Social Psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Free technical library

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Free library / Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Social Psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Comments on the article

Table of contents

The concept of social psychology and its subject
Stages of development of socio-psychological knowledge
The history of the development of Western social psychology in the twentieth century. and its main theoretical approaches
Development of domestic social psychology
Paradigms of social psychology
Principles of Social Psychology
Social psychology in the system of sciences, its main directions
Methodology of social psychology
Stages of socio-psychological research
Correlation study
Pilot study
Observation as a method of social psychology
Survey Methods
Document Analysis
Testing as a method of socio-psychological diagnostics
Method of sociometric research of interpersonal relations in a group
The problem of personality in social psychology
Socio-psychological characteristics of personality
Socio-psychological typologies of personality
The content of the socialization process
Stages of the socialization process
Socialization and adaptation
Social status
The concept of social role
Social behavior of the individual and its regulation
The social attitude of the individual, its formation and change
Psychological defense mechanisms
Psychology of human aggressiveness
Communication psychology
Structure of communication
Theoretical approaches to the study of communication
Types of communication
Functions and means of communication
Levels and forms of communication
Socio-psychological mechanisms of influence in the process of communication
Psychology of interpersonal relationships
Forms of interpersonal relationships
Mechanisms of interpersonal cognition
Effects of interpersonal perception
Techniques for Effective Interpersonal Communication
Small group, its features and parameters
Small group structure
Theoretical approaches to the study of small groups
Types of small groups
Group Development Models
Group consciousness and groupthink
Conformity and group pressure
The concept of "leader" and "leadership"
Leadership theories
The problem of group cohesion
Group decision process
Group Compatibility
Socio-psychological climate
The effectiveness of group activities
Effective ways to manage a small group
Psychology and family functions
Family typologies
Psychology of relationships between parents and children
Psychology of marital relationships in the family
Psychology of marriage and divorce
The concept and typology of conflicts
Structure of the conflict
Conflict functions
Dynamics of the conflict
Types of conflicts
Contradictions and causes causing conflict
Conflict resolution methods
Intergroup interaction and its phenomena
Large social groups
Psychology of classes
Socio-psychological aspects of ethnopsychology
The psychological structure of society
Party psychology
Psychology of religion
The Social Psychology of Organized Crime
Socio-psychological features of the criminal subculture
Alcoholism as a socio-psychological problem
Socio-psychological aspects of drug addiction
Mass and its signs
Psychology of mass phenomena
The concept of the crowd
Types of crowds
crowd formation
Psychological properties of the crowd
Features of the behavior of an individual in a crowd
The psychology of rumors
Psychology of panic
Psychology of power
Psychology of an extreme situation
Stages of adaptation to an extreme situation
Styles of human behavior after leaving an extreme situation
Psychology of advertising

1. The concept of social psychology and its subject

Social Psychology - This is a field of psychology that studies psychological phenomena and patterns of behavior and activities of people, due to their inclusion in social groups, as well as the psychological characteristics of these groups themselves.

The object of social psychology is the community of people. Inherent in communities and the person in them, special psychological facts, patterns and mechanisms are called socio-psychological phenomena.

Socio-psychological factors are observable or fixed manifestations of socio-psychological reality. They influence all psychological manifestations of the individual: his perception, thinking, memory, imagination, emotions and will.

Socio-psychological patterns - objectively existing stable, periodically recurring, cause-and-effect relationships of socio-psychic phenomena.

Socio-psychological mechanisms are the mechanisms by which the action of regularities is performed, and transitions from cause to effect occur.

Tasks of social psychology:

1) continuation of in-depth studies of problems related to the subject of social psychology in interaction with other sciences;

2) a meaningful revision of socio-psychological problems in connection with the changed social conditions in our country;

3) the study of new socio-psychological phenomena (ethnic, economic, class, political, ideological, etc.);

4) socio-psychological studies of changes in mass consciousness, public sentiment and public opinion;

5) analysis of the growing role of social psychology in the context of reforming society;

6) interaction of social psychology with applied and practical psychology;

7) ensuring the relationship of domestic social psychology with various areas of foreign social psychology.

In social psychology, there are theoretical and practical parts.

Approaches to understanding the subject of theoretical social psychology:

1) the subject of social psychology are mental phenomena characteristic of large social groups (nations, countries, large socio-demographic groups);

2) the main subject of social psychology is the personality: its position in the team, interpersonal relations, communication features, the study of personality, its traits;

3) the subject of psychology is mass mental processes, and the position of the individual in the group.

The subject of applied social psychology is the study of the patterns of psychodiagnostics, counseling and the use of psychotechnologies in the field of socio-psychological phenomena.

The social psyche is a complex, dynamic and contradictory formation that functions as a unity of mass, group, intergroup, interpersonal and personal moods, mass, group and individual emotions, stereotypes and attitudes.

Functions of the social psyche:

1) integration and transmission of social experience, on the basis of which a single direction of thoughts, will and feelings is formed in a given social group;

2) social adaptation - bringing individual consciousness into line with the principles and norms prevailing in a given social group;

3) social correlation - bringing the behavior of the individual in line with the norms adopted in this society;

4) social control - regulation of individual behavior by a system of informal sanctions of society;

5) psychological unloading - liberation from socio-psychological stress, without violating generally accepted norms;

6) social activation - strengthening of human activity due to the activation of mass emotions.

2. Stages of development of socio-psychological knowledge

The history of the development of social psychology can be divided into 3 stages:

1) descriptive stage (VI century BC - mid-nineteenth century) - the origin and first steps of socio-psychological knowledge are already found in the works of philosophers of antiquity.

sociocentrism Plato - society stands above the individual, dictates to him a line of behavior. The individual characteristics of a person and his social behavior and position in Plato are associated with three parts of the body: the head (mind) - developed by philosophers, the heart (courage) - by warriors and the stomach (bodily desires) - by artisans. On a similar basis, Plato distinguishes between individual peoples.

Egocentrism Aristotle - a person was considered as a "social animal" that cannot develop normally outside of society, however, when solving social problems, one must go from the interests of the individual to the mass.

Torii "bad" and "good" person. In the Renaissance, there were two teachings, one of which ("realistic") was of the opinion about the original depravity of man and the immorality of society (N. Machiavelli, T. Hobbes). According to another teaching ("romantic"), a person is inherently good, but it is society that spoils him, forming negative traits. (J.-J. Rousseau, I. Kant, D. Diderot).

В XNUMXth century a theory based on the principle of personal gain was developed (I. Bentham, A. Smith). The main principle of behavior was the assessment of all phenomena, based on their usefulness for an individual. The well-being of society, according to this theory, should be built on the freedom of action of each of its members in accordance with their own interests in the economic sphere.

Methodologies of positivism O.Konta - in the study of human behavior and the phenomena of social life, it is necessary to use the same scientific approach as in the study of the natural world. The human psyche, according to Comte, develops only in society, and he must always be considered on the basis of his social environment.

2) The stage of formation of socio-psychological knowledge featured in the following areas:

Psychology of peoples (arose under the influence of Hegel's ideas) - the "spirit" of a nation or people was opposed to the "spirit" of individual individuals (Lazarus and Steinthal). W. Wundt also believed that mental products, the social nature of human life (languages, myths and customs), are inexplicable only on the basis of individual consciousness, and have a social origin.

Dominant factor theories reduced the foundations of all socio-psychological phenomena to a single explanation. W. Bagjot and G. Tarde called imitation as such a factor, G. Lebon - suggestion, W. James - habit, W. McDougall and W. Trotter - instinct, E. Durkheim and L. Levy-Bruhl - "collective consciousness".

Social Darwinism emphasized the "struggle for existence" through interpersonal and intergroup conflicts (G. Spencer). Spencer used Darwinism to prove the superiority of some social groups over others, justifying war, colonialism, and in general any action that implies competition or conflict.

Psychoanalytic theory 3. Freud - the instinctive impulses of a person come into conflict with the interests of society, resulting in frustration. The basis of the emotional ties of society is the identification and desexualization of "libido" (sublimation).

3) The stage of experimental and theoretical development of social psychology in the twentieth century. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. a new period begins in the development of social psychology - researchers turn to laboratory experiments. N. Triplet is considered the father of the socio-psychological experiment.

3. The history of the development of Western social psychology in the twentieth century. and its main theoretical approaches

In Western socio-psychological science in the twentieth century. The following theoretical approaches have been developed:

1) sociocultural approach E. Ross - the sources of social behavior of people are not inherent in an individual, but in a social group, social behavior is explained by the influence of large social groups. The group was considered as a kind of integrity with consciousness. In accordance with the modern sociocultural approach, it is believed that a person's beliefs, values and prejudices are primarily due to group-level factors (nation, social class, cultural norms);

2) evolutionary approach of W. McDougall - aims to find the causes of social behavior in the physical and mental tendencies that helped our ancestors to survive and produce offspring. It is assumed that animals that are most adapted to environmental conditions are more likely to survive and produce viable offspring, passing on the appropriate properties to them. These properties are eventually replaced by new properties of living organisms, more suitable for a particular environment;

3) Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura and R. Walters) - social behavior is seen as a product of the individual's past experience and learning in the process of receiving rewards and punishments. A special role in the development of certain behavioral forms is given to imitation. So, for example, children can learn aggression by observing various forms of aggressive behavior of adults. An important role in the development of individual behavior is also given to beliefs, expectations, choice and self-reinforcement;

4) phenomenological approach of K. Levin - a person's social behavior is guided by his subjective interpretation of the events of the social world. The main concept in Lewin's system of views on human social behavior is the concept of "living space", which includes the entire sum of possible events that affect the individual from the past, present and future, as it seems to him. In this case, a person's behavior is considered as his movement through sections of a given living space, some of which are attractive, while others are not. A person's interpretation of a given situation, according to Lewin, is related to his goals at the moment. So, for example, if a fan of a football team wants to get into a fight with fans of a "foreign" team, he may interpret an accidental push as an aggressive attack from the other side;

5) socio-cognitive approach - focuses on the mental processes involved in how an individual pays attention to social events, interprets them, and stores them in memory. Proponents of this approach believe that mental processes related to what kind of events attract a person’s attention, how he interprets these events and stores them in his memory, are in a special way capable of influencing a person’s social behavior, directing his attention to one or another aspect of the situation. . They can also influence the understanding of this situation on the basis of the associations that arose in him of this event with a similar experience of the past, preserved in memory.

The considered approaches to understanding socio-psychological phenomena do not contradict each other, but represent only one of the facets of socio-psychological analysis that complement each other ... The combination of these approaches and their integrated use provide a comprehensive study of a particular phenomenon of social psychology.

4. Development of domestic social psychology

The founder of Russian socio-psychological thought was N.K. Mikhailovsky, who for the first time summarized the experience of observing and analyzing mass psychology, accumulated in Russian sociology, fiction and journalism. He considered the crowd as "an independent socio-psychological phenomenon", believing that the heroes are the product of the crowd, which puts them forward at certain points in history. The crowd unconsciously imitates the hero, which is explained by the easy suggestibility of the masses, their susceptibility to the strength of the hero's personality.

Marxism had a strong influence on the development of social psychology in Russia. G.V. Plekhanov considered "social psychology" as a concrete historical and class phenomenon.

Experimental social psychology. V.M. Bekhterev, considering objective methods the only possible ones in the study of the psyche, contributed to the use of experimental methods for the phenomena of social psychology. He considered the group psyche as a set of conditioned reflexes. Bekhterev gave a description of various social groups, created an original classification of collectives. He reduced the laws of mass psychology to physical laws. Experiments conducted by Bekhterev together with M.V. Lange, showed a significant influence of the group on the characteristics of the mental activity of its members, revealed gender, age, educational and natural differences in the shifts of mental processes in the conditions of group work. It was found that a group can stimulate the mental activity of some of its members and at the same time influence others in an inhibitory way.

In the 20s. Much attention was paid to the socio-psychological problems of children's and student groups (E.A. Arkin, B.V. Belyaev, and others), social psychology of work, and management of organizations (N.A. Vitke, and others).

Cultural-historical theory of the development of the psyche L.S. Vygotsky was of the opinion that "in the process of historical development, a social person changes the ways and methods of his behavior, transforms natural inclinations and functions, develops and creates new forms of behavior - specifically cultural." This theory has had a great influence on research into the development of child behavior.

From the 30s to the 50s. socio-psychological work was practically not carried out for ideological reasons, except for the work of A.S. Makarenko, who considered the formation of a collectivist to be the main goal of education, proclaiming the priority of the team over the individual. At the same time, one of the important tasks is to educate the needs of the "collectivist".

The revival of social psychology as a science in the late 50s. began with a discussion of the subject of social psychology. In 1962, the country's first laboratory of social psychology was established at the Leningrad State University (led by E.S. Kuzmin). Work was carried out on the empirical study of folklore, relationships in production teams, school classes.

B.F. For the first time in our country, Porshnev raises the question of such socio-psychological categories as "we" and "they."

In 1968, the first departments of social psychology were opened at Leningrad University (under the direction of E.S. Kuzmin), and in 1972 at Moscow University (under the direction of G.M. Andreeva). The first textbooks on social psychology are being published, socio-psychological research is being carried out at industrial enterprises, government institutions, schools, universities, sports teams, art and culture centers, and healthcare organizations.

5. Paradigms of social psychology

Paradigm - a set of theoretical and methodological prerequisites that determine a specific scientific research, which is embodied in scientific practice at this stage.

The natural-scientific paradigm in social psychology was oriented towards the ideal of strict objective physical knowledge, as well as the demands of various spheres of social practice. She denied the specifics of human research, recognized the priority of method over theory, and preferred the inductive approach to research.

The positivist paradigm adheres to the belief in the fundamental knowability of the internal causal mechanisms that govern social behavior.

The neopositivist paradigm is to recognize:

1. naturalism - social phenomena are subject to natural and socio-historical laws;

2. scientism, according to which the methods of social research should be as precise, rigorous and objective as the methods of natural science;

3. behaviorism - "subjective aspects" of human behavior can only be explored through open behavior;

4. verification - the truth of scientific concepts and statements should be established on the basis of empirical procedures;

5. quantification - all social phenomena must be described and quantified;

6. methodological objectivism, according to which social science should be free from value judgments and connection with ideology.

According to this approach, social psychology is understood as a branch of psychology that studies the process of human interaction. The main goal of social psychology is to establish general laws for describing and explaining social interaction.

Transformation paradigm - the leading paradigm of domestic social psychology. It is based on the idea of Marx, according to which, in order to explain (understand) an object or phenomenon, it is necessary to try to change, transform, subjugate it. The method of transformation and construction of reality is recognized as the main method of cognition. The main condition for the success of the method is its ability to identify in the object and use the main driving force that develops this object, the internal contradiction.

paradigm of social constructionism. At the metatheoretical level, most studies of the constructionist orientation find adherence to one or more of the following hypotheses:

1) scientific truth is not identical with knowledge about the world as it is, and scientific theory cannot be reduced to a description of this truth by selected researchers. Within the framework of this paradigm, the experiment is considered as one of the possible rhetorical devices for searching for "truth" (ie, deciphering meanings in the linguistic activity of the human community);

2) the terms in which the world is comprehended are social artifacts, products of historically conditioned interchange between people;

3) the degree of distribution and the level of influence of one or another form of understanding the world in a given period of time do not depend on the empirical validity of the chosen point of view, they are associated with the perturbations of social processes, including conflicts, communication, negotiations, oratory;

4) the forms of understanding the world acquired in the course of social communication are of great importance for social life in general, since they are most closely related to a host of other types of human activity.

Adherents of this paradigm argue that certain tendencies are inherent in the individual from birth, prompting him to think, operate with categories and process information.

6. Principles of social psychology

The principle of social and psychological complexity lies in the fact that social psychology, being at the junction of sociology and psychology, is engaged in the study of psychological problems caused and causing social problems, revealing them in all details. The specificity of the socio-psychological facts, patterns and mechanisms that form the socio-psychological reality and are studied by it, is explained by the borderline position of social psychology.

The principle of socio-psychological causality. Socio-psychological phenomena, as phenomena of a psychological nature, are of a reflective nature, that is, they represent an ideal image of the surrounding social reality that arises in the minds of people under its influence. The reason for socio-psychological phenomena is always the objective circumstances of the life of specific groups of people and the individual in them, as well as the influence on the psychology of a person in a group of psychological characteristics of people around them, their views, moods, desires, intentions, behavior. In the process of joint life, communication, exchange of opinions, intentions, feelings, there is an active exchange of products of the psychology of different people, which reveals the common people, promotes their integration, consolidation into a group and isolation from other groups.

The influence of people is manifested in informing, teaching, explaining, persuading, persuading, inciting to action, inviting to joint actions, etc. An ill-conceived psychological influence of the media, press, propaganda, etc. is also directed at a person. the active influence of the environment acquires a double social causality, as it acts both as the subject of reflection of social reality and the object of the influence of its active elements.

The principle of unity of socio-psychological phenomena, environment and activity lies in the fact that the environment, activity, manifested in communication and joint activities, in interaction have an impact on the socio-psychological phenomena observed in various groups. At the same time, with the growth of the size of the group, the role of communication and joint activity decreases, and the role of the environment, objective conditions of life and activity increases.

The principle of socio-psychological consistency lies in the fact that socio-psychological reality is a system that is at a higher system level and more complex for reasons that cause it, according to its laws, mechanisms than individual psychological reality. An element of this system is the psychology of individuals as individuals included in connection with other individuals.

Like any system, socio-psychological reality is not a simple sum of the properties of each of its constituent elements, but an aggregate that has specific system properties that are the product of its integral functioning. System properties arise on the basis of the interaction of elements and have a reverse effect on them, subordinating the laws of integral functioning. Interacting with the environment and other objects, the socio-psychological system acts as an integrity.

The principle of socio-psychological development lies in the fact that the development of the individual takes place in a constantly changing socio-psychological reality, in a continuously developing society, under the influence of which the personality itself changes.

The principle of objectivity lies in the reliability of knowledge obtained in socio-psychological research.

7. Social psychology in the system of sciences, its main directions

Social psychology is at the intersection of sociology and psychology. Sociology and social psychology are connected by a common interest in the behavior of people in groups. However, unlike sociology, which studies groups of different sizes in the activity, operational and statistical aspect, social psychology studies personalities, individuals, their behavior and how they influence, interact, relate to each other. In this case, the influence of both the group on the individual and the individual on the group is studied.

The methods of sociology and social psychology often coincide, but social psychology relies more on experiments in which manipulation of some factor is possible.

Unlike personality psychology, social psychology has a social character. Personality psychology studies the inner world of the individual, his similarities with other people and individual differences. Social psychology deals with the study of those characteristics that are common to all people, how they perceive each other and influence each other. Social psychology studies socio-psychological phenomena, such as: socio-psychological facts, patterns and mechanisms of their development.

In addition to sociology and psychology, social psychology closely interacts with biology, which studies the nature of humans, animals, and plants. Since man is closely connected with the animal world and, as they say

evolutionary psychologists, originated from it, social psychology has common ground with biology, physiology, anatomy.

The social component makes social psychology related to philosophy, theology, economics, politics, education, the psychological component - to biology, chemistry, physics, engaged in the study of man, each in its own way.

The main directions of social psychology. Social psychology is divided into theoretical and applied social psychology.

Theoretical psychology includes:

1) social psychology of the individual and small groups, which studies the processes of socialization, socio-psychological mechanisms, relationships, communication and interaction, mass socio-psychological phenomena, the psychology of small groups, the psychology of the individual in a group, the psychology of various types of groups, etc .;

2) social psychology of large communities (groups), which studies the socio-psychological characteristics of large groups, socio-gender psychology, socio-political psychology, the psychology of social movements, ethnopsychology, socio-age psychology, the psychology of religion, etc.;

3) social psychology of society, which studies the psychology of socio-economic systems, government and society, the legal society, the psychology of social crises, etc.

Applied psychology includes:

1) professional social psychology, which includes socio-psychological professiography, social psychology of professional activity, labor collective, innovations, socio-psychological characteristics of the activities of various specialists, etc.;

2) branch social psychology, which studies the social psychology of management, economics and entrepreneurship, international relations, law and order, education, culture, trade, advertising, competition, rivalry, conflict resolution, etc.;

3) practical psychology, which includes a system of socio-psychological support for practice, the personality and activities of a social psychologist, socio-psychological diagnostics, examination, analysis, counseling, trust service technology, families, etc.

8. Methodology of social psychology

Methodology (translated from Greek - "the path of knowledge") - this is a field of knowledge that studies the means, prerequisites and principles of organization and construction of theoretical and practical activities.

Levels of methodology of social psychology:

1) general methodology - a certain general philosophical approach, a way of understanding the phenomena of the objective world. At this level, the methodology formulates the general principles of the relationship between society and the individual, which are used in sociopsychological research;

2) private methodology - a set of methodological principles inherent in sociology and psychology, which are transformed into a kind of standard for socio-psychological research and determine the research strategy;

3) methodology as a set of specific techniques, techniques, which are characterized by the fact that they are usually relatively independent of general methodological principles and are usually used in the same form within the framework of various methodological preferences.

Features of scientific research in social psychology:

1) the study is conducted with specific objects, a certain amount of empirical data that is collected using specific techniques, methods and techniques;

2) research implies an independent solution of empirical, logical and theoretical problems;

3) the study is characterized by a fairly clear distinction between established facts and hypothetical assumptions, procedures for testing hypotheses have been worked out;

4) the purpose of socio-psychological research is the explanation of facts, phenomena and their prediction.

Socio-psychological research - a type of scientific research conducted with the aim of establishing psychological patterns in the behavior and activities of people, due to the fact of inclusion in social groups, as well as the psychological characteristics of these groups themselves.

Specifics of socio-psychological research:

1) describe the psychological characteristics of the group itself;

2) reveal some characteristics of the consciousness of these individuals (representations, opinions, attitudes, values, etc.) of these individuals;

3) have a social context of research that affects the selection, interpretation and presentation of facts;

4) the source of data is the person himself;

5) instability and constant change in socio-psychological phenomena;

6) culturally determined relativity of socio-psychological patterns;

7) work with real objects of research (individuals and groups).

Sources of information in social psychology:

1) characteristics of the actual behavior and activities of people and groups;

2) characteristics of individual and group consciousness (opinions, assessments, ideas, attitudes, values, etc.);

3) characteristics of the products of human activity - material and spiritual;

4) individual events, states of social interaction.

Trends in the development of socio-psychological research methods:

1) increasing the reliability of the methods used to collect information, due to the algorithmization of the study and the formalization of the measurement procedure (scaling the features of an object, standardizing the rules for collecting primary information and its processing);

2) development of computer analogues of existing research methods;

3) the complexity of collecting empirical information, a combination of various measurement methods, as well as sources of information (tests, questionnaires, expert assessments, etc.)

4) development of methods that reduce the subjective influence of the researcher and the subjects on the process of collecting empirical information (hardware methods, research in natural conditions, etc.).

9. Stages of socio-psychological research

At the first stage of socio-psychological research, it is necessary to choose a research topic and formulate it clearly. Next, you need to draw up a program and work plan, which are usually based on some theory that requires proof or additional elaboration.

A theory is understood as a system of provisions explaining how and why certain phenomena are interconnected.

Theories are characterized by:

1) the ability to predict behavior;

2) "internal consistency" - the absence of logical inconsistencies or unexplained oddities among theoretical ideas;

3) economy - the content of only those principles or provisions that are necessary to explain the phenomenon under consideration;

4) fertility (fertility) - the ability to capture the imagination of scientists to such an extent that the ideas of this theory are tested and extended in explaining a wide variety of social behavior.

At the next stage of the work, a search for the relevant scientific literature is carried out. An analysis of the data obtained from the literature allows us to outline the course of the forthcoming study.

The first stages of research are closely interconnected and often replace each other. Thus, the formulation of the topic is often not possible without a purposeful literary search.

Formulation of hypotheses is the next stage of the study. A hypothesis is an assumption arising from a theory for a preliminary explanation of any phenomena. Hypotheses are logical consequences of certain theories.

At the fourth stage, the choice of research methods is made, i.e., methods and means of obtaining reliable information used to develop practical recommendations.

Types of methods of social psychology:

1) methods of collecting information:

a) observation;

b) experiment;

c) correlation study;

d) survey;

e) interviewing;

e) scaling;

g) testing;

h) projective methods;

i) sociometry;

j) study of documents;

k) study of products of activity;

2) information processing methods:

a) methods of theoretical and logical data processing;

b) the use of mathematical statistics.

At the next stage, primary information is collected through observation, questioning and analysis of various kinds of documentation (content analysis).

At the final stage, the results are processed and analyzed. This stage requires the researcher to have knowledge of statistical procedures and computer programs.

Types of research results processing:

1) qualitative processing - a method of primary data processing aimed at determining the qualitative characteristics of the studied socio-psychological processes and phenomena;

2) quantitative processing of the results is carried out on the basis of mathematical methods widely used in science, such as methods of variation statistics (allowing to establish the average quantitative value of indicators, the degree of diversity and discrepancy of data, the presence or absence of a connection between the series of mental phenomena), statistical methods to establish the reliability the results of the study (they make it possible to judge the typical differences of certain indicators, their reliability, the required number of subjects, etc.);

3) alternative analysis is an expression in quantitative terms of the studied features, properties and qualities of mental phenomena; analysis of variance consists in assessing the factors influencing the trait under study and determining the degree of influence of each of them;

4) correlation analysis is carried out in the case when the impact on socio-psychological processes is implied not only by the studied factor, but also by other factors.

10. Correlation study

Correlation study - this is one of the methods of social psychology, designed to assess the relationship between two or more factors, which are called "variables" and are not controlled by the researcher. A correlation study is aimed at establishing a change in one variable when another changes.

This study is usually carried out in a natural environment (in the "field" - field research).

A correlation study provides information about the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.

Relationship direction - This is a characteristic of the relationship, which indicates in which direction one of the variables will change when the other changes.

Types of relationship direction:

1) positive - with an increase in the value of one variable, the change in the other variable also occurs in the direction of increase;

2) negative - when the value of one of the variables increases, the value of the other variable decreases.

If, when the value of one of the variables changes, the other variable does not change, it is said that there is no correlation.

The strength of the relationship - the degree of accuracy with which it is possible to predict the value of one variable given the value of another variable.

A statistical test that characterizes the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables is called correlation coefficient. The value of the correlation coefficient ranges from +1,00 (with a positive correlation) to -1,00 (with a negative correlation).

The value of the correlation coefficient equal to +1,00 (full correlation) is not found in socio-psychological studies. The correlation coefficient rarely exceeds +0,60. This is due to the fact that there is always not one, but a number of factors that determine people's behavior, their opinions and assessments.

According to the strength of the correlation in socio-psychological studies, there are:

1) strong correlation of variables (from +0,50 to +0,60);

2) moderately strong correlation (from +0,30 and +0,50);

3) weak correlation (from +0,30 or +0,20).

In mathematical data processing, various approaches are used to calculate the correlation coefficient. In social psychology, the rank correlation coefficient is most often used Spearman (r) as distinguished by its universality (it can be applied to any quantitatively measured or ranked data) and simplicity (allows you to calculate the correlation "manually").

Using a correlation study especially effective when it comes to collecting a large amount of data. An example of a correlation study is the study of the peculiarities of understanding the role of a team leader in a production organization, a teacher in a class, an individual student in a group, etc. At the same time, such qualities of the master’s personality as exactingness, perseverance, poise, kindness, modesty, discipline, justice, optimism, etc. Features of perception and understanding of personality and activity are considered depending on the socio-demographic and role characteristics of subjects and objects of evaluation.

Advantages of the correlation method consist in the fact that the results of a correlation study often serve as a breeding ground for ideas and hypotheses that can be studied experimentally in more detail. However, when conducting an empirical study, it is very important to understand which variable caused the change in another. Main lack of correlation research is that it does not definitively determine the cause of the relationship between two variables.

11. Experimental study

Pilot study - This is one of the methods of social psychology, which is aimed at identifying the relationship between cause and effect.

By changing one of the variables (independent), the researcher conducting the experiment observes the change in the other variable (dependent), with which no manipulations are performed. The data obtained as a result of the experiment show whether the independent variable is the cause of the changes in the dependent variable.

Advantages of the method in the possibility:

1) artificially evoke phenomena of interest to the experimenter;

2) clearly take into account the influence of conditions on the studied socio-psychological phenomena;

3) quantitatively change the conditions of the experiment;

4) change some conditions while keeping others unchanged.

Drawbacks of the experimental method include:

1) the artificiality of the experiment or its remoteness from life, due to the loss of conditions essential for the phenomenon under study;

2) analyticity and abstractness of the experiment. The experiment is usually carried out in artificial conditions, in connection with which, the features and patterns of the course of socio-psychological processes, which are often abstract in nature, revealed during the experiment, do not make it possible to draw direct conclusions about the patterns of the course of these processes in natural conditions;

3) the complicating role of the experimenter's influence (Rosenthal effect) - the impossibility of excluding the experimenter's influence on the course and results of the experiment.

Types of experiments:

1) according to the form of holding:

a) natural experiment - consists in the actual impact on a real object in order to diagnose it;

b) a thought experiment - consists in manipulating not with a real object, but with information about it or with its model;

2) according to the conditions of the event:

a) field experiment - organized in natural conditions for the diagnosed object; can be carried out at all levels of public life. Advantages: a combination of the naturalness of observation methods and the activity of the experiment. Disadvantages: connected with ethical and legal issues;

b) laboratory experiment - takes place in special conditions using special equipment that allows you to strictly record the features of external influences and the corresponding mental responses of people. The actions of the subjects are determined by the instructions. The subjects know that an experiment is being conducted, although they may not understand the true meaning of the experiment until the end. Advantages: the possibility of repeated experiments with a large number of subjects, which makes it possible to establish general reliable patterns in the development of mental phenomena. Disadvantages: artificiality of research conditions.

Special types of experimental methods include instrumental methods carried out with the help of technical devices that allow creating a certain significant situation that reveals one or another characteristic of the diagnosed object, taking indications about the manifestation of the studied characteristics, fixing and partially calculating the results of diagnosis.

The hardware is based on the classic in electrical engineering "bridge Winston"- four resistances (resistors) connected in the form of a rhombus.

Hardware means solving a group problem only if all members of the group interact and adapt to each other. Currently, instrumental techniques are used to measure the reaction of the media audience to certain programs or to count responses in the course of an automated questionnaire.

12. Observation as a method of social psychology

Surveillance - this is one of the oldest methods, consisting in the deliberate perception of environmental phenomena in order to collect data of a certain kind.

Differences between scientific observation and ordinary:

1) purposefulness;

2) a clear scheme;

3) a clear definition of units of observation;

4) a clear fixation of the results of perception.

In social psychology, this method is used to study human behavior, including group processes.

Advantages: applicable both in laboratory conditions, when certain artificial conditions are created for the group, and the task of the observer is to record the reactions of group members under these conditions, and in the natural social environment.

The disadvantage This method is the presence of a researcher who somehow influences the behavior of the studied individuals, which should be taken into account when recording and interpreting the data collected in this way.

To minimize the influence of the observer, we use gesell method, when the subjects are placed in a special well-lit room, which is separated by a large mirror without painted over amalgam from another room, immersed in darkness, where the observer is located. In this case, the subjects do not see the researcher, who can observe everything that happens in the illuminated room. Sound enters the observer's room using hidden microphones.

Types of observations:

1) standardized (structural, controlled) observation - observation, in which a number of pre-distributed categories are used, in accordance with which certain reactions of individuals are recorded. It is used as the main method of collecting primary information;

2) non-standardized (non-structural, uncontrolled) observation - observation in which the researcher is guided only by the most general plan. The main task of such observation is to obtain a certain impression of a particular situation as a whole. It is used at the initial stages of the study in order to clarify the topic, put forward hypotheses, determine the possible types of behavioral reactions for their subsequent standardization;

3) observation in the natural environment (field) - observation of objects engaged in their daily activities and unaware of the manifestation of research attention to them (observation of a film crew, circus performers, etc.);

4) observation in significant situations (for example, observation in the team of reactions to the arrival of a new leader, etc.);

5) participant observation - observation is carried out by a researcher who is included incognito in a group of persons of interest to him as an equal member of it (for example, in a group of vagrants, psychiatric patients, etc.).

Disadvantages of participant observation:

1) a certain skill (artistry and special skills) is required on the part of the observer, who must naturally, without arousing any suspicion, enter the circle of people he studies;

2) there is a danger of involuntary identification of the observer with the positions of the studied population, i.e., the observer can get used to the role of a member of the group under study to such an extent that he risks becoming, rather, its supporter, rather than an impartial researcher;

3) moral and ethical problems;

4) the limitations of the method, which is due to the inability to monitor large groups of people;

5) is time consuming.

The advantage of the participant observation method is that it allows you to obtain data about the real behavior of people at the very moment when this behavior is carried out.

Participant observation is usually used in combination with other methods of collecting primary information.

13. Survey methods

Interview - this is a method of purposefully obtaining information about socio-psychological phenomena through correspondence or face-to-face communication between a practical psychologist and a respondent.

Poll types:

1) interviewing;

2) questioning.

Interview - verbal direct questioning, in which the psychologist (interviewer) seeks to obtain information from the respondent (respondent) or a group of people.

Types of interviews used in socio-psychological research:

1) by the number of respondents and the purposes of diagnosis:

a) an individual interview, the purpose of which is to study the personal characteristics of the respondents:

- clinical - aimed at identifying accentuations;

- deep - consist in clarifying the events and experiences of the interviewee in the past, located in the depths of memory;

- focused - the respondent's attention is focused on certain life events, problems;

b) a group interview is used as a way to collect information about the opinions, moods, attitudes of the group as a whole;

c) mass interviews are used to diagnose mass socio-psychological phenomena;

2) according to the degree of formalization:

a) standardized interview - the wording of questions and their sequence are predetermined, they are the same for all respondents. The advantage of the method is the minimization of errors in the formulation of questions, due to which the obtained data are more comparable with each other. The disadvantage of the method is the somewhat "formal" nature of the survey, which hinders contact between the interviewer and the respondent. It is used when it is necessary to examine a large number of people (several hundreds or thousands);

b) non-standardized interview - characterized by flexibility and questions vary widely, the interviewer is guided only by the general plan of the interview and formulates questions in accordance with the specific situation. The advantage of this type of interview is the ability to ask additional questions, due to a specific situation, which brings it closer to a normal conversation and causes more natural responses. The disadvantage of such an interview lies in the difficulty of comparing the data obtained due to variations in the wording of the questions. It is used in the early stages of the study, when a preliminary acquaintance with the problem under study is necessary;

c) semi-standardized or "focused" interview - carried out with the help of an interview "guide" with a list of both strictly necessary and possible questions. The main questions should be asked to each respondent, additional questions are asked depending on the answers of the interviewee to the main questions. This technique allows the interviewer to vary within the limits of the "guidebook". The data obtained are more comparable.

Questioning is a method by which a psychologist (questionnaire) receives information from respondents indirectly using a questionnaire (questionnaire) compiled in a certain way in accordance with the objectives of the study.

The survey is used for:

1) clarifying the attitude of people on acute debatable or intimate issues;

2) the need to interview a large number of people.

Questionnaire methods:

1) sending questionnaires by mail;

2) distribution of questionnaires in the media;

3) delivery of questionnaires at the place of residence or work.

Advantages surveys are that they give the researcher information that cannot be obtained otherwise. The survey can act as a means of collecting primary information and serve to clarify and control the data of other methods.

Disadvantages of this method lie in the subjectivity of the data obtained, which are largely based on self-observation of the respondents.

14. Document analysis

This method is based on the specific processing of information presented in any documents (handwritten or printed texts, drawings, film, etc.).

Advantages of the method:

1) the lack of influence of the researcher on the object under study;

2) a high degree of reliability of the received data;

3) the possibility of obtaining information that cannot be identified to such an extent by other methods.

The disadvantages of the method:

1) complexity;

2) the need for a high level of qualification of analysts.

Types of examined documents:

1) in form:

a) official - these are documents emanating from official organizations (documents of various state bodies, financial institutions, data from state and departmental statistics, etc.);

b) informal documents do not have official confirmation of their correctness and are compiled on a personal occasion or on the basis of some task (personal letters, diaries and business records, scientific papers, autobiographies, memoirs, etc.). Unofficial documents are less reliable, but contain information about the interests, needs, motives, values and other manifestations of the psyche of individuals and social groups;

2) according to the degree of personification:

a) personal documents (individual record cards, characteristics issued to any person, statements, letters, diaries, memoirs, etc.) are considered less reliable;

b) impersonal documents - these are statistical materials, minutes of meetings, press data that do not express the opinion of any particular person;

3) according to the intended purpose:

a) non-target - documents that were created independently of the researcher;

b) target - are prepared on the instructions of the researcher in accordance with his scientific design (answers to open questions of interviews and questionnaires, autobiographies, essays on a specific topic, written by order of researchers).

A special type of document analysis methods is content analysis (or content analysis), the essence of which is to identify the frequency of using relatively constant elements in the text, which, combined with qualitative analysis, allows us to draw appropriate conclusions about their significance for the author of the message, determine its goals, focus on a particular audience, etc. .

Stages of content analysis:

1) development of categories and units of analysis depending on the goals and objectives set by the customer to the social psychologist, preliminary analysis of the array of documentary information for the reliability of information, the possibility of access to it, etc.;

2) development of a specific methodology: compiling a code from categories and units of analysis, determining units of account, designing a layout for a content analysis card;

3) collection of primary information: viewing documents with a search for the semantic units of analysis indicated in the code and counting the volume and frequency of their mention.

Areas of use of content analysis in socio-psychological research:

1) the study of the socio-psychological characteristics of communicators, authors through the content of their messages;

2) the study of the socio-psychological phenomena of the object that actually took place, which are reflected in the content of the messages;

3) analysis of various means of communication through the content of messages, forms and methods of organizing content, including propaganda;

4) identifying the socio-psychological characteristics of recipients (addressees of communication, audience);

5) study of the socio-psychological aspects of the impact of communication effects on recipients through the content of messages.

Content analysis is used to process open questions of questionnaires and interviews, data from projective methods, to study scientific literature, etc.

15. Testing as a method of socio-psychological diagnostics

Testing - a standardized, usually time-limited test that measures the level of development or the degree of expression of some mental properties of an individual, group or community.

Test classification:

1) in form:

a) oral and written;

b) individual and group;

c) hardware and blank;

d) subject and computer;

e) verbal and non-verbal (task performance is based on non-verbal abilities (perceptual, motor), and the subjects' speech abilities are included in them only in terms of understanding instructions. Non-verbal tests include most instrumental tests, subject, drawing, etc.);

2) by content:

a) studying the properties of intelligence;

b) abilities;

c) individual personality characteristics, etc.;

3) according to the goals of testing:

a) tests for self-knowledge are not strictly scientific, have a small volume, they are distinguished by the simplicity of testing and calculating results, they are published in popular newspapers, magazines, book publications;

b) tests for diagnosing by a specialist are the most rigorous in terms of standardizing the testing procedure and structure, the content of test tasks (stimulus material), as well as information processing and interpretation, they are characterized by validity, they must have standards for basic groups;

c) tests for examination are carried out at the initiative of officials (for example, an administration that wants to test its employees for professional suitability or hire the most deserving ones with the best test results), the requirements are similar to the requirements for tests for specialists. A feature of these tests is the use of questions that minimize insincere answers;

4) due to time constraints:

a) tests that take into account the speed of tasks;

b) performance tests;

5) according to the methodological principle underlying the methodology:

a) objective tests;

b) standardized self-report methods, including:

- Questionnaire tests consist of several dozen questions (statements), regarding which the subjects make their judgments (as a rule, "yes" or "no", less often a three-alternative choice of answers);

- open questionnaires, suggesting a follow-up

tent analysis;

- scale techniques built according to the type of Ch. Osgood's semantic differential, classification methods;

- individually-oriented techniques such as role-playing repertoire grids;

c) projective techniques, in which the stimulus material presented to the subjects is characterized by uncertainty, suggesting a wide variety of interpretations (Rorschach test, TAT, Szondi, etc.);

d) dialogic (interactive) techniques (conversations, interviews, diagnostic games).

Requirements for test methods of research:

1) representativeness (representativeness) is the possibility of disseminating the results obtained in the study of a sample set of objects to the entire set of these objects;

2) the uniqueness of the methodology - is characterized by the extent to which the data obtained with its help reflect changes in precisely and only the property for which this methodology is used. Usually, this quality is checked by repeated measurements;

3) validity (validity) - this is the validity of the conclusions obtained as a result of applying this methodology;

4) accuracy - the ability of the methodology to sensitively respond to the slightest changes in the evaluated property that occur in the course of a socio-psychological diagnostic experiment;

5) reliability - the possibility of obtaining sustainable indicators using this technique.

16. Method of sociometric research of interpersonal relations in a group

Sociometry - this is a method of social psychology, developed by J. Moreno, for quantifying the structure of interpersonal relations in a group, based on the number and nature of the mutual choices of its members according to a certain sociometric criterion.

The method of sociometry is also used to diagnose intergroup relations in order to change, improve and improve them. Sociometry makes it possible to study the typology of people's social behavior in the conditions of group activity, to judge the socio-psychological compatibility of members of specific groups.

Goals of the sociometric procedure:

1) measurement of the degree of cohesion-disunity in the group;

2) identifying the authority of group members on the basis of sympathy-antipathy, where the "leader" of the group and the "rejected" are at the extreme poles;

3) detection of intra-group, close-knit informal formations and their leaders.

Sociometric data for measuring the authority of formal and informal leaders are successfully used to regroup people in teams, which allows to reduce tension in the team arising from mutual hostility.

Sociometric research can be carried out in a group and does not require much time (up to 15 minutes).

Sociometry is not a radical way to resolve intra-group problems, the causes of which should be sought not in the likes and dislikes of group members, but in deeper sources.

The reliability of the sociometric methodology depends on the correct selection of sociometric criteria, which is dictated by the research program and preliminary acquaintance with the specifics of the group.

Sociometry procedure includes the formulation of research objectives and the choice of measurement objects, after which the main hypotheses and provisions are formulated regarding possible criteria for interviewing group members. Sociometry does not imply complete anonymity, since otherwise it would be of little effectiveness. In this regard, the requirements of the experimenter to reveal their likes and dislikes may cause internal difficulties for the respondents and unwillingness to participate in the survey.

The selected criteria for sociometry are entered on a special card or offered orally according to the type of interview. Each member of the group is asked to answer them, choosing one or another group member depending on their greater or lesser inclination, their preference over others, sympathy or, conversely, antipathy, trust or distrust, etc.

All members of the group are asked to write under number 1 the name of the member of the group whom they would choose first of all, under number 2 - who would they choose if there was no first, under number 3 - who would they choose if there were no first and second. The next question is about personal relationships.

To confirm the reliability of the answers, the study is carried out several times, but with different questions.

Forms of the sociometric procedure:

1) nonparametric procedure - the subject is invited to answer the questions of the sociometric card without limiting the number of choices of the subject. Advantages: the ability to identify the so-called emotional expansiveness of each member of the group, the ability to cut the diversity of interpersonal relationships in the group structure. Disadvantages: difficulties in analysis, high probability of obtaining a random selection.

2) parametric procedure - the subjects are asked to choose a strictly fixed number from all members of the group. Advantages: reliability increases, statistical processing is facilitated. Disadvantages: the impossibility of revealing the variety of relationships in the group; only the most subjectively significant connections can be identified.

17. The problem of personality in social psychology

Features of the socio-psychological approach to understanding the personality:

1) considers the personality simultaneously from two points of view: psychological and social;

2) explains the mechanisms of socialization of the individual;

3) reveals the socio-psychological structure of the personality;

4) allows diagnosing and influencing the socio-psychological structure of the personality.

Psychoanalytic theories of personality. In the structure of personality, Z. Freud singled out three main components:

1) Id or "It";

2) Ego or "I";

3) Super-Ego or "Super-I".

The control of consciousness is subject only to the "Super-I", which represents the laws of society and morality. "Super-I" is formed in the course of a person's life under the influence of the traditions and laws of the society in which the person lives. The level of the Ego or "I" is located in the preconscious, where there is a constant conflict between the "Super-I" and the "It", which is located in the subconscious and represents the innate instincts and needs of the body.

According to Freud, a person (personality) and society are doomed to confrontation and hostility, due to the poorly controlled drives of the "It", which run counter to the moral principles of society.

According to Freud, social relations in society depend on the relationship of the child with the mother (as an ambivalent source of positive emotions and prohibitions) and the father (as with the leader).

The development of civilization, according to Freud, is based on the life instinct (Eros) and the death instinct (Thanatos).

K. Jung was of the opinion that the decisive role of the asocial life of the individual is played by the collective unconscious, which exists in the thoughts of each individual and is the same for everyone, which determines the unification of people into peoples, nations, humanity.

According to A. Adler, the desire for superiority and the development of society associated with it, occurs as a result of a feeling of one or another organic inferiority inherent in every person, which directs the thoughts and actions of people to achieve the goal. Adler viewed aggression as a means to overcome obstacles.

Behavioral approach to understanding personality. Behaviorists reduced man to the level of an animal, from which anything can be made. To explain behavior, the concepts of stimulus (S) and response (R) are used, consciousness and other subjective concepts are denied. Positive and negative reinforcing stimuli lie in the regulation and management of behavior.

Humanistic approach A. Maslow sees the meaning of human development in the actualization of his innate "basic nature", which initially included not only biological, but social properties and needs, for example, the value system of the individual. All the needs of the individual were built by Maslow into a hierarchical structure. Self-actualization, according to Maslow, is provided mainly by the internal growth of the individual, and not by society, social conditions play a very limited role in this process.

Relationship psychology A.F. Lazursky and V.N. Myasishchev. Lazursky divided the psyche of the individual into endopsychics (a set of mental elements and functions, "the internal mechanism of the human personality") and exopsychics, which is determined by the attitude of the individual to external objects, to the environment. The foundation of the personality is the relationship between the personality and the environment and the relationship between its endo- and exopsychic manifestations. V.N. Myasishchev considered a person as an ensemble of social relations;

Installation theory D. N. Uznadze is based on the fact that the behavior of the subject follows from the presence of his needs and the corresponding situation, which cause him to develop the installation of a special state of inclination, orientation, readiness to perform certain actions.

18. Socio-psychological characteristics of personality

Worldview and attitude of the individual - understanding and attitude of the individual to the world around him, human society, the value of his life, the perception of the surrounding social life, the need for self-realization and self-affirmation in society. This is a world in the mind of a person and an understanding of oneself in the world and the meaning of one's life.

The system of personality needs, its motivation to achieve self-realization and self-affirmation. According to the classification of A. Maslow, five groups of needs can be distinguished, located in the form of a pyramid:

1) physiological needs (needs for food, water, shelter, rest and sexual needs) - lie at the base of the pyramid;

2) needs for reliability (needs for protection from physical and psychological dangers, confidence in the satisfaction of physiological needs in the future);

3) social needs (needs for understanding, belonging to any group, affection and support);

4) status needs (the need for respect, self-respect, personal achievements, competence, recognition);

5) the need for self-expression (the need to realize one's potential and grow as a person) - are at the top of the pyramid.

Pyramid arrangement of needs shows that the needs of the highest level arise after the needs of the lower row are satisfied. However, later it was shown that the achievement of higher level needs does not necessarily go through the satisfaction of lower levels. Thus, a highly moral person remains honest, even being "aground".

Civilization of the individual - the attitude of the individual to the achievements and values of human culture. This characteristic describes a person as a member of the world community, owning the achievements of modern culture, science, technology, education, intelligence, morality, humanism, democracy, ecology, following moral and legal norms and attitudes, civilized principles of life.

Citizenship of the individual - this is a characteristic of a person as a member of society who is not indifferent to the fate of the Motherland, its people, who knows and respects its history, traditions, culture, considers himself a part of it, observes and respects its norms of morality and law, etc.

Group integration of personality involves the identification of one's personality with a specific community, the coincidence of its intentions and actions with group dynamics, the understanding of unity with the people included in them. Group integration must be combined with citizenship.

Sociability of personality - building relationships with people on the basis of openness, goodwill, friendliness, ability to understand, empathy (empathy) and disinterested help (altruism), democracy, justice, decency and honesty.

Social activity of the individual - a socio-psychological characteristic, according to which a person places responsibility for his actions, successes and failures, social position on himself.

Self-realization of the individual - the level of actual realization of the psychological capabilities of the individual, their development, which manifests itself in the possibilities of achieving success in life.

Personal resilience - the ability to endure difficulties, hardships, failures in life that cannot be avoided at all, the ability to "take a hit", not despair of failures, treat them as surmountable, draw conclusions and not repeat mistakes.

Self-awareness of the individual - this is the awareness and evaluation of one's "I-image" in society, the ability to mentally look at oneself from the outside, through the eyes of other people, the ability to evaluate oneself from their positions.

19. Socio-psychological typologies of personality

Typology A.F. Lazursky. The typology is based on the degree of human development and its adaptation to the environment.

The typology includes three levels:

1) low level:

a) rational type - characterized by developed rationality, a tendency to analyze the motives and consequences of actions, has a weak gift, as a result of which it tends to copy other people's actions;

b) affective types can be mobile, sensual or dreamers;

c) active types (impulsively energetic (characterized by disorderliness, thoughtlessness of their actions and their consequences, propensity for risk, gambling), obediently active, stubborn);

2) middle level:

a) impractical theorists-idealists (scientists (developed consistent thinking, scientific interests), artists and religious contemplators (developed imagination));

b) realist practitioners (altruists (the ability to sympathy, sympathy is developed), social activists, powerful (have a strong will and are able to influence others), economic (prudent, aimed at practical goals);

3) the highest level - characterized by the presence of higher human ideals (altruism, knowledge, beauty, religion, society, etc.), consciousness, coordination of emotional experiences.

Typology of personality E. Spranger is based on differences in value orientations, life positions and attitudes of the individual to specific activities.

There are six main types:

1) a theoretical person - a passion for problems, unclear questions, their knowledge and explanation is characteristic;

2) an economic person - the main motive is utility, achievements in their activities;

3) an aesthetic person - characterized by their own worldview, the beauty of the spirit, respect for nature;

4) a social person - characterized by a social orientation of activity, a desire for contacts with other people;

5) a political person - characterized by the predominance of power as the main value;

6) a religious person - considers the highest values of the soul to be the main ones.

Typology E. Fromm is based on the dominant attitudes in the social environment:

1) personalities with a receptive (taking) attitude - are characterized by the belief that the only way to get what they want is from an external source, from others. The basic technique is the expectation of receiving a boon. Optimistic, friendly, cordial, help out of calculation;

2) individuals with an exploitative (mastering) attitude - differ from the previous type only in technology, acting by cunning and force, seizes the good from others. Cynical, suspicious, hostile, envious;

3) personalities with an acquisitive (saving) attitude - they are characterized by a tendency to frugality of what they have. Persistent, purposeful, patient, stubborn, secretive;

4) individuals with a market (exchange) attitude - they are convinced that everything is bought and sold, success depends on how profitable it is to sell their labor on the market. Practical, businesslike, greedy and prudent.

Typology according to "sociometric status" in the group:

1) "star" - the person with the greatest popularity;

2) "preferred" - a person who received more than the average number of sociometric choices;

3) "slave" - an individual who received the average number of choices;

4) "neglected" - a person who received very few (one or two) sociometric choices of other members of the group;

5) "isolated" - an individual who has not received a single sociometric choice;

6) "rejected" - a member of the group who not only did not receive a single choice, but, moreover, received rejections (members of the group indicated that they would not want to do business with him).

20. The content of the socialization process

Socialization - this is the process of including the individual in the system of social relations and relations, mastering and accepting socially acceptable forms of behavior, norms, values, as a result of which the individual becomes a full member of society.

It is understood that in the process of socialization, the initially asocial subject is transformed into a social personality. Thanks to socialization, people learn to live in society, to interact effectively with each other. Socialization goes everywhere and continuously in the process of its physical and psychological development. The first 15-25 years are especially significant in terms of their results and consequences.

Socialization options:

1) the content of the socialization process:

a) the assimilation of social norms, skills, stereotypes;

b) the formation of social attitudes and beliefs;

c) entry of the individual into the social environment;

d) the introduction of the individual to the system of social ties;

e) self-actualization of the "I" of the personality;

f) assimilation by the individual of social influences;

g) social training in socially accepted forms of behavior

and communication, lifestyle options, joining groups and

interactions with their members;

2) the breadth of socialization, i.e., the number of areas in which the individual was able to adapt. The main areas of socialization, which are characterized by expansion, multiplication of the individual's social ties with the outside world, are:

a) field of activity;

b) communication;

c) self-consciousness;

3) sources of socialization:

a) transmission of culture through social institutions;

b) mutual influence of people in the process of communication and joint activities;

c) primary experience, which is associated with the period of early childhood, with the formation of basic mental functions and elementary forms of social behavior;

4) factors of socialization:

a) material, psychologically significant factors of the social environment that accompany a person all his life (political, economic, housing, financial, domestic and other factors) and due to the characteristics prevailing in the human communication environment. These factors are always peculiar to each individual;

b) socio-psychological factors of the social environment - these are the psychological characteristics of people who constantly surround a person in life (family members, friends, classmates, etc.). However, sometimes casual short-term contacts with people have a stronger influence on the individual than constant contacts. A person experiences especially strong socio-psychological influences when receiving an education focused on helping him in socialization;

c) a factor of a person's own social activity.

5) socialization mechanisms:

a) imitation, imitation;

b) identification;

c) management, etc.

6) socialization institutions (political, economic, educational institutions, family, preschool institutions, school, labor collective, informal groups, parties).

The main socio-psychological conditions of socialization:

a) freedom of choice combined with responsibility for the consequences of the choice of socialization;

b) an accessible-intense psychological path of socialization, leading not only to freedom of communication and behavior, but also to an increase in status as a result of education;

c) awareness of the choice of ways and means of self-socialization;

d) assistance in the implementation of the choice of the path of socialization in adolescence and youth;

e) early inclusion of the individual in socially active activities and the acquisition of social experience;

f) a favorable social environment in the main institutions of the socialization of the individual, such as the family, school, university, labor, leisure team;

g) the dynamism of life in groups in which the socialization of the individual takes place.

21. Stages of the socialization process

Stage of primary socialization - lasts from birth to adolescence, when the child learns social experience uncritically, adapts, adapts, imitates. Of great importance at this stage are cognitive processes and the child's mastery of social roles in play activities, his exercises in self-identification, the emergence and consolidation of a system of expectations, the requirements for him from the parents, the nature of their treatment of him. Occurs in small social groups (family, nursery group, etc.). The main agents of socialization are parents, relatives, family friends, etc. (primary agents of socialization). In this stage, according to Freud, stands out:

1) oral stage (from birth to 2 years) - the child's world is centered around his mouth;

2) anal stage (from 2 to 3 years) - instilling hygiene and neatness skills, often accompanied by punishment for wet panties. This stage largely determines the further development of the child;

3) the phallic stage (from 4 to 5 years) - there is sympathy for parents of the opposite sex and identification with the parent of the same sex, imitation of them. During this period, the first conflicts related to sex appear (the Oedipus complex in boys, and the Electra complex in girls);

Stage of individualization (marginalization) - observed in adolescence and youth, occurs in large social groups and is manifested by a desire to distinguish oneself from others, a critical attitude towards social norms of behavior. Secondary agents are added to the primary agents of socialization - social institutions of socialization. These institutions, according to their social status, can be formal (official institutions of society (the state), which, according to their functional purpose, are called upon to educate and educate each new generation (preschool institutions, schools, universities, cultural institutions, etc.)) and informal institutions ( different social groups, from small to large, in which the individual is included (family, class, peer group, ethnic community, reference group, etc.)).

Formal and informal institutions of socialization often have different goals and methods of influence, as a result of which a struggle arises between them, the results of which are such social phenomena as "children of the street", delinquents and rebels, people with "double morality", a divergence of the value system of different categories of citizens and etc.

In adolescence, the stage of individualization is characterized by the self-determination of the concept of "the world and I", the instability of the outlook and character of the teenager. In adolescence, stable personality traits are developed;

Integration stage observed in late adolescence, when there is a desire to find their place in society. Integration proceeds successfully if the properties of a person are accepted by a group, society. If not accepted, the following outcomes are possible:

1) maintaining one's dissimilarity and the emergence of aggressive interactions (relationships) with people and society;

2) changing oneself;

3) conformism, external conciliation, adaptation.

Stage of sustainable socialization or labor stage Socialization lasts the entire period of a person's labor activity, when he not only assimilates social experience, but also reproduces it. At this stage, a person usually reaches a stable position in society, which indicates the socio-psychological adaptation of the individual;

Stage of loss of status or post-labor stage socialization begins with retirement, is characterized by the reproduction of social experience, in the process of passing it on to new generations.

22. Socialization and adaptation

The process of socialization is usually considered as the process of a person entering the social environment by assimilating and reproducing the experience accumulated by mankind in the characteristics of his personality and behavior. However, socialization is primarily adaptation (adaptation) to cultural, psychological and social factors.

Adaptation - the process of adaptation and effective interaction of the organism with the environment, which is carried out at the biological, psychological and social levels.

The process of biological adaptation is observed when the conditions of existence change and serves the purpose of maintaining homeostasis.

The purpose of mental adaptation is to establish the optimal correspondence between the personality and the environment during the implementation of the activity characteristic of a person, which allows the individual to satisfy actual needs and realize the significant goals associated with them.

Under social adaptation is understood the process of effective adaptation and interaction of the individual with the social environment.

In the process of socialization, a socio-psychological adaptation of the individual takes place.

Socio-psychological adaptation - it is an integrative indicator of a person's condition, reflecting his ability to perform certain biosocial functions:

1) adequate perception of the surrounding reality and one's own organism;

2) an adequate system of relations and communication with others, the ability to work, study, organize leisure and recreation;

3) variability (adaptability) of behavior in accordance with the role expectations of others.

The processes of socialization and socio-psychological adaptation are closely interrelated, as they reflect a single process of interaction between the individual and society. Adaptation can be considered as an integral part. Socialization is often associated only with general development, and adaptation - with the adaptive processes of an already formed personality in new conditions of communication and activity. The process of socialization is understood as the process and result of the active reproduction by the individual of social experience, carried out in communication and activity. In the course of socialization, a person acts as an object that perceives, accepts, assimilates traditions, norms, roles created by society; socialization ensures the normal functioning of the individual in society.

In the course of socialization, the development, formation and formation of the personality are carried out, at the same time, the socialization of the personality is a necessary condition for the adaptation of the individual in society. Socio-psychological adaptation is one of the main mechanisms of socialization; it serves as a more complete socialization.

Thus, socio-psychological adaptation is both a constant process of active adaptation of the individual to the conditions of a new social environment, and the result of this process.

According to its results, socio-psychological adaptation can be positive, leading to stable socialization of the individual, and negative, leading to disruption of the socialization process.

According to the mechanism of implementation, voluntary and forced socio-psychological adaptation are distinguished.

Stages of the process of socio-psychological adaptation:

a) familiarization;

b) role orientation;

c) self-affirmation.

In the process of socio-psychological adaptation, the formation of social qualities of communication, behavior and objective activity, accepted in society, takes place, thanks to which a person realizes his aspirations, needs, interests and can self-determine. As a result, a person enters a new social environment, becomes its full member, asserts himself and develops his individuality.

23. Social status

Social status - the position occupied by an individual in the system of interpersonal relations that determine his duties, rights and privileges.

The status is a reflection of the hierarchical structure of the group and creates a vertical differentiation in it. The status characteristic of a subject depends not only on the subject himself, but also on the social group to which he belongs.

Social status characterizes a person's position in the social community, his position in the system of interpersonal relations and the rights, duties, powers and privileges that he receives due to his position.

The social status of a person is preserved as long as he lives in accordance with the established (conventional) rules and norms that govern the behavior of people in this category.

Levels of a person's status position:

1) personal status - the position of an individual in a small group (family, school class, student group, community of peers, etc.), which is determined by the individual qualities of the individual and depends on how the members of the small group evaluate and perceive it;

2) social group status - this is the position of an individual in society, which he occupies as a representative of a large social group (race, nation, gender, class, stratum, religion, profession, etc.). It depends on the position of the social group in the social stratification of society.

Types of social statuses:

1) inborn and ascribed status - acquired by a person automatically at birth and does not depend on the efforts and aspirations of a person (nationality, gender, race, membership in the royal family, etc., as well as statuses according to the kinship system - son, daughter, brother, sister.);

2) assigned, but not inborn statuses are acquired due to a combination of certain circumstances, and not according to the personal will of the individual, for example, due to marriage (mother-in-law, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, sister-in-law, etc.);

3) achieved status - is acquired through the efforts of the person himself with the help of various social groups. Achieved statuses are divided into determined ones:

a) position (for example, director, manager);

b) titles (general, people's artist, honored teacher, etc.);

c) academic degree (doctor of science, professor);

d) professional affiliation (People's Artist of Russia or Honored Master of Sports);

4) the main statuses are fairly permanent statuses (born, attributed, achieved, personal);

5) non-basic statuses due to a short-term situation (passer-by, patient, witness, spectator).

A person cannot be completely deprived of a social status or several statuses, in the case when he leaves one of them, he will necessarily find himself in another.

Each person has several statuses in relation to different groups (director (by position), husband (for wife), father (for children), son (for parents), etc.). These statuses are not equal. The main social status is usually a position in society, which is based on position and profession. Thanks to this status, the "value resources" of a person are usually determined, such as wealth, prestige, power.

The initial status of an individual affects his assessment in society, forms a point of view on the world, which largely determines his future behavior. People with different initial social statuses have unequal conditions of socialization.

Social statuses are reflected in clothes, jargon, manners, as well as in attitudes, value orientations, and motives.

Social status can rise or fall, which implies an adequate change in behavior. If this does not happen, there is an intrapersonal conflict.

24. The concept of social role

Social role - it is a model of individual behavior aimed at the fulfillment of rights and obligations that comply with accepted standards and is conditioned by status.

A social role is a status in motion, that is, a set of real functions, expected behavioral stereotypes.

Expectations can be fixed in certain institutionalized social norms: legal documents,

instructions, regulations, statutes, etc., but may be in the nature of customs, mores, and in either case they are determined by status.

Role expectations are primarily related to functional expediency. Time and culture have made a selection of the most appropriate typical personality traits for each given status and fixed them in the form of samples, standards, norms of personality behavior.

However, each individual in the course of socialization develops his own idea of how he should act in interaction with the world of other social statuses. In this regard, a complete coincidence between role expectation and role performance is impossible, which causes the development of role conflicts.

Types of role conflicts:

1) intrapersonal - arises in connection with conflicting requirements for the behavior of an individual in different or in one social role;

2) intra-role - arises on the basis of a contradiction in the requirements for the performance of a social role by different participants in the interaction;

3) personality-role - the reason is the discrepancy between a person's ideas about himself and his role functions;

4) innovative - arises as a result of the discrepancy between pre-existing value orientations and the requirements of a new social situation.

The main characteristics of the role (according to Paranson):

1) emotionality - roles differ in the degree of manifestation of emotionality;

2) the method of obtaining - some roles can be prescribed, others are won;

3) structuring - part of the roles is formed and strictly limited, the other is blurred;

4) formalization - part of the roles is implemented in strictly established patterns, algorithms, the other - arbitrarily;

5) motivation - a system of personal needs that are satisfied by the performance of the role.

Types of social roles depending on norms and expectations:

1) represented roles - the system of expectations of the individual and certain groups;

2) subjective roles - a person's subjective ideas about how he should act in relation to persons with other statuses;

3) roles played - the observed behavior of a person with a given status in relation to another person with a different status.

Normative structure of the performance of a social role:

1) descriptions of the behavior characteristic of this role;

2) instructions - requirements for behavior;

3) evaluation of the performance of the prescribed role;

4) sanctions for violation of prescribed requirements.

To realize social status, a person performs many roles, which together represent a role set, individual for each person. That is, a person can be viewed as a complex social system consisting of a set of social roles and its individual characteristics.

The significance of the role for a person and identification of oneself with the role being played is determined by the individual characteristics of the personality, its internal structure.

A person can strongly "get used" to his role, which is called role identification, or vice versa, strongly distance himself from it, moving from the actual part of the sphere of consciousness to the periphery or even displacing it from the sphere of consciousness completely. If an objectively relevant social role is not recognized as such by the subject, then this results in the development of internal and external conflict.

25. Social behavior of the individual and its regulation

Behavior - it is a form of interaction of an organism with the environment, the source of which is needs. Human behavior differs from the behavior of animals in its social conditioning, awareness, activity, creativity and is goal-setting, arbitrary.

Structure of social behavior:

1) behavioral act - a single manifestation of activity, its element;

2) social actions - actions performed by individuals or social groups that are of public importance and involve socially determined motivation, intentions, attitudes;

3) an act is a conscious action of a person who understands its social significance and is performed in accordance with the accepted intention;

4) act - a set of actions of a person for which he is responsible.

Types of social behavior of the individual:

1) according to the system of public relations:

a) production behavior (labor, professional);

b) economic behavior (consumer behavior, distributive behavior, behavior in the sphere of exchange, entrepreneurial, investment, etc.);

c) socio-political behavior (political activity, behavior towards power, bureaucratic behavior, electoral behavior, etc.);

d) legal behavior (law-abiding, illegal, deviant, deviant, criminal);

e) moral behavior (ethical, moral, immoral, immoral behavior, etc.);

f) religious behavior;

2) by the time of implementation:

› impulsive;

› variable;

› long-term implementation.

The subjects of the regulation of the social behavior of the individual are society, small groups and the individual himself.

Factors regulating behavior:

1) external factors:

a) social phenomena (social production, social relations (the broad social context of an individual's life), social movements, public opinion, social needs, public interests, public sentiment, public consciousness, social tension, socio-economic situation);

b) universal factors (lifestyle, lifestyle, level of well-being, traditions, rituals, customs, habits, prejudices, stereotypes, mass media, standards, work, sports, social values, etc.);

c) spiritual and moral factors (morality, ethics, mentality, culture, subculture, archetype, ideal, values, education, ideology, mass media, worldview, religion);

d) political factors (power, bureaucracy, social movements);

e) legal factors (law, law);

f) socio-psychological phenomena (large and small social groups, group phenomena (socio-psychological climate, conflict, mood, intergroup and intragroup relations, group reference, level of team development, etc.), personal components (social prestige, position, status , authority, persuasion, attitude, social desirability));

2) internal regulators of behavior:

a) cognitive processes;

b) oral and written speech;

c) specific psychological phenomena (insight, intuition, judgments, conclusions, problem solving);

d) mental states (affective states, depression, expectations, relationships, moods, mood, obsessive states, anxiety, frustration, alienation, relaxation, etc.);

e) psychological qualities of a person (internal locus of control - motivational-need and volitional spheres of personality);

3) socio-psychological mechanisms (suggestion, imitation, reinforcement, infection; advertising and propaganda technologies, etc.).

26. Social attitude of the individual, its formation and change

Social installation (attitude) - it is a certain state of consciousness, based on previous experience, regulating the attitude and behavior of a person.

Signs of a social attitude:

1) the social nature of the objects with which the attitude and behavior of a person are associated;

2) awareness of these relationships and behavior;

3) the emotional component of these relationships and behavior;

4) the regulatory role of the social attitude.

Attitude functions:

1) automatic - simplification of consciousness control over activities in standard, previously encountered situations;

2) adaptive - directing the subject to those objects that serve to achieve his goals;

3) protective - contributes to the resolution of internal conflicts of the individual;

4) cognitive - setting helps to choose a way of behavior in relation to a particular object;

5) regulatory - a means of releasing the subject from internal tension;

6) rigid - installation makes it difficult to adapt to new situations;

7) stabilizing - the installation determines the sustainable, consistent, purposeful nature of the activity in changing situations.

The structure of the social attitude:

1) cognitive, containing knowledge, representation of a social object;

2) affective, reflecting the emotional and evaluative attitude towards the object;

3) behavioral, expressing the potential readiness of the individual to implement a certain behavior in relation to the object.

Setting levels:

1) simply installations that regulate behavior at the simplest, mostly everyday level;

2) social attitudes;

3) basic social attitudes, reflecting the attitude of the individual to his main spheres of life (profession, social activities, hobbies, etc.);

4) instrumental function, (attaching the individual to the system of norms and values of the given social environment).

The installation regulates activity at three hierarchical levels:

1) semantic - attitudes are of a generalized nature and determine the relationship of the individual to objects that have personal significance for the individual;

2) target - settings determine the relatively stable nature of the course of activity and are associated with specific actions and the desire of a person to complete the work begun;

3) operational - setting contributes to the perception and interpretation of circumstances based on the subject's past experience in a similar situation, predicting the possibilities of adequate and effective behavior and making decisions in a particular situation.

Stages of formation of social attitudes according to J. Godefroy:

1) up to 12 years of age, attitudes that develop during this period correspond to parental models;

2) from 12 to 20 years of age, attitudes acquire a more concrete form, which is associated with the assimilation of social roles;

3) from 20 to 30 years - there is a crystallization of social attitudes, the formation on their basis of a system of beliefs, which is a very stable mental neoplasm;

4) from 30 years old - installations are characterized by significant stability, fixity, and are difficult to change.

Setting changes aims to add knowledge, change attitudes, views. It depends on the novelty of information, the individual characteristics of the subject, the order of receipt of information and the system of attitudes that the subject already has. Attitudes are more successfully changed through a change in attitude, which can be achieved by suggestion, persuasion of parents, authoritative personalities, and the media.

Cognitivists believe that changing attitudes is influenced by the appearance of inconsistencies in the cognitive structure of the individual. Behaviorists are of the opinion that changing attitudes depends on reinforcement.

27. Psychological defense mechanisms

Substitution - replacement of the repressed frustrating (causing heavy feelings) object, need or activity with another object, need or activity. Substitution can manifest itself in the form of erroneous actions, witticisms, some components of dreams, neurotic symptoms, and other types of substitution are:

1) sublimation - the substitution of sexual desire for artistic and intellectual and other activities. Thanks to sublimation, constructive behavior is developed and the negative impulse is discharged;

2) flight to work;

3) fantasy (flight into dreams) - an unconscious or conscious replacement of reality with an illusory fulfillment of ambitious and erotic desires.

crowding out - the process of expulsion from the consciousness of experiences, thoughts, memories unacceptable to the individual and their transfer to the sphere of the unconscious. However, repressed thoughts and experiences do not disappear without a trace and can manifest themselves in the form of reservations, dreams, etc.

Denial - a special case of repression, expressed in the unconscious refusal of the subject to recognize the existence of certain events, experiences, sensations, external factors that can threaten him.

Projection - this is the process of conscious or unconscious transfer by the subject of his own properties or states to external objects, as a result of which there is an attribution of his own, usually repressed, motives and feelings to other people. Both positive and negative properties and states can be projected.

Rationalization - an unconscious desire for a rational explanation of one's behavior with wrong, but convenient reasons. Rationalization acts as a disguise, hiding from consciousness the true thoughts, feelings, motives of behavior, the recognition of which would threaten the loss of self-esteem, and the formulation of more acceptable explanations to ensure internal comfort.

Jet formation - transforming negative affect into positive affect or vice versa. It is expressed in the development of attitudes and forms of behavior that are opposite to unacceptable desires and feelings. The process of reactive formation occurs in stages: at the beginning, unacceptable impulses are suppressed, then the corresponding attitudes and forms of behavior develop.

Fixation - a strong unconscious connection with certain persons and images, which contributes to the testing of effective stereotypes of behavior. Fixation can be actual, explicit, but it can also contribute to the regression of the subject.

Intellectualization - a defense mechanism in which a person reacts to a threatening danger dispassionately, evaluating it as an interesting phenomenon or subject for study. This mechanism is characterized by an excessive exaggeration of the role of rational components while completely ignoring the emotional, affective, sensual components of the analysis. Intellectualization usually does not contribute to overcoming frustrating experiences, since the emotional component remains in the human mind, manifesting itself in the form of neurotic states.

suppression - removal of part of spiritual experiences from consciousness.

Insulation - removal of associative links when realizing the threat of danger.

Regression - a mechanism of escape from reality, expressed in a temporary transition, a return to an earlier stage of development, to more primitive forms of behavior or thinking, to a primitive level of mental development. It manifests itself in the form of hysterical reactions, sucking fingers, ignoring sexual relations, etc.

Identification - assimilation to an object that causes frustration. Manifested in the unconscious following patterns and ideals.

28. Psychology of human aggressiveness

Aggression - it is any form of behavior aimed at insulting or forcibly harming another living being.

Types of aggression:

1) physical-active-direct aggression is the infliction of direct physical harm to another person (for example, striking with a cold weapon, beating or injuring with a firearm);

2) physical-active-indirect - this is an indirect infliction of physical harm (for example, laying booby traps; conspiracy with a hired killer to destroy the enemy);

3) physical-passive-direct - consists in the physical exclusion of another person from the desired goal or desired activity (for example, a seated demonstration);

4) physical-passive-indirect - manifested in the refusal to perform the necessary tasks (for example, refusal to vacate the territory during a sit-down demonstration);

5) verbal-active-direct - consists in verbal insult or humiliation of another person;

6) verbal-active-indirect - characterized by the spread of malicious slander or gossip about another person;

7) verbal-passive-direct - consists in refusing to talk with another person, answer his questions, etc.;

8) verbal-passive-indirect - expressed in a refusal to give certain verbal explanations or explanations (for example, a refusal to speak out in defense of a person who is undeservedly criticized).

Theories of aggression:

1) psychoanalytic theory of aggression considered aggression from the point of view of the innate death instinct. According to Z. Freud, aggression originates in the death instinct that is innate and directed at its own carrier, i.e. aggression is a death instinct projected outward and aimed at external objects;

2) evolutionary theory of aggression as a source of aggressive behavior, she considered another innate mechanism - the instinct to fight, inherent in all animals, including humans. One of the followers of this theory Lorenz assumed the existence of a long evolutionary path of development;

3) sociobiological theory of aggression considered aggressive interactions with competitors as one of the ways to increase the success of reproduction in an environment with limited resources - a lack of food or marriage partners;

4) motivation theories singled out as a source of aggression caused by external reasons the urge, or impulse, to harm others. Frustration-aggression theory - one of the theories of motivation, according to which the impulse to aggression arises in an individual who has experienced frustration (heavy experience by a person of his failure, accompanied by a sense of hopelessness). Often aggressive actions are not aimed at the true frustrator, but at other objects in relation to which aggressive actions can be performed freely and with impunity (displaced aggression);

5) cognitive theory focuses on the emotional and cognitive processes underlying aggression. The basis of aggression, according to this theory, is the comprehension or interpretation by the individual of someone's actions as threatening or provocative, which has a certain impact on his feelings and behavior;

6) social learning theory consider aggression as a social phenomenon, as a form of behavior learned in the process of social learning. In this regard, in order to understand the causes of aggression, it is necessary to take into account how the aggressive behavior model was learned, the factors that provoked its manifestation and the conditions conducive to the consolidation of this behavior model. It is assumed that aggressive reactions can be learned by observing manifestations of aggression.

29. Psychology of communication

Communication - it is a complex, multifaceted information process of interaction between people, generated by the needs of joint activities; an independent type of human activity and an attribute of other types of human activity.

In the process of communication, a message is transmitted and received using verbal and non-verbal means. The process of communication includes both direct and feedback, resulting in the exchange of information between the participants in communication, its perception and knowledge by them, as well as their influence on each other and interaction.

Communication is inherent in all higher living beings. Human communication is the most perfect type of communication, since the process of communication occurs consciously and is mediated by speech.

The following phases are distinguished in the communication process:

1) the phase of mutual orientation;

2) the phase of mutual reflection (mental reflection of the partner, that is, the individual's awareness of the situation of action);

3) the phase of mutual information (actual action);

4) phase of mutual disconnection (coagulation of contact).

Phases 2 and 3 can be repeated during the contact process, with a new reflection of the partner, whose behavior has already been changed by the exchange of information.

Communication characteristics:

1) the content of communication includes the transfer of information, perception and mutual evaluation of partners. Information may contain:

a) information about the internal motivational state of a living being;

b) about cash needs, counting on potential participation in their satisfaction;

c) data on emotional states (sadness, suffering, joy, anger, contentment, etc.) aimed at setting another living being to contact;

d) information about the state of the external environment, signals about danger or about the presence somewhere nearby of positive, biologically significant factors (food, water, another creature);

e) knowledge about the world and acquired experience, knowledge, abilities, skills and abilities (peculiar to human communication only);

2) the purpose of communication in animals may be to induce another living being to certain actions, a warning that it is necessary to refrain from any action. The goals of human communication are much broader, they include the transfer and acquisition of objective knowledge about the world, the coordination of reasonable actions of people in their joint activities, training and education, the establishment and clarification of personal and business relationships, the satisfaction of social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, intellectual and moral needs;

3) the external side of communication, which is expressed:

a) communication activity;

b) intensity of actions;

c) initiative;

d) skill, etc.;

4) the inner side of communication, which means a reflection of the subjective perception of interaction and reaction to real or expected contact;

5) communication styles that reflect the individual typological features of people's interaction. Styles are divided into:

a) friendly;

b) overwhelming;

c) populist;

d) flirting;

e) demanding;

e) business;

g) positional;

h) restrained, etc.;

6) means of communication;

7) communication functions.

When communicating, there are three zones of perception of space:

1) intimate (20-30 centimeters to the human body) - for very close people;

2) personal (one meter to the human body) - for people with whom equal relations have been established;

3) social (three meters to the human body) - everyone is allowed except for those who are not pleasant to a person and cause him discomfort.

Knowledge of the patterns of communication is very important for both a teacher and a doctor, lawyer, businessman.

30. Structure of communication

In the structure of communication, there are:

1) the communicative side;

2) interactive side;

3) the perceptual side.

The communicative side of communication expressed in the exchange of information between people.

Features of the process of information exchange in the process of human communication:

1) there is not only the transfer of information, but also its formation, clarification and development;

2) the exchange of information is combined with the attitude of people towards each other;

3) there is a mutual influence and influence of people on each other;

4) the communicative influence of people on each other is possible only if the codification systems of the communicator (sender) and the recipient (receiver) coincide;

5) the emergence of specific communication barriers of a social and psychological nature is possible.

Structural components of communication as a communicative activity:

1) the subject of communication is a communicator;

2) the object of communication is the recipient;

3) the subject of communication - the content of the information sent;

4) actions of communication - units of communicative activity;

5) means of communication - operations with the help of which actions of communication are carried out;

6) the product of communication - the formation of a material and spiritual nature, as a result of communication.

Interactive side of communication manifested in the interaction of people with each other, i.e., the exchange of information, motives, actions.

The purpose of the interaction consists in satisfying one's needs, interests, realizing goals, plans, intentions.

Types of interaction:

1) positive - interactions aimed at organizing joint activities:

a) cooperation;

b) consent;

c) adaptation;

d) association;

2) negative - interactions aimed at disrupting joint activities, creating obstacles for it:

a) competition;

b) conflict;

c) opposition;

d) dissociation.

Factors affecting the type of interaction:

1) the degree of unity of approaches to problem solving;

2) understanding of duties and rights;

3) ways to solve emerging problems, etc.

The perceptual side of communication expressed in the process of perception, study and evaluation by partners of each other.

Structural elements of social perception:

1) the subject of interpersonal perception - the one who perceives (studies) in the process of communication;

2) the object of perception - the one who is perceived (know) in the process of communication;

3) the process of cognition - includes cognition, feedback, elements of communication.

In the process of communication, a person acts in two forms at once: as an object and as a subject of cognition.

Factors affecting the process of interpersonal perception:

1) features of the subject:

a) gender differences: women more accurately identify emotional states, strengths and weaknesses of the personality, men - the level of intelligence;

b) age;

c) temperament: extroverts perceive more accurately, introverts - evaluate;

d) social intelligence: the higher the level of social and general knowledge, the more accurate the assessment in perception;

e) mental state;

e) state of health;

g) installations - previous assessment of objects of perception;

h) value orientations;

i) the level of socio-psychological competence, etc.

2) features of the object:

a) physical appearance: anthropological (height, physique, skin color, etc.), physiological (breathing, blood circulation), functional (posture, posture and gait) and paralinguistic (facial expressions, gestures and body movements) personality traits;

b) social appearance: social role, appearance, proxemic features of communication (distance and location of those communicating), speech and extralinguistic characteristics (semantics, grammar and phonetics), activity features.

3) the relationship between the subject and the object of perception;

4) the situation in which perception occurs.

31. Theoretical approaches to the study of communication

Information approaches are based on three main principles:

1) the content of the information can be converted into various characters;

2) a person is a kind of screen onto which the transmitted information is "projected" after its perception and processing;

3) there is a certain space in which discrete organisms and objects of limited volume interact.

As part of the information approach, a two main models:

1) model K. Shannon and V. Weaver, representing changes in messages into various images, signs, signals, symbols, languages or codes and their subsequent decoding. The model included five elements organized in a linear order: information source - information transmitter (encoder) - signal transmission channel - information receiver (decoder) - information recipient. Later, it was supplemented with such concepts as "feedback" (response of the recipient of information), "noise" (distortion and interference in the message as it passes through the channel), "filters" (transformers of the message when it reaches the encoder or leaves the decoder) and other major disadvantage this model was an underestimation of other approaches in the study of the problem of communication;

2) communication exchange model, which included:

a) communication conditions;

b) communication behavior;

c) communication restrictions on the choice of communication strategy;

d) the criteria of interpretation, which determine and guide the ways in which people perceive and evaluate their behavior towards each other.

Interactional Approaches - consider communication as a situation of joint presence, which is mutually established and supported by people with the help of various forms of behavior and external attributes (appearance, objects, environment, etc.). Within the framework of interactional approaches, it was developed five models of communication organization:

1) linguistic Model, according to which all interactions are formed and combined from 50-60 elementary movements and postures of the human body, and behavioral acts formed from these units are organized according to the principle of organizing sounds in words;

2) social skill model is based on the idea of learning to communicate in communication itself;

3) equilibrium model assumes that any change in behavior is usually compensated by another change and vice versa (for example, a monologue dialogue, a combination of questions and answers);

4) software model of social interaction postulates that the general structure of interpersonal interaction is generated due to the action of at least three types of programs:

a) programs dealing with simple coordination of movements;

b) a program that controls the change in the types of activity of individuals in a situation where interference or uncertainty arises;

c) a program that manages the complex task of metacommunication.

These programs are assimilated by individuals as they learn and allow organizing heterogeneous behavioral material. They are "launched" depending on the meaningful context of a particular situation, task, and social organization;

5) system model considers interaction as a configuration of behavioral systems that govern the exchange of speech utterances and the use of space and territory of interaction.

relational approach It is based on the fact that communication is a system of relationships that people develop with each other, with the community and the environment in which they live. Information is understood as any change in any part of this system, causing a change in other parts. Humans, animals or other organisms are an integral part of the process of communication from the moment of birth until the moment of death.

32. Types of communication

Types of communication by means:

1) verbal communication - is carried out through speech and is the prerogative of a person. It provides a person with wide communicative opportunities and is much richer than all types and forms of non-verbal communication, although in life it cannot completely replace it;

2) non-verbal communication occurs with the help of facial expressions, gestures and pantomime, through direct sensory or bodily contacts (tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and other sensations and images received from another person). Non-verbal forms and means of communication are inherent not only to humans, but also to some animals (dogs, monkeys and dolphins). In most cases, non-verbal forms and means of human communication are innate. They allow people to interact with each other, achieving mutual understanding on the emotional and behavioral levels. The most important non-verbal component of the communication process is the ability to listen.

Types of communication by goals:

1) biological communication is associated with the satisfaction of basic organic needs and is necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the organism;

2) social communication is aimed at expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, personal growth of the individual.

Types of communication by content:

1) material - the exchange of objects and products of activity, which serve as a means of satisfying their actual needs;

2) cognitive - the transfer of information that broadens one's horizons, improves and develops abilities;

3) conditioning - an exchange of mental or physiological states, influencing each other, designed to bring a person into a certain physical or mental state;

4) activity - exchange of actions, operations, skills, habits;

5) motivational communication consists in the transfer of certain motives, attitudes or readiness to act in a certain direction to each other.

By mediation:

1) direct communication - occurs with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: hands, head, torso, vocal cords, etc .;

2) mediated communication - associated with the use of special means and tools for organizing communication and exchanging information (natural (stick, thrown stone, footprint on the ground, etc.) or cultural objects (sign systems, symbols on various media, printing, radio, television, etc.);

3) direct communication is based on personal contacts and direct perception of each other by communicating people in the act of communication itself (for example, bodily contacts, conversations of people with each other, etc.);

4) indirect communication occurs through intermediaries, which may be other people (for example, negotiations between conflicting parties at the interstate, international, group, family levels).

Other types of communication:

1) business communication - communication, the purpose of which is to reach any clear agreement or agreement;

2) educational communication - involves the targeted impact of one participant on another with a fairly clear idea of the desired result;

3) diagnostic communication - communication, the purpose of which is to formulate a certain idea about the interlocutor or receive any information from him (such is the communication of a doctor with a patient, etc.);

4) intimate-personal communication is possible when partners are interested in establishing and maintaining trusting and deep contact, occurs between close people and is largely the result of previous relationships.

33. Functions and means of communication

Communication functions - these are the roles and tasks that communication performs in the process of human social life:

1) information and communication function is the exchange of information between individuals. The constituent elements of communication are: the communicator (transmits information), the content of the message, the recipient (receives the message). The effectiveness of information transfer is manifested in the understanding of information, its acceptance or rejection, assimilation. To implement the information and communication function, it is necessary to have a single or similar system for codifying/decodifying messages. The transfer of any information is possible through various sign systems;

2) incentive function - stimulation of activity of partners for the organization of joint actions;

3) integrative function - the function of bringing people together;

4) socialization function - communication contributes to the development of skills of human interaction in society according to the norms and rules adopted in it;

5) coordination function - coordination of actions in the implementation of joint activities;

6) understanding function - adequate perception and understanding of information;

7) regulatory-communicative (interactive) function communication is aimed at regulating and correcting behavior in the direct organization of joint activities of people in the process of their interaction;

8) affective-communicative function communication consists in influencing the emotional sphere of a person, which can be purposeful or involuntary.

Means of communication - ways of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication. They are verbal and non-verbal.

Verbal means of communication are words with meanings assigned to them. Words can be spoken aloud (oral speech), written (written speech), replaced by gestures in the blind, or spoken silently.

Oral speech is a simpler and more economical form of verbal means. It is divided into:

1) dialogic speech, in which two interlocutors take part;

2) monologue speech - a speech delivered by one person.

Written speech is used when oral communication is impossible or when accuracy, accuracy of each word is necessary.

Non-verbal means of communication is a sign system that complements and enhances verbal communication, and sometimes even replaces it. With the help of non-verbal means of communication, about 55-65% of information is transmitted. Non-verbal means of communication include:

1) visual aids:

a) kinesthetic means are visually perceived movements of another person that perform an expressive and regulatory function in communication. Kinesics includes expressive movements, manifested in facial expressions, posture, gesture, gaze, gait;

b) gaze direction and eye contact;

c) facial expression;

d) eye expression;

e) posture - the location of the body in space ("leg on foot", cross of arms, cross of legs, etc.);

f) distance (distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation to him, personal space);

g) skin reactions (redness, perspiration);

h) auxiliary means of communication (body features (sex, age)) and means of their transformation (clothes, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoos, mustaches, beards, cigarettes, etc.);

2) acoustic (sound):

a) related to speech (loudness, timbre, intonation, tone, pitch, rhythm, speech pauses and their localization in the text);

b) not related to speech (laughter, gnashing of teeth, crying, coughing, sighing, etc.);

3) tactile - associated with touch:

a) physical impact (leading the blind by the hand, etc.);

b) takevika (shaking hands, clapping on the shoulder).

34. Levels and forms of communication

In foreign and domestic psychology there are different views on the levels of communication.

Communication levels by B.G. Ananiev:

1) microlevel - consists of the smallest elements of interpersonal communication with the immediate environment with which a person lives and most often comes into contact (family, friends);

2) meso-level - communication at the level of the school, production team, etc.;

3) the macro level includes such large structures as management and trade.

Communication levels by E. Bernu:

1) rituals are a certain order of actions by which a custom is performed and fixed;

2) pastime (watching TV, reading books, dancing, etc.);

3) games - activities that do not result in the production of any product;

4) intimacy - intimate relationships;

5) activity - a specific type of human activity aimed at understanding and transforming the world around.

The most common in Russian psychology is the following level system:

1) primitive level - involves the implementation of a communication scheme in which the interlocutor is not a partner, but a necessary or interfering object. In this case, the contact phases are performed in the extension from above or (with a frankly strong partner) from below. A similar level of communication is offered in a state of intoxication, anger, a state of conflict, etc.;

2) manipulative level - a partner-opponent scheme is implemented in a game that must be won without fail, and winning is a benefit (material, everyday or psychological). At the same time, the manipulator catches and tries to use the partner's weaknesses;

3) standardized level - communication based on standards, when one of the partners (or both) does not want contact, but one cannot do without it;

4) conventional level - the level of ordinary equal human communication within the framework of accepted rules of conduct. This level requires partners to have a high culture of communication, which can be regarded as an art and to master which another person has to work on himself for years. It is optimal for resolving personal and interpersonal problems in human contacts;

5) game level - it is also characterized as conventional, but with an increased positive focus on the partner, interest in him and the desire to generate a similar interest in himself from the partner. In the game, the main thing is to intrigue, interest a partner. At this level, the resulting human connection is more valued than the informative component of communication. Ideal for teaching activities;

6) the level of business communication - in comparison with the conventional level, it implies an increased focus on the partner as a participant in collective activities. The main thing at this level is the degree of mental and business activity of the partner, his involvement in the common task. Ideal for group activities, brainstorming, etc.;

7) spiritual level - the highest level of human communication, which is characterized by mutual dissolution in a partner, high spontaneity of thought and feeling, ultimate freedom of expression, a partner is perceived as a carrier of a spiritual principle, and this principle awakens in us a feeling that is akin to reverence.

Forms of interpersonal communication:

1) monologue - when only one of the partners is assigned the role of an active participant, and the other is a passive performer (for example, a lecture, notation, etc.);

2) dialogue - characterized by the cooperation of participants - interlocutors or communication partners (for example, conversation, conversation);

3) polylogical - multilateral communication, which is in the nature of a struggle for a communicative initiative.

35. Socio-psychological mechanisms of influence in the process of communication

Infection - this is an unconscious, spontaneous form of inclusion of a person in empathy with a general mental state with a large group of people at the same time, as well as a method of influence leading to such a state.

The phenomenon of infection is most often found in an unorganized community (crowd), which in itself contributes to its strengthening.

The mechanism of infection can manifest itself in mass outbreaks of various mental states that occur during situations of panic, sports excitement, ritual dances, religious ecstasy, etc.

Infection is based on the emotional impact of the inductor (carrier of emotional charge) in conditions of direct contact. When infected, a strong mental, emotional charge is transferred, which, passing through the channels of interaction, is multiplied many times, creating a mental background of infection.

Infection functions:

1) strengthening group cohesion, if such cohesion already exists;

2) compensation for insufficient cohesion.

Suggestion - this is a socio-psychological mechanism of purposeful, unreasoned influence, focused on the formation of a general mental state and motives for individual or mass actions.

Suggestion is characterized by non-critical perception of information and is carried out by verbal means based on the emotional readiness of a person to receive an attitude to action. Children, people with a dominance of a situational mental attitude, unsure of themselves, tired or weakened, are subject to suggestion.

Conditions necessary for effective suggestion:

1) the credibility of the source of information;

2) trust in him;

3) lack of resistance to inspiring influence.

Distinctive features of suggestion:

1) the suggestor (suggestor) is not in the same emotional state as the suggestible (suggestor);

2) suggestion is a personified emotional-volitional influence;

3) suggestion is verbal in nature and does not need proof and logic.

Belief - it is a socio-psychological mechanism of communication, built on a system of logical evidence oriented towards a critical personality.

Conditions for the effectiveness of persuasion:

1) the content and form of persuasion correspond to the level of age development of the individual;

2) persuasion is built taking into account the individual characteristics of the addressee;

3) the conviction is consistent and conclusive;

4) belief contains general and specific facts;

5) persuasion is based on the mind of the person being convinced, his experience and knowledge;

6) the person who convinces himself deeply believes in what he convinces;

7) the interest of the person to whom the impact is addressed.

Distinctive features of persuasion:

1) persuasion is focused on the formation of the conscious activity of the person being convinced;

2) when persuading, the recipient of the information draws conclusions independently;

3) persuasion is predominantly an intellectual influence.

Imitation - This is the reproduction by one person of certain patterns of behavior of another person or group of people.

Types of imitation:

1) logical and beyond logical;

2) internal and external;

3) imitation-fashion and imitation-custom.

Laws of imitation:

1) internal models cause imitation earlier than external ones;

2) the lowest on the social ladder imitate the highest.

Ways to imitate:

1) when new reactions arise through observation of the model;

2) when observing the model's reward or punishment reinforces or weakens the inhibited behavior;

3) when the observation of the model contributes to the actualization of patterns of behavior previously known to the observer.

36. Psychology of interpersonal relationships

Interpersonal relationships - it is a set of connections that develop between people in the form of feelings, judgments and appeals to each other.

Interpersonal relationships include:

1) people's perception and understanding of each other;

2) interpersonal attractiveness (attraction and liking);

3) interaction and behavior (in particular, role-playing).

Components of interpersonal relationships:

1) cognitive component - includes all cognitive mental processes: sensations, perception, representation, memory, thinking, imagination. Thanks to this component, there is a knowledge of the individual psychological characteristics of partners in joint activities and mutual understanding between people. The characteristics of mutual understanding are:

a) adequacy - the accuracy of the mental reflection of the perceived personality;

b) identification - identification by an individual of his personality with the personality of another individual;

2) emotional component - includes positive or negative experiences that a person has in interpersonal communication with other people:

a) likes or dislikes;

b) satisfaction with oneself, partner, work, etc.;

c) empathy - an emotional response to the experiences of another person, which can manifest itself in the form of empathy (experiencing those feelings experienced by another), sympathy (personal attitude to the experiences of another) and complicity (empathy accompanied by assistance);

3) behavioral component - includes facial expressions, gestures, pantomime, speech and actions expressing the relationship of a given person to other people, to the group as a whole. He plays a leading role in regulating relationships.

The effectiveness of interpersonal relationships is assessed by the state of satisfaction-dissatisfaction of the group and its members.

Types of interpersonal relationships:

1) industrial relations - are formed between employees of organizations in solving industrial, educational, economic, domestic, and other problems and imply fixed rules for the behavior of employees in relation to each other. They are divided into relationships:

a) vertically - between managers and subordinates;

b) horizontally - relations between employees who have the same status;

c) diagonally - the relationship between the leaders of one production unit with ordinary employees of another;

2) domestic relationships - are formed outside of labor activity on vacation and at home;

3) formal (official) relations - normatively stipulated relationships enshrined in official documents;

4) informal (informal) relationships - relationships that really develop in relationships between people and are manifested in preferences, likes or dislikes, mutual assessments, authority, etc.

The nature of interpersonal relationships is influenced by such personal characteristics as gender, nationality, age, temperament, health status, profession, experience in communicating with people, self-esteem, need for communication, etc.

Stages of development of interpersonal relationships:

1) the stage of acquaintance - the first stage - the emergence of mutual contact, mutual perception and evaluation of each other by people, which largely determines the nature of the relationship between them;

2) the stage of friendly relations - the emergence of interpersonal relationships, the formation of an internal relationship of people to each other on the rational (realization by interacting people of the advantages and disadvantages of each other) and emotional levels (the emergence of appropriate experiences, emotional response, etc.);

3) companionship - convergence of views and support to each other, characterized by trust.

37. Forms of interpersonal relationships

Positive interpersonal relationships ("to meet people"):

1) love - the most complex type of interpersonal relations, expressed in a high degree of emotional positive attitude towards the object, which stands out among others and is placed in the center of the subject's vital interests. Love can manifest itself in relation to another person as an object of sexual needs (homo- and heterosexual partners) and non-sexual needs (love for parents, family members, children), for pets, for inanimate objects and concepts (city, homeland, art etc.);

2) proximity - the type of interpersonal relations between two people, expressed in mutually adaptive behavior aimed at achieving mutual satisfaction and a sense of security in their position;

3) friendship - these are stable, individually selective interpersonal relationships, characterized by the mutual attachment of participants, the desire to be in the company of other people, mutual expectations of reciprocal feelings and preference. It is built on mutual understanding, trust, active mutual assistance, mutual interest, sincerity and selflessness of feelings;

4) friendly relations - unstable, shallow, but benevolent, relations;

5) attraction - fleeting interpersonal relationships, which are based on an instinctive desire that prompts the individual to act in the direction of satisfying this desire. There are the following attraction types:

a) sexual attraction, which is based on sexuality;

b) platonic attraction;

6) altruism - a form of interpersonal relations manifested in the form of socio-psychological humanity, collectivist identification in everyday communication and activities of people;

Neutral interpersonal relationships ("from people")

1) autism - withdrawal of the individual from contacts with the surrounding reality and immersion in the world of their own experiences. It is observed in mental disorders (schizophrenia) and in case of severe psychological trauma with a normal psyche;

2) indifference - a form of interpersonal relationship, manifested in the failure to provide assistance to the victims and the needy. Depends on factors such as:

a) "the effect of an eyewitness" - help is less often in the presence of eyewitnesses;

b) the uncertainty of the situation;

c) time pressure - help is provided less often when there is a shortage of time;

d) personal acquaintance with the victim;

e) personal, primarily status, characteristics of the victim - people with a high status receive help faster;

f) Emotional states such as anger, rage, anger, fear, depression, deep sadness, "empathy fatigue" or "sensory overload" interfere with empathy and help;

g) personality traits;

3) conformity - a form of interpersonal relations, manifested in conciliation and conciliation;

4) selfishness - a form of interpersonal relationships that manifests itself in the desire to satisfy one's needs at the expense of others.

Negative interpersonal relationships ("against people"):

1) negativism - this is a peculiar form of interpersonal relations, manifested in unmotivated behavior that is opposite to the requirements and expectations;

2) dislike for others - a form of negative attitude towards people, which can manifest itself in discrimination, racism, sexism;

3) hatred - a persistent form of interpersonal relations, manifested in an active negative feeling of the subject, aimed at phenomena that contradict his needs, beliefs, values;

4) aggression - a form of interpersonal relationship, manifested in behavior aimed at causing physical or psychological harm, damage to people or their destruction.

38. Mechanisms of interpersonal cognition

Interpretation mechanism - consists in correlating, identifying the personal experience of cognition of people with the perceived person. The basis of the interpretation mechanism is such a property of the human psyche as a comparison of one's personality, behavior and state with other people. The mechanism of interpretation can function both consciously and unconsciously and is one of the main mechanisms of interpersonal cognition. Awareness of the mechanism of interpretation occurs when there are difficulties in understanding the perceived (deviation from the norms of behavior, limited information about it, etc.). The triggering of the mechanism of interpretation is facilitated by the similarity between the perceiver and the perceived.

Identification mechanism - it is a way of understanding another person through identification, likening him to himself or himself with another person. In the work of this mechanism, an important role belongs to the imagination, which is formed gradually and is developed differently in different people. The subject of cognition, as it were, is immersed in the semantic field of the object, the conditions of his life. The mechanism of identification can work both unconsciously and consciously, when the mechanism of interpretation does not work and the perceiver consciously puts himself in the place of the perceived. This mechanism is carried out in rational (through reasoning) and emotional (through empathy, sympathy, empathy) directions. The result of the identification mechanism can be:

1) the actual identification of oneself with another person through the same reasoning, sympathy, empathy and even behavior;

2) de-identification through understanding and empathy, but autonomous behavior relative to this person.

Mechanism of causal attribution - attributing to the perceived certain motives and reasons that explain his actions and other features. This mechanism is used when the true causes of the object's behavior are not known or there is not enough information to understand them.

Factors affecting the measure and degree of attribution:

1) the degree of typicality of an act (typical behavior prescribed by role models is easily amenable to unambiguous interpretation) and its uniqueness (unique behavior can be interpreted in different ways, which gives scope for attributing causes and characteristics to it);

2) on the degree of social desirability (compliance with social and cultural norms that contribute to an unambiguous explanation) or undesirability (with a violation of the norms of behavior and an expansion of the range of possible explanations) of an act.

Attribution types:

1) personal - the reason is attributed to the person who performs the act personally;

2) objective - the cause is attributed to the object to which the action is directed;

3) circumstantial - the reason is attributed to the circumstances.

The mechanism of reflection of another person - comprehension by the subject of how he himself is perceived by the object. As a result of the reflection of another person, triple reflection:

1) reflection of the subject's opinion about himself;

2) reflection of this opinion in the mind of another person;

3) reflection by the subject of the representation of the object about the subject.

For this mechanism to work, a certain level of personality development is required, its ability to self-reflection, knowledge of other people and fixation of signs of feedback from the object. On the basis of feedback, constant monitoring of the object of interpersonal cognition and correction of the process of forming the image of the perceived is carried out.

The functioning of the mechanisms of interpersonal cognition proceeds from the simple (mechanism of interpretation) to the complex (identification, causal attribution and reflection of another person).

39. Effects of interpersonal perception

The effect of "primacy" (or "order") is that with conflicting data about this person after the first meeting, the information that was received earlier is perceived as more significant and has a greater impact on the overall impression of the person. The effect is triggered when a stranger is perceived.

edge effect is that the extreme objects of perception are remembered better than those in the middle.

novelty effect lies in the fact that the latest, that is, newer information, is more significant, acts in situations of perception of a familiar person.

Halo effect - the formation of a specific attitude towards the observed through the directed attribution of certain qualities to it: the information received about a person is superimposed on the image that was created in advance. The previously existing image plays the role of a "halo" that prevents one from seeing the real features and manifestations of the object of perception. The halo effect is manifested in the fact that a general favorable impression leads to positive assessments of the known and unknown qualities of the perceived (Polyanna effect"), with a general unfavorable impression, negative assessments prevail ("devil effect") More often occurs when the perceiver has minimal information about the object of perception or when judgments concern moral qualities.

First impression effect - a persistent assessment of a person or his character traits according to the first impression, when subsequent opinions about a person that contradict the created image do not correspond to reality.

projection effect - when we tend to ascribe our own merits to a pleasant interlocutor, and our own shortcomings to an unpleasant one.

Mean error effect - this is a tendency to soften the assessment of the most striking features of another person in the direction of the average.

Barnum effect - people's perception of descriptions or general assessments of their personality as true if they are presented in a scientific, magical or ritual context.

Boomerang effect consists in the fact that information presented to an audience or individuals causes a result opposite to what is expected. It occurs when:

1) the communicator (the subject transmitting information) causes hostility among the recipients receiving this information;

2) the information is not true;

3) there is no trust in the source of information.

The effect or phenomenon of stereotyping in interpersonal perception - a tendency to form a stable image when evaluating people, which is used as a cliché or evaluating people according to their belonging to any category (gender, age, skin color, etc.). A stereotype usually arises on the basis of rather meager experience, when trying to draw conclusions on the basis of limited information, with rigid thinking. There is a tendency to use prior experience to draw conclusions from similarities with that prior experience, ignoring differences. Typically, such a stereotype arises regarding a person's group affiliation, for example, to a certain profession. Stereotyping leads to prejudice and can cause serious damage not only to communication between people, but also to their relationships. However, in the case when the stereotype does not carry an evaluative load and when a person does not have a shift in perception towards emotional acceptance or rejection, stereotyping has a positive effect on the process of interpersonal communication, expressed in a significant simplification and acceleration of the process of knowing another person.

40. Techniques for Effective Interpersonal Communication

The technique of understanding communication is based on attitudes, rules and response techniques aimed at understanding and studying the partner, his problems and establishing open communication with him.

Open communication is possible only in an atmosphere of trust, which is promoted subject's attitudes:

1) an understanding non-evaluative response to thoughts, feelings, ideas and statements of a partner, which does not mean agreement with what is being said, but is only a manifestation of the desire to unbiasedly understand it;

2) positive acceptance of the personality of the interlocutor, regardless of his strengths and weaknesses, which forms a climate of security, openness and trust;

3) on the consistency (congruence) of one's own behavior during interaction - the consistency between words, gestures and inner feelings, experiences at the moment of conversation - is an "invitation" of a partner to an "exchange of trust".

Understanding response rules:

1) listen more, speak less, following the statements and emotions of the partner;

2) refraining from evaluations;

3) not pushing the partner to discuss certain issues;

4) response to personally significant information related to the needs and interests of the partner;

5) response to the feelings and emotional states of the interlocutor.

These attitudes are based on the main psychological mechanisms that implement the orientation of the subject of communication to understand the interlocutor.

Understanding Responses:

1) non-evaluative questions that clarify the position of the interlocutor;

2) expressing attention and interest using simple phrases;

3) checking the correctness of understanding by paraphrasing the partner's statements;

4) clarifying the thoughts and feelings of the interlocutor that are not expressed openly;

5) interpretation as a variant of probing the partner's not fully conscious experiences;

6) probing and bringing the partner to awareness of the causes of emotional states;

7) the use of silence as a response;

8) the use of non-verbal reactions;

9) encouragement and reassurance;

10) summary.

Directive Communication Technique - is based on attitudes, rules and response techniques aimed at providing a direct psychological impact on the partner in order to achieve their goals.

This technique is focused on overcoming defensive-aggressive skills and habits and achieving your goals in interaction with people with greater efficiency and with less psychological and other costs.

Precepts and rules of the directive approach:

1) direct, open, and clear expression of their positions, intentions and goals;

2) open active actions to achieve their goals;

3) expressing a direct and open refusal to perform actions that will not serve your interests;

4) resolute protection of oneself from the aggressive behavior of a partner;

5) achieving their goals, taking into account the interests and goals of the partner.

Techniques for directive response:

1) directive questions in order to orient the partner to the problem that needs to be discussed;

2) orientation of the partner to the awareness of contradictions in reasoning and arguments;

3) making suggestions, explanations, advice and recommendations to the interlocutor in connection with the implementation of his goals;

4) open expression, if necessary, of doubts about the statements of the interlocutor, the plans and agreements proposed by him;

5) open expression of agreement or disagreement;

6) persuasion of the partner, i.e., the desire for the conscious acceptance of the proposed position by him, which becomes his own motive for behavior;

7) an open explanation of their further actions in case the interlocutor refuses to act in accordance with the planned tactics.

41. Small group, its signs and parameters

Small group - it is a rather stable community of people united by a common social activity and being in direct personal interaction and communication.

All people are members of certain groups: a class student, a member of a brigade, a student group, etc. The minimum size of a small group is 2-3 people, the maximum is 20-40 people. A group of 5-7 people is considered optimal.

Signs of a small group:

1) spatial and temporal co-presence of people, which provides an opportunity for personal contacts;

2) reference - acceptance by members of the group of common standards of behavior, moral and value norms;

3) leadership - the interaction of leaders and followers in the group, the influence of leaders on the group as a whole for the implementation of common goals;

4) integrativity of the group - a measure of unity, cohesion, community of members of the group;

5) intragroup activity - a measure of intragroup activity of individual members of the group;

6) intergroup activity - a measure of the activity of the group as a whole and its members with external groups;

7) microclimate - the nature of the relationship between people in the group, their psychological well-being, satisfaction with the group, the comfort of being in it;

8) organization - the ability of the group to self-government;

9) intellectual communication - the nature of interpersonal perception and the establishment of mutual understanding, finding a common language of communication;

10) orientation of the group - the presence of a permanent goal of joint activity and its acceptance by the group. Among the goals are:

a) short-term perspectives, goals that are quickly realized in time and express the needs of this group;

b) secondary goals are longer in time and lead the group to the interests of the secondary team (the interests of the enterprise or the school as a whole);

c) long-term perspectives unite the primary group with the problems of the functioning of the social whole;

11) emotionality - the degree of severity of interpersonal emotional relationships of group members; the prevailing emotional mood of the group;

12) volitional communication - the ability of the group to withstand difficulties and obstacles;

13) separation and differentiation of personal roles (division and cooperation of labor, power division, i.e. the activity of group members is not homogeneous and they contribute to joint activities, play different roles);

14) development of a specific group culture - norms, rules, standards of life, behavior that determine the expectations of group members in relation to each other and determine group dynamics.

Small group parameters:

1) the composition or composition of the group - determines the originality of this group among other groups;

2) group structure - the accepted distribution of leadership and subordination, rights and obligations between group members, the order of relations and joint actions of group members, the nature of communications and preferences;

3) group processes - these are the processes that organize the activities of the group (communication, interaction, interpersonal relationships, authority, leadership, etc.);

4) group norms - this is a system of rules of behavior of workers generally recognized in a given team in the field of work, leisure, communication;

5) the position of the individual in the group - his status (place in the system of group life), role (mode of behavior expected from the individual), position (system of views and values);

6) group expectations - expected patterns of behavior corresponding to each role, status and position of an individual as a subject of a group;

7) group sanctions - group means and mechanisms for managing the behavior of group members. Sanctions are encouraging and prohibitive.

42. Small group structure

Under the structure of the group is understood the totality of connections that develop in it between individuals.

In social psychology, there are various approaches to understanding the structure of a small group.

Sociometric structure of a small group - it is a set of connections and relationships between its members, based on mutual preferences and rejections, known from the results of D. Moreno's sociometric test. The sociometric structure of the group is built on emotional relationships of likes and dislikes, phenomena of interpersonal attractiveness and popularity.

The main characteristics of the sociometric structure of a small group:

1) characteristics of the sociometric status of group members - the position they occupy in the system of interpersonal choices and rejections;

2) characteristics of mutual, emotional preferences and rejections of group members;

3) the presence of microgroups whose members are connected by relations of mutual elections, and the nature of the relationship between them;

4) sociometric cohesion of the group - the ratio of the number of mutual choices and rejections to the number of the maximum possible.

The structure of interpersonal choices and rejections in a group, represented graphically, is called group sociogram.

Communicative structure of a small group - it is a set of connections between its members, in the systems of information flows circulating in the group.

The main characteristics of the communicative structure of the group:

1) the position occupied by group members in the communication system (access to receiving and transmitting information);

2) the frequency and stability of communication links in the group;

3) the type of communication links between group members:

a) centralized - all communications are carried out through one subject, who plays a key role in organizing the exchange of information and interaction (frontal, radial, hierarchical);

b) decentralized - they are distinguished by the communicative equality of all participants (circular, chain, full).

Role structure of a small group - it is a set of connections and relations between individuals, depending on the distribution of group roles between them.

When analyzing the process of interaction in a group, the following are distinguished:

1) roles associated with problem solving:

a) initiator - offers new ideas and approaches to the problems and goals of the group;

b) developer - is engaged in the development of ideas and proposals;

c) coordinator - coordinates the activities of the group members;

d) controller - controls the direction of the group to the goals;

e) evaluator - evaluates the work of the group according to existing standards for the implementation of the task;

f) driver - stimulates the group;

2) roles related to providing support to other members of the group:

a) inspirer - supports the undertakings of others;

b) harmonizer - serves as a mediator and peacemaker in conflict situations;

c) dispatcher - promotes and regulates communication processes;

d) normalizer - normalizes the processes occurring in the group;

e) follower - passively follows the group.

An analysis of the role structure of a small group shows what roles each of the participants in group interaction performs.

The structure of social power and influence in a small group is a set of connections between individuals, which is based on the direction and intensity of their mutual influence.

The components of the structure of social power:

1) the roles of those in power - are expressed in directive influence on the status and behavior of subordinates;

2) the roles of subordinates - are expressed in obedience and depend on the roles of those in power.

The main characteristic of the structure of social power and influence of a formal group is the officially fixed system of connections that underlies the leadership of the group, while the informal group is the phenomenon of leadership.

43. Theoretical approaches to the study of small groups

Field theory K. Levin is based on the fact that the behavior of a person, as a rule, is determined by his life and social space. Lewin believed that one of the distinguishing features of the group is the principle of interdependence of its members. Based on this theory, various private theories of group psychology were created:

1) cohesion theory;

2) theories of social power;

3) the theory of rivalry-cooperation;

4) theories of intragroup pressure;

5) theories of group claims.

Interactionist concept considers the group as a system of interacting individuals, the functioning of which is described by three concepts:

1) individual activity;

2) interaction, as a systematic sustainable performance of actions aimed at evoking the partner's response, which generates the reaction of the influencer. Interaction consists of physical contact, movement in space, joint group or mass action, spiritual verbal and non-verbal informational contact. The structure of interaction includes the subjects of interaction, their mutual connection, impact and change;

3) attitude.

Systems theory is based on the fact that the group is an open system of interrelated positions and roles, as a set of group "inputs" and "outputs". This theory attempts to understand complex processes by analyzing their basic elements.

Sociometric approach considers the group through analysis within group relations: preferences-choices.

Psychoanalytic orientation is based on the description of group processes in terms of ideas 3. Freud about motivational and protective mechanisms of personality.

General psychological approach is based on the idea of human behavior, which reflects the individual processes of the personality, such as learning, cognitive sphere, motivation and emotional-volitional sphere of the personality, inevitably associated with group actions.

Empirical-statistical approach is based on the fact that the basic concepts of group theory should be derived from the results of statistical procedures, and not formulated a priori. This direction is reflected in the application of procedures developed in the field of personality testing;

Formal Model Approach consists in constructing formal models of group behavior using the mathematical apparatus of graph theory and set theory. The negative point of this direction is that its representatives are more interested in the internal consistency of their models than in the degree of their correspondence to natural situations.

Reinforcement theory is based on the ideas of Skinner's concept of operant conditioning, according to which the behavior of an individual in a group is determined as a function of reward (positive reinforcement) and sanctions (negative reinforcement). Reinforcement theory formed the basis of two major socio-psychological theories that focused on intra-dyad relationships, extending the results obtained in these studies to large groups.

Parametric concept L.I. Umansky is based on the assumption that the gradual development of a small group is carried out due to the development of its most important socio-psychological parameters (organizational, emotional and dynamic characteristics of the group).

Activity approach considers the main determinant of the formation of a group in the psychological sense of the word, joint activity, which is not only an externally given condition for the existence of a given group, but also an internal basis for its existence.

44. Types of small groups

In order of occurrence:

the primary group is a collection of individuals united on the basis of direct contacts, common goals and objectives and characterized by a high level of emotional closeness and spiritual solidarity (family, group of friends, closest neighbors). It is characterized by the following features:

1) small staff;

2) spatial proximity of members;

3) duration of existence;

4) commonality of group values, norms and patterns of behavior;

5) voluntariness of joining the group;

6) informal control over the behavior of members.

secondary group - a relatively large social community, the subjects of which are not connected by intimate, close ties, social communication and interaction in the group are impersonal, utilitarian and functional. The secondary group is goal-oriented (work team, school class, sports team, etc.);

By public status:

1) formal group - a group created on the basis of official documents (class, school, party, etc.) and having a legally fixed status. A formal group is characterized by clearly defined positions of members, prescribed group norms, strictly distributed roles in accordance with subordination in the power structure in the group. Between the members of such a group, business relations are established, provided for by documents, which can be supplemented by personal likes and dislikes;

2) an informal group - a real social community of people who are connected by common sympathies, closeness of views, beliefs, tastes, etc. Statuses and roles in such a group are not prescribed, there is no given system of vertical relationships. Official documents in such a group are irrelevant. The group breaks up when common interests disappear.

By direct relationship:

1) a conditional group - a community of people that exists nominally and is distinguished by some sign (gender, age, profession, etc.). People included in such a group do not have direct interpersonal relationships, they may not know anything about each other;

2) a real group - a community of people that exists in a common space and time and is united by real relationships (a classroom, a production team).

According to the level of development or formation of interpersonal relationships:

1) groups of low development - communities based on asocial factors, lack of common goals and interests, characterized by conformity or nonconformity of its members (for example, an association, a corporation, etc.);

2) high development groups - communities based on common interests, social goals and values (for example, a team).

By importance:

1) a reference group is a real or imaginary group whose norms serve as a model. Reference groups may be real or imagined, positive or negative, may or may not coincide with membership. They perform a normative function and the function of social comparison. In the representations of an individual, a group can be:

"positive" - groups with which the individual identifies himself and, a member of which he would like to become.

"negative" - groups that cause rejection in the individual.

2) membership groups are groups where the individual is not opposed to the group, and relates himself to all other members, and they relate themselves to him.

Other types of groups:

1) permanent (exist for a long time (political party, school, institute, etc.)) and temporary (exist for a short period of time (train compartment, people in the cinema, etc.));

2) natural (family) and groups of psychological and other types of similarity (classes, parties);

3) organized and spontaneous, etc.

45. Models of group development

The domestic model of group development consists of five stages:

1) the stage of the nominal group is characterized by an external, formal association of individuals around the set social tasks;

2) the stage of the group-association - the stage of formation of a group in which relationships are mediated only by personally significant goals (a group of friends, friends), initial interpersonal integration in the sphere of emotional relations is outlined;

3) the stage of the group-cooperation - the formation of a group that differs in a really operating organizational structure, interpersonal relations are of a business nature, subordinated to the achievement of the required result in the performance of a specific task in a certain type of activity;

4) the stage of the autonomy group, which is characterized by high internal unity both in the sphere of business and in the sphere of emotional relations;

5) the stage of the group-corporation occurs as a result of the isolation of the group and the concentration of the activity of its members on narrow group goals, is characterized by the mediation of relations by personally significant, but asocial in its settings, the content of group activity;

6) the stage of the collective - the highest form of development of the social community. This is a time-stable organizational group of interacting people with specific governing bodies, united by the goals of joint socially useful activities and the complex dynamics of formal (business) and informal relationships between group members. A distinctive feature is the integration of the team with other groups based on the focus on broader socially significant goals. The dynamics of the development of a small group is a complex process, including both stages of rapid advancement through levels, and periods of prolonged stay at the same level and even its decline, which is accompanied by intra-group antipathy, selfishness in interpersonal relationships, conflict as forms of manifestation of disintegration.

Foreign models of group development usually include three stages: orientation in the situation, conflict and reaching agreement or balance.

One of these models is small group development model B. Takmena, which involves the allocation of two main areas of group life: business, associated with the solution of a group problem, and interpersonal, associated with the development of a group structure.

Stages in the field of business activity:

1) orientation and search for the optimal way to solve the problem;

2) emotional reactions and resistance of group members to the requirements placed on them in connection with the solution of the problem;

3) open exchange of information in order to achieve a deeper understanding of each other's intentions and search for alternatives;

4) decision-making and active joint actions for its implementation.

Stages in the field of interpersonal activity:

1) the stage of orientation of group members in the nature of each other's actions and the search for mutually acceptable behavior;

2) the stage of internal conflict;

3) the stage of development of group cohesion;

4) the stage of formation of the role structure of the group, corresponding to the content of the group task.

Psychological mechanisms of development of a small group:

1) resolution of intra-group contradictions between growing potentialities and its actual activity, between the growing desire of individuals for self-realization and the growing tendency to integrate with the group, between the behavior of the group leader and the expectations of his followers;

2) the group granting a higher psychological status to individuals in response to their higher contribution to its life;

3) giving the leader the opportunity to deviate from group norms ("idiosyncratic credit").

46. Group Consciousness and Group Thinking

Group Consciousness - this is an understanding by a group of the social environment, its place in it, relationships with other groups and society, goals, objectives, functions of the activities carried out and its results.

group consciousness is an important component of consciousness and consists in the group's awareness of its existence as a special community, its unifying factors, assessment of the level of its own development and capabilities, prospects and means of maintaining and improving social status. The level of socio-psychological development of the group and the success of joint actions depend on the level of self-consciousness.

Subconscious The group includes relations, interests, inclinations, motives, manifestations of activity, etc., poorly realized by the group.

Groupthink - a socio-psychological phenomenon consisting in the adoption by a group of a certain unified decision.

Conditions conducive to groupthink:

1) the attractiveness of membership in this group, which is expressed in the interest in maintaining one's position, in the long-term existence of the group, which helps to strengthen group cohesion. The cohesion of the group leads to unanimity and unanimity, since the individual views of the members of the group are easily obscured by the opinion of the majority;

2) the presence of a powerful, authoritarian leader who imposes his point of view on the entire group;

3) the closeness of the group from criticism, control and influence of other groups (for example, self-isolation of the ruling elite);

4) the decision of the group as the highest authority is not subject to external examination, as a result of which the members of the group perceive their own opinion as irreproachable, absolutely true;

5) strong group pressure due to the mutual influence of group members on each other;

6) the uncertainty of group members in how they are perceived and evaluated in the group.

Signs of groupthink (according to I. Janis):

1) the illusion of invulnerability - consists in the development by the members of the group of not quite adequate ideas about the degree of their power. This is especially characteristic of the ruling circles, who, by virtue of their privileged position, are convinced of their own superiority (in intelligence, knowledge, awareness, etc.);

2) collective rationalization - the desire of the group to rationally explain their irrational actions with wrong, but convenient reasons;

3) belief in one's moral infallibility - perceiving oneself as a model of virtue and high morality, which allows one to justify any immoral, inhumane decisions, permissiveness in means, lies and withholding information;

4) the development of stereotypes in relation to other groups that are pejorative, contemptuous, hostile. In this regard, representatives of other groups are presented in a distorted way, their problems seem small and insignificant;

5) direct pressure on dissidents, consisting in the fact that the doubter is explained that he can doubt, but should not report his doubts in the presence of outsiders and criticize the "general line" of the group. He is also made to understand that deviating from the common position will result in sanctions from the group;

6) self-censorship - the suppression of doubts in oneself about the correctness of the decision chosen by the group;

7) the illusion of unanimity is created as a result of the action of self-censorship in each of the members of the group. The absence of expressed doubts gives the entire group the impression that dissent and doubt do not exist;

8) the presence of "mindguards", i.e. ideologues of groups whose main function is to combat dissent: intimidation, hiding important information, slander, physical elimination, etc.

47. Conformity and group pressure

Conformism - a socio-psychological phenomenon of changing behavior or beliefs under the influence of group pressure.

Conformity is one of the phenomena of group dynamics.

Types of conformism:

1) compliance or external public conformity - subordination to the opinion of the group while maintaining disagreement with its position;

2) approval or internal personal conformity - a change in behavior and beliefs under the influence of the group as a result of the internal acceptance of its position;

3) non-conformism or negative conformism - reactive resistance to group pressure. It manifests itself in a stubborn, non-constructive position of a person, even on generally accepted issues.

The study of conformism was carried out by M. Sherif and S. Ash, who in a number of experiments found that there are different levels of conformity.

Levels of conforming behavior:

1) submission at the level of perception - a change in the perception of the subject under the influence of a front group;

2) submission at the level of assessment - the recognition by the testee of his assessment as erroneous and adherence to the opinion of the group, which is considered correct;

3) submission at the level of action - the subject's awareness of the wrongness of the group, but agreement with it because of the unwillingness to enter into conflict with it.

Conformity is inherent in every person to a certain extent, but the degree of its manifestation depends on situational and personal factors.

Situational Conformity Factors:

1) a difficult task or incompetence - the less an individual is confident in his abilities, the more conforming his behavior;

2) the quantitative composition of the group - conformism is higher with the number of group members from three to seven. Increasing the size of the group to more than seven people does not lead to an increase in the degree of conformity;

3) the qualitative composition of the group (their erudition and professional affiliation, etc.);

4) the authority of the person expressing the opposite opinion. At the same time, submission to authority is stronger, the closer and more legitimate the authority is. Particularly high conformity is caused by institutionalized authority - the authority of the formal status of a leader in a given organization;

5) cohesion and unanimity of the group. At the same time, if there are people in the group who support the subject, then the effect of group pressure is reduced;

6) public responses also increase the level of conformity;

7) working for a joint reward increases conformity;

8) the significance of belonging to a group increases the degree of conformity.

Personal conformity factors:

1) age: people under the age of 25 are most susceptible to conformity;

2) gender: women's conformism is somewhat higher than men's, which is associated both with their social roles in society and the family, and with status differences, aspirations and needs;

3) culture: the degree of conformity of the population in the countries of European and North American culture is lower than in the countries of Asian culture, which affirms the values of collectivism;

4) profession: conformity depends on the need to obey the authorities within the framework of professional activities. So a high level of conformity is observed among the military, members of the orchestra, etc.;

5) the status of the individual: people with high status have less conformity than people with low and medium status. Individuals with an average status are most susceptible to group influence.

Conformity theories:

1) the information theory of Leon Festinger is based on the fact that it is not possible to check all incoming information, so you have to rely on the opinions of other people when it is shared by many;

2) the theory of normative influence is based on the fact that conformity is associated with the desire of the individual to have some of the benefits provided by membership in a group.

48. The concept of "leader" and "leadership"

Leadership - dominance of some group members over others.

The concept of a leader means a person who plays a dominant role in the structure of interpersonal relationships. Unlike the leader, the leader is an official person vested with authority and associated with the organization of the main activities of the group. These concepts differ in the scope of problems and the nomination procedure (the leader is nominated spontaneously, the leader is appointed officially).

Leader signs:

1) is highly active and proactive in solving the main tasks of the group;

2) is able to influence other members of the group;

3) well informed about the problem being solved, about the members of the group and about the situation in general;

4) behavior corresponds to social attitudes, values and norms adopted in this group;

5) has personal qualities that are reference for this group;

6) is able to go beyond the recognized norms and reference value orientations.

Leader functions:

1) organization of joint life of the group in various fields;

2) development and maintenance of group norms;

3) representation of the group in relations with other groups;

4) taking responsibility for the results of group activities;

5) establishment and maintenance of the microclimate of the group.

Types of leadership M. Weber:

1) traditional leadership - based on traditions, customs, faith, characteristic of traditional societies (eastern despotism, monarchy). The leader becomes the one who belongs to the elite, a narrow group of people;

2) legal-rational (bureaucratic) - based on the reasonableness of the existing order in society. The leader becomes the one who has a certain level of knowledge, competence, preparedness, which is typical for industrial countries;

3) charismatic leadership - based on divinity, supernaturalness, unusualness, appear at turning points in history.

Types of leadership in real management practice:

1) the leader - the organizer - perceives the needs of the team as his own and actively acts. He is optimistic and confident that most problems are completely solvable, he will not offer an empty case, he knows how to convince, he is inclined to encourage, and if he has to express his disapproval, he does it without hurting someone else's dignity, and as a result people try to work better;

2) the leader - the creator - has the ability to see the new, which attracts people. Takes on solving problems that may seem intractable and even dangerous. It does not act by command methods, but invites to discussion. Sets the task in such a way that it interests and attracts people;

3) a leader - a fighter - has a strong will, is confident in his abilities, is the first to meet danger or uncertainty, and without hesitation enters the fight. Inclined to defend what he believes in and fight to the end. Often acts at his own peril and risk, because he does not have enough time to think over all his actions and foresee everything;

4) the leader - diplomat - relies on excellent knowledge of the situation and its hidden details. He is well informed about all the gossip and gossip, so he knows well whom and how to influence. Prefers confidential meetings in a circle of like-minded people. Allows you to openly say what everyone knows in order to divert attention from their not advertised plans;

5) the leader - the comforter - is always ready to support in difficult times, respects people, treats them kindly, politely, helpfully, capable of empathy.

There are also leadership in the business sphere ("instrumental leadership") and in the emotional sphere ("expressive leadership").

According to stability, a situational and permanent leader is distinguished.

49. Leadership Theories

trait theory based on F. Galton's idea of the hereditary nature of leadership. According to this theory, a leader is not made, but born. In order to become a leader, it is necessary to have a certain set of personal qualities or a set of psychological traits, such as intelligence, energy, will, courage, initiative, the ability to foresee, the ability to attract attention, self-confidence, sociability, etc. However, this theory did not gain ground, as there was not a single trait of a leader that all researchers would agree with.

Situational Theories of Leadership consider the leader as the result of a meeting of the subject, place, time and circumstances. To become a political leader, according to these theories, certain psychological and professional qualities are needed, which are actualized by the situation. The relativity of the traits inherent in a leader is emphasized depending on the situation, which is given the leading role.

Modified Situational Theory of Leadership E. Hartley is based on a number of assumptions:

1) if a person has become a leader in one situation, then perhaps he can become one in another;

2) leaders in one situation are often considered by the group as leaders in other situations;

3) the authority acquired by the leader in one situation contributes to his election as a leader in another situation;

4) a person who is motivated to this becomes a leader more often.

Situational personality theory G. Gert and S. Milza, who identified five factors that must be taken into account when considering the phenomenon of leadership:

1) traits of a leader as a person;

2) leader's motives;

3) images of the leader and motives that exist in the minds of his followers and encourage them to follow him;

4) personal characteristics of the leader as a social role;

5) official and legitimate parameters within which the leader and his followers operate.

Follower theory considers leaders as spokesmen for the moods, interests, needs of certain social groups. The leader is assigned a passive role, he is only an instrument of a social group that chooses for itself the leader who will satisfy it. Who will be the leader does not depend on a particular individual and his properties, but on the quality of his followers.

Leadership Effectiveness Model F. Fiedler is based on the integration of the influence of the leader, his personal characteristics and situational variables, in particular, the relationship between the leader and followers. Within this theory, there are two styles of leadership:

1) task-oriented instrumental leadership. A leader is more effective when the situation is either very favorable or very unfavorable for him;

2) emotional leadership focused on interpersonal relationships. A leader is more effective in situations that are either moderately favorable or moderately unfavorable.

Theory of the humanistic direction is based on the fact that the leader must transform the organization in such a way that the individual is provided with the freedom to fulfill his own goals and needs, and at the same time in such a way as to contribute to the implementation of the goals and needs of the organization.

motivational theory argues that the effectiveness of a leader depends on his ability to influence the motivation of followers, their ability to productively complete the task and the satisfaction experienced in the process of work.

Psychoanalytic theories of leadership decisive importance in the behavior of the individual is given to subconscious processes, first of all, instinctive aspirations, which are associated with repressed sexual desires, reborn on the basis of sublimation and compensation mechanisms into the motive of power.

50. The problem of group cohesion

group cohesion - the systemic quality of the group as a whole, expressed by the degree of commitment of its members to the group.

Signs of group cohesion:

1) the group works as a whole, its members do not interfere with each other when interacting;

2) team members actively and effectively participate in joint activities;

3) orientation towards achieving a common goal;

4) rational use of resources;

5) openness of relations: mutual assistance and knowledge exchange are developed.

Group Cohesion Factors:

1) coincidence of goals, interests, views, values and orientations of group members;

2) wide communication and interaction between group members;

3) a sufficient level of homogeneity in the composition of groups: equality of social status and origin of group members acceptable to all;

4) democratism of group relationships, an atmosphere of psychological security, goodwill, acceptance;

5) active, emotionally rich joint activity aimed at achieving a goal that is significant for all participants;

6) positive opinion of group members about each other;

7) the expressed need of each for membership in the group;

8) optimal group size (5-9 people);

9) the optimal size of the working space - workplaces are located close, but people do not interfere with each other;

10) the presence of positive experience in joint problem solving;

11) psychological compatibility and mutual sympathy of group members.

Consequences of group cohesion.

1) group members spend more time communicating with each other, thus increasing both the quantity and quality of group interaction;

2) a cohesive group has a great influence on its individual members;

3) in a close-knit group, the effectiveness of group activities is higher, because members of a close-knit group adhere to group settings regarding performance and receive greater job satisfaction.

To determine the degree of team cohesion, sociometry proposed a special "group cohesion index", which was calculated as the ratio of the number of mutually positive choices to the total number of possible choices:

where C_trophy - cohesion, N(+) - positive choice, N - number of group members.

L. Festinger proposed to consider cohesion as the sum of "all the forces acting on the members of the group in order to keep them in it."

In domestic social psychology, the problem of cohesion was considered by A.V. Petrovsky, who believes that the formation of group cohesion is achieved through the formation of the unity of group members at various levels of interpersonal relations, which can be represented as levels of group development:

1) the emotional (external) level corresponding to the stage of orientation - the form of manifestation is situationally arising likes and dislikes;

2) behavioral (middle) level corresponding to the stage of confrontation, manifested in the coordination of actions of the participants that arises in the process of overcoming a group conflict. In the behavior of members of the group at this level, there is no consistency in actions as a form of moral manifestation of a person;

3) the value (internal) level corresponding to the latent stage, the form of manifestation is the consistency of the actions of group members based on a conscious choice.

Ways and conditions for rallying groups:

1) constant study and assessment of the degree of cohesion of the group;

2) the placement of people, taking into account their individual psychological characteristics;

3) organization of joint activities of group members;

4) identification and neutralization of negatively directed microgroups;

5) formation of a common system of values and a healthy socio-psychological climate.

51. Group decision making process

Types of group decisions:

1) an imperceptible decision - a decision made as a result of a chaotic discussion as a result of the inability to further discuss the issue;

2) authoritative decision - the decision is made by one person, on whom the group has assigned responsibility for this decision;

3) a decision taken by a minority - a decision made by a small group that has come to a common opinion, which is accepted by the majority;

4) compromise - a decision made as a result of an agreement on mutual concessions, which does not fully satisfy any of the parties;

5) decision taken by the majority - a decision taken as a result of voting;

6) unanimous decision - a decision with which all participants agree. It is observed in a non-problematic situation, the adoption of a formal decision;

7) agreed decision - a decision made on the basis of the preliminary work of the team.

Methods for making a group decision:

1) open communication;

2) role-playing game - each of the participants performs the role prescribed for him, as a result of the game, the most acceptable solution is born;

3) group discussion - discussion in a group of any problems that are significant for the majority of participants.

Stages of a group discussion:

1) formulation of the problem situation;

2) expressing ideas;

3) discussion of decisions;

4) decision making;

5) development of the program and action plan.

Types of group discussion:

1) the method of "brainstorming" - takes place in several stages. The first stage is the presentation of the problem, while all participants are asked to freely express their ideas for solving the problem, regardless of how real they are. The main task is to sound as many ideas as possible. Criticism of one's own and other people's ideas is prohibited. At the next stage, ideas are combined, modified. The last stage is the selection and evaluation of ideas;

2) the synectics method is also carried out in several stages. At the first stage, "sinectors" (seeds) of the discussion stand out, who defend opposing opinions and start a discussion, which gradually includes other members of the group. In the course of the discussion, extremes are discarded and a decision is made that satisfies everyone;

3) "consensus" - through an open discussion of the initial individual options, a single group is developed;

4) "dialectical" - not options are discussed, but the factors that determine them;

5) "dictatorship" - the discussion ends with the choice of the participant, whose opinion becomes the opinion of the group;

6) the Delphi method - repeated anonymous and isolated expression and discussion of opinions in writing. It usually takes a few rounds to reach a common decision;

7) "collective" technique - averaging the result, which excludes all individual influences. Gives the least precision.

Negative effects when making decisions in a group:

1) the effect of "social facilitation" - difficulty in performing complex actions in the presence of observers while improving simple ones;

2) the effects of "social laziness" and "distribution of responsibility" - a decrease in efficiency in making group decisions when the connection between one's own efforts and results is weakened and responsibility is "blurred";

3) the effect of "conformism" - the influence of the perception of others on the perception of the individual;

4) the effect of "groupthink" or the effect of "group spirit" - making the wrong decisions based on a sense of superiority and invulnerability of the group. It is observed in a well-knit group, as a result of its isolation from an alternative source of information, the success of previous decisions, a sense of security and a high level of uncertainty in the approval of individual opinions by group members.

52. Group Compatibility

Group Compatibility - this is the ability of group members to joint, conflict-free and coordinated interaction in a joint activity.

Compatibility is one of the most important conditions for group cohesion and efficiency.

Compatibility evaluation criteria:

1) results of joint activities;

2) emotional and energy costs of participants in the activity;

3) satisfaction of the participants with this activity.

Compatibility is based on personal qualities that make up a group of individuals:

1) physiological: sex and age, etc.;

2) psychophysiological: difference in temperaments and biological needs;

3) actually psychological: personal character and motives of behavior;

4) socio-psychological: values, interests, role expectations.

The level of psychological compatibility is determined both by the similarity of some of the qualities of the members of the team, and by the difference of others. As a result, this leads to complementarity in the joint solution of problems, so that a particular production group represents a certain integrity.

Compatibility levels:

1) socio-psychological - commonality of goals, motives for activity, unity in understanding tasks, etc.;

2) psychological - commonality at the level of characters (sociability, diligence, conscientiousness, responsibility, etc.) Psychological compatibility has a positive effect on labor productivity and product quality;

3) psychophysiological - commonality at the level of temperaments.

The coincidence on all levels indicates complete psychological compatibility. A complete mismatch leads to the emergence of a psychological barrier, when people do not perceive each other, do not want and cannot communicate.

The compatibility of people in a group is greatly influenced by types of communicative behavior:

1) individuals striving for leadership, capable of solving problems only by subordinating other members of the group to themselves;

2) individualists who try to solve the problem alone;

3) adapting to the group (conformists), easily obeying the orders of its other members;

4) collectivists who strive to solve problems by joint efforts, therefore they not only accept the proposals of other members of the group, but also take the initiative themselves.

At the heart of psychological compatibility are the characteristics of the temperament of the members of the group. Temperament is the stable individual properties of the psyche inherent in a person from birth, which determine the dynamics of a person's mental activity.

Types of temperaments:

1) choleric has an easily excitable nervous system, which is characterized by a predominance of excitation over inhibition;

2) sanguine characterized by the presence of a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system;

3) phlegmatic person has a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system;

4) melancholic has a weak nervous system.

Accounting and the optimal combination of various personal characteristics are an important factor in group compatibility and effectiveness.

Mechanisms of psychological compatibility:

1) the similarity of the qualities of interacting workers - is necessary for long-term cooperation in a stressful state (crews of aircraft, ships);

2) complementarity of qualities - necessary for creative work;

3) the contrast of properties and qualities - is used with a pronounced aspiration to a common collective goal;

4) homeostasis - self-regulation of the system, ensuring the maintenance of balance through the exchange of information; redistribution of roles and functions, with the aim of sustainability and effectiveness of group activities. It is observed in highly motivated, close-knit teams and manifests itself in a flexible response to the situation.

53. Socio-psychological climate

Socio-psychological climate of the group - the nature of the relationship between people, the state of the group psyche, due to the characteristics of life.

The socio-psychological climate is a dynamic formation that combines the emotional, intellectual and value attitudes, attitudes, moods, opinions and feelings of group members. The dynamics of the socio-psychological climate is also manifested in the process of group formation, when there is an intensive process of psychological orientation, establishing connections and positive relationships, and in the conditions of the functioning of the group, when common views, value orientations, norms and symbols are formed. One of the factors contributing to this dynamics is "climatic disturbance", i.e. the natural fluctuation of the emotional state in the team, periodic ups and downs in the mood of its members that occur during the day or a longer time period under the influence of external and internal factors .

Factors influencing the socio-psychological climate are conditionally divided into:

1) macro-environment factors, which are understood as a large social space, a wide environment within which this or that organization is located and carries out its vital activity:

a) features of the socio-economic structure of the country (the specifics of this stage of its development, which is reflected in the activities of various social institutions, the degree of democratization of society, the features of state regulation of the economy, the level of employment and unemployment, the state of social protection, etc.);

b) the level of development of material and spiritual production and culture of society as a whole;

c) the state of public consciousness;

d) the influence of managerial influences of various Ministries and departments, concerns, joint-stock companies, the system of which includes this or that enterprise or institution;

e) diverse partnerships with other organizations;

f) communication with consumers of the organization's products;

2) factors of the microenvironment of an enterprise, institution - this is the "field" of people's daily activities, those specific material and spiritual conditions in which they work. It is at this level that certain impacts of the macroenvironment acquire their certainty for each group, their connection with the realities of life practice:

a) the state of the material environment (the nature of labor operations performed by people, the condition of equipment, the quality of blanks or raw materials);

b) features of the organization of labor (shifts, rhythm, degree of interchangeability of workers, the level of operational and economic independence of the primary group (for example, teams));

c) sanitary and hygienic working conditions (temperature, humidity, illumination, noise, vibration, etc.);

d) conditions, image and quality of life of the members of the group;

e) official organizational structure (type of organization (state or commercial, closed or open, etc.), leadership style, etc., nature of activity (joint-individual, joint-sequential, joint-interacting);

h) informal organizational structure - the nature of the relationship between the members of the group (the presence or absence of cooperation, mutual assistance, comradely contacts, goodwill, conflicts and quarrels due to the individual psychological characteristics of the group members, the level of their psychological compatibility);

i) the degree of interaction between formal and informal organizational structures (the higher the degree of unity of these structures, the more positive the impact that forms the climate of the group).

54. Efficiency of group activity

Under the effectiveness of group activities both the productivity of labor in the group and the satisfaction of its members with joint activities are implied.

The effectiveness of group activity is influenced by both substantive (interpersonal relations, norms, value orientations, roles, statuses, internal attitudes, leadership) and formal characteristics of the group (the number of members in the group, its composition, communication channels, features of the group task associated with distribution of responsibilities among group members). The first describe the psychological state of people and directly affect the work of the group, but they are difficult to change and depend on the formal characteristics of the group, for example, on its composition (composition). The formal characteristics of group work have only an indirect effect on group activity - through the psychology of the people who make it up, but it is easier to manage them.

Criteria for the effectiveness of the group:

1) educational - includes knowledge of the subject, general education, culture of behavior;

2) professional - include professional qualifications, skill, creativity;

3) educational - include socio-political and moral consciousness and an active life position.

The levels of compliance of the group's activities with the requirements for it:

1) the legal or regulatory level is the compliance of the group, the results of its work with the mandatory requirements that are imposed on the group by law;

2) moral, or above-standard level - compliance with social expectations, expressed in the form of moral judgments and social ideals.

Factors affecting the effectiveness of group activities:

1) the size of the group has both a positive impact (the number of people with a pronounced individuality increases, the distribution of responsibilities is facilitated, the volume of information processing per unit of time increases, the number of talents and analysts increases), and a negative one (cohesion may decrease, distance and divergence of opinion may increase). between members of the group, which leads to an aggravation of relationships in the group, complicates the management and organization of interaction, the contribution of each member of the group is significantly reduced);

2) the nature and complexity of the task facing the group;

3) the composition or individual composition of the group - heterogeneous groups are better than homogeneous ones, they cope with complex problems and tasks;

4) the development of the group (the presence of common goals, interests, cohesion). So, a low-developed group is able to solve only easy problems, groups of average development are able to solve difficult problems only if they are personally significant for each participant. The most complex problems can be solved only by highly developed groups;

5) leadership style is associated with the level of socio-psychological development of the group. For well-developed groups capable of self-organization, democratic and liberal leadership styles are more suitable. A flexible style of leadership, which combines elements of directiveness, democracy and liberalism, is more suitable for groups of an average level of development. In underdeveloped groups, a directive leadership style with elements of democracy is preferred;

6) the microclimate in the group, the compatibility of its members and their performance;

7) the form of organization of its activities:

a) collective-cooperative - close interaction and interdependence of group members in work;

b) individual - based on the independent work of each;

c) coordinated - everyone works independently, but in relation to the activities of the other members of the group.

55. Effective ways to manage a small group

Modern methods of management are based on various theories of motivation. Conventionally, all these methods can be divided into material and non-material stimulation.

Methods of material stimulation:

1) wages based on performance;

2) systems of additional payments for knowledge and professionalism;

3) "sharing in income" - remuneration of employees for the results on which they can have a direct impact. At the same time, all employees of the company, starting with an ordinary worker and ending with a top manager, receive the same percentage, which makes them work in close cooperation, a close-knit team;

4) "sharing in profits" - the receipt by managers of bonuses calculated at the end of the year, taking into account the size of the company's profit;

5) participation of employees in risk funds. This system provides for the deduction of a small part of the salary in the risk fund. If the department achieves this goal, each worker receives this part of the salary; if the department exceeds the planned figure by 25-50%, employees receive double or triple the amount. In case of non-fulfillment of the plan by more than 20%, employees lose their deductions to the "risk" fund. The disadvantage of the last two methods of stimulation is that many employees do not have sufficient influence on the final results of the work of the entire department, in addition, employees of different production units often have completely different production goals;

6) special incentive systems for individual small groups and active involvement of employees in solving issues of organizing material incentives.

Methods of non-material stimulation are based on the satisfaction of higher needs, such as:

1) social needs:

a) assigning workers such work that would allow them to communicate;

b) creating an atmosphere of mutual trust, the spirit of a single team;

c) holding periodic meetings with subordinates to prevent marriage and increase the quality and quantity of products;

d) supporting emerging informal groups, if they do not cause real damage to the organization;

e) encouraging new people to join the group;

f) creation of conditions for social activity of members of the organization outside its framework;

2) esteem needs:

a) offering subordinates more meaningful work;

b) providing positive feedback on the results achieved;

c) appreciation and encouragement of the results achieved;

d) involvement of subordinates in the formulation of goals and the development of decisions;

e) delegation of additional rights and powers to subordinates;

e) promotion of subordinates through the ranks;

g) providing training and retraining;

3) needs for self-expression:

a) full use of the potential of the employee;

b) assignment to subordinates of complex and important work that requires their full dedication;

c) encouragement and development of creative abilities in subordinates.

The authority of the leader contributes to effective management to a large extent.

Strategies for the "self-presentation" of the leader (B. Naiven):

1) substantiation of information power: the leader dedicates subordinates to general information, which will be the basis for subsequent persuasion;

2) emphasizing the commonality of the leader and the team;

3) self-demonstration - consists either in a story about your professional path (work experience, acquired knowledge) or a demonstration of your knowledge, skills and abilities;

4) authorization of the position of the power of legitimacy - consists in delicately emphasizing one's responsibility for this work;

5) the introduction of a system of punishment to establish the legitimacy of impartiality;

6) demonstration of effective control-surveillance, etc.

56. Psychology and family functions

The family is also:

1) a small group whose members are connected by marriage or kinship, common life and mutual moral responsibility;

2) social institution - a historically specific system of relationships between spouses, parents and children, the social necessity of which is due to the need of society for the reproduction of the population.

Motives for marriage:

1) love;

2) calculation;

3) stereotype.

Major family crises:

1) "crisis of ideals" - develops one or two years after the start of family life. It is connected with the fact that by this time the illusions and romance of premarital relations dissipate, economic problems arise, dreams of a romantic life together are destroyed;

2) "the crisis of the birth of the first-born" - develops in connection with an increase in material costs, the need for joint care of a child, increased responsibility, a decrease in free time and the opportunity to be alone;

3) the "crisis of leaving children from the family" is associated with the emergence of jealous relations between the child's parents and his wife (husband), not forming relations with the parents of the marriage partner of his child, which creates mental tension;

4) "pension crisis" - associated with the crisis of the post-labor stage of the socialization of the individual, the loss of values, the meaning of life, etc.

Classification of family functions according to Matskovsky:

1) public functions of the family:

a) in the reproductive sphere: the function of the biological reproduction of society;

b) in the educational sphere: the function of socialization of the younger generation, maintaining the cultural continuity of society;

c) in the household sphere: maintaining the physical health of members of society, caring for children;

d) in the economic sphere: economic support for minors and disabled members of society;

e) in the field of primary social control: moral regulation of the behavior of family members in various spheres of life, as well as responsibilities and obligations in relations between spouses, parents and children, representatives of the older and middle generation;

f) in the field of spiritual communication: personal development of family members;

g) in the social and status sphere: granting a certain social status to family members, reproduction of the social structure;

h) in the leisure sphere: organization of rational leisure and its social control;

i) in the emotional sphere: emotional stabilization of individuals and their psychotherapy;

j) in the sexual sphere: the function of sexual control;

2) individual family functions:

a) in the reproductive sphere: the function of meeting the need for children;

b) in the educational sphere: meeting the needs for parenthood, contacts with children, their upbringing, self-realization in children;

c) in the household sphere: receipt of household services by some family members from others;

d) in the economic sphere: receipt of material resources by some family members from others (in case of disability or in exchange for services);

e) in the field of primary social control: the formation and maintenance of legal and moral sanctions for improper behavior and violation of the moral norms of relationships between family members;

f) in the field of spiritual communication: spiritual mutual enrichment;

g) in the social and status sphere: meeting the needs for social advancement;

h) in the leisure sphere: meeting the needs for joint leisure activities, mutual enrichment of leisure interests;

i) in the emotional sphere: individuals receiving psychological protection, emotional support in the family, satisfaction of needs for personal happiness and love;

j) in the sexual sphere: satisfaction of sexual needs.

57. Typologies of families

By the number of marriage partners:

1) monogamous family - one husband and one wife;

2) polygamous family:

a) polyandry - polyandry;

b) polygyny - polygamy.

By number of generations:

1) a simple (nuclear) family - consists of representatives of only two generations (parents and children);

2) a complex (extended) family - consists of representatives of at least three generations (grandparents, parents, children).

According to the goals and nature of partnerships:

1) traditional family - characterized by a lack of awareness of relationships, lack of development, creativity, freedom, attachment to everyday life, the presence of possessive instincts. The main goal of such a family is the continuation of the family, the preservation of stability, the desire not to stand out;

2) dependent family - it is also characterized by a lack of awareness of relationships, a lack of development, attachment to everyday life, a love illusion, the presence of all kinds of complexes, addictions, pathological attachments, etc. The main goal of such a family is to satisfy psychological needs, avoid fear of loneliness, responsibility;

3) partner family - characterized by awareness, development, responsibility, participation in the affairs of the family of both all members, the desire for openness, for an agreement on controversial issues, flexibility of relations, mutual assistance, etc. The main goal of such a family is self-development, self-realization through the family, assistance in the development of a partner.

According to the criterion of harmony:

1) harmonious family - characterized by openness, creative growth and personal development of all its members, warm emotional relationships between parents and children;

2) disharmonic psychological types of families:

a) "outwardly calm family" - characterized by external balance, behind which hides the dissatisfaction accumulated over the years, the predominance of a sense of responsibility over the sincerity of feelings;

b) "volcanic family" - characterized by unbalanced relationships: scandals and divorces alternate with declarations of eternal love and unification. Relationships are open, spontaneity and emotional imbalance dominate the sense of responsibility. A child in such a family lives like on a powder keg, even when everything is fine, he feels the danger, which leads to neuroticism;

c) "family-sanatorium" - characterized by increased anxiety for the life or health of one of the family members, which manifests itself in limiting the duties of the "precious" family member and increasing the duties of the rest. Such care takes the form of a cult. Leads to physical and nervous overload, neuroses;

d) "family-fortress" - is characterized by external stability, cohesion, against some danger coming from outside. An illusion of complete mutual understanding is created, the expressed "we-feeling", behind which lies spiritual emptiness or violation of sexual relations. Family life is strictly regulated and subject to certain goals;

e) "demonstrative family, theater family" - is characterized by playing a performance in front of each other, which is designed to maintain the appearance of well-being and maintain the necessary close distance;

f) "family - the third superfluous" - is characterized by a concentration of attention on each other, while ignoring or hidden rejection of the child;

g) "family with an idol" - characterized by hyper-custody of the child, which strengthens marital relations. Caring for a child becomes the only force that can keep parents together;

h) "family-masquerade" - characterized by inconsistency in life goals and plans of the spouses, inconsistent upbringing, unhealthy competition.

58. Psychology of relationships between parents and children

Circumstances that determine the relationship of parents to the child:

1) the general level of education and culture of parents;

2) psychological and pedagogical readiness of parents;

3) features of parenting;

4) the psychological climate in the family, the psychological type of the family;

5) planned pregnancy;

6) the presence or absence of a problem of childbearing;

7) features of the course of pregnancy in a woman;

8) features of the birth of a child (childbirth is normal, with complications, with pathology);

9) the psychological constitution of the parents;

10) features of psychological socialization of parents;

11) psychogenetic heredity of the child, etc.

Psychological types of parents:

1) a paranoid parent tries to decide almost everything for the child, which is a means of realizing his unfulfilled hopes, upbringing is tough, overwhelming personality;

2) the epileptoid parent builds upbringing on the exact implementation of the daily routine, observance of the rules of accuracy, hygiene, sanitation, which are combined with inattention to the personality of the child, often resort to corporal punishment;

3) a hyperthymic parent builds his relationship with the child at the level of friends, does not limit anything, neither the child nor himself;

4) the hysterical parent uses his child as a demonstration of his success in upbringing, if the child achieves such success or himself-good, against the background of a "bad" child, if he does not have success;

5) The schizoid parent is cold and inattentive to his children, there is no emotional contact, affection between him and the child;

6) a psychastenoid parent is characterized by careful care and deep emotional and intellectual contact with the child;

7) a hypothymic parent concentrates his attention on the shortcomings of the child, does not notice his talents and virtues;

8) sensitive parent - characterized by increased anxiety, suspiciousness and softness of the educational system. Children of such parents are often infantile.

Types of relationships between parents and children:

1) hyper-guardianship - is characterized by the constant protection of the child from any worries, efforts and difficulties, taking them upon himself. Parents feel like one with the child. The child is perceived as small and defenseless, his independence is limited, as a result of which the child grows up infantile, lacking initiative, selfish;

2) diktat - suppression by parents of initiative and self-esteem in children, which contributes to the development of infantilism, lack of initiative. At the same time, the rejection of the child can be observed when he is considered bad and causes anger and irritation in parents;

3) non-intervention - parents pay little attention to children, they seem to rotate in different orbits. There may be hypoprotection when the child is in the background, his parents "do not reach" and ignoring needs, when the child is not only not given emotional and intellectual attention, but also does not satisfy his natural needs (the child may be hungry, poorly dressed etc.). Children grow up independent, but emotionally callous;

4) cooperation - characterized by the inclusion of the child in joint life, dedication to the problems and tasks of the family, their joint. The child is accepted as he is, parents respect his individuality, approve of his interests and ideas. Parents encourage his initiative and independence, they are proud of him, appreciate his intellectual and creative abilities. The family is a close-knit team in which children feel needed and useful, they know that they are loved and will always be protected.

59. Psychology of marital relationships in the family

Spouses personality types:

1) a rational partner is characterized by exact observance of rights and obligations; approaches family relationships responsibly and soberly evaluates them;

2) the parental partner assumes the role of a parent who takes care of the other, educates him;

3) the child's partner in marriage with the parent partner plays the role of a child who behaves spontaneously and directly, often showing his weakness and helplessness;

4) an independent partner - keeps a certain distance in marriage, seeks to avoid excessive intimacy in relationships, is cold;

5) a partner focused on democratic, equal cooperation, expecting equal rights and obligations;

6) a romantic partner, characterized by an orientation towards spiritual harmony, strong love, sentimental symbols;

7) comradely partner - not looking for romantic love, he needs a comrade with whom he could share everyday hardships and worries, live life.

Pathological types of spouses:

1) epileptoid spouse - loves order and does not tolerate carelessness, is characterized by increased malice. In intimate relationships, it acts mechanically within the framework of conservative forms;

2) a paranoid spouse is characterized by distrust, a desire to control the actions of a partner. In the intimate sphere, he is also characterized by a mechanocentric attitude, he does not strive for spiritual merging with his spouse;

3) a hyperthymic spouse is always in a good mood, often starts romances on the side. Highly sexual, knows how to enjoy himself and give it to a partner;

4) hysterical spouse achieves his goals at any cost, prone to vanity. Intimate relationships are built on love;

5) schizoid spouse - emotionally cold and not talkative, does not seek to open the soul and get to know the partner more deeply;

6) a psychasthenoid spouse is characterized by increased anxiety, enjoys giving pleasure to a partner;

7) a hypothymic spouse is characterized by an eternally low background of mood, a little sexual;

8) sensitive spouse - they are characterized by increased sensitivity, they are very affectionate in the family, looking for emotional intimacy and a sense of security in their partner.

Types of marriage:

9) marriage with bilateral dependence - characterized by passivity in the relationship of both spouses, where each dreams of love, and thinks that in marriage he gives more than he receives;

10) paranoid marital relations - characterized by paranoid manifestations of one of the spouses and a tendency to depression of the other. The subject of paranoia is most often the infidelity of the spouse;

11) open partnership - characterized by the following features:

a) life is built on the basis of the present, based on realistic desires;

b) own lifestyle;

c) planning for the future, thinking about old age and not giving up the joys of the present;

d) respect for the partner's personal life, not imposing his opinions and tastes on him;

e) partners do not expect that one will guess the thoughts of the other and intuitively feel his experiences, but openly talk about them;

f) partners share with each other both positive and negative feelings, without critical assessments;

g) partners do not blindly adhere to male or female roles, but try to change roles;

h) the right of everyone to their own interests and hobbies is taken for granted;

i) partners fairly distribute responsibilities and benefits;

j) each of the partners lives according to his own picture of the world and does not seek to remake the world of the other;

k) partners do not degrade each other's dignity;

m) they trust each other;

m) they are happy to be near each other.

60. Psychology of marriage and divorce

Marriage - a historically conditioned form of relations between a man and a woman, through which society streamlines their relations both in legal and moral and ethical terms.

Types of marriages:

1) traditional marriage - involves the formalization of relations, consists of partners of different sexes;

2) civil (unofficial) marriage - consists in the joint residence of the spouses;

3) homosexual marriage - consists of same-sex partners;

4) open marriage, implying the presence of other sexual partners;

5) swinging - a temporary exchange of sexual partners;

6) group marriage - marital relations of three or more persons;

7) a two-step marriage, involves the conclusion between the spouses of a specific marriage contract, stipulating their rights and obligations.

Marriage Stability Factors:

1) at the stage of premarital courtship:

a) higher education of the husband;

b) the social status of the family as a whole;

c) a positive assessment by the respondents of the success of the parents' family life;

d) duration of premarital acquaintance, courtship;

e) a mutually positive first impression of each other;

f) courtship period (one-one and a half years);

g) an initiative to conclude a marriage on the part of a man;

h) accepting a marriage proposal after a short (up to two weeks) deliberation;

i) accompaniment of marriage registration with wedding celebrations;

2) at the stage of family life itself:

a) high reproductive attitudes of women;

b) the presence of a head in the family;

c) joint adoption of major family decisions;

d) equal distribution of household chores for childcare;

e) joint spending of free time by spouses;

f) similarity of family values;

g) high role adequacy;

h) low conflict in different spheres of life;

i) high respect and emotional acceptance by spouses of each other;

j) high adequacy of spouses' perception of each other.

Divorce stages:

1) the stage of disappointment or denial;

2) the stage of erosion (love);

3) stage of alienation;

4) the stage of establishing separation;

5) the stage of mourning;

6) the second stage of adolescence;

7) the hard work stage of adapting to divorce.

Divorce Factors:

1) at the stage of premarital courtship:

a) early or late age of marriage;

b) excess of the age of the wife over the age of the husband;

c) higher education of the wife;

d) higher education of the wife than the husband;

e) the heterogeneity of the social status of the spouses;

f) the urban origin of the spouses or the urban origin of the wife and the rural origin of the husband;

g) upbringing in an incomplete family;

h) absence of brothers (sisters) of future spouses;

i) instability of relations during the period of acquaintance;

j) the presence of premarital pregnancy;

k) negative attitude of parents towards marriage;

l) national heterogeneity of spouses;

2) at the stage of family life itself:

a) drinking alcohol by a spouse;

b) the discrepancy between the reproductive attitudes of the husband and wife;

c) the divergence of attitudes of the spouses on the professional work of the wife;

d) divergence of attitudes of spouses on the nature of headship in the family;

e) divergence of attitudes towards the distribution of household duties;

f) divergence of spouses' attitudes towards jointness-separation of home/out-of-home leisure activities;

g) negative assessment of friends-girlfriends of the other spouse;

h) limited communication, hobbies, interests;

i) lack of adaptive behavior and attitudes of the spouses;

j) discrepancy between the attitudes of the husband and wife on the nature of spiritual communication;

k) dissatisfaction with sexual relations;

l) lack of trust and support from the other spouse;

m) the discrepancy between the attitudes of the husband and wife on the nature of assistance from the parents.

61. The concept and typology of conflicts

Conflict - it is a complex, multidimensional, multilevel socio-psychological phenomenon.

Conflict is also understood as a struggle for values and claims to a certain status, power and resources, in which the goals of the enemy are to neutralize, damage or eliminate the rival.

Individuals, social groups, national-ethnic communities, states and groups of countries, united by certain goals and interests, take part in the conflict.

There is also a conflict at the level of an individual, between elements of the internal structure of the personality. Intra - personal conflict is also a socio-psychological, and not just a psychological phenomenon, since the satisfaction of mutually exclusive needs, goals, values, interests is associated with a whole system of certain social relations.

Conflicts arise for a variety of reasons and motives: psychological, economic, political, value, religious, etc.

In the methodological aspect, the conflict is a certain quality of interaction between people, which is expressed in the confrontation between its various sides. If the confrontation of the parties is carried out at the level of an individual, such parties will be various motives of the personality that make up its internal structure. People pursue certain goals in the conflict and fight for the assertion of their interests.

Thus conflict - this is a peculiar quality of interaction (between people or elements of the internal structure of the personality), expressed in the confrontation of the parties in order to achieve their interests and goals.

At the heart of all conflicts are contradictions that arise between people or within the structure of the personality itself. These contradictions can be objective and subjective in nature, i.e., be due to subjective or imaginary personal factors. However, not all contradictions cause the development of a conflict, some of them can exist in a conflict-free form, acquiring a conflict form only in a certain social situation (for example, a contradiction between a man and a woman).

The conflict always develops in the interaction of social actors. This also applies to intra-personal conflict, for the emergence of which a social environment is also necessary. However, not every social interaction is a conflict, but only one in which sharp contradictions are found. So, comradely, friendly cooperation usually does not lead to conflict.

Consciousness is necessary for the emergence of a conflict, therefore the struggle taking place in the inorganic world cannot rightfully be called a conflict.

In contrast to the struggle for existence in animals, conflict as a quality of social interaction arises on the basis of people's activities and their interests. It is temporary.

Competition differs from conflict in that it is governed by various kinds of rules, procedures and agreements, with which all participants in the competition agree in advance. Conflict can only arise when the rules of the competition are violated. Conflict is not a game accompanied by pleasant emotions, it is a serious negatively colored socio-psychological phenomenon.

The object of the conflict is the value over which there is a clash of interests of the opposing sides. The emergence of a conflict is possible only in the presence of its object, which can be true, real, and potential, false, illusory.

subject of conflict are those contradictions that arise between the interacting parties and which they are trying to resolve through confrontation.

62. The structure of the conflict

Object of conflict is a value that is able to satisfy the need, because of the mastery of which a conflict arises. Values can be:

a) material;

b) social;

c) spiritual.

Participants in the conflict, which can be individuals, social groups, organizations, states, coalitions of states.

Depending on the role of the participant in the conflict, there are:

1) opposing parties or opponents - the main participants in the conflict, forming its core. The withdrawal of one of the opponents from the confrontation ends the conflict. The most important characteristics of the opposing sides are their physical, social, material and intellectual capabilities, skills and abilities;

2) an instigator is an individual, organization or state that pushes another participant to the conflict. The instigator himself may then not participate in this conflict; his task is limited to provoking, unleashing a conflict between other individuals (groups);

3) accomplice - a person who contributes to the conflict with advice, technical assistance and other means;

4) an organizer is an individual or a group that plans a conflict, outlines its development, provides for various ways of providing and protecting participants, etc. The organizer can coincide with the opposing side in one person, but can also be an independent figure.

The social and psychological significance of the participants in the conflict may be different.

Types of conflicts by the nature of the parties:

1) intrapersonal - one aspect of the personality opposes its other aspect (Hamlet's conflict);

2) interpersonal - one person opposes another (Ivan Ivanovich's conflict with Ivan Nikiforovich in Gogol's story);

3) a conflict of the type personality - group (represented by Griboyedov in his play "Woe from Wit");

4) conflict group - a group, the carriers of which can be both small and large social formations, for example, nations, classes, states.

Terms of conflict - specific historical socio-psychological conditions in which the conflict unfolds, the social environment.

Social environment - the ground on which the conflict arises and develops, including not only the immediate, but also the distant, wider environment of the conflicting parties, those large social groups to which they belong, national or class, as well as society as a whole.

Subjective perception or image of the conflict, which is created by individuals or groups acting in a given conflict situation. The image of the conflict may not correspond to the true state of affairs. These images are the direct basis of the behavior of conflictants.

Types of images, perceptions:

a) self-image

b) the perception of other participants in the conflict;

c) images of the external environment, large and small, in which the conflict unfolds.

To start a conflict, it is necessary to realize images, perceptions, ideas about the conflict situation in the corresponding mutual actions.

The methods of action and the behavior of the parties to the conflict depend on the objective and subjective causes of the conflict that arise both on its near and distant approaches, as well as on the composition of the participants. In the process of conflict, the participants interact: the actions of one of the participants cause a corresponding opposition, the other.

Determination of the temporal, spatial and systemic boundaries of the conflict is an important prerequisite for successful regulation and prevention of its destructive outcome.

The conflict is a lengthy process, because the maturation of the causes, the formation of the participants in the conflict, their interaction and one or another outcome of the conflict takes time.

63. Functions of conflict

Conflict function - the role played by the conflict in relation to society and its various structural formations: social groups, organizations and individuals.

According to the coincidence of the results of the conflict with the goals, there are:

1) explicit conflict functions - functions that are characterized by the coincidence of the results of the conflict with the goals that were proclaimed and pursued by the opponents of the conflict;

2) hidden (latent) functions of the conflict - the consequences differ from the intentions previously proclaimed by the parties to the conflict and may turn out to be unexpected, not meeting the goals of the parties to the conflict. They only show up over time.

By constructiveness, they distinguish:

1) general constructive functions of conflict manifest themselves at various levels of the social system and have the following meaning:

a) the informational value of the conflict - consists in detecting and fixing contradictions and problems in society, organization, group, indicates that these contradictions have already reached a great maturity and it is necessary to take urgent measures to eliminate them;

b) contribute to the resolution of contradictions, the elimination of those shortcomings and miscalculations in the social organization that led to the conflict;

c) integrative meaning - uniting in front of a common enemy, in solving problems that have arisen;

d) contribute to the removal of social tension and the elimination of a stressful situation;

e) the resolution of the conflict leads to the stabilization of the social system, the prevention of more serious conflicts that could have taken place if this conflict had not happened;

f) clarification of the correlation of forces of social groups or communities and the prevention of more destructive conflicts;

2) constructive functions of conflict at the personal level - relate to the impact of the conflict directly on the individual and contribute to:

a) self-knowledge and adequate self-esteem of the individual;

b) better recognition of each other by the allies, as well as the definition of enemy forces;

c) removal of mental tension in the group, with a positive resolution of the conflict;

d) adaptation and socialization of a person, his development as a person, a set of experience in a short period of time;

e) self-realization and self-affirmation;

the general destructive functions of the conflict can lead to the following consequences:

a) to large human casualties and material losses;

b) to the state of destabilization and disorganization of the confrontation side;

c) to slow down the pace of social, economic, political and spiritual development of society;

d) to the disintegration of society, the destruction of social communications and the socio-cultural alienation of social formations within the social system;

e) to an increase in the mood of pessimism in society and a decline in morals;

f) to new, more destructive conflicts;

g) to reduce the level of organization of the system, reduce discipline and efficiency;

destructive functions of the conflict at the personal level can lead to the following consequences:

to a negative impact on the socio-psychological climate in the group (the appearance of feelings of depression, pessimism and anxiety, leading the person to a state of stress);

a) to disappointment in their capabilities and abilities, to de-identification of the person;

b) to the development of a sense of self-doubt, the loss of previous motivation and the destruction of existing value orientations and patterns of behavior;

c) to a person's negative assessment of his partners in joint activities, disappointment in his colleagues and recent friends;

d) to the development of types of behavior for communication (lack of initiative, criticism, verbalism, the search for the guilty, self-flagellation, etc.).

64. Conflict dynamics

Dynamics of the conflict - it is the process of changing the conflict.

Stages of the conflict:

pre-conflict situation this is the time of the maturation of the conflict, the development and exacerbation of the contradictions that cause it. Contradictions and facts leading to confrontation are hidden during this period and are not clearly revealed. Future opponents of the conflict are not yet aware of the growth and consequences of the already emerging conflict. A pre-conflict situation is characterized by the existence of a real possibility of conflict, which can still be resolved "peacefully". Awareness of the causes of a potential conflict in a pre-conflict situation can be adequate (correct) and inadequate. With an inadequate perception of the causes of the conflict, it cannot be completely eliminated, because the true causes of the conflict will sooner or later make themselves felt, and a delay in resolving the conflict can only increase its severity.

open conflict occurs when the conflict of interests reaches such a degree of maturity that it is no longer possible to ignore or hide them, the presence of confrontation becomes obvious to everyone. Stages of open conflict:

incident - this is a trigger mechanism that initiates an open confrontation between the parties, the beginning of a conflict. Unlike an incident, a reason (a specific event that serves as an impetus, a subject for the beginning of conflict actions) is not yet a conflict.

The incident is characterized by the exposure of the positions of the parties, the division into "us" and "them", however, the real forces of the opponents are not yet fully known, which may help to contain the development of the conflict or its further development. At this stage, the following is carried out: "reconnaissance", gathering information about the true capabilities and intentions of opponents, searching for allies and attracting additional forces to one's side. There is still an opportunity to resolve the conflict peacefully.

escalation of the conflict - the stage of an extended conflict, when the aggravation of contradictions between its participants reaches a maximum and all resources are mobilized: material, political, financial, informational, physical, mental, etc. Negotiations and other peaceful ways of resolving the conflict at this stage are difficult. Reason gives way to emotions, the original cause and main goal of the conflict may be lost, new causes and new goals come to the fore. The conflict becomes spontaneous, uncontrollable.

At this stage, the image of the enemy is created, the demonstration of force and the threat of its use, the use of violence, there is a tendency to expand and deepen the conflict.

end of the conflict - the final stage of the open period of the conflict, which can occur with a clear weakening of one or both sides or the exhaustion of their resources that do not allow further confrontation, the obvious futility of continuing the conflict and its awareness by its participants, the predominance of one of the parties and its ability to suppress the opponent or impose on him its will, the appearance of a third party in the conflict and its ability and desire to end the confrontation. The end of the conflict can be achieved by eliminating the opponent or both opponents, eliminating the object of the conflict, changing the positions of both or one of the parties to the conflict, with the participation in the conflict of a new force capable of ending it by coercion, with the appeal of the subjects of the conflict to the arbitrator and ending it through arbitration. judges or by negotiation. The end of a conflict can be peaceful or violent, constructive or destructive.

post-conflict period - a period of elimination of the main types of tension, normalization of relations between the parties.

65. Types of conflicts

Depending on the parties to the conflict, there are:

1) Inside - personality conflicts - conflicts between elements of the personality structure. are expressed in acute negative experiences of the personality, generated by its conflicting aspirations. By their nature and content, they are largely psychological, although they also have a social connotation. They are caused by contradictions in motives, interests, values and self-assessments of the individual and are accompanied by emotional stress and negative feelings of the current situation. It can be both destructive and constructive, that is, it can have both positive and negative consequences for the individual. The reasons for intra-personal conflict may be the contradiction of needs, the contradiction between the internal need and the social norm, the contradiction between the various roles of the individual, the difficulty of choosing between different behaviors;

2) interpersonal conflicts - collision between separate individuals in the course of their social and psychological interaction. Of great importance in an interpersonal conflict are the personal qualities of people, their mental, socio-psychological and moral characteristics, their interpersonal compatibility or incompatibility. The causes of these conflicts can be very diverse;

3) conflicts between the individual and the group these are more multifaceted conflicts, which, in addition to intra-personal and interpersonal causes, include causes due to group organization. They arise when one of the individuals takes a position that differs from the positions of the group. They can be constructive (helps to strengthen the connection of the individual with the group, the formation of personal and group identification and integration) and destructive (personal disidentification and group disintegration);

4) intergroup conflicts - the most frequent type of conflict, which is expressed in the clash of interests of various groups. The causes of intergroup conflicts can be: economic, political, national-ethnic, etc. Depending on the level of social groups, the conflict has its own characteristics of occurrence and ways to resolve them. At the level of small social groups, the social identification of groups plays an important role in the emergence of intergroup conflict, which causes social differentiation between groups. Large social groups are characterized by a large scale and depth of conflicts;

5) international - arise between individual states or groups of states. The basis of these conflicts are contradictions between the interests of countries.

According to the spheres of life of people, there are:

1) household;

2) labor;

3) family;

4) military;

5) educational and pedagogical, etc.

By the nature of the objects over which conflicts arise:

1) status - role;

2) resource;

3) sociocultural;

4) ideological, etc.

According to the direction of influence and distribution of powers, there are:

1) conflicts "vertically" (boss - subordinate);

2) conflicts "horizontally" (between colleagues).

According to time parameters, conflicts are divided into:

1) short-term;

2) fleeting;

3) long.

According to the effectiveness of conflicts are divided into:

1) constructive - conflicts that have positive consequences (strengthening cooperation in the group, achieving some result);

2) destructive - conflicts that have negative consequences (breakup of a group, uncivilized forms of relationships between people).

By the nature of the reasons:

1) realistic conflicts - conflicts that serve as a means to achieve some result that is outside the conflict;

2) unrealistic - the object is inseparable from the conflict itself and coincides with it.

66. Contradictions and causes causing conflict

The prerequisites and causes of conflicts can be conditionally divided into:

1) common causes and prerequisites:

a) unfavorable material conditions for the life of the majority of citizens;

b) negative group moods, a state of defenselessness, etc.;

c) lack of attention to the needs, demands and social expectations of people;

d) contradictions in public opinion and negative moods;

e) different types of differentiation of people (by age, experience, nationality, etc.);

f) shortcomings in the organization of the labor, educational process, leisure;

g) shortcomings in leadership and work with people (ignoring or poor satisfaction of their interests and needs, a sense of defenselessness, social injustice, lack of rights);

h) emergence of negatively directed microgroups and negative leadership;

i) deformations of the socialization of citizens and an increase in the number of people with a negative attitude towards the social environment, norms, orders, with a low level of social consciousness, morality, spirituality, a weakening of the need for work, increased primitive needs, negative everyday habits (drunkenness, drug addiction, permissiveness in relations with others), aggressiveness, vindictiveness, cruelty, a tendency to forceful behavior;

2) personal reasons:

a) divergence of value orientations, goals, motives, interests and needs. Value characteristics are always relative and individual: some die for the metal, others for the idea. The divergence of personal meanings and meanings is one of the main causes of conflicts and determines the line of conduct in the conflict, its strategy and tactics;

b) the discrepancy between the characters of individuals - this reason is especially characteristic of groups that are in long-term, local and constant communication. So, conflicts often arise during prolonged communication between a choleric and a melancholic. People with pronounced accentuations of character are especially difficult to communicate;

c) the contradiction between the various attitudes of the individual, forming the ideal types of individuality. Thus, the interaction between theoretician and practitioner is fraught with conflict due to their opposite inner life aspirations: the theorist seeks the truth in everything, and the practitioner seeks benefit;

d) inadequate representations (the gap between the expected and actual result), assessments (for example, assessment by the head of subordinates and subordinates of the head) and self-assessments are a particularly common cause of conflict behavior in business communication, in which one cannot voluntarily withdraw from the interaction or apply avoidance tactics;

e) differences in behavior, which reduce the degree of mutual understanding between people and make it difficult for them to cooperate, can also cause conflict;

f) differences in the ethical values of people, when the moral norms of behavior of some conflict with the norms of others.

Causes of conflict in the organization:

1) distribution of resources - the need to share resources almost inevitably leads to various types of conflict (injustice in the assessment of people's work and remuneration for work, biased, undeserved praise of some and underestimation of other employees);

2) the interdependence of tasks from another person or group. Certain types of organizational structures increase the possibility of conflict (the matrix structure of the organization, where the principle of unity of command is deliberately violated);

3) Poor communication can act as a catalyst for conflict, making it difficult for individuals or groups to understand the situation or the perspectives of others (eg, inaccurate job descriptions).

67. Methods for resolving a conflict situation

There are structural and interpersonal methods of conflict resolution.

Structural methods:

› The method of explaining the requirements is to explain to people the results that are required of them. It is most effectively used in resolving conflicts in an organization. Explaining to each employee and department what results are expected from them, the manager must convey to subordinates the level of results to be achieved, who provides and who receives various information, a system of authority and responsibility, and clearly define policies, procedures and rules;

› coordination and integration methods - the establishment of a hierarchy of authority, streamlining the interaction of people, decision-making and information flows within the organization. Establishing the principle of one-man management facilitates the use of hierarchy to manage a conflict situation, since the subordinate knows whose decisions he must execute. In the event of disagreement on any issue between employees, it is resolved by the head and the conflict is exhausted. To resolve a conflict situation between departments, such an integration method is often used as the creation of cross-functional, target groups, inter-departmental meetings;

› corporate comprehensive goals - directing the efforts of all participants to achieve a common goal. The joint implementation of these goals leads to team building, prevents conflicts;

›reward system structure - used as a method of influencing people to avoid dysfunctional consequences. People who try to approach the solution of a problem in a complex way should be rewarded with gratitude, bonuses, recognition or promotion. However, the reward system should not encourage non-constructive behavior of individuals or groups.

Interpersonal Methods or Styles of Conflict Resolution:

evasion - a method of responding to conflict, expressed in ignoring and actual denial of the conflict. It is used when the problem involved is not important, its solution can be delayed, in a hopeless situation, when a person feels wrong or forced to obey. It is also used when it is necessary to communicate with a difficult person;

smoothing - satisfaction of the interests of the other side through adaptation, concessions, agreement, sacrificing one's own interests in favor of another person. It is used in case of low significance of what happened, when it is necessary to maintain peace and good relations, when the result is much more important for another person than for you, in case of understanding one’s wrong, when there is little power or little chance of winning, etc.

competition - used by active people who prefer to go their own way to resolve the conflict. Can be used in cases where the outcome is very important and there is a lot to bet on, when you have enough authority to make a decision, when you need to make a quick decision, when there is appropriate authority, when there is no other choice, or when there is nothing to lose, in a critical situation. situations, etc.

compromise - open discussion of opinions and positions, which are aimed at finding solutions that are most convenient and acceptable for both parties. It is used in the case when there is not enough time, with the same power, when a temporary solution suits, etc.

cooperation - a form of conflict resolution in which the satisfaction of the interests of both parties is more important than the solution of the issue itself. It is used in the case of long-term friendly cooperation, when there is time to work out the issue, etc.

68. Intergroup interaction and its phenomena

Intergroup interactions - it is a set of socio-psychological phenomena that arise between different groups.

Intergroup relations are based on the intergroup perception of the diverse socio-psychological ties that arise between social groups.

Specifics of intergroup perception:

1) in the unification of individual representations into a whole, qualitatively different from its constituent elements;

2) in the long and insufficiently flexible formation of intergroup ideas that are resistant to external influences;

3) in schematization and simplification of the possible range of aspects of perception of another group.

One of the phenomena of intergroup interaction is intergroup differentiation - socio-psychological processes of intergroup perception, comparison and evaluation associated with the establishment of differences between one's own and other groups.

Intergroup differentiation consists of two interrelated processes:

1) intra-group favoritism (from Latin favor - favor) is a socio-psychological phenomenon characterized by the awareness of members of one's own group (outgroup) as "one's own" and the provision of assistance to them, psychological protection, as opposed to members of another group (ingroup);

2) intergroup discrimination (from Latin discriminatio - distinction) is a socio-psychological phenomenon characterized by the desire to underestimate or underestimate the successes and overestimate the failures of other groups, compared with their own group.

According to social identity theory G.Tajfel и D. Turner, the cause of these phenomena is a series of cognitive processes:

1) social categorization - ordering the social environment by distributing social objects into groups that are similar in terms of criteria that are significant for the individual;

2) social identification - referring oneself to a certain social category and experiencing one's social group membership;

3) social comparison - establishing differences in social groups.

Another phenomenon of intergroup interaction is intergroup integration, which represents the presence between groups of such links and dependencies that contribute to their unification, interaction. Integration contributes to a more successful implementation of the functions of both its own group and the wider community, which includes both interacting groups.

Phenomena of intergroup integration:

1) group affiliation is a relationship between groups that assume that one of them is an integral part of the other, i.e., the interaction of groups of different scale and volume. A small group, absorbed by a large one, functions according to the laws of the first;

2) group openness consists in the desire of the group to obtain information and influence from outside, as a result of which it is subjected to various kinds of influences and assessments from other groups. It contributes to the renewal of the group and the balance of the processes of differentiation and integration. The more prosperous the group, the more open it is;

3) intergroup tolerance - tolerance for other groups;

4) intergroup reference - the desire to achieve the level of an outwardly significant group that acts as a bearer of certain values and norms.

The processes of intergroup differentiation and integration coexist in any group. The predominance of the process of differentiation as a result of excessive closeness leads the group to stagnation (stagnation), the dominance of the integration process as a result of excessive openness leads to the loss of social stability by the group.

69. Large social groups

Large group - this is a social community, the members of which, without having direct contacts with each other, are connected indirectly by the psychological mechanisms of group communication.

Signs of large social groups:

1) have a structural and functional organization;

2) socio-psychological regulators of the life of large groups are group consciousness, customs and traditions;

3) a certain mental warehouse, group psychology;

4) influence the formation of the corresponding type of personality - typical representatives of a class, party, nation, etc.;

5) a certain set of social norms governing interaction.

Types of large social groups:

1) by the nature of intergroup and intragroup social ties:

a) objective macrogroups - a group in which people are united by a commonality of objective ties that exist independently of the consciousness and will of these people;

b) subjective-psychological macrogroups - groups that arise as a result of a conscious association of people;

2) by time of existence:

a) long-existing groups (classes, nations);

b) temporarily existing groups (crowd, audience);

3) by organization-disorganization:

a) organized groups (parties, unions);

b) unorganized (crowd);

4) upon occurrence:

a) arising spontaneously (crowd);

b) deliberately organized (parties, associations);

5) according to the contact of group members:

a) conditional groups - groups created on a certain basis (gender, age, profession, etc.), in which people do not have direct contacts with each other;

b) real large groups - really existing groups in which people have close contacts with each other (rallies, meetings);

6) by openness:

a) open;

b) closed - membership is determined by the internal regulations of the groups.

Levels of development of large social groups:

1) typological - people united in groups of this level have common features that do not form the basis for creating a psychological community. Such groups do not have unity;

2) identification - characterized by the presence of group self-awareness; group members are aware of their belonging to this group, identify themselves with its members;

3) solidaristic - characterized by the awareness by the members of the group of the commonality of their interests, the readiness of the group for joint actions in the name of group goals.

Factors that determine the level of psychological commonality of groups:

1) the degree of identification of group members;

2) the degree of heterogeneity and homogeneity of the group;

3) the nature of intra-group communications and the openness of the group to inter-group communications, the influence of the mass media of public opinion, the leader;

4) social mobility - the ability to move from one social group to another;

5) social and historical experience of the group;

6) the ideology of uniting people.

Elements of social psychology depending on the spheres of the psyche:

1) elements of the motivational-need sphere:

a) general group needs;

b) common group interests;

c) motives of activity;

d) life values;

e) goals and social attitudes;

2) elements of the cognitive sphere are a reflection of social processes, the status of groups in the system of social relations, the level of development of the spiritual life of society:

a) group consciousness;

b) social perception and thinking;

c) collective representations;

d) public opinion;

e) mentality;

3) elements of the affective sphere:

a) social feelings;

b) public sentiment;

c) affects;

4) elements of the behavioral-volitional sphere:

a) stereotypes of group behavior;

b) group skills;

c) social customs;

d) group skills.

70. Psychology of classes

Class - this is one of the varieties of large social groups, differing in place in a historically defined system of social production, in relation to the means of production, in their role in the social organization of labor, and, consequently, in the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they dispose of.

The class structure of society is not a static phenomenon. It depends on the type of state, economy and society.

So, in the structure of capitalist society, there are:

1) the bourgeois class;

2) middle class;

3) lumpen.

And in the structure of socialist society, they distinguished:

1) the class of workers;

2) the class of peasants;

3) the intelligentsia class.

Class-forming features:

1) the presence (absence) of ownership of the means of production;

2) work for yourself and others;

3) the share of the social product that goes to people assigned to one class or another.

Socio-psychological characteristics of classes:

1) a certain image, quality and style of life;

2) social ethics, slang, jargon;

3) social status, meaning position in the social hierarchy;

4) traditions, attitudes, worldviews, stereotypes, habits, social circle;

5) scale of values, system of needs and interests.

Social psychology studies:

1) psychological characteristics of various historical and modern classes;

2) the psychological make-up of different classes of a certain epoch and the interconnection of the psychological traits of different classes;

3) features of personal-group and intergroup relations in the class aspect.

In the structure of the social psychology of classes, there are:

1) class needs - the class position of the individual and the presence of a certain volume and composition of material and spiritual goods, sets a certain structure of needs, the relative psychological significance and specific gravity of each of them. There are two types of group needs:

a) the needs of the group as a given system that needs certain conditions for its functioning;

b) the needs of the majority of individuals in this group, that is, the needs typical of the group;

2) class interests - are also set by the entire system of relations, which includes this class. Interests reflect the needs of the class as a whole and its individual social groups, the economic relations of this class, they stimulate various forms of activity. Interest in social activity, as a rule, is realized, and its satisfaction acts as the goal of the theoretical and practical activities of people. Distinguish:

a) economic;

b) political;

c) spiritual interests.

3) class feelings are special emotional states inherent in the class and related to the motivational sphere. In Russian psychology, the study of class hatred and class solidarity has gained particular fame;

4) class sentiments also belong to the motivational sphere. They vividly reflect people's attitudes and assessments of the state of objective processes and mental phenomena that prevail in certain periods of social development. They are not the sum of the moods that make up a group of people, but have the ability to multiply the energy of the individuals that make up the group;

5) class character - this is a little developed concept, the understanding of which is manifested in the typical well-established mode of action of representatives of different classes in different situations and distinguishes representatives of one class from representatives of other classes;

6) class representations - due to the social roles performed and acquired by the individual, social expectations, formed on the basis of intergroup comparison;

7) value orientations and norms of behavior.

71. Socio-psychological aspects of ethnopsychology

Ethnic psychology - a branch of social psychology that deals with the study of the psychological characteristics of the people, due to the unity of their origin.

Factors affecting the ethnopsychological characteristics of the people:

1) socio-economic conditions of life;

2) politics and ideology, dominating in society;

3) the established religious system, superimposed on local traditions, customs and habits, causes a mutual change in local customs and religious concepts;

4) significant events in the history of the people (long wars, natural disasters, land development, etc.);

5) international experience of communication;

6) geographical environment;

7) migration and adaptation to a new geographical environment and cultural conditions.

Functions of ethnic psychology:

1) the reflective function is to reflect the peculiar natural and climatic conditions in which the formation and development of the ethnic community, historical events and other factors took place;

2) regulatory function - regulation of various forms of communication and behavior of representatives of an ethnic group; represents those norms of behavior and way of life that the ethnic community has developed during its existence;

3) the educational function consists in mastering the rules and norms of ethnic behavior, instilling in the population the features inherent in its national character, national habits, etc.; occurs in the process of ethnic socialization.

The structure of the ethnopsychological characteristics of the people - it is a complex dynamic and multi-level system, the components of which are logically and subtly interconnected; Changes in one indirectly affect others.

Components and levels of the structure of the ethnopsychological characteristics of the people:

1) value orientations make up the first level and include moral values that dominate the way of life of the majority of its representatives, their different understanding, interpretation and attitude towards them. They are the most conscious, associated with the ideology and have the most influence;

2) the attitude of representatives of an ethnic group to various phenomena of the surrounding world (relationships among themselves, to representatives of other peoples, work, etc.) - the second level;

3) components associated with the specifics of mental processes and temperament - the third level.

Sometimes there are genetic and psychophysiological levels.

Subjects (carriers of ethnopsychological characteristics) of ethnopsychological phenomena:

1) large groups - superethnoi (macro approach), are divided into ethnic groups, which include subethnoi (ethnic groups living in different regions);

2) professional, age and other groups (meso-approach);

3) specific individuals (micro-approach).

Differences between Western and Eastern ethnic groups:

1) individualism (in Western cultures) - collectivism (in Eastern);

2) low (western) and high (eastern) contextual communication;

3) low (for Western ethnic groups) - high (for Eastern) level of uncertainty avoidance;

4) power distance (for eastern peoples - a high level, and for western - low);

5) masculinity-femininity (low level in the west, high level in the east);

6) credit of trust in leaders (in eastern ethnic groups is higher than in western ones);

7) the style of management in production (in the Western ethnic groups instrumental predominates, in the Eastern - emotional and interpersonal);

8) decision-making process (in the East - more authoritarian, and in the West - more democratic).

The process of ethnicization is actively carried out in childhood and consists in the development and reproduction of the national way of life in which the person is.

72. Psychological structure of society

Society is the most complex systemic socio-psychological reality with a hierarchical structure. It consists of layers (strata, subsystems), within the boundaries of which various socio-psychological phenomena are detected and interact. The layers and the socio-psychological phenomena included in them have systemic and functional differences. Socio-psychological strata of society:

1) the backbone (stable, "deep") layer includes stable socio-psychological phenomena, such as public interests, needs, beliefs, ideals, beliefs, traditions, customs, which give a qualitative originality to the psychology of society, are the cause of the conservatism and stability of society;

2) the system-dynamic layer includes constantly emerging and disappearing socio-psychological social phenomena, such as public opinions, moods, expectations, decisions.

The interaction of socio-psychological phenomena occurs not only within the boundaries of the strata, but also between them. Both layers have a direct influence on each other. So the presence of some typicality and similarity of the socio-psychological phenomena of the dynamic layer is due to the influence of the system-forming layer, at the same time, stable objective conditions of life, life and contacts between people influence the socio-psychological phenomena of the system-forming layer.

System-forming basic components of the psychology of society:

1) spiritual and psychological culture is a certain historically determined level of development of the spiritual forces and capabilities of the people, the system of dominant spiritual values. It includes the culture of values, attitudes, norms of behavior, thinking, morality, upbringing, language, national symbols (coats of arms, flags, hymns, traditions, customs, rituals), culture of art, social, political, legal, etc.;

2) the mentality of the people is a psychological way of thinking, a way of thinking, assessments, spiritual attitudes, habitual social preferences and tastes, which has developed as a result of historical development and determines the uniqueness of the psychology of a given society;

3) public activity is the activity of the population, evaluated from social positions and aimed at ensuring a balance of the interests of the individual;

4) public self-consciousness is the psychological self-identification of the population as a society, its awareness of its integrity and originality, differences from the population of other states, self-assessment of its public interests and needs, strengths and weaknesses;

5) public consciousness is characterized by a meaningful understanding and attitude to the world around, to social reality, being. It is characterized by conscious sustainable cognitive (understanding of social relations, the world, humanity, ongoing changes in the political regime, politics, the real state of society, etc.), need-motivational, emotional and behavioral-volitional characteristics. Public consciousness is manifested in the system of basic concepts, the specifics of their meanings and meanings, criteria for understanding and evaluating what is happening, axiomatic judgments (including proverbs, sayings, parables), beliefs, social ideals, recognized norms of behavior, public opinion, ideology, achievements of science and others;

6) the socio-psychological climate of society is manifested in satisfaction - dissatisfaction of people with life in society and the social changes and processes taking place in it, the activities of the state apparatus.

73. Psychology of parties

The consignment - it is a voluntary political organization aimed at gaining political power, in which people are united by common interests, values and ideals.

The main features of the parties:

1) the presence of a certain social status in society, which allows to exert a direct influence on political life;

2) the presence of a specific program of joint activities;

3) preparation and conduct of the election campaign of candidates, in the conduct of elections;

4) claims to political power, participation in the mechanism of power;

5) connection with the elements of the state mechanism, participation in the formation and functioning of government structures;

6) specific constitutional and legal status and normative regulation of the activities of parties;

7) formal organization.

Types of political parties:

1) by direction:

a) patronage parties - aimed at ensuring the benefits provided by political power for its leaders and supporters;

b) ideological parties - aimed at the implementation of certain abstract ideological principles formulated in their programs;

2) in relation to the government:

a) pro-government;

b) opposition;

3) on the electoral behavior of voters:

a) patriarchal - focused on traditional values (kindness, spirituality, social justice), for the sake of which their electorate is ready to give up democratic civil rights and recognize the authoritarian power of a wise, harsh, but fair leader;

b) the socio-professional type of parties is focused on social stability and justice, professional and family values. The electorate of these parties is made up of people who only occasionally take part in the political process (in elections), are not interested in politics, and most often vote for the ruling party. They are generally satisfied with the existing order of things, and they associate their positive expectations with the existing political system;

c) the pragmatic type of parties is extremely diverse, they can be conditionally divided into:

› parties focused on an authoritarian leader, military power, aggressive foreign policy, unitary state, radical and very harsh punitive measures against any deviation from traditional norms of behavior. Members of this type of parties tend to push around the weak, while they themselves are ready to servile to the primitive force, trying to get the support of the authorities, to improve their material and social status;

› "parties-sects" - characterized by a small number, rigid statutory discipline, strict intra-party hierarchy. The composition of this type of parties often includes people with neurotic disorders, young people with impaired socialization, low intelligence, high conflict, with a focus on the cult of brute force, radical political measures using direct violence and terror;

› parties of entrepreneurs and small left-of-centre parties focused on achieving benefits for their own business.

› parties of the nomenklatura, "parties of power" - focused on power as a value in itself, on the desire to get something by dividing the "public pie", on increasing one's social status and prestige, on a career, career growth, or simply on strengthening one's position in the state structure;

d) ideological parties - they are guided by various ideological myths (for example, about the unity of interests of the party and all workers, social justice, brotherly love and friendship of all peoples, a single community of workers, etc.). These parties are tough opponents of the ruling party.

74. Psychology of religion

Religion - a specific form of social consciousness based on belief in supernatural forces. Religious ideas are a system of ideas about God, the universe, society and man. Religious ideology includes theology (theories of God), cosmology (theories of the world), and anthropology (theories of man).

Religious cults:

1) rituals;

2) pilgrimages;

3) worship, etc.

Means of worship - objects of worship that have a symbolic meaning:

1) church;

2) religious art (painting, sculpture, music);

3) cult items (cross, candles, church utensils, etc.).

religious activities:

1) prayer - a request for a miracle;

2) sacrifice - a rite of sacrifice;

3) confession - a story about their sins.

Classification of religious groups:

1) according to the degree of membership stability:

a) open type groups - this is a religious community without a fixed membership, consisting of a fairly stable core of believers and a constantly changing flock (Catholics, Orthodox, some Protestants, Buddhists and Muslims);

b) groups of a closed type are characterized by a firmly fixed composition of believers (Baptists, Adventists, etc.), stable interpersonal contacts, great cohesion, on the basis of which many phenomena of group religious consciousness are formed (stereotypes, attitudes, behavioral motives, etc.). The smaller the number and the greater the internal cohesion of such a group, the greater the degree of religiosity of the members of the sectarian community;

2) according to the content of the dogma:

a) constructive religious movements are based on a positive ideal, focused on active creative activity in all spheres of life, in interaction with the state, social institutions, with each individual (Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, Judaism).

b) potentially destructive religious movements are characterized by the content of potentially destructive provisions that are temporarily or not applied at all in religious practice (Baptism, Adventism, etc.);

c) destructive religious movements are based on destructive positions (false moral ideals, egocentrism), preach legal and social lawlessness, the desire for destruction (Satanistic and occult-mystical movements that openly or covertly recognize evil as one of their idols).

The formal organization of religious groups is based on the dogmas, canons and traditions of the given religious organization.

Religious group structure:

1) leaders, who in Orthodoxy and Catholicism are the clergy (presbyters, preachers);

2) "religious activists", the bulk of which are women (mostly divorced, childless, widows), for whom activity in a religious group compensates for the lack of social and family ties;

3) ordinary members (laity).

The main functions of religion:

1) protective - God protects and helps those who believe in him;

2) psychotherapeutic - carried out through confession through the forgiveness of sins, prayer;

3) compensatory function - replacement of unrealized feelings, lack of family relationships;

4) worldview - the creation of a certain orderliness of views on the world, the nature of man, the meaning of his existence;

5) regulatory - regulation of social behavior in accordance with religious norms, values and traditions;

6) communicative - contributes to the communication of people during worship in the temple, prayer house, participation in the sacraments, public prayer;

7) integrative - promotes the unification of people according to interests, needs, feelings, values, delivering them from suffering, misfortune, loneliness and moral degradation.

75. Social psychology of organized crime

Social psychology considers organized crime as a social phenomenon resulting from the deformation of social relations, the dysfunction of social institutions and the individual.

Types of organized crime:

1) political and social nature - the main goal of the criminal community is to support or destroy the existing socio-political system and the material benefit behind it;

2) group nature - sees as its goal the extraction of material benefits (robbery, theft, racketeering, fraud, etc.);

3) a criminal syndicate or mafia, which is understood as a criminal policy, mentality, expressed in corporatism and coordination of actions in the name of group interests. Mafia is characterized by:

a) the use of violence or the threat of violence;

b) a strict hierarchical structure of a criminal group, the main purpose of which is the illegal production of goods and their sale;

c) the presence of patronage in the highest echelons of power, necessary for the continuous implementation of illegal operations.

Stages of development of organized crime in Russia:

1) the first stage - the emergence in the 20-50s of "thieves in law" who were engaged in those types of criminal activities that entailed material profit (robbery, theft, murder, etc.);

2) the second stage - the appearance of the first syndicates in the 60-80s;

3) the modern period is characterized by mafia crime.

The main activities of criminal communities:

1) in the field of economics:

a) legalization of illegal capital;

b) activation of criminal activity in the credit, financial and tax systems;

c) improper use of loans and budgetary funds;

d) an increase in the number of crimes related to the smuggling of material assets;

e) sale of weapons, drugs, precious metals;

2) in the field of politics:

a) promotion of "their" deputies to power structures;

b) formation of groups of pressure and lobbying of interests;

3) in the field of computer technology: opening the technological protection of banks, large financial institutions;

4) in the field of international relations: the integration of Russian criminal communities into world crime.

The reason for the development of organized crime lies in the deformation of social relations, institutions and society.

In modern Russia, the following deformations are distinguished:

1) the deformation of the institution of power occurs as a result of the merging of power and criminal structures and consists in:

a) failure by the state to fulfill its functions to ensure the rule of law;

b) the emergence of parallel structures: official power and unofficial, but real power;

c) the absence of the necessary legal framework;

d) the “powerlessness” of the tax police and the tax inspectorate to ensure the collection of taxes, against the background of extortions from every stall, shop, city, district, etc. for ensuring the so-called “security”;

e) lack of control over the activities of banks, etc.;

2) deformation of social relations and institutions resulting from errors in the implementation of reforms, entailing: social consequences (unemployment, low standard of living), failure of capital to fulfill its useful functions, merging of criminal and commercial structures;

3) deformation of law enforcement agencies and their failure to perform their functions;

4) the deformation of society, manifested in a strong stratification of society into the poor and the rich, legal nihilism, a moral crisis, which is expressed in the disappearance of intrapersonal conflict when making decisions about the choice of means to achieve the goal, the replacement of normal values with the values of the underworld.

76. Socio-psychological features of the criminal subculture

Criminal subculture - it is a culture of relationships that exists in a criminal environment, which conflicts with the universal culture. Criminal culture is the main mechanism of criminalization of people.

The social significance of the criminal subculture:

1) rallying offenders;

2) regulation of the behavior of offenders;

3) distortion of public consciousness;

4) transformation and transmission of criminal experience;

5) undermining the integrity of the population;

6) blocking the process of socialization of youth;

7) creating a positive image of crime, etc.

The implementation of criminal social values, their support and punishment of the perpetrators is carried out in a criminal environment through criminal norms (rules) of behavior. In case of violation of these norms, a system of severe sanctions awaits the offender, up to the deprivation of their life, in connection with which, criminal norms are quite stable, however, they are also undergoing changes. So, if earlier the majority of authoritative criminal elements adhered to the rules: "do not do business", "do not carry knives", "do not commit murder", "do not have a family", etc., then in the new criminal culture the main life value is material goods, property, for the increase of which all means are good, including the deprivation of the life of other people. Modern thieves consider it their duty not only to create a family, but also to ensure its proper existence.

The criminal community is characterized by rigid stratification - the division of members into hierarchical subgroups depending on their authority and real power.

The structure of the criminal community:

1) the leaders of the criminal environment (in criminal jargon - "authorities", "thieves in law") - these are recognized authorities in the underworld who monitor the observance of criminal norms and act as judges in conflicts, to which everyone must unquestioningly obey;

2) followers of criminal authorities ("thieves", "woolen", "gladiators") - are malicious violators of the regime of prisons, who fulfill the will of authorities in the struggle for the observance of criminal norms;

3) "men" - the bulk of convicts who reckon with the criminal ideology, support negative leaders financially, but do not actively defend the subculture. They usually comply with the prison regime, work in production and seek parole;

4) asset - cooperate with the administration, thereby violating one of the basic prison norms. In this regard, they do not enjoy authority among convicts and experience constant pressure from malicious violators of the regime, but are supported by the administration;

5) outcasts or "lowered" - have the lowest status in the criminal environment. This group includes convicts who have committed violations of mandatory criminal norms; those who did not pass the "propiska" upon admission to the pre-trial detention center or colony; sloppy; suspected of denunciation ("informers"); prone to sodomy in a passive form, expelled from a higher stratum, etc.

Psychological features of the criminal subculture:

1) the impossibility of friendly contacts between representatives of the higher and lower strata;

2) a rigid division into "ours" (observing criminal norms) and "strangers" (violating criminal norms);

3) the presence of branding (labels, nicknames), reflecting the social status of the representatives of the criminal;

4) restriction of upward movement and ease of "rolling" down;

5) role prescriptions and subordination of interpersonal relations between representatives of different strata, etc.

77. Alcoholism as a socio-psychological problem

Alcoholism - this is one of the forms of drug addiction that occurs in people who constantly take alcohol, which is characterized by the forced consumption of alcoholic beverages within the limits of mental and physical dependence (WHO).

Alcohol addiction is characterized by:

1) continuous or periodic alcohol consumption;

2) a constant increase in alcohol tolerance (tolerance);

3) the onset of dysfunctional states with a sudden cessation of alcohol intake (withdrawal syndrome);

4) development of mental and somato-neurological disorders;

5) the emergence of social conflicts;

6) alcohol degradation.

Alcoholism is a dynamic process consisting of several stages:

1) the initial or neurasthenic stage lasts from 5 to 10 years and is characterized by mental dependence on alcohol, an increase in tolerance to alcohol, the appearance of palimpsests (forgetting individual events and one's behavior while intoxicated). At this stage, there is a violation of memory, attention, performance, a transition is made from episodic drunkenness to systematic. An important symptom is the sharpening of personality traits that lead to the development of conflicts at work in the family;

2) the extended stage is accompanied by an increase in symptoms, the formation of physical dependence on alcohol, which manifests itself in the form of a hangover syndrome or withdrawal syndrome. This stage is characterized by an uncontrollable, compulsive craving for alcohol, a maximum increase in tolerance, the formation of an abstinence syndrome, and a pronounced sleep disturbance. At this stage development of alcoholic psychoses is possible;

3) the stage of alcoholic dementia - characterized by organic disorders, a drop in resistance to alcohol, a decrease in mental and increased physical dependence. Mental manifestations of the withdrawal syndrome reach the greatest severity. At this stage, the occurrence of alcoholic psychoses becomes more frequent, alcohol degradation develops, manifested in affective disorders (emotional lability, mood instability, resentment, etc.), psychopathic symptoms (inadequacy, unpredictability of the actions of patients), ethical decline (patients are carefree, brag about sexual relationships, cynical ), loss of a critical attitude to alcohol abuse and their condition in general, persistent changes in memory and intelligence.

Factors causing the development of alcoholism:

1) social factors:

a) the level of general culture and education;

b) environmental factors (attitude towards alcohol in a given community, drinking traditions, group pressure);

c) an erroneous idea of the healing and stimulating effect of alcohol. the influence of the social, family environment, the microenvironment in which this personality is formed;

2) biological factors:

a) heredity;

b) CNS injury;

c) neuropsychiatric diseases suffered in childhood;

d) features of higher nervous activity: temperament, physiological characteristics, endogenous alcohol level;

3) psychological factors or so-called. "personality defect", which can be expressed in two diametrically opposite forms of behavior:

a) shyness, difficulty in establishing contacts, self-doubt, periods of low mood, when alcohol, due to its euphoric effect, allows you to compensate for these disorders;

b) impatience, irritability, anxiety, increased level of claims, with insufficient opportunities to achieve their goals - while alcohol gives a feeling of inner strength, success.

78. Socio-psychological aspects of drug addiction

Drug addiction (Greek narkē numbness, sleep + mania madness, passion, attraction) - a disease caused by the systematic use of narcotic drugs and manifested in mental and sometimes physical dependence on them.

Physical dependence is based on biochemical, bioelectrical, biomembrane, cellular, tissue and other processes occurring in the body. When narcotic substances are taken from outside, the body stops the synthesis of its own analogues, and the synthesis of such hormones as adrenaline, norepinephrine, etc. is also disrupted. As a result, when narcotic drugs are stopped, withdrawal or “withdrawal” develops, which is manifested by depression, anxiety, anxiety, apathy , constriction of the pupils, somatic and neurological disorders (chills, cold sweat, abdominal pain with repeated diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, persistent runny nose, weakness, aching joints, convulsions, insomnia, etc.).

The nature of mental dependence is not fully understood, it is associated with a deficiency of dopamine and norepinephrine in the hypothalamic region of the brain, as well as endorphins and enkephalins.

Addiction stages:

1) the first stage of drug addiction develops rather quickly, is characterized by the development of mental dependence;

2) the second stage of drug addiction begins after a few weeks or months of regular drug abuse and manifests itself as a pronounced physical dependence;

3) the third stage of drug addiction is characterized by extreme exhaustion, asthenia and apathy, loss of interest in everything except the drug, and a decrease in tolerance.

Types of addictions by type of drug:

1) opiate - abuse of opiates (morphine, opium, etc.);

2) cannabinoid (abuse of hashish);

3) ephedron;

4) pervitin;

5) cocaine;

6) barbiturate mania;

7) alcoholism;

8) abuse of hallucinogens.

The main motives for starting drug abuse are:

1) hedonistic motives - the desire to experience an unusually pleasant state;

2) ataractic motives - the desire to "forget", "disconnect from trouble", weaken the effect of emotional stress;

3) submissive - subordination to the influence of other people, conformity in companies.

Factors, contributing to the development of drug addiction:

1) premorbid socio-psychological characteristics of drug addicts:

a) alienation of social interests;

b) lack of stable and formed individual interests and hobbies;

c) inconsistency and lability of mental manifestations;

d) hypersensitivity;

e) low emotional tolerance - inability to endure stress;

f) strive for immediate satisfaction of their desires;

g) aggressiveness, a tendency to reject authority;

h) traits of immaturity: inadequate self-esteem, disproportionate claims, weak self-control, inability to overcome difficulties, withstand stress, insufficient forecasting and reflection, immature defense mechanisms, instability of interests, fragility, unformed moral concepts;

2) social factors:

a) a dysfunctional family (a family of alcoholics and drug addicts);

b) widespread substance abuse in the area;

c) group pressure of the youth subculture associated with the use of drugs and toxicants (club culture, some styles of music (rave, jungle, etc.));

d) the absence of a real leisure program for minors;

3) constitutional and biological factors (hereditary burden of mental or narcological diseases);

4) traditional factors (for example, the use of drugs is accepted among the Indians).

79. Mass and its attributes

Weight - this is a fairly organized, conscious formation with fuzzy boundaries, which is heterogeneous and therefore not very stable.

The mass is a collection of a large number of people who make up an amorphous formation, who usually do not have direct contacts, but are united by common stable interests.

The mass is the subject of various political and socio-cultural movements, the audience of many mass media, the consumer of mass culture. The masses are formed at all levels of the social hierarchy and are distinguished by considerable diversity (large and small masses, stable and situational, contact and dispersion).

Signs of mass:

1) the entry of individuals into a given community is disordered, random;

2) has a situational character, i.e. does not exist outside of any specific activity;

3) openness, blurring of borders;

4) the statistical nature of the community - the community coincides with a set of discrete "units" and does not represent any independent, integral formation, different from its constituent elements;

5) exists outside of groups and entities, it destroys the boundaries between all existing social, demographic, political, regional, educational and other groups;

6) has an indefinite quantitative and qualitative composition;

7) varies depending on the specific situation.

Distinctive features of the mass:

1) consists of anonymous individuals;

2) members of the mass practically do not interact with each other;

3) unable to act in concert and unitedly, like a crowd;

4) members of the group may have different social status;

5) includes people with different class positions, professional and cultural level, material condition;

6) members of the mass are usually physically separated from each other;

7) is deprived of the features of society or community;

8) does not have a social organization, a structure of status roles.

Psychological characteristics of the mass:

1) impulsiveness and volatility - the masses are guided by unconscious imperative impulses, which can be both positive (heroism, nobility) and negative (cowardice, cruelty), capable of defeating even the instinct of self-preservation;

2) unintentionality - the mass does not have well-thought-out intentions, all its intentions and feelings are born depending on the situation and exist for a limited time. The mass cannot bear any delay between its desire and its realization;

3) suggestibility, gullibility, non-criticality - the mass is devoid of reason, it knows neither doubt nor hesitation and immediately proceeds to the most extreme actions;

4) irritability - excited by minor stimuli prone to everything extreme;

5) low integration, weak cohesion of most of it;

6) rich imagination, which requires illusions, myths.

The masses are controlled by the elite. She easily submits to the leader, who is hungry for power, who does not convince the masses, but subjugates them by force and authority. The leader does not need any logical evaluation of his arguments. His task is only to constantly exaggerate and repeat the same thing. To maintain power over the group, the leader needs an opposing real or imaginary object, an adversary on whom he directs the aggressive attraction of the members of the mass. The true ally of the leader is fear.

According to the psychoanalytic theory of Z. Freud, the bonds that unite the mass are based on the identification of the child with the father. The mass projects on the leader an unconscious image of the forefather, which turns into God in the mass consciousness.

80. Psychology of mass phenomena

public opinion - this is a publicly expressed, approved by society and widespread judgment, which carries an assessment and attitude to any event of interest to society.

Functions of public opinion:

1) normative - the development of certain social norms of behavior;

2) axiological - the development of certain values;

3) regulatory - regulation of certain behavior;

4) evaluative - expresses and reflects assessments of events and facts.

Forms of manifestation of public opinion:

1) assessment;

2) complaints;

3) tips;

4) wishes;

5) approvals;

6) discontent;

7) condemnation;

8) disapproval;

9) disagreement;

10) protest.

Forms of manifestation can be reasonable and unreasonable.

Structure of public opinion:

1) knowledge that can be true or false;

2) feelings;

3) representations are images of objects and phenomena that arise in the brain on the basis of our previous experience without the impact of these objects and phenomena at the moment on the senses.

Stages of formation of public opinion:

1) the stage of creating and attracting public attention to a new, socially significant problem, fact, phenomenon, a new approach to assessing certain phenomena of reality that have already taken place;

2) the stage of formation - is characterized by an increase in the level of competence of public opinion, due to the action of the media, propaganda sources (leaflets, posters, billboards, etc.);

3) the stage of prevalence - further expansion of the boundaries of public opinion, its replication and broadcast.

The consequences of the deformation of public opinion:

1) the formation of incorrect stereotypes and evaluation of behavior;

2) creation of a criminal subculture;

3) establishing negative traditions;

4) distortion of moral values.

Interests of social groups - it is a socio-psychological phenomenon that has a significant impact on the development of various social institutions of society.

Each social institution represents the interests of a specific social group and serves to implement them. The interests of one social institution may run counter to the interests of another, causing the development of conflicts in society.

Fashion - a socio-psychological phenomenon of preference rendered by mass, group consciousness in a certain period of time to any form of life activity.

The concept of fashion refers to both hairstyle, dressing style, behavior, as well as the place of purchase (in expensive stores, in supermarkets or in the bazaar), lifestyle, home improvement, apartment, type of car, political beliefs, ideology and even religion.

Fashion Functions:

1) the function of selection - the desire to stand out from the background of others with a new external form (clothing, hairstyle, behavior, speech, etc.), thereby raising one's status, elevating oneself, separating one from others;

2) the function of imitation - the desire to at least outwardly resemble people from the reference group;

3) economic function - fashion contributes to the promotion of goods on the market in conditions of its saturation;

4) the function of manipulating mass consciousness in the right direction (distraction or, conversely, attracting attention, etc.);

5) the function of differentiation - fashion shows belonging to a certain group, stratum of society, etc.

Traditions - it is a static socio-psychological phenomenon, which is a socio-cultural heritage, a way of storing, transmitting and reproducing experience. Traditions are aimed at strengthening the stability of society.

Types of traditions:

1) national;

2) cultural;

3) labor;

4) educational, etc.

Socio-psychological phenomena also include rumors, youth subculture, etc.

81. The concept of the crowd

Crowd - this is a structureless, contact, unorganized cluster of people, characterized by the absence of a common goal, connected by a similarity of emotional state and a common object of attention. The crowd is characterized by a high degree of conformity of its constituent individuals, on whom it has a strong psychological influence.

Socio-psychological characteristics of the crowd:

1) suppression of a sense of responsibility for one's own actions;

2) an increase in group suggestibility and a decrease in the effectiveness of counter-suggestion mechanisms;

3) increasing the emotional perception of reality;

4) the emergence of a sense of power and awareness of anonymity.

crowd formation mechanisms are rumors and a circular reaction, which is understood as a growing mutually directed emotional infection. The mechanisms of influence on the crowd are also infection, suggestion, persuasion and imitation. The main role in the development of these mechanisms is played by mass communication, which has the property of psychological impact on the behavior and activities of crowd members, which is deliberately used by the organizers of excesses.

fixed assetsused in crowd formation are:

1) a word in expressive expression in the form of calls, interjections, etc.;

2) the strength of the noise and its frequency.

Potential crowds are:

1) the public - a large short-term education of people arising on the basis of common interests;

2) outwardly unorganized contact communities, acting extremely emotionally and unanimously;

3) large amorphous groups, the majority of whose members do not have direct contacts with each other, but are connected by some common more or less permanent interest.

Role structure of the crowd:

1) organizers of mass excesses - individuals who most often belong to an organization or act on its instructions. They carry out preparatory work to create a crowd (they “lose” in advance and plan excesses), choose a convenient time and reason for creating excesses;

2) instigators - these are persons who claim to win a leading position, who deploy active incitement, direct the actions of participants, distribute roles, spread provocative rumors, etc.;

3) an instigator is an individual whose task is to provoke, unleash a conflict;

4) active participants - persons included in the composition, the so-called. "cores" of the crowd, forming its shock group;

5) conflict personalities - persons who, in an anonymous environment, seek to settle scores with persons in conflict with them, defuse emotional stress, give vent to their unbridled temper, sadistic impulses. Among such personalities there are many psychopathic persons, hooligan elements, drug addicts;

6) conscientiously mistaken - individuals who are direct participants in excesses, as a result of an erroneous perception of the causes of the current situation, a false understanding of the principle of justice or under the influence of rumors;

7) emotionally unstable individuals who identify their actions with the general direction of the participants' actions. They are characterized by increased suggestibility, contagious general mood, reduced resistance to the influences of other people;

8) curious - people who observe from the sidelines and do not interfere in the course of events, but by their presence increase the emotional arousal of other participants;

9) adherents - persons who become participants in excesses due to fear of physical reprisal, under the influence of threats from the organizers and instigators.

82. Types of crowds

By manageability:

1) spontaneous - a crowd, in the emergence and formation of which occurs independently, without the participation of specific individuals;

2) driven - a crowd that is formed from the very beginning under the influence of a certain individual, its leader.

By activity level:

a) a passive (calm) crowd is characterized by a lack of emotional excitement;

b) an active crowd is characterized by the presence of varying degrees of emotional arousal.

By the nature of people's behavior:

1) a simple (occasional) crowd - a cluster of people formed on the basis of a desire to receive information about an unexpected incident that they witnessed (traffic accident, fire, fight, etc.). Such a crowd is usually formed from people who feel the need for thrills, impressions and unites up to several hundred people. It is not dangerous, but it can create interference and inconvenience. However, in special situations, such a crowd can turn into an active, aggressive and even commit lynching;

2) expressive crowd - is formed from people who jointly express strong feelings (joy, grief, anger, indignation, protest, etc.). Such a crowd may consist of fans of rock musicians, pop stars at their concerts, from among the spectators present at sports competitions, from thrill-seekers arising under the influence of gambling, drugs, participants in festive and funeral processions at the funeral of people who died as a result of accidents, catastrophes, etc. An extreme variety of an expressive crowd is an ecstatic crowd, characterized by a state of general ecstasy based on the effect of infection or under the influence of drugs (discotheques, mass religious processions, etc.);

3) conventional crowd - formed on the basis of interest in some pre-announced mass entertainment, spectacle. The conventional crowd is usually the fans in the stadium, who are not just sports fans, but individuals with feelings of affection for one of the teams. Such a crowd can only temporarily follow the norms of behavior;

4) the acting crowd - carries out actions in relation to a specific object. Divided into:

a) acquisitive crowd - characterized by the unleashing of an unordered direct conflict for the possession of any values. Such a crowd formed in times of total shortages at trade enterprises when selling goods that were in great demand; at the box office selling tickets for stadiums, sports, spectacular performances and means of transport. It can be provoked by the authorities who ignore the vital interests of citizens or encroach on them. The extreme version of the acquisitive crowd are looters who will smash food warehouses, apartments, rob the living and the dead in places of major disasters, natural disasters, military operations;

b) fleeing crowd - occurs in a state of panic when escaping from a real or imaginary source of danger;

c) rebel crowd - formed under the influence of unfair actions of the authorities on the basis of general indignation;

d) an aggressive crowd - characterized by the highest degree of emotional arousal, united by blind hatred for a specific object (a statesman, a religious or political movement, a management structure). The behavior of an aggressive crowd causes the greatest harm in those cases when its actions acquire the character of mass riots (group excesses). It is characterized by the presence of illegal actions: beatings, pogroms, arson, etc.

83. Crowd Formation

Life situations and places, formations of crowds:

1) natural disasters (earthquakes, volcanic eruption, major floods);

2) waiting for public transport at transport hubs (at railway stations, in the subway, etc.);

3) mass spectacles (sports matches, pop concerts, etc.);

4) political actions (demonstrations, rallies, strikes),

5) places of mass celebrations and recreation (stadiums, squares and streets of cities, premises and sites for large discos, etc.), etc.

Stages of formation of an aggressive crowd:

1) stage of the debating crowd - the initial form of the crowd, beginning to develop psychologically. It is a collection of people who have gathered for some reason, who are talking among themselves, exchanging opinions, assessments, exerting one or another influence on each other. This influence is most often imperceptible, weak and does not lead to any actions that violate public order;

2) stage of complication of the situation or the formation of the core of the crowd - characterized by the emergence of social tension, the accumulation of discontent. This happens as a result of the fact that people are close, push, exchange remarks, emotions, the mechanisms of infection, suggestion, imitation begin to actively act on them. The presence in the crowd of an excited person or a small group can become the core of an excited crowd, from which the nascent excitement begins to spread to the entire crowd. At this stage, it starts "circular reaction" и "circling process" - mutual inflation, which, like a centrifuge, disperses emotions and forms a certain community from the crowd, contributing to the transition of the crowd to the next stage;

3) the stage of a potentially aggressive crowd is characterized by:

a) the emergence of a new common object of attention - a certain image shared by all, which contributes to the rallying of the crowd;

b) the appearance of false explanations of the reasons for what happened and the requirements to do something;

c) an increase in the size of the group by joining passers-by, residents of nearby houses, etc .;

d) the appearance of the targeting of their claims, the identification of the "culprits" of what happened and the cumulation of their emotional fuse for them.

Crisis phenomena such as:

a) a sharp increase in the stratification of society into rich and poor;

b) a decrease in the standard of living due to a decline in production, inflation, rising prices;

c) the emergence of disturbing information, rumors;

d) unfair actions of government officials;

e) weakening the authority of the authorities;

f) rallying the opposition and the emergence of a leader who enjoys authority among the bulk of the population and who wants to achieve power by any means;

4) stage of group excesses or active aggressive crowd begins with the appearance of any, the most insignificant reason (a push, a sharp cry, etc.), which is used by the instigators as a detonator of an event and allows large groups of people to be drawn into the "funnel" of events;

5) group kurtosis decay stage characterized by a longer period of time than all the previous stages combined. Here and there, new outbreaks may flare up, caused by rumors and discontent.

Features of excesses:

1) become independent of the causes that gave rise to them;

2) may occur even when these reasons have already been exhausted;

3) demands are made from a position of strength and at the same time anonymity;

4) actions are sudden and inevitable;

5) purposeful actions of law enforcement agencies are difficult;

6) aimed at drawing public attention to events;

7) a large number of people who are prone to risk participate in group excesses.

84. Psychological properties of the crowd

In the cognitive realm of the crowd:

1) inability to realize - the crowd is driven by unconscious, instinctive and impulsive motives;

2) features of the imagination - the crowd has the ability to create simple and clear images, equal in their liveliness to real ones;

3) distortion of information and events up to collective hallucinations;

4) features of thinking:

a) illogical thinking;

b) the unreality of the images he creates;

c) lack of understanding;

d) reasoning is based on associations, but are interconnected only by seeming analogy and consistency;

e) only simple, understandable and crowd-friendly ideas are perceived;

f) the crowd does not care if these ideas are realistic or not;

g) the actions of the crowd are always unintentional;

h) categorical judgments;

i) conservatism - intolerance to innovations and boundless reverence for traditions;

j) suggestibility equal in strength to suggestibility in a hypnotic state;

k) maximalism - inspired by the crowd, ideas or beliefs are perceived or rejected entirely;

l) absolutism - ideas are perceived either as absolute truths or as absolute errors;

m) the concept of the impossible for the crowd does not exist;

o) prone to contagiousness and imitation;

5) the crowd is characterized by a state of expectant attention, which facilitates suggestion;

For the emotional-volitional sphere:

1) emotional "resonance" - when exchanging emotional charges, the crowd members gradually inflame the general mood to such an extent that an emotional explosion occurs, which is hardly controlled by consciousness;

2) high sensuality - the crowd has only simple and extreme feelings, which are greatly exaggerated;

3) the disappearance of the individuality of people and the birth of the supra-individual (transcendental) "I" of the crowd;

4) the high strength of the impulses of the crowd, which cannot be suppressed even by the instinct of self-preservation;

5) the spread and exaggeration of feelings occurs due to suggestion, infection and universal approval, which contributes to a significant extent to the increase in its strength;

6) there is no responsibility;

7) confidence in impunity and a sense of omnipotence enable people in the crowd to show such feelings and perform such actions that are simply unthinkable and impossible for them outside the crowd;

8) the crowd is characterized by one-sidedness of feelings;

9) extremism - all the forces of the crowd are aimed at destruction;

10) the rallying of the crowd occurs only when an opposing principle arises;

11) the crowd is not capable of reflection, it cannot evaluate its actions from the outside, it does not have a critical attitude towards itself;

12) the crowd tends to overestimate itself and its impeccability;

13) the crowd considers kindness a weakness and obeys only strength;

14) the desires and needs of the crowd are very strong, but short-lived.

In the temperamental sphere:

1) physical activity - an idea that has taken possession of the crowd seeks to be expressed in action;

2) diffuseness - the stimuli of the crowd are very diverse, which explains its extreme variability and inconsistency of opinions;

3) the crowd has an easy convertibility from one type to another.

In the moral realm:

1) morality - the crowd can demonstrate high morality, lofty feelings and intentions, such as selflessness, devotion, selflessness, self-sacrifice, a sense of justice, etc. However, these intentions can very quickly change their polarity from plus to minus;

2) the crowd is characterized by blind obedience, the elevation of the leader to the rank of God, and the ability to follow him anywhere. The crowd needs unquestioning faith and has a ferocious intolerance towards anyone who tries to challenge its opinion.

85. Features of the behavior of an individual in a crowd

Getting into the crowd, the individual acquires a number of specific psychological characteristics that may be completely uncharacteristic of him as an individual. The appearance of these properties determines its behavior in the crowd.

Crowd Man Properties:

1) reduced self-control - the ability to arbitrarily regulate one's own behavior decreases and dependence on the crowd increases, he unconsciously submits to external influence;

2) loss of individuality and unity of a person with the crowd - people in the crowd gradually lose their individual goals and intentions, their psychological manifestations are equalized, their behavior becomes similar to each other. Individuals that make up a crowd, regardless of their lifestyle, occupation, character and mental abilities, turning into a crowd, form a collective soul that makes them feel, think and act completely differently than each of them felt, thought and acted individually. The crowd as a system consisting of separate elements (individuals), united together, acquires those qualities that were not characteristic of any of its elements (individuals) separately;

3) lack of spirituality - acquiring a collective soul, a person, as it were, loses his own;

4) instinctiveness - the predominance of instinctive desires over the will, which is largely facilitated by the anonymity and irresponsibility of the individual in the crowd. There is social degradation of the individual;

5) anonymity - the individuality of a person is lost in the "faceless mass", the person, as it were, turns out to be nameless in the crowd. Anonymity creates a false sense of independence from any connections, his hands are "untied";

6) irresponsibility - the loss of a sense of responsibility, which is a deterrent for the individual;

7) inability to keep attention on the same object and easy switching of attention, which is determined by external conditions;

8) a decrease in the intellectual qualities of the individual - the crowd, as it were, equalizes the intelligence of all the individuals included in it, taken outside the crowd;

9) non-critical thinking - the perceived information and the individual's own behavior are assessed by him according to low standards;

10) features of the information processing of a crowd man are that he easily perceives a variety of information, quickly processes it and distributes it, while completely involuntarily distorting, transforming the perceived information, that is, generating rumors;

11) unconsciousness - in the crowd there is a dissolution of the conscious personality. The man of the crowd acts without realizing the true motives of danger, cruelty, injustice and horror of his actions;

12) increased suggestibility - a person of the crowd is characterized by great gullibility to unusual information, obviously unfulfillable promises, he can follow incredible, absurd calls, slogans;

13) increased activity - due to the mobilization of all the resources of the individual, due to which in the crowd a person can show such physical qualities that are inaccessible to him outside the crowd (run fast, lift something heavy, jump high, etc.);

14) the feeling of omnipotence and irresistible power also contributes to the fact that the individual succumbs to hidden instincts;

15) unpredictability, atypicality, unusual behavior;

16) the state of a person in a crowd is close to a hypnotic trance;

17) unmotivated behavior - an individual very easily sacrifices his personal interests to the interests of the crowd;

18) increased emotionality of perception of everything that a person sees and hears around him. However, a person does not notice shades, he perceives all impressions as a whole and does not know any transitions.

86. Psychology of rumors

Gossip - this is reliable or partially reliable information about a significant object, circulating in the form of an oral message.

The model of the psychological impact of rumors includes:

1) source of hearing;

2) the subject of psychological influence - an individual transmitting hearing;

3) hearing itself;

4) the object of psychological influence - the individual perceiving hearing.

Stages of the psychological impact of rumors:

1) operational - the impact of the subject;

2) procedural - acceptance (non-acceptance) of the impact by the object;

3) the result of the impact of hearing - the consequences of the restructuring of the psyche of the object.

Rumors have an impact on the central nervous system, causing increased tension, stress, asthenic mental states, up to hysteria.

Rumor types:

1) in terms of reliability:

a) completely unreliable;

b) unreliable with elements of likelihood;

c) believable;

d) reliable with elements of improbability.

2) by expressiveness:

a) hearing-desire;

b) frightening hearing;

c) aggressive hearing.

3) by origin:

a) natural;

b) deliberately fabricated:

› primary - originally fabricated rumors;

› secondary - rumors that arose spontaneously, but were embellished by persons interested in them.

4) by the strength of influence:

a) disturbing group opinion;

b) causing individual and group anti-social opinion;

c) destructive ties between individuals and groups.

Factors contributing to the spread of rumors:

1) tense, unfavorable, uncertain situation in the group and its environment (emergency, state of hostilities, etc.);

2) the absence or lack of official information about the situation;

3) distrust of information from the authorities;

4) the presence of persons interested in spreading rumors (about changes in the exchange rate and shares, etc.);

5) general fatigue, exhaustion;

6) confirmation of previous rumors;

Motives for spreading rumors:

1) the need for self-affirmation - the presence of information of interest to all indicates proximity to the source of power and, consequently, the high status of the person who owns it;

2) a sense of solidarity - the desire to warn people about the danger that threatens them;

3) dissatisfaction from the sole possession of disturbing information, which, in order to enhance the effect, is deliberately amplified by unpleasant details;

4) the desire to get on their side as many supporters as possible;

5) pushing for group actions that are difficult and dangerous to do alone;

6) the desire to become a leader;

7) the desire to weaken his opponent, to sow discord in his camp.

Socio-psychological features of the perception of rumors:

1) the desire to protect yourself and your loved ones from trouble, prepare and reduce damage;

2) the desire to be saved together with everyone;

3) the anonymity of the rumor, which gives it the character of reliability;

4) approval of the hearing by the majority;

5) easy suggestibility and infectivity of some people;

6) low level of education and intellectual inability to independently and soberly assess the plausibility and validity of the rumor.

Hearing Features:

1) satisfaction and stimulation of the natural social need for communication and knowledge of the surrounding world;

2) reduction of uncertainty in relation to important events;

3) help to orient in the situation and regulate human behavior;

4) anticipation of social events, helping a person to foresee them, make adjustments, and consider behavior.

Consequences of the rumors:

1) the growth of tension;

2) creation of conditions of anxious expectation and uncertainty;

3) a sense of helplessness in the face of impending threats;

4) decrease in working capacity;

5) increase in conflicts

6) an explosion of discontent and affective behavior is possible.

87. Psychology of panic

Panic (Greek panikon - unaccountable horror) - this is a state of mass fear with a clear or imaginary threat.

Panic Characteristics:

1) occurs in large groups;

2) is caused by a feeling of uncontrollable fear based on a real or imaginary threat;

3) arises spontaneously and unorganized;

4) the behavioral uncertainty of people is characteristic (a state of confusion, ambiguity, randomness in actions and inadequacy of behavior in general).

Types of panic:

1) by coverage of people:

a) mass - covers large masses of people (during fires, floods, etc.);

b) individual - the panic of an individual (a student before an exam, a woman before childbirth);

2) by nature:

a) affective panic - a group reaction regulated by strong feelings of horror and fear that immediately gripped people. It begins with an individual panic of individual hysterical, highly suggestible personalities (alarmists), who infect other people with panic moods. The state of acute psychosis, hysteria, uncontrolled behavior, vague perception of the environment is characteristic;

b) behavioral panic (panic moods) are emotionally dictated meaningful decisions and actions that are not always adequate to the threat or reason that prompts them. Develops and fades gradually. Occurs not in the crowd, but among the population or its individual groups.

Forms of manifestation of panic:

1) exodus is an unconscious flight of people from an imaginary or real danger;

2) panic moods are the psychological states of individuals or entire classes, strata of society, in which the ratio between orienting and regulating components, emotional and rational, changes. Behavior becomes subject to random stimuli and is poorly predictable;

3) economic panic is most often found on banking exchanges, due to which there is either an incredible influx of depositors, or a financial crisis, with inflation, rising prices and a change in the economic way of life in the country.

Factors contributing to the development of panic:

1) the atmosphere of anxiety and uncertainty of a large group of people;

2) a danger that, if committed, threatens a person with death, injury or loss of property;

3) the short duration of the situation for making a decision, on which much depends;

4) the need to act without a conscious plan;

5) the presence of exciting and stimulating panic rumors;

6) a large number of people prone to panic;

7) some unpredictable physical, mental and social factors (coincidence).

Factors preventing panic:

1) socio-demographic features:

a) a high level of education;

b) property status;

c) male gender;

d) adulthood;

2) psychological properties of the personality (critical thinking, self-confidence, reduced suggestibility).

Panic development:

1) the appearance of an incentive to panic;

2) a strong emotional reaction of individuals who begin to rush about and sow panic;

3) emotional infection of others, who also come into a panic movement;

4) general panic, which is accompanied by screams, cries of those who die in a stampede or stampede;

5) restoring calm as a result of the thinning of the crowd and loss of strength, apathy.

Ways to prevent panic:

1) at the first stage - a loud and imperious conviction;

2) on the second - planning and regulating orders of individuals not subject to a panic state;

3) on the third - the use of a super-strong stimulus (a warning shot, loudly transmitted through a megaphone, an order to stop the panic, followed by instructions for action).

88. Psychology of power

Power - it is an opportunity to order in conditions when the one who is ordered (the object of power) is obliged to obey the one who orders (the subject of power).

For power it is necessary:

1) the presence of at least two partners;

2) subordination of the object to the order of the subject of power;

3) the existence of social norms that establish the right of the subject of power to give orders and the duty of the object of power to obey them.

Types of power:

1) coercive power be based on the fear of punishment by the subject of the object of influence, depriving him of any benefits, which often acts as a motivational force for a person, prompting him to act accordingly. However, the abuse of punishments negatively affects the socio-psychological climate of the team, leads to the appearance of a negative attitude towards the leader in the subordinate person, to the concealment of his disobedience and failures, mutual distrust of the leader and subordinate;

2) reward power is based on the ability of the subject of power to somehow reward the object of power if it achieves positive results of the latter's activities. Moreover, it can be either a material reward (a bonus, a gift), or recognition, praise, career advancement, a higher rank, obtaining a new working tool, an interesting difficult task, a business trip abroad, etc. However, even in this case, there is an element of fear of punishment in case of failure to complete the work on time;

3) expert power arises as a result of attributing to the subject of influence a significant superiority in knowledge or experience. For example, we usually trust a doctor or lawyer because years of professional training and practice are behind this advice, although we may not understand all of their explanations. This type of power is characterized by the spread of the power of power beyond this specific area: recognizing the high competence of a specialist in a particular area, we sometimes believe that he is equally competent in other areas. In the event of distrust of the source of such power, a "boomerang effect" arises - a person seeks to act in the opposite way in response to the influence of such a person;

4) information power stems from the persuasive content of any message in itself and does not depend on the personality of the subject of influence, nor on the nature of his relationship with the object. This type of power can lead to serious internal, sustainable changes in the beliefs, attitudes or values of the object of power;

5) referential authority is based on the identification of the object with the subject of influence, on a sense of community with him. At the same time, the subject of influence is perceived as a role model, which the object of attention seeks to imitate. in negative forms. Referential influence can manifest itself in the case when the subject of influence is unsympathetic to us ("boomerang effect");

6) legitimate authority is based on the object's belief in the legitimacy of the subject's power and its obligation to obey him. Allocate:

a) the legitimate power of reciprocity - based on the desire to "give in order to take" (for example, bribery);

b) the legitimate power of justice is based on the belief in the justice of one's actions ("I earned it");

c) the legitimate power of responsibility (or dependence) is based on the fact that the subject forces the object to help or listen to him, since he is strong and must help the weak. Usually used by those people who feel they lack other forms of power.

Different types of power are interconnected. The use of one type of power can greatly affect others.

89. Psychology of an extreme situation

Extreme situation - these are unusual, unusual conditions for the existence of a person, unfavorable for his psychophysiological organization.

Types of extreme situations:

1) by the scale of the scope:

a) interstate;

b) state;

c) regional;

d) local;

e) object;

2) according to the dynamics of development and the time of liquidation of consequences:

a) strategic - quickly leading to catastrophic consequences;

b) slowly developing;

c) operational with local consequences;

3) by types of damage caused:

a) direct damage;

b) indirect damage;

c) with human victims;

d) with material damage;

4) according to the source of occurrence:

a) natural;

b) household;

c) industrial and technological, etc.

There are three periods in the development of an extreme situation.

Acute period - lasts from the beginning of the impact of the situation to the organization of rescue operations.

The main traumatic factors:

3) a sudden threat to one's own life;

4) physical injuries of the victim himself;

5) physical injury or death of close relatives;

6) severe damage or loss of property and other material assets.

The main mental reactions of the participants:

1) non-pathological neurotic reaction, which is based on fear, mental tension, anxiety; appropriate behavior is maintained;

2) acute reactive psychoses in the form of affective-shock states with motor excitation or lethargy;

3) loss of control over their actions;

4) change of stupor (immobility), aimless movements, flight, screams, a state of panic.

Period of organization of rescue operations - there is an adjustment of vital activity in extreme conditions. Lasts until the end of rescue operations.

The main traumatic factor:

1) expectation of repeated physical and mental impacts;

2) identification of dead relatives;

3) loss of property;

4) family separation;

5) discrepancy between the expected and the results of rescue operations.

The main mental reactions of the participants:

1) hypomic reactions;

2) chaotic movements;

3) inadequate behavior of the victims;

4) non-pathological neurotic reactions with a predominance of emotional tension;

5) manifestations of phobic neuroses;

6) state of numbness;

7) maintaining adequate self-esteem and the ability to purposeful activities.

The period of evacuation of victims to safe areas.

The main traumatic factors:

1) fear for the state of their health and the health of loved ones;

2) experiencing the loss of loved ones, separation of families, material losses;

3) change in life stereotype.

The main mental reactions of the participants:

1) "somatization" of neurotic states;

2) sharpening of character traits;

3) protracted reactive psychoses with depressive, paranoid syndrome;

4) neurotic development of personality;

5) the appearance of somatogenic mental disorders;

6) psychopathization of personality;

7) psycho-emotional stress, followed by an astheno-depressive state;

8) phobic neuroses.

Behavioral reactions of victims:

1) an increase in the use of alcohol, tobacco, medicines, drugs;

2) activation of interpersonal contacts;

3) normalization of the emotional coloring of speech, restoration of dreams;

4) an increase in conflict situations.

Post-traumatic psychopathological consequences:

1) insomnia, difficulty falling asleep and interrupted sleep;

2) hallucinatory experiences;

3) nightmares;

4) impaired memory and concentration of perception;

5) uninvited memories associated with a traumatic situation, accompanied by a strong sense of anxiety and fear;

6) feeling of guilt about the fact that the victim survived, and his relatives died.

90. Stages of adaptation to an extreme situation

Preparatory stage begins from the moment when a person learns that he is about to get into unusual conditions of existence and consists in the fact that a person, trying to prepare for these conditions, tries to learn as much as possible about them, to understand the tasks that he has to solve, to master the necessary skills. At this stage, also through special testing, people are selected to create a psychologically compatible single team of people. Mental tension observed at the preparatory stage during various tests and various types of activities associated with a threat to life differs only in the degree of its severity.

Stage of prelaunch mental stress lasts until the moment of getting into extreme conditions and is characterized by mental stress associated with the fact that people suddenly begin to doubt the reliability of technical means, mentally play out possible emergency situations and their response actions. At the same time, the approach of the start enhances the intensity of these experiences, which is not removed even with repeated stays in unusual conditions of existence.

Stage of acute mental reactions of entry begins from the moment of the onset of extreme situations, while a person experiences emotional stress caused by anxiety, fear, a sense of responsibility.

Re-adaptation stage can vary greatly in the duration of the process. The main criteria for the onset of adaptation are stable effective performance, calm friendly relations with people, deep and refreshing sleep, rationality and thoughtfulness of the actions taken. This stage is characterized by the formation of new functional systems that allow a person to correctly navigate in the changed conditions of life.

Stage of unstable mental activity can occur as a result of prolonged intense exposure to psychogenic factors in the absence of appropriate preventive measures, psychological unpreparedness, in the presence of a weak type of higher nervous activity, or other adverse circumstances. Unusual mental states and phenomena arising at this stage go beyond the scope of response under normal conditions and may be harbingers of various neuropsychiatric diseases, however, they are usually regarded as compensatory, ensuring the adaptation of the individual to extreme situations. So, in conditions of isolation, a person can develop various dominant (dominant) ideas that can push really necessary activities into the background.

Stage of deep mental changes can occur with a long stay in conditions of severe exposure to psychogenic factors, the absence of preventive measures and insufficiently high neuropsychic stability. At the same time, prepathological (prenollsological) processes and phenomena observed at the stage of unstable mental activity can be replaced by nosological forms of neuropsychiatric disorders.

The stage of final mental stress and acute mental exit reactions from extreme conditions is also characterized by the presence of emotional tension, manifested by painful emotional experiences, increased nervousness and slowing down the flow of time in perception.

Readaptation stage (return to normal life) may be accompanied by a long stay in extreme conditions with the loss of previously developed automatisms, under the action of automatisms characteristic of an extreme situation.

91. Styles of human behavior after leaving an extreme situation

Active-defensive style of behavior characterized by:

1) the desire to get by with outpatient examination and treatment;

2) avoiding the disease by actively engaging in work;

3) maintaining activity in case of failures;

4) denial of the severity of the disease;

5) neurotic reactions.

Characteristic personality traits:

1) high self-esteem;

2) a high level of internality;

3) idealization of one's family and work;

4) fear of lowering one's social status due to illness;

5) denial of existing conflict situations;

6) desire for independence.

The passive-defensive style of behavior is characterized by:

1) maladjustment with an intrapsychic orientation, manifested by an anxious, depressive, hypochondriacal form of perception of one's illness and life;

2) dramatization of the meaning of each symptom;

3) difficulties in conducting psychotherapeutic procedures;

4) fears of further deterioration of health;

5) retreat, capitulation, before the disease and its consequences;

6) lack of desire to know the psychological causes of the disease;

7) a pessimistic assessment of the expected results of treatment;

8) the predominance of passive forms of psychological defense ("withdrawal into illness", "rationalization", "repression", "regression");

9) concentration on painful sensations;

10) the desire to maintain an attitude towards oneself as a seriously and terminally ill person;

11) fixation on the possibility of long-term disability.

Characteristic personality traits:

1) suspiciousness;

2) dependence;

3) hypothymization and distimization;

4) externality.

The destructive style of behavior is characterized:

1) maladjustment with an interpsychic orientation;

2) constant internal tension;

3) delinquent (deviant) behavior;

4) excessive demands on others;

5) the idea of society's guilt before them;

6) negative attitude towards state institutions;

7) negative attitude to therapeutic measures;

8) conflict relationships with medical personnel, as well as relatives and relatives;

9) in stressful situations, withdrawal into alcoholism, drug addiction, suicidal attempts.

Characteristic personality traits:

1) the predominance of a dysphoric mood background;

2) emotional excitability, explosiveness, conflict;

3) external reactions.

In relation to the disease, the following types of relationships are distinguished:

1) with the absence of signs of pronounced social maladaptation:

a) anosognosic - characterized by rejection of thoughts about the disease, a frivolous attitude to treatment;

b) harmonious - characterized by a sober assessment of one's condition and promotion of treatment;

c) ergopathic - manifested by the desire to continue active work;

2) with signs of social maladaptation of an intrapsychic orientation:

a) apathetic - characterized by a loss of interest in the results of treatment, the outcome of the disease and life, passive obedience to treatment;

b) hypochondriacal - characterized by exaggeration and seeking out false suffering;

c) melancholic - characterized by depressive statements;

d) neurasthenic - manifested by intolerance to pain;

e) anxious - characterized by constant anxiety about the course of the disease;

3) with signs of social maladjustment of an interpsychic orientation:

a) dysphoric - characterized by a predominance of a gloomy embittered mood;

b) hysterical - a desire to put one's illness on display;

c) paranoid - manifested by the certainty that he was "jinxed" or poisoned;

d) sensitive - characterized by fear of burdening someone with their illness.

92. Psychology of advertising

Advertising - one of the types of information transfer in trade, one of the elements of market operations or marketing components.

The main purpose of advertising is to attract buyers to a particular brand of products, which is carried out on the basis of psychological impact on the buyer.

Types of advertising:

1) by intensity:

a) disposable

b) reusable;

c) serial;

2) by function:

a) memory advertising, the purpose of which is to focus the attention of the buyer on the product and remember it;

b) advertising-approval aims to attract the attention of the consumer to its product as the best;

c) reminder advertising consists in maintaining a positive attitude already formed by the consumer, a reminder of the existence of this product;

3) by the level of localization:

a) local;

b) regional;

c) national;

d) world;

4) according to the form of submission of materials:

a) oral - transmitted from mouth to mouth, without the use of technical means;

b) printed (advertising in newspapers and magazines);

c) television;

d) radio advertising;

e) telephone;

e) visual (shields, posters, leaflets, badges, etc.).

Television advertising is considered the most effective.

The main elements of the advertising text:

1) title - draws attention to the text, interests the buyer;

2) subtitle - enhances the impact of advertising;

3) main text;

4) signatures and comments;

5) advertising slogan.

For a psychologist, the effectiveness of advertising is the degree of influence of advertising on the consumer, the accuracy of its perception, the duration of storage in memory, the desire to purchase goods and the degree of customer satisfaction with advertising. The latter indicator includes both the aesthetic features of advertising and the compliance of advertising information with the quality and properties of the product.

Psychological features of advertising products:

1) directed at the mass consciousness;

2) is based on the stereotypes existing in society;

3) affects mainly the emotional components of the psyche;

4) information is communicated in a vivid, memorable form;

5) frequent use of unexpected, shocking stories, etc.

Stages of the psychological impact of advertising information:

1) контакт - the proximity of the stimulus to one or more of the five senses of a person, the sensation of the stimulus. It is believed that the action of the stimulus (advertising) does not have to reach the threshold of awareness to influence the consumer, i.e., a subconscious belief is possible;

2) attention - the direction of the processing ability to the incoming stimulus.

To attract the attention of the buyer in advertising are used:

a) a sense of confidence (home refrigerators, air conditioners);

b) reliability (soap, patented pharmaceuticals);

c) self-satisfaction;

d) creative inclinations;

e) objects of love;

f) power (powerful car motors);

g) family traditions (Christmas, winemaking, etc.);

h) protection from trouble (life insurance, housing insurance, etc.);

i) sexual motives (for example, fountain pens are presented as a symbol of the male body, and cars as a symbol of a beautiful woman);

j) experiences of childhood (in advertising of food products, cigarettes and chewing gum);

k) anxiety (used to stimulate the purchase of toothpaste, home insurance, life insurance, etc.);

3) understanding - interpretation of the stimulus (comprehensible, positive sentences, active statements are more often used in advertising);

4) adoption - agreement with the need for the product (they use the involvement of people from reference groups (famous actors, athletes), expert images ("scientists", "doctors", "teachers", etc.);

5) memorization - transferring the interpretation of the stimulus and belief to long-term memory.

Author: Cheldyshova N.B.

We recommend interesting articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets:

▪ General sociology. Lecture notes

▪ Jurisprudence. Crib

▪ The budget system of the Russian Federation. Crib

See other articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets.

Read and write useful comments on this article.

<< Back

Latest news of science and technology, new electronics:

Artificial leather for touch emulation 15.04.2024

In a modern technology world where distance is becoming increasingly commonplace, maintaining connection and a sense of closeness is important. Recent developments in artificial skin by German scientists from Saarland University represent a new era in virtual interactions. German researchers from Saarland University have developed ultra-thin films that can transmit the sensation of touch over a distance. This cutting-edge technology provides new opportunities for virtual communication, especially for those who find themselves far from their loved ones. The ultra-thin films developed by the researchers, just 50 micrometers thick, can be integrated into textiles and worn like a second skin. These films act as sensors that recognize tactile signals from mom or dad, and as actuators that transmit these movements to the baby. Parents' touch to the fabric activates sensors that react to pressure and deform the ultra-thin film. This ... >>

Petgugu Global cat litter 15.04.2024

Taking care of pets can often be a challenge, especially when it comes to keeping your home clean. A new interesting solution from the Petgugu Global startup has been presented, which will make life easier for cat owners and help them keep their home perfectly clean and tidy. Startup Petgugu Global has unveiled a unique cat toilet that can automatically flush feces, keeping your home clean and fresh. This innovative device is equipped with various smart sensors that monitor your pet's toilet activity and activate to automatically clean after use. The device connects to the sewer system and ensures efficient waste removal without the need for intervention from the owner. Additionally, the toilet has a large flushable storage capacity, making it ideal for multi-cat households. The Petgugu cat litter bowl is designed for use with water-soluble litters and offers a range of additional ... >>

The attractiveness of caring men 14.04.2024

The stereotype that women prefer "bad boys" has long been widespread. However, recent research conducted by British scientists from Monash University offers a new perspective on this issue. They looked at how women responded to men's emotional responsibility and willingness to help others. The study's findings could change our understanding of what makes men attractive to women. A study conducted by scientists from Monash University leads to new findings about men's attractiveness to women. In the experiment, women were shown photographs of men with brief stories about their behavior in various situations, including their reaction to an encounter with a homeless person. Some of the men ignored the homeless man, while others helped him, such as buying him food. A study found that men who showed empathy and kindness were more attractive to women compared to men who showed empathy and kindness. ... >>

Random news from the Archive

Ear plugs in the nose for those who want to lose weight 04.06.2018

Israeli doctors from the Hasharon hospital in Petah Tikva have created a device that helps a person lose weight by depriving him of the ability to smell food. Experiments have shown that if a person does not smell, it deprives him of cravings for sweets.

According to WHO, since the 80s, there has been a global epidemic of obesity in the world. Last year, every third inhabitant of the Earth, a total of 1,9 billion people, suffered from excess weight, while approximately 15% - from severe forms of obesity. As noted in the organization, 47 percent of diseases - for example, heart problems, diabetes and cancer - are associated with obesity.

In recent years, scientists have begun to increasingly talk about the fact that obesity and chronic inflammatory processes are interrelated. The appearance of extra pounds leads to the development of foci of inflammation in the body, which, in turn, contributes to even greater weight gain. Biologists have found that inflammation-suppressing substances such as capsaicin, the main component of the hot taste of peppers, have proven to be effective drugs for obesity. Many of these molecules are currently undergoing clinical and preclinical trials.

Dicker and colleagues offer a simpler solution to weight problems. Analyzing the prevalence of obesity among different population groups, scientists drew attention to the fact that people aged 50 years and older are much less likely to suffer from obesity than those under 50, despite similar diet and lifestyle habits. Around this age, a person's sense of smell begins to gradually deteriorate, which can affect how appetizing they find an extra serving of food.

Scientists tested this idea by making some kind of "plugs" of silicone that let air through, but prevented odors from freely penetrating into the nose of their owner. They tested their work on a group of six dozen volunteers, half of whom received bogus nose drops that supposedly helped them lose weight.

Before the start of the experiment, the researchers measured the usual amount of food consumed by their subjects, and asked them to reduce the daily amount of calories by about 500 units. Every few weeks, the researchers gathered volunteers and measured the levels of fat, insulin and other important molecules in their blood and noted their progress towards weight loss.

As these observations showed, such plugs actually helped the subjects lose weight and change their diet - on average, their weight decreased by eight percent over several months of the experiment, which is about twice as much as in the control group. Similarly, the concentration of insulin in the blood, blood pressure and cravings for sweets decreased.

News feed of science and technology, new electronics

Interesting materials of the Free Technical Library:

▪ section of the site Standard instructions for labor protection (TOI). Selection of articles

▪ article A word in simplicity will not be said, all with a grimace. Popular expression

▪ article What plant is the length of a human finger consists of only one cell? Detailed answer

▪ article Safety and energy engineer. Job description

▪ article ULF launch point by point. Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering

▪ article Power supply overload protection device. Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering

Leave your comment on this article:

All languages of this page

Home page | Library | Articles | Website map | Site Reviews