leading countries in metal production. Every year 200-250 million tons of rolled ferrous metals appear on the world market. Its main exporters are the EU, Japan, and its importers are the USA, China. The volume of production of non-ferrous metallurgy is 20 times less than ferrous metallurgy. From the second half of the 1970s. a movement for resource conservation and environmental protection began, the volume of heavy metal smelting in developed countries began to decrease, while in developing countries, on the contrary, to increase. The ores of light metals, mainly aluminum, in terms of the content of alumina - a useful component - resemble iron ore (40-60 percent) and are therefore quite suitable for transportation. The aluminum industry is characterized by a significant territorial gap between the extraction of raw materials and their processing and consumption. Such developed countries as the USA, Japan, Germany produce 80% of the world's aluminum smelting and consume 70% of this product. Countries that do not have aluminum raw materials at all (Canada, Norway, Iceland, Australia, Switzerland, Bahrain) produce aluminum using cheap electricity and export it completely. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of one of the African countries (at the student's choice) One of the most typical modern African countries is Cote d'Ivoire, or the Ivory Coast. A former French colony, having gained independence since 1960, this republic followed the capitalist path of development. The country has a fairly high natural resource potential This also applies to natural conditions. Having a favorable climate for growing coffee, cocoa, peanuts and other heat-loving crops, the extensive system of agriculture is gradually negating the climatic and natural "advantages" of the country. Like all of Africa, Côte d'Ivoire is characterized by a high rate of population growth, which is about 40% per year. Today the population of the republic is about 14 million people. Only about half of the population is literate. The ethnic composition of the population of Côte d'Ivoire is heterogeneous and consists of several peoples belonging to the Niger-Kordofanian language family. On the territory of the country, about a quarter of the population professes the Muslim religion, a little more than 10% are Christians, while the rest profess traditional African religious religions. About 60% of the population lives in rural areas, but, as in any developing country, the number of city dwellers is growing, especially in the area of the port of Abidjan, which is the economic center of the republic. Over the past 30 years, the population of this port has doubled every seven years and today is about 2,5 million inhabitants. Favorable natural conditions, as in most other African countries, form the basis of the economic development of Côte d'Ivoire. The agricultural sector of the republic is focused mainly on the export of products: cocoa, bananas, coffee. After the country gained independence, the most profitable sectors of the economy: mining and forestry enterprises, the exploitation of rural plantations - came under the control of the national government with the participation of foreign companies. In connection with the reforms since the mid-1970s. new industries appear in the country: construction, chemical, paper, independent processing of rubber and the production of its own plastics begin. The Ivory Coast is gradually becoming a supplier of manufactured goods for its neighbors - the countries of West Africa. On the other hand, the active participation of foreign capital in the development of industry, the modernization of agriculture and other areas of the economic and social life of Côte d'Ivoire has led to an increase in the country's financial dependence on the developed world community. In the depths of Côte d'Ivoire, as it was many decades ago, extremely inefficient agriculture remains, and in connection with this, it is there that the lowest standard of living of the population is. Thus, even after gaining independence, the economy of Côte d'Ivoire, based on the development of monoculture agriculture, remains largely unstable and highly dependent on the "temperature" and the well-being of the world market. Ticket number 24 1. Forestry and woodworking industry: composition, placement. Geographic differences Forest resources are most often associated not with raw materials, but with an environmental problem, especially since it has recently been convincingly proven: at the beginning of the 70st century. they have more energy than raw material value. XNUMX% of the entire population of underdeveloped countries uses wood for cooking and heating their homes. Western Europe's self-sufficiency in industrial wood is now about 75% of the total needs. The UK is the largest timber importer. A significant part of the world's forest resources is located in Russia, which has a great influence on the global timber market. The geography of the world's forestry and woodworking industries largely depends on forest resources. Within the northern forest belt, mainly coniferous wood is mined, which is then used to make sawlogs, wood-based panels, cellulose, paper, and cardboard. For Russia, Canada, Sweden, Finland, the timber and woodworking industries have become the main branches of international specialization. Hardwood is harvested within the boundaries of the southern forest belt. Three main regions of the forest industry have formed here: Brazil, Tropical Africa, Southeast Asia. The wood extracted here is delivered by sea to Japan, Western Europe, and the rest is mainly used for firewood. For the production of paper in the countries of the southern belt, non-timber raw materials are often used: bamboo (India), bagasse (Peru), sisal (Brazil, Tanzania), jute (Bangladesh). This is all the more strange because in terms of paper production, especially on a per capita basis, these countries are especially far behind other states. 2. General economic and geographical characteristics of Asian countries The territory of foreign Asia (relative to the CIS countries) is about 27 million km3,6. with a population of approximately 40 billion people. More than XNUMX countries are located here, many of which have an ancient history. Nowadays, most of them are among the developing ones. As part of Asia, four most characteristic subregions are usually distinguished: Central and East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia and Southwest Asia. In terms of population, China and India are giant countries, but along with them there are also microstates. The economic and geographical position of Asian countries can be characterized by three main points: the coastal position of most countries, providing access to the seas of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans; the neighborly position of most of them; the deep location of some countries, which puts them at a disadvantage in relation to their neighbors. The mineral resources of the region are diverse. However, the main mineral that ensures the role of Asia in the international division of labor is, of course, oil. One of the serious problems of this world region has become the lack of land resources. The mostly mountainous terrain limits the amount of arable land and other agricultural land. Water resources are also distributed extremely unevenly. True, in most parts of Asia the climate is quite warm. Forest resources are not a problem for the countries of East and Southeast Asia, India, although this figure is still low per capita. As in most developing countries, the demographic situation here is characterized by extremely high population growth. In terms of its size, Asia undoubtedly ranks first and accounts for 60% of the total world population. The ethnic composition of Asians is extremely diverse: more than a thousand peoples and nationalities live here, speaking languages belonging to 9 language groups. The largest of them are Chinese and Hindustanis. The population density in Asia is also extremely uneven, since on one climatic pole of the continent there are coastal valleys, plains and river deltas, on the other - tropical forests and highlands, deserts and semi-deserts. According to the level of development and specialization in Asia, six groups of countries can be conventionally distinguished. The first, of course, is Japan, which in many important economic indicators corresponds to (or surpasses) the most developed countries of Europe. The second group includes China and India, which have recently made significant progress in their development, but still lag far behind most countries in terms of per capita indicators. The third group is the newly industrialized countries (NIEs). The fourth group includes the oil-producing countries of the Persian Gulf, which live mainly by making super profits from oil production. The fifth group includes countries whose economy is based on mining or light industry. And finally, the sixth group is the least developed, the poorest countries. Rural specialization varies greatly: in South, East and Southeast Asia, where there is an excess of labor resources and a shortage of land, rice cultivation is developed; China, India, Sri Lanka specialize in growing tea. And in the "golden triangle" on the border of Burma, Laos, Thailand, opium poppy is produced. Subtropical agriculture is carried out mainly on the Mediterranean coast, while the rest of the region is dominated by the production of millet crops, wheat, and grazing is also developed. In this regard, besides cattle, sheep, goats, horses and camels are bred here and then astrakhan fur, wool, meat products, and leather are sold. The most characteristic country with such agricultural production is Mongolia. Ticket number 25 1. Light industry: composition, placement features. Problems and development prospects Geographical changes in the light industry were most convincingly manifested in its main branch - the textile industry. In the late 90s, more than 130 billion m2 fabrics from natural and artificial fibers. Five main regions have formed in the world textile industry: East Asia, South Asia, the CIS, foreign Europe and the USA. In each of these regions, the production of cotton fabrics and fabrics from chemical fibers dominates, while the rest of the sub-sectors (woolen, linen, silk) are not so significant. However, the relationship between these regions has changed dramatically in recent years. From the beginning of the 1950s the share of economically developed Western countries in the world production of fabrics and clothing is constantly declining; many old industrial textile districts fell into disrepair. Great Britain, which in previous years has consistently led the world in the production of fabrics, today is at the end of the second ten manufacturing countries. The status of the largest exporter of fabrics, this country changed to the status of an importer. At the same time, the textile industry of the countries of the South, oriented mainly on cheap labor, is now experiencing a real boom. The undisputed leader in the production of cotton fabrics today is occupied by China, followed by India. Most of the fabrics produced in the countries of the South are exported to the countries of the West. The same can be said about the production of ready-made clothes. In the stores of the USA, Western Europe, Japan - the dominance of cheap clothes, knitwear, which are supplied there: Hong Kong, Taiwan, Thailand, India, Colombia, Mexico and other developing countries. 2. "Newly industrialized countries" of Asia This phenomenon occupies a special place in its socio-economic significance for the development of the modern world. It even got its own special name - "new industrialized countries" (NIS) - which refers to the four "Asian tigers": the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan. These countries are also called "first wave" NIS (Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines and Indonesia belong to the "second wave" countries). All four "tigers" are united by the fact that in the recent past they were someone's colonies or occupied territories. (Hong Kong only in 1997 came under the jurisdiction of China, while Singapore still remains a state that is part of the commonwealth headed by England). In addition, all these countries belong to the Chinese world, which led to their close relationship with China. South Korea is connected with China by a common religion - Confucianism and Buddhism. In the second half of the XX century. the governments of these countries have chosen for themselves a strategy of economic restructuring. The main standard model for the "Asian tigers" was primarily the Japanese model, which by that time had managed to prove itself perfectly. Lacking large natural resources, these countries have focused on their huge labor force, constantly replenished due to high population growth. Cheap skilled and disciplined labor force has become a major factor in socio-economic growth. Particular attention in these countries was paid to the development of education and science. Adopting Western experience, they approached the path of creating industrial and scientific-technological parks and technopolises. In addition, the strategic course of NIS has also become the maximum attraction of foreign capital. Free economic zones began to be created. Orientation towards the production of competitive export products allowed the NIS countries to quickly integrate into the world economy and the system of the international division of labor. In our time, the most modern electronic industry has become the main "visiting card" of all four countries. For the export of electronics at the end of the XNUMXth century. these countries were already in the top ten of the world, second only to such "giants" as the USA, Germany, Great Britain, and France. And among the world's exporters of consumer electronics, they occupy from third to sixth place. In addition, the countries of the "first wave" have already entered the world market for electrical equipment, automobiles, machine tools, marine vessels and other technically complex types of engineering products. However, as the four countries of the "first wave" developed, they began to move more and more from labor-intensive to capital-intensive industries, "giving away" the labor-intensive work of the "second wave" NIS. The most striking example of the new "division of labor" is Malaysia, which some scientists already call the fifth "Asian tiger". In the first half of the XX century. its traditional specialization was the extraction and processing of tin ores, natural rubber, and tropical timber. In the 1970s the textile, electrical, clothing industries, oil refining began to develop, and in the 1980s. - electronic, automotive, petrochemical. In addition, Malaysia has taken one of the first places in the world in the production of electronic components. At the end of the XX century. here they have already begun to switch to technology-intensive types of electronics: televisions and video recorders. The shortcomings in the development of the economies of these countries include their great dependence on exports, which often reacts to any changes in the political and economic life of the rest of the world. In addition, there is a chronic shortage of natural raw materials in these countries. Thus, Hong Kong and Singapore are completely dependent on electricity imports. On the whole, however, these "Asian tigers" have taken their rightful place in the world economy. Literature 1. Maksakovskiy V. P. Economic and social geography of the world: Textbook for grade 10. M.: Education, 2003. 2. Gerasimova T. P., Myasnikova S. V. General geography. Generalizing material on physical, social and economic geography. Grade 10. SPb.: Special Literature, 2001. 3. Gladky Yu. N., Lavrov S. B. Global geography. Grade 11. M.: Bustard, 2001. 4. Maksakovskiy V. P. Geographical map of the world. Upper Volga book publishing house, 1998. Author: Babaev G.A., Kazakova V.N.
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