Conflictology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Conflictology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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SUBJECT AND OBJECT OF CONFLICTOLOGY

Conflict is a multifaceted social phenomenon. The subject of the scientific discipline that studies conflicts and related phenomena depends on what characteristics and parameters are included in the definition of the concept of "conflict".

Conflict in conflictology, it is an acute clash of oppositional interests, goals, views, leading to opposition from the subjects of the conflict and accompanied by negative feelings on their part.

The collision of subjects occurs in the process of their interaction: in communication, actions directed at each other, and behavior.

The object Conflictology is the totality of all conflicts in general or all those contradictions, problems that exist in society.

There are three main types of conflicts in an object:

1) social;

2) intrapersonal;

3) animal conflicts.

Social conflicts occupy a central place in the object of conflictology, since they are directly related to other conflicts (intrapersonal, interpersonal). To understand the motives driving individuals to enter into conflict, it is necessary to study the internal component of human conflict behavior - intrapersonal characteristics and conflicts. Interpersonal interactions and their features reveal the properties of human behavior in society. All types of conflicts are interconnected due to their unification into the area of the object of conflictology. It is important to understand that such a widely declared object of conflictology cannot be completely exhausted within the framework of one scientific discipline.

The object of any science is a component that is difficult to change, often reflecting the conservative views of scientists and not reflecting the changes taking place in the scientific discipline. That is why the definition of the subject of science is more important.

The subject of conflictology - a set of patterns and properties of the emergence, development and end of the conflict. The subject of this scientific discipline is an ideal model of conflict interaction. Conflictology is interested in theory, the conceptual apparatus of the category of conflict and conflict interaction. The characteristics and patterns of conflicts can change as society and social interactions change and develop. The subject of conflictology can change, reflecting the most relevant aspects of research and the theoretical interests of science at a particular moment in the development of the scientific discipline itself.

Modern conflictology is focused on the development of a general conflictological theory, therefore it is interested in the whole variety of existing conflicts: social conflicts between groups of different scales, interpersonal, intrapersonal and animal conflicts.

PREREQUISITES FOR THE ORIGIN OF CONFLICTOLOGY

Conflicts - phenomena that exist inseparably with the advent of society. However, the science of "conflictology" arose only in XNUMXth century, since it is in this century that the phenomenon of “conflict” acquires new properties and characteristics. The emergence of a new scientific discipline is due to many socio-historical circumstances. Two world wars XNUMXth century. made conflict contradictions catastrophic in their scope and consequences. Improved weapons of mass destruction and the death of a large number of people have put society in conditions of expectation of catastrophes and crisis.

Economic processes that took place in the last century (March of the Poor, Great Depression in Americaexacerbated the degree of catastrophic life of society. The improvement and complication of crime types, the demographic crisis, the destruction or change of social institutions are the phenomena that forced the phenomenon of "conflict" to be endowed with new qualities. The constant atmosphere of crisis, social tension led people to drug addiction, alcoholism, mental illness. Intrapersonal conflicts in XNUMXth century. reached its climax and provoked an increase in suicide in society.

Factors that influenced the emergence of conflictology:

▪ globalization of society and the world as a whole;

▪ complicating life and relationships;

▪ increasing dynamism of life and high speed of changes;

▪ tension and increased stress levels.

The first three factors relate to objective threats to balance and harmony in society, tension is subjective threats. IN XNUMXth centuryThere has been a quantitative and qualitative increase in objective and subjective threats to a person and society, so there is a need for new ways to reach a compromise, resolve contradictions and prevent conflicts.

There was a need for conflict resolution technology. Educational practice, research, scientific knowledge in the field of conflict at that moment could provide a methodological and theoretical foundation for a new science, so the emergence of conflictology became possible.

The intersection of two vectors served as the basis for the emergence of a new science:

▪ sociohistorical need for new conflict resolution procedures;

▪ a sufficient amount of scientific knowledge for this purpose.

prevailed three main views on the need for conflictology:

▪ Conflictology should be a separate independent science;

▪ Conflictology should become interdisciplinary and develop as a direction within other existing sciences;

▪ the science of “conflictology” should not be a separate science, since it is not significant for society.

CONFLICTOLOGY AS A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE

How did the scientific discipline of conflictology begin to take shape in 1960s. abroad and in 1990s. in of Russia. This young science is still in the process of developing and creating the integrity of its theoretical and methodological base.

There are three areas of conflictology as a scientific discipline.

1. Development of the theory, methodology and research of conflictology.

2. Formation of conflictological knowledge in the field of education.

3. The introduction of the applied value of conflictology in order to predict and prevent conflicts in society.

The first direction is called upon to reach a consensus of all conflictology knowledge, including sciences related to conflictology, reconciliation of theoretical disagreements between branches of science. Conflictology studies should be both narrowly focused (the subject is to see the methodological perspectives of science), and interdisciplinary and general applied significance.

Empirical research data should be systematized and transformed over time into theoretical knowledge of conflictology. Within the framework of the first direction, the task is to hold scientific and scientific-practical conferences, symposiums and round tables on the theory and methods of conflictology. Translations and publications of works by foreign theorists of conflictology, organization of contacts with international scientific centers of conflictology, as well as the creation of the Institute of Conflictology in of Russia - tasks within the first direction of the discipline "Conflictology". In the field of education, the tasks of conflictology are the introduction of training courses into the programs of general education and higher educational institutions, the opening of specialties in universities in conflictology, the introduction of conflictology knowledge into the system of professional development of specialists. Expansion of publications of educational literature on conflictology, ensuring the possibility of publication of domestic conflictologists.

The third direction of conflictology is the organization of groups and centers on practical issues of conflictology. They should be aimed at developing methods for assessing modern conflict situations, technologies for resolving conflicts that arise in society and forecasts that help prevent the emergence of conflicts.

The work of such centers involves a wide range of ways to prevent conflicts in various spheres and areas of society. An analysis of the practical work of such groups will make it possible to systematize the methods of conflictology research and form universal interdisciplinary knowledge about conflicts.

MODERN REPRESENTATIVES OF THE CONFLICT PARADIGMA

Conflictology attracts many researchers and theorists to work in the field of conflict and conflict resolution. The conflictological paradigm is based on an interdisciplinary study of this subject.

Works in the field of military conflicts are known S. Bogdanova, who proposed a completely unique theory of development, escalation factors and ways to manage a military conflict.

V. Cheban analyzes the importance of the institution of the army in participation in an armed conflict. Ways of reflection and the consequences of military conflicts in the social and political life of society are studying Y. Sedov. Features of the international conflict are of interest A. Vlasova и E. Skakunova. The degree of influence of strong economic and political states in international conflicts is determined by V. Zhurkin и I. Zvyagelskaya.

Of great importance in the modern conflict paradigm are mathematical modeling of the conflict and methods for making calculations in conflict situations or software conflict management. (S. Terentiev, A. Barabash, Yu. Pavlovsky). Do not lose their positions in the scientific world and game theory (G. Smolyan, V. Lefebvre). In the pedagogical sphere, conflicts are studied B. Alishev, T. Chistyakova. The issues of preparing the teaching staff for the prevention and resolution of school conflicts are being developed by G. Boltunova. Social conflicts of our time are presented in publications D. Malysheva, M. Odintsova. D. Furman explores the features of the influence of various religious movements in USA on accompanying social conflicts in society.

Well-known theorists and methodologists of the modern conflict paradigm are A. Antsupov, A. Shipilov, Yu. Zaprudsky, A. Dmitriev, A. Zaitsev, they published educational materials and monographs on conflictology issues.

These are some domestic representatives of the conflictological paradigm; in foreign conflictology, prominent representatives are recognized as S. Lipset, M. Hekter, T. Nairn, L. Koser и Lipset and close to his ideas D. Easton - researchers of political conflicts who proposed their own models for achieving and maintaining political stability in society. Ethnic differences, according to M. Hekter, affect the uneven development of social groups in society.

D. Sanders developed the theory of “internal conflict behavior”, which explains the contradictions that arise in different states. This theory examined the influence of the social values of a particular society on the level of its conflict.

APPLIED SIGNIFICANCE OF CONFLICTOLOGY

The applied value of conflictology can be considered in two directions:

1) methodology or research methods used by conflictology;

2) the significance of the data of these studies for predicting and preventing conflicts.

The main methods that allow you to collect the most complete information about the conflict in the study:

▪ method of classifying and identifying conflicts into similar types;

▪ structural-functional method;

▪ process-dynamic method;

▪ permitting;

▪ prognostic.

The latter method is responsible for forecasting conflict situations, foreseeing possible collisions and appropriate preparation for them. The permissive method is the allowed procedures and technologies for conflict management. Here, the applied value of the acquired knowledge is clearly present. The first three methods make it possible to explain and describe the essence of any conflict, identify its components, understand the subject and object of the conflict, in order to subsequently correctly determine actions to resolve the contradiction.

Structural-functional method reveals the structure of the conflict, the functions of each component. However, this method analyzes the conflict in a state detached from reality and outside its dynamics. It makes up for procedural dynamic approach, which makes it possible to designate the stages of the development of the conflict, to determine the nature of the dynamics. This research method is characterized by a deep and holistic view of conflicts. Many conflicts or conflict interactions have common features and characteristics, so they can be classified into a general category or type. This is possible thanks to typology method.

Behind the various forms of manifestation of the conflict, common stable signs may be hidden, therefore it is important to know and see the objective essence of the conflict, to determine its type. In the future, it will become possible to assume the course of events in this type of conflict interaction. Moreover, the classification method allows you to combine practical and theoretical knowledge about the conflict.

Related Research Methods, which also uses conflictology:

▪ observation;

▪ survey;

▪ testing;

▪ experiments;

▪ modeling.

The main purpose of the methods conflict research is to solve applied problems, or the second direction of applied conflictology, as they allow you to develop a strategy for action in a conflict situation (forceful suppression, a strategy for avoiding conflict, finding a compromise). The chosen strategy should be the most optimal for each specific conflict.

FOREIGN CONFLICT RESEARCH

The specifics of foreign studies of conflicts were influenced by studies of sociology, political science and psychology, since within the framework of these scientific areas the subject of research was often the conflict.

Several features of foreign conflict studies can be noted.

1. A longer history of research in this area (the first steps in creating a theory of conflict were taken in the second half XNUMXth century.).

2. Applied goals and objectives dominate in conflictology abroad, therefore empirical research is of greater value than theory development.

3. The presented views on conflict issues are more diverse, variant and polarized - all this expands the theoretical boundaries of understanding conflicts.

4. There are special scientific journals devoted to conflict research and conflictology.

Psychological studies of the conflict took place in the following areas: behavioral conflicts; interaction conflicts or interactionist direction; conflict as a consequence of frustration; the natural aggressiveness of a person is the main cause of conflicts in the etiological approach; the influence of the environment, the group and its development on conflicts; studies of conflicts, explaining their nature by the presence of social instincts and fears in people - a sociotropic direction; psychoanalytic direction; study of the negotiation process in conflict resolution; experiments on modeling conflict situations; study of the behavioral styles of the subjects of the conflict.

Such a variety of psychological studies of conflicts have yielded significant results, the data have made it possible to formulate many theoretical approaches in conflictology.

For example, the strategies of human behavior in a conflict situation, identified R. Blake, K. Thomas and J. Mouton (accommodation, competition, compromise, cooperation, avoidance) have had a great influence on the theory of conflict resolution.

Sociological studies of conflict are recognized as identical to research in modern conflictology, because the main theories of conflictology were developed precisely thanks to the research of sociologists. Sociological research that has become significant for conflictology: theories of functional conflict (G. Simmel, L. Koser), structural-functional approach (T. Parsons), theories of conflict in society (K. Boulding, R. Dahrendorf).

Conflict Studies in Political Science contributed to conflictology through the theory of political groups (G. Mosca, A. Bentley), political stability studies (J. Blondel, S. Lipset) and social elite (V. Pareto).

DOMESTIC RESEARCHERS OF CONFLICTOLOGY

Dominated in the USSR the paradigms of non-conflict and consent society hindered the development of conflict studies. Foreign studies of the second half XX century. had a certain influence on domestic scientists, but it was not possible to launch serious large-scale research in this area, despite the fact that the social situation was quite conflicting.

Acute conflicts existed in the economic, political and social spheres of society. Interethnic, intergroup conflicts bring negative consequences both at the domestic political level and affect international relations (conflicts in North Ossetia, Chechnya, Transnistria ). Therefore, in 1980 - started e 1990s. The shortage of conflictological knowledge is felt especially acutely; the first serious steps in conflict research are beginning. A large number of publications on conflict issues are appearing. Empirical research is devoted to the analysis of conflicts that have occurred over the past decade.

The interest of researchers prevails in the field of interethnic and military conflict (A. Kasyuk, V. Dubrov). Research is being conducted on conflicts in the Middle East, ethnic and interethnic contradictions in the territories of the former the USSR. To the beginning 1990s. accounts for the maximum number of publications reflecting the specifics of conflicts in modern society.

The need to resolve conflicts forces the authorities to help scientists in the theoretical and practical development of the conflict paradigm.

Therefore, in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Belgorod and other cities open special centers. Their work is to develop mediation in conflict situations, to develop possible options for resolving and preventing conflicts. Specialties in conflictology are being opened in higher educational institutions, this academic discipline is being introduced in many other specialties.

In the second half 1990s. researchers are interested in the analysis of international conflicts (I. Artsibasov, V. Bulavin, D. Feldman), works are published that consider the problems of social conflict. At the same time A. Antsupov и A. Shipilov (recognized as leading conflictologists in of Russia ) publish educational materials on conflictology, which systematize the materials of many domestic and foreign researchers of the conflict.

Significant works in the psychological studies of conflict E. Dubovskoy, R. Krichevsky, A. Sukhov, A. Bodalev, V. Kazantsev - researchers of social aspects of conflicts in society.

CAUSES OF CONFLICTS

Causes of conflicts - an important component in the settlement of any conflict. The causes of the conflict are the driving force behind the development and escalation of the conflict. The nature of causes may be objective or subjective. The causes themselves can have a structure, so it is necessary to be able to separate changes in parameters within the causes from the cause of the conflict as a whole.

Four main groups of reasons are identified.

1. Objective reasons.

2. Structural management, or organizational.

3. Social and psychological factors.

4. Subjective reasons.

External circumstances, stereotypes of behavior, the social position of the individual, lifestyle are examples of objective factors in the emergence of a conflict. An agreement or legal framework existing in society can cause conflicts in society if it is not sufficiently developed, does not take into account the whole variety of possible situations in interpersonal interactions, and has a weak regulatory function.

The second group of causes includes structural, functional, situational causes of conflicts. In this case, conflicts arise in connection with the poorly organized activities of individuals. The structure of the organization does not meet the requirements, affects the weak functionality, and therefore provokes conflicts within the team and between work groups. Management errors cause situations of conflict. The layering of managerial blunders exacerbates tensions in the organization and leads to conflicts. All relations of an individual in society are determined by his psychological and social attitudes, which are sometimes capable of causing contradictions and conflicts in interpersonal interactions, - socio-psychological factors.

For example, the psychological system of a person is designed in such a way as to optimally regulate all the information that comes to the individual. Therefore, in interpersonal relationships, people lose or distort the information that comes in communication. This natural process does not depend on a person, but can provoke conflicts. The discrepancy between the roles occupied by the individual in the process of interaction belongs to the third group of reasons.

Subjective (or personal) reasons depend on the person, his perception and forms of behavior, psyche. Personal conflict resistance depends on how an individual evaluates the behavior of another individual, how much he projects conflict-free or conflict behavior.

The separation of the causes of conflicts into subjective and objective components is important in a real conflict.

COMPONENTS OF THE CONFLICT AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

Any conflict consists of a number of components, some of which are objectively present regardless of the type and form of the conflict situation and constitute the structure of the conflict. But there are also components that can be introduced into the conflict interaction by the participants in each specific conflict or arise only under certain conditions. In other words, these are subjective components, or psychological components of conflict.

There are three main psychological components of conflict :

▪ motives, goals, needs that drive the participant in the conflict;

▪ methods and tactics of behavior of a participant in conflict interactions;

▪ informational component of participants’ behavior patterns.

The desire to satisfy the need often serves as a motive for conflict interaction. It is not always possible to determine the motives of the conflict, since the participants tend to hide the true motives, passing off superficial and obvious explanations of their behavior for them. True motives form the goal of conflict interaction for each participant.

Goal is the result that the participants aspire to.

All actions of the participants proceed from the goal.

Needs - these are the main conditions that activate the motives and actions of the opposing sides. Needs may vary depending on the state and conditions of the individual. Satisfying one's needs is a natural aspiration of a person; the important thing is how the participant in the interaction achieves this. Often actions become conflicting, turning the behavior of the individual into an opposing, acute conflict.

Such behavior causes a negative reaction from the opponent or a person whose aspirations, motives and needs are directed in the opposite direction. In the future, there is an alternation of reactions and actions that form conflict behavior when interacting. When the participant focuses only on himself, the strategies of action take the form of avoidance or rivalry.

With a more constructive approach - focusing on other participants in the conflict - the form of behavior - cooperation, adaptation, compromise. Possible tactics of actions of the parties can be neutral, soft or hard in impact.

The third component of the psychological orientation of the conflict is a set of views, thoughts and information about the conflict of the opposing participants. It depends on this how emotionally the conflict will go and how soon its resolution will be possible.

STRUCTURE OF THE CONFLICT

Under structure of any object is understood as the totality of its parts, stable connections and everything that makes up its integrity.

The main elements of conflict interaction:

1) object conflict does not always lie on the surface, more often it is hidden from the participants in the conflict, but is a central component of conflict interaction. A conflict can only be resolved if the object is clearly defined.

Misunderstanding of the object of the conflict or its substitution aggravate the conflict situation. The conflict has a reason and arises due to the non-satisfaction of some need, sometimes this reason or reason is considered the object of the conflict.

A person will strive to satisfy this need through values.

Value is an object of conflict. They identify social, material, and spiritual values that the conflicting parties strive to possess;

2) subject matter conflict is a contradiction that is present throughout the conflict situation. The presence of a contradiction forces the opponents to fight. The contradiction of the conflict is objective and imaginary and problematic for a particular subject;

3) participants in the conflict are people who are involved in a conflict situation.

Types of participants in the form:

▪ individual;

▪ social group;

▪ organization;

▪ state.

Allocate major and minor participants. Among the main warring parties, you can determine the initiator. Among the minor - instigators, organizers. These persons do not directly participate in the conflict, but contribute to the development of the conflict, involve new participants. The degree of his influence and strength in the conflict depends on what kind of support a participant in the conflict has among others, what connections, resources, and opportunities he has. Individuals who support one or another conflicting side form a support group. At the stage of conflict resolution, third parties may appear - independent mediators who help resolve the contradiction. The involvement of judges, professional mediators contributes to the non-violent resolution of the conflict;

4) socio-psychological conditions и social environmentin which the conflict unfolds. The environment acts as a helping or hindering factor for opponents and mediators, as it promotes understanding of the goals, motives, and dependencies driven by the participants.

The nature of the conflict depends on the subjective perception of the conflict (or the image of the conflict).

There are three levels of subjective attitude:

1) self-image;

2) perception of other participants in the conflict situation;

3) understanding the image of the external environment.

CONFLICT DYNAMICS

Conflict - this is a phenomenon that is a segment, but not a point on the time scale. This segment can be divided into parts, the "beginning" and "end" of which will be separate stages of the conflict. The development of stages and the entire process of conflict determine the dynamics of conflict interaction.

Possible stages (or stages) of the conflict :

1) pre-conflict stage (latent stage);

2) stage of open conflict;

3) the stage of the end of the conflict;

4) post-conflict stage (stage of normalization of relations).

At the latent stage, a contradiction arises between the subjects or a problematic situation, which, after being recognized by the parties, causes certain actions. These actions are aimed at conflict-free resolution of the problem situation. Participants argue their goals, determine their position in relation to another participant in the situation that has arisen. If the problem situation is not resolved, then the pre-conflict stage ends with the emergence of an objective pre-conflict situation.

Stage of open conflict - these are the direct actions of the opposing participants that make up the conflict interaction. The stage begins with a clash of the parties - an incident, and then continues with a mutual exchange of conflict actions. Each new action directed at the opponent increases the emotional component of the interaction, makes it difficult to rationally perceive the actions and position of the other participant. This leads to an intensification of the collision and makes the interaction more aggressive - the conflict escalates. At the stage of the end of the conflict, the degree of confrontation weakens, the interaction becomes less intense and negatively colored. The participants in the conflict see that all their actions do not lead to the set goals and do not resolve the contradictions, therefore they are looking for other ways to resolve the conflict situation. Then the conflict is resolved. There can be quite a lot of forms of conflict resolution, but the main ones are: attenuation, resolution, elimination of the problem, modification of the conflict into another conflict.

The post-conflict stage is necessary to restore the interpersonal relationships between the participants destroyed by the conflict. If the conflict is resolved in a way that does not fully satisfy the individual, there may be conditions that prevent building the previous relationship. In this case, a partial normalization of relations takes place at the post-conflict stage. If the participants in the completed conflict see the need for joint constructive activity and mutually strive to restore the old relationship, there comes a complete normalization of interpersonal interaction.

LOGIC AND DRIVING FORCE OF THE CONFLICT

The logic of conflict - this is the development of a conflict situation at certain stages, independent of the participants. The logic of the conflict, together with the subjective perception of the conflict by the participants and the causes of the conflict, form the driving force for the development of the conflict.

During the transition from the latent stage of the conflict to the implementation of intentions, a logic of conflict appears, which no longer depends on the actions of the participants. The implementation of intentions can occur in symbolic or real actions of participants, but both of them cause a response or opposition. It is in this cause-and-effect relationship “action - reaction” that the essence of the logic of conflict lies. The chain mechanism that occurs as a result of the responses of the participants in the conflict affects the dynamics and structure of the further development of the conflict.

When the conflicting parties move from an obvious to a hidden conflict or vice versa, the subject of the conflict changes. Its significance for the warring parties also contributes to the movement of the conflict towards escalation. The growth of the conflict to its culminating stage in severity and dynamics - escalation - triggers another mechanism for the logical development of the conflict, independent of the participants in the conflict - the involvement of large resources and forces by the subjects for the conflict. After escalation, a stage of conflict exhaustion may logically occur. The result of this is a state of “no war, no peace.”

Although the result of conflict exhaustion may look like conflict resolution - take the same form (compromise, victory of one of the parties, fading), it is important not to confuse this state with the actual resolution of the conflict. Since the resolution of the dispute does not occur when the conflict is exhausted, the conflict may flare up again.

The reasons for the contradiction as one of the driving forces of the development of the conflict are not always easy to determine. Establishing the true causes is a necessary condition for resolving the conflict. Causes can be determined by analyzing the entire chain of events and all interactions of subjects that occurred before the open form of conflict. Often the cause of the conflict takes the form of personal motives of the participants in the conflict situation.

The chain of events can be simplified as follows:

1) peace;

2) reflection of the world and reality;

3) the emergence of a conflict-defining motive;

4) action or deed of one of the parties;

5) response and action of the other party;

6) conflict.

This chain cannot be changed and its links cannot be instantly affected, since they are of a subjective nature.

STATUS AND ROLE OF PARTICIPANTS TO THE CONFLICT

Participants in conflicts can be both individuals or groups (small, medium, large) of people, as well as individual social communities (ethnic, national, religious, political) or coalitions of communities (state, ethnic coalitions, etc.).

In conditions of conflict, the subjects of the conflict may not participate in their usual role, but occupy a different position and status. The set of possible roles played by a person or social group in society is very large, and the options for role positions in conflict relationships are also varied. For example, the president of a country can play his direct role in an internal political or interstate conflict, but in other contradictions he can play the role of an ordinary citizen of the country, a neighbor, a spouse, a father, and other roles. In other words, each person has a certain role set, and it changes daily depending on the conditions in which he finds himself. Likewise, in a conflict, roles can change or new ones appear. The positions taken in a conflict situation can also be different.

Types of possible positions of the participants in the conflict:

1) main participants (initiator/instigator and opponent);

2) supporting the main participants;

3) instigators;

4) organizers;

5) mediators (mediators, judges, experts).

Status the main participants is determined not only by his role in the conflict or the social position that he occupies in the society or system of interpersonal relations in which the conflict occurs. It is also characterized by a situation that is formed in the course of the development of the conflict, called rank. The level of rank depends on the capabilities that the participant in the conflict has (physical, material, social, intellectual, personal). The skills and experience of the subject of the conflict, the degree of well-established versatility of his social ties influence. The ranks of the opposing sides differ in the qualitative characteristics of personal potential and the probability of revealing the potential in conflict interaction.

The level of social, intellectual and physical forces consists not only of the strengths of the main participant, but also the capabilities of the participants that support the main subject of the conflict. This support turns out to be significant in quantitative and qualitative terms, it affects the entire course of the development of the contradiction and the way it is resolved. Support can be expressed both by the presence of real actors in the conflict, and public recognition of the advantages of one or another side of the disagreement (for example, through the media or behind the scenes).

THE CONCEPT OF ESCALATION OF THE CONFLICT

Escalation (from lat. scala - stairs) - this is the most intense emotional background and rapidly developing stage of conflict interaction.

Signs of escalation in conflict interaction

1. The cognitive or rational component decreases in the actions and behavior of the participants.

2. A negative assessment of each other comes to the fore in the interpersonal relations of the warring parties, perception excludes the integral content, emphasizing only the negative features of the opponent.

3. In connection with the decrease in the management of the situation of interaction, the emotional tension among the participants in the conflict increases.

4. The dominance of subjective attacks and criticism of the opponent's personality traits instead of arguments and arguments in favor of supported interests.

At the stage of escalation, the main contradiction may no longer be the goals and interests of the subjects of conflict interaction, but personal contradictions. In this regard, other interests of the parties are manifested, exacerbating the atmosphere of the conflict. Any interests during escalation are maximally polarized, the participants completely reject the interests of the opposite side. For an increase in aggressiveness at this stage, there may be a loss of the true original subject of the contradiction. Therefore, the conflict situation ceases to depend on the reasons that prompted the participants to the conflict, and can develop even after a decrease in the value and significance of the original subject of the contradiction.

Escalation has the property of increasing the temporal and spatial characteristics of the conflict. The contradictions of the participants are becoming wider and deeper, the reasons for the collision are becoming more. The phase of conflict escalation is the most dangerous stage of the entire conflict situation, since it is at this time that an initially interpersonal conflict can develop into an intergroup one. This, in turn, leads to a variety of means used at the stage of open conflict.

Escalation has external and internal mechanisms that intensify the conflict.

External mechanisms escalation lies in the ways and strategies of behavior of the warring parties. When behavioral actions coincide, the conflict is more intense, since the participants achieve different goals and interests in approximately equal ways.

Internal mechanisms escalations are based on the capabilities of the human psyche and brain. Features of the character of individuals, personal and social attitudes of participants in a conflict situation affect the reaction and functioning of a person in conditions of emotional tension and potential danger.

STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN THE CONFLICT AT THE ESCALATION STAGE

The escalation of the conflict begins at the stage of the first incident or opposing action and ends at the stage of transition to the end of the conflict in the overall structure of the conflict situation. Escalation, depending on its external objective degree of severity (the physical conditions under which the conflict occurs) and the characteristics of the subjects (personal and social conditions of the conflict), can affect many elements of the conflict.

Structural changes, that may occur during the escalation phase:

▪ changing the temporal, spatial, external and internal boundaries of the conflict;

▪ change in the number of participants;

▪ changing priorities in the subject area of the conflict;

▪ change in subjective perception of the conflict.

It is easy to see that escalation can cause structural changes in all components of the conflict situation. All changes are directed towards the increase and growth of the component. For example, new participants are involved, the territory on which the conflict occurs is expanding. By changing the subject of the struggle or the priority of interests, the social space increases (new spheres of contradictions are added).

At the peak of the escalation, there are qualitative changes in the rank of participants, forming a different hierarchy of all subjects of conflict interaction. With equal ranks of opponents, the conflict situation develops weakly. With unequal ranks, a participant with a higher rank acquires the support of other participants, and the conflict, as a rule, begins to develop in his favor.

Changes in the subjective perception of the conflict at the escalation stage occur as follows:

1) an increase in the importance and value of own interests among the participants in the conflict;

2) mental tension increases and rejects the grounds for joint resolution of the problem situation;

3) actions against the opponent and a firm position of intransigence of one's interests and views;

4) regressive functioning of the psyche, an increase in emotional stress;

5) an exclusive idea of the opponent as an enemy, the absolutization of his negative traits and personality traits.

With the aggravation of the conflict, the conscious component of the subjects of the conflict decreases in favor of the unconscious. The protective mechanisms of the personality psyche are aimed at maintaining the internal state of the individual, but not at constructively resolving the external conflict situation.

An analysis of structural changes in a conflict situation helps to determine the boundaries of the most dangerous stage - escalation, which will subsequently guide the choice of means of conflict resolution.

CONFLICT FUNCTIONS

Conflicts have a significant impact on both participants and their social environment. This influence is ambiguous. As part of the functional analysis, all possible consequences of the conflict are considered, as well as the role that it plays in society.

The ordinary idea of the conflict is associated with the negative side of the consequences of the conflict, since the conflict disrupts the usual pace of life, takes away strength. Scientific views on the functionality of the conflict are not so unambiguous. There are theorists who consider conflict to be a signal that the system of connections is broken and the balance needs to be restored. Conflicts generate instability of all internal and external parts, therefore, they require an immediate response to eliminate all detected contradictions. This view of conflict considers any conflict situation unnatural and abnormal for interpersonal relationships and for society as a whole.

For example, systems theory and functional conflict T. Parsons refers to this understanding of the conflict.

Conflict functions:

1) positive (a phenomenon when both parties gain positive experience);

2) negative (a phenomenon when conflict destroys relationships).

Other theorists tend to consider conflict as a necessary and natural phenomenon for society, since through conflict society develops and improves its ties. There are much more theorists of this direction in the scientific world than those who hold the opposite point of view. For example, views Aristotle, Hobbes, Hegel, Weber, Marx, Coser, Dahrendorf justify the positive characteristics of the conflict.

In society, throughout the entire historical development, there is a lack of certain resources, there is a change of values. The desire to possess scarce resources, the preservation of significant values naturally provoke conflicts. Conflict leads individuals to freedom, believes Darren Dorf. coser does not reject the negative characteristics of the conflict (for example, a decrease in cooperation during the conflict, material and emotional costs at the stage of conflict resolution, a decrease in labor productivity), but considers them less significant in comparison with the positive consequences of the conflict.

A different assessment of the functional significance of conflicts for society and the individual makes each function of the conflict both positive and destructive. The science of conflictology has not yet defined clear evaluation criteria, and the subjects of the conflict are not able to give an objective generalized opinion. For each participant, the assessment may occur differently. Therefore, it is necessary to be aware of the duality of the functions of the conflict.

TYPOLOGY OF CONFLICTS

The conflict is the object of the science of conflictology, so there is a need to determine its content, main characteristics and the derivation of a classification. There are many types of conflict classification, they differ in the choice of the basis for typing.

The basic typology is determined by the type of conflicting parties.

1. Conflicts involving a person.

2. Conflicts among animals (animal conflicts).

Conflicts in the human environment can be social or intrapersonal.

Social conflicts are divided into different types depending on the characteristics of the conflicting parties (number of participants): interpersonal; conflicts between an individual and a group (individual-group); conflicts between social groups (small and medium groups); conflicts between large social groups (several hundred people); international (between states or a group of states).

Another classification of social conflicts was proposed by the American conflictologist R. Dahl: cumulative and intersecting conflicts.

Cumulative conflicts have a constant number of conflicting parties (bilateral or multilateral conflicts) and are characterized by a high level of polarization and antagonism.

В intersecting conflicts the composition of opponents changes and there is moderate antagonism.

Typology of conflicts based on the needs that the parties to the conflict seek to satisfy:

1) resource conflicts (struggle for material resources);

2) status-role conflicts (social needs);

3) ideological conflicts (spiritual needs and upholding of ideas, norms, principles).

Conflicts can be classified depending on the sphere or field of activity in which they occur:

1) family;

2) labor or production;

3) household;

4) political;

5) religious, etc.

Based on the characteristics of the consequences of the conflict, conflicts can be: positive / constructive; negative/destructive.

Conflicts differ in the degree or level of intensity in which they go through their stages.

Interpersonal conflicts can occur "vertically", "horizontally" or "diagonally" depending on the position of the opponent in social relations.

An example of a classification of conflicts is a typology based on the causal and motivational conditions of the conflict.

This classification was proposed by N. Grishina:

1) conflict in connection with the achievement of basic goals;

2) conflict on an obstacle to the achievement of personal or secondary goals of activity;

3) conflicts due to rejection of the norms of relations;

4) conflicts due to the personal characteristics of individuals.

The conflict typology can be carried out on the basis of any differing grounds in the content, structure and other properties of the conflict.

INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT

Interpersonal conflict - this is an open clash of individuals, caused by the inconsistency and incompatibility of their goals at a particular moment in time or situation.

A conflict occurs between two or more people. The confrontation takes place in the direct relations of these individuals.

Interpersonal conflicts have their own specifics in comparison with other types of conflicts.

1. Each participant seeks to prove his case, often resorting to blaming the opponent's opinion, but not to the actual argumentation of his views.

2. In the conflict, all the parties involved have acute negative emotions that the subjects are no longer able to control.

3. Negative attitude towards the opponent, inadequate emotions and moods prevail even after the conflict is resolved.

System of interpersonal relations - the main area of interpersonal conflict. The system will be broken if its participants have opposite opinions or disagreement with the already established ways of interaction. The resolution of the conflict will come when harmony is restored within the system of interpersonal relations: either by restoring old attitudes or modified ones, or by creating new views that are accepted by all.

Subjects interpersonal conflict seek to defend their point of view and achieve their goals.

Objects of conflict - what the parties are fighting for, what they are claiming. The manifestation of opposing interests and all the contradictions that arise in connection with this - subject interpersonal conflict.

There are 6 main styles of behavior of participants in an interpersonal conflict:

1) evasion;

2) fixture;

3) confrontation;

4) compromise;

5) cooperation;

6) assertiveness.

At any stage of interpersonal conflicts, it is necessary to take into account the personal characteristics of the warring parties. They are especially important at the stage of conflict resolution.

Personal characteristics are made up of:

▪ type of person’s temperament;

▪ character orientation;

▪ general level of personal development.

Temperament types proposed Hippocrates : sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic.

They differ in the degree of stability of nervous activity. The orientation of character depends on several mutually exclusive traits that have developed Myers и Briggs: extraversion/introversion, sensory/intuitiveness, thinking/sensuality, determination/receptivity. Individuals with opposite character traits and temperament types, solving one problem, will offer different, antagonistic ways of action, which can lead to interpersonal conflicts.

INTRAPERSONAL CONFLICT

В psychodynamic theory (Z. Freud, K. Jung, K. Horney) the basis of intrapersonal conflict is the category of contradiction, internal struggle that arise at the unconscious level. The intrapersonal or mental conflict is primary and is caused by the contradiction between the unconscious and the consciousness of the individual.

Within behaviorism (D. Skinner) internal conflict is interpreted as a bad habit, the result of erroneous upbringing. In the works of neobehaviorism (N. Miller, J. Dollard) conflict is defined as frustration, a kind of reaction to an obstacle.

Existential humanistic theory (A. Maslow, K. Rogers, V. Frankl).Maslow put forward the concept of fundamental human needs, which are in a certain hierarchy. Dissatisfaction of needs leads to neuroses and psychological incapacity, which prevents the individual from becoming a self-actualizing personality. From point of view Frankl, the loss of the meaning of existence can lead to conflict within the individual. The search for meaning acts as a stimulating task that allows a person to increase internal tension and through this ensure the growth of psychological health.

Foreign and domestic researchers believe that the internal conflict is caused by difficulties that appear even in childhood in the stages of maturation of the "I" (theory E. Erickson, J. Piaget etc.) or during regular age-related crises (L. Vygotsky).

Each stage is accompanied by a conflict, it is a crisis for the individual, for example, if the basic trust in the world around is not formed in infancy, then this leads to the fear of external aggression.

Domestic conflictologists A. Antsupov and A. Shipilov identified 6 main types of intrapersonal conflict:

▪ moral conflict (conflict between “I want” and “I must”);

▪ motivational conflict (between “I want” and “I want”);

▪ role conflict (between “must” and “must”);

▪ conflict of unrealized desire (“I want” - “I can”);

▪ adaptation conflict (“must” - “can”);

▪ conflict of inadequate self-esteem (between “I can” and “I can”).

Analyzing theoretical approaches to the study of intrapersonal conflict, it can be determined that it is based on personally significant contradictions between the motivational formations of an individual, which are reflected in various spheres of life. The content of contradictions determines the type of conflict. The causes of internal conflicts lie either in adverse life situations or in unresolved contradictions that occurred at an early age. They are also influenced by the process of collision of the individual and the environment.

POLITICAL CONFLICT

political conflict - contradictions arising in power relations and unfolding in the struggle for political influence.

Types of political conflicts:

▪ foreign policy or interethnic;

▪ internal political.

Members of a society or state seek to defend their interests, maintain their power position and status, or fight for its improvement and recognition of rights. In the structure of the power relations of society, the main clash of interests of various classes and social groups of society, ethnic, political and religious communities takes place.

Conflicts in this area can:

▪ defend political interests;

▪ strive for dominance in power relations.

There are different types of internal political conflicts.

1. Conflict between the classes of society.

2. Conflicts between social groupings existing in society and aimed at the struggle for power.

3. Conflicts involving political parties and other social movements.

4. Interethnic conflicts of a political nature.

Modern society improves the functions of the structures of the political system. The more alternative ways of resolving the political contradictions that arise in the state are developed by society, the easier it will be to resolve them and prevent their extreme form - civil war. Moreover, society must improve the ways of regulation in order to ensure their effectiveness.

Methods for preventing internal political conflicts :

1) maneuvering;

2) manipulation;

3) force pressure;

4) weakening the influence of the opposition;

5) the unification of the political counter-elite.

Maneuvering can be social and political and is aimed at finding compromises in the contradiction that has arisen. May include a short-term redistribution of resources between conflicting parties, a change in political leader, or others.

Political manipulation often uses the media to maintain a stable power force in the current political system. In a society with low political activity of the main social groups, the method of preventing conflicts through forceful pressure prevails. The dictatorship of power may be direct or indirect in nature, in case of non-observance of fundamental rights and norms of public order, it may meet with resistance.

When the influence of the opposition weakens, the group fighting for power seeks to destabilize the opposition by any means and take its place in the structure of power relations. The counter-elite in an internal political conflict acts as a social regulator if it is turned from an anti-government elite into a political elite.

GENDER CONFLICT

Gender conflict - clash of interests or goals in the field of perception of gender values, roles and gender relations.

Gender conflicts can be:

▪ intrapersonal;

▪ interpersonal;

▪ intergroup.

Society projects and expects special behavior from men and women, endowing them with specific and different characteristics. If individual character types do not coincide with social expectations, a person experiencing negative feelings and emotions about this may experience gender intrapersonal conflict. In the case of personification of standard expectations and their projection from a particular person, interpersonal conflict. For example, the standard expectations of the workforce from a female or male leader. The team ascribes to the leader the features inherent, in their opinion, to his gender. The absence of these traits causes a negative reaction, and sometimes the conflict is expressed in an open form.

Gender conflicts unfolding in the struggle of public movements and organizations for women's rights are intergroup in nature. The women's movement that began its history from the end XVIII century., aims to satisfy the interests of various social strata of women, seeks adjustments in state policies towards creating gender equality in society.

The specificity of the gender conflict is expressed:

▪ in a biological orientation (sex differentiation, various natural functions and the biological system as a whole);

▪ psychological component (differences in information models of the psyche of men and women and individual differences of all people in general);

▪ social orientation (objective social functions and position in society of men and women cause clashes).

In the second half XNUMXth century. there have been significant changes in gender values and expectations. The male monopoly in public life was gradually transformed. Women's movements, employment patterns (e.g. Post-Fordist model) have launched many social processes, thanks to which women now occupy positions of power, serve in the army, participate in previously inaccessible sports competitions and many other previously closed areas of public life.

The status and roles of men and women are constantly changing, giving rise to a clash of interests and gender discrimination. In many social institutions (school, family), gender inequality continues for a long time. Many of them are not sharply expressed, but are never resolved, since deep contradictions are concentrated in stereotypes that change very slowly.

RELIGIOUS, RACIAL, ETHNIC CONFLICTS

With the development and complication of society and social relations, communication channels and spheres of influence increase. The isolation and integrity of any social group or community is violated. Culture is integrated and becomes international, all modern society is involved in the process of globalization. All the described phenomena increase the likelihood of ethnic, racial and religious conflicts in society.

The unification of ethnic groups or races sometimes occurs democratically and naturally, but more often it causes social tension and clashes. After all, any community strives to preserve its unique culture and history and actively fights for its territory and identity.

Depending on the level of self-awareness, an ethnic group can react differently to social changes. Ethnocentric groups are the most conflict-prone. In their struggle they can use religious principles and attitudes, and therefore involve new participants in a conflict situation.

The main groups of causes of ethnic, religious and racial conflicts are distinguished:

▪ reasons for the ethnopsychological factor;

▪ political factors;

▪ socio-economic reasons;

▪ sociocultural factors and differences.

The destruction of the habitual way of social and cultural life of an ethnos causes a defensive or protective reaction of this ethnos. Since the loss of former values unambiguously presupposes the dominance of new introduced values and norms, the assimilated ethnic group perceives its culture as secondary and suppressed. This explains ethnopsychological factors and the conflicts that arise from them.

The emergence of a new ethnic group or religious movement contributes to the creation of new political leaders - political factors. Socio-economic status of a particular social group or ethnic group in a particular historical period affects the general position of the group in intergroup relations or causes tension, and the poor economic situation negatively affects the perception by the ethnic group of any actions directed at it, or the nature of relations with other ethnic groups and social groups projects the existing discrimination that creates the conditions for conflict to flare up.

Conflicts arising due to sociocultural differences, the most acute and long-lasting, as they occur as a result of the violent destruction of cultural differences. Religious, linguistic and other cultural norms are assimilated and destroyed. All this disintegrates the ethnos and therefore encounters resistance.

INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT

Interethnic or interstate conflict - contradictions that arise between states, nations, coalitions of states and affect a large number of people and international relations in general.

Specifics of interstate conflicts: a conflict that has arisen between two states, with its consequences, carries a danger to other states; interstate conflicts shape international relations in the world; interethnic conflict is a consequence of the wrong policy of the states participating in the confrontation.

The nature of the interests defended in interstate conflicts:

▪ ideology, discrepancy between the socio-political systems of states;

▪ the desire for dominance, both local and global;

▪ economic interests;

▪ territorial preferences or preservation of territorial boundaries;

▪ religious interests that influence the status of the state.

The causes of interstate conflicts are diverse, they can be subjective and objective.

In every ethnic conflict there are: main reasons; related; reinforcing or arising already in the course of the conflict.

At the stage of creating independent states and establishing their borders, many parameters are often not taken into account: the presence of cultural communities, ethnic groups, historical and natural characteristics of the area, all this aggravates international relations and provokes conflicts. Sometimes interstate conflicts occur in a military way. For example, the war between Iran и Iraq for the territorial spaces of states.

When an internal political conflict arises, some countries begin to interfere in the affairs of the conflict state, seeking to resolve contradictions and reduce political and social tensions (for example, the intervention of Russia into politics Iraq ).

Conflicts within the state lead to interethnic clashes without the participation of other states. This is due to the negative impact of internal political conflicts on the position of the state in the international arena.

Possible actions to resolve interstate conflicts:

1) creation of transnational systems in cultural, political, economic and other significant spheres of society;

2) observance by states of the principle of peaceful coexistence and recognition of various options for the development of society and the nation;

3) dominance in the field of legal regulation of relations between states of international organizations that ensure world security;

4) the reduction of armaments and the introduction of bans on the creation of weapons of mass destruction.

ARMED CONFLICT

Armed conflict - this is an open contradiction between medium and large social groups, in which the subjects use armed formations. Armed conflicts differ in the content and scale of goals, the use of means to achieve them, and the territorial space of the military conflict.

Types of armed conflict by goals:

1) fair (determined by the UN Charter and other international rules of law);

2) unfair.

According to the occupied territory of action, an armed conflict happens: local; regional; large scale.

Local wars are defined by territorial boundaries and have clearly established and limited goals. A local war can develop into a regional one. The latter pursues more important military-political goals; military formations of other states may participate. At the stage of escalation of an armed regional conflict, there is a possibility of transition to a large-scale armed conflict.

A large-scale armed conflict requires the mobilization of all the forces of the participants in the conflict, since the goals set are cardinal in terms of the changes achieved in society.

The following forms of armed conflict are distinguished: an armed incident, an armed action, any form of armed struggle limited in scope.

Specificity and signs of armed conflict

1. High probability of vulnerability of the population in whose territory an armed conflict unfolds.

2. The involvement of new participants in the course of the conflict.

3. Armed formations are slow and irregular.

4. Moral and mental stress.

5. Expenditure of forces and resources not only on the conduct of the conflict, but also on ensuring security, movement and location of the actors in the conflict (troops).

6. High danger of transformation into an international or civil war.

Despite the existence in the modern world of many legal conventions on the preservation of peaceful coexistence and the prevention of armed formations, the objective situation with regard to armed conflicts is negative. As a rule, problems here arise in connection with the numerous victims of people not participating in the armed conflict - civilians. Sometimes in connection with the armed conflict there is an illegal involvement of outsiders for the purpose of exploitation and additional physical forces. Children and women are especially vulnerable in this case.

The consequences of armed conflicts have a negative impact on the entire infrastructure of the social, political and economic life of society.

CONFLICT OF GENERATIONS

There are three main generations in society: the young, the mature and the older generation. Sometimes, when talking about the conflict between generations, they single out a group of fathers and children, grandchildren and fathers, etc. In this case, the generational conflict is transferred from the macro level to the micro level (a separate family). Family relations are a model of generational conflict, on its example all the contradictions of generations that exist in society are broadcast. Valid empirical studies in the sociology and conflictology of family relationships of a certain number of families make it possible to transfer the results obtained to the structure of the whole society and characterize the conflict of generations at the macro level.

At different stages of the development of society, it is possible to single out the most conflicted generation or group that provokes conflicts. The most respected and conflict-free generation is also determined. Each generation is characterized by a certain spiritual image, worldview, value orientations, interests, socio-psychological properties, status in society. Each generation has its own specifics.

Society XX century. characterized by conflict among young people. Since it is during this time that youth culture plays a dominant role in organizing and maintaining changes in society. Moreover, youth culture is not the mainstream movement, but its various subcultures. Especially in the second half XX century. Many subcultural movements are appearing, actively fighting and advocating for the interests of young people: hipsters, beatniks, mods, skinheads, hippies.

The culture of society is divided on the basis of the dominant of a particular generation into several cultures (the typology is proposed G. Mead ):

1) prefigurative - the mature generation "learns" from the younger generation;

2) cofigurative - exchange and learning among equals in age, among their generation;

3) post-figurative - the experience of elders and adults is significant, the younger generation draws knowledge from the older one.

A generational conflict may not develop according to the stages that are distinguished in other conflicts, since it has its own specifics: it is longer in time scale, the intensity of the conflict decreases at some stage or fades out completely. As a rule, in a society, all generations coexist peacefully, but when the fundamental interests of one generation or another are infringed, the conflict escalates.

For example, the economic and legislative infringement of the rights of young people at the beginning XNUMXth century. in France led to numerous demonstrations, picketing of government buildings and damage to the property of educational institutions.

CONFLICTS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Conflicts in organizations (or labor conflicts) - contradictions arising in labor relations and the conditions associated with their provision.

Organizational conflicts fall into two main categories. : interpersonal (as a rule, these are "vertical" conflicts); intergroup.

Parties (groups) of intergroup conflicts in organizations:

1) administration;

2) labor collective;

3) trade union;

4) another organization;

5) governing bodies, municipalities.

There are three areas of activity in which labor conflicts can occur.

1. The scope of working conditions: working conditions, ensuring the safety and comfort of the workplace, labor standards, etc.

2. The scope of fixed and accepted agreements on a particular subject of production.

3. Distribution of resources or provision of material rewards for work.

Any area of labor relations can become a subject of conflict in the organization if any of the parties (group) does not cope with the obligations and functions assigned to them. There are many possible causes of conflict in an organization.

External reasons may be:

▪ general increase in unemployment;

▪ reduction in the value of labor;

▪ impoverishment of the population;

▪ lack of regulation of working conditions by administrative circles.

Labor conflicts can have both negative and positive effects.

Positive consequences of conflicts in organizations include:

1) changing the socio-psychological climate towards improvement and mutual respect;

2) the conflict can help in overcoming various difficulties (social, economic, etc.) of the organization;

3) the conflict signals the weakest point in the relationship of labor groups, after which the defect can be eliminated;

4) the cohesion of the labor collective and the organization as a whole increases.

Resolution methods labor conflicts: strikes, speeches at meetings, demonstration, written or oral appeal to higher management or administration, statement in the media, settlement through trade union committees, appeal to the commission on labor disputes, dismissal.

An effective way to prevent and resolve labor conflicts is the conclusion of an agreement or an employment contract at the stage of employment or at the stage of a conflict that has already arisen. The contract includes the basic rights and obligations of all parties to the organization, contains acceptable ways to resolve labor conflicts and allows for democratic management of the conflict situation.

CONFLICTS IN MANAGEMENT

Management conflicts - these are conflicts that arise in the work team between the leader and the subordinate (conflicts "vertically").

The nature of subordination in the relationship between a subordinate and a manager can extend to two spheres: official and personal.

official relations imply formal rules and regulations and require the fulfillment of the functional instructions of the employee.

personal relationships, which arise in informal relationships, can reveal a discrepancy in temperaments and characteristics of the interaction between a manager and a subordinate, which also affects the nature of the relationship.

The manager defines a set of requirements and roles that the subordinate must fulfill, organizing all the conditions for their implementation.

Almost always, opportunities and conditions do not match the requirements, so a conflict arises.

Conflicts between a subordinate and a leader are determined by the following features :

▪ interpersonal conflicts in production are the most conflict-producing, since they are located in the “person-person” system;

▪ the substantive content of the activity in the relationship between the subordinate and the manager is important, since the quality of the subordinate’s professional activity and the result of his work depend on it;

▪ the occurrence of conflicts occurs more with more intense and frequent joint activities between the manager and the subordinate.

(Researchers of management conflicts define May and January as the most conflicting months, since during these periods the main reports and attestations are carried out, involving private contacts between the leader and the subordinate);

▪ More than half of the conflicts occur at the “immediate manager - subordinate” level. Therefore, relations between a manager and a subordinate who are close in status position are more conflict-generating than relations with a large status distance.

Poorly organized communication between a leader and a subordinate is the main cause of conflicts in relationships. If there are several managers, the subordinate must be clearly aware of the continuity of their requirements and perform work, guided by the hierarchy existing at the workplace. When managing a large number of subordinates, the manager must quickly manage the functional responsibilities of each employee. This will help prevent or reduce management conflicts.

Organization of working conditions - an important condition in the prevention of conflicts "vertically". In other words, all the functional duties of subordinates must be provided with the means to fulfill them.

FAMILY CONFLICT

Family conflict can arise between spouses, parents and children, grandchildren and the older generation. But still, when they talk about family conflict, they primarily assume a conflict between spouses. When any needs of the spouses are not met in the system of their interpersonal relationships, conflict may arise.

A. Antsupov и A. Shipilov identifies several main causes of conflicts between spouses:

▪ incompatibility of spouses based on psychosexual characteristics;

▪ lack of respect from the spouse;

▪ dissatisfaction with the need for emotional approval;

▪ satisfaction of one's needs by one of the spouses to the detriment of the needs of the other;

▪ lack of help and understanding in matters of education or other family issues;

▪ different leisure preferences and disapproval of hobbies.

Additional factors or conditions that create a conflict situation are some stages of married life, which theorists call crisis :

▪ crisis of the first year of life (adaptation period);

▪ the appearance of children in the family (a wide range of interfering conditions);

▪ midlife crisis (conflict of monotony);

▪ crisis of a family living for about 20 years (conflict of loneliness and loss, conflict of experiences).

As well as the external conditions of the social life of the spouses, the difficulties of which are directly reflected in the nature of family relations (employment problems, deteriorating financial situation, housing problems, etc.).

Family (marital) conflicts are divided into several types.

Conflict family - a clash of interests of spouses in many areas, the predominance of negative emotions in relationships. A problem family is a long-term existence of common social problems that lead to an aggravation of the relationship between spouses. Crisis family - an acute clash of interests of spouses in the most important areas of activity, the predominance of irreconcilable

relations between spouses, unwillingness to make concessions. A neurotic family is the accumulation of psychological and social difficulties that worsen the well-being of the spouses, as a result of which the psychological microclimate of the family is disturbed. Hidden and open forms of conflict behavior of spouses are determined. The resolution of conflicts between spouses should occur through mutual understanding and compromise, based on respect and the ability to forgive a spouse. It is recommended not to accumulate grievances and negative emotions, but to resolve emerging contradictions as they arise.

Divorce - one of the radical ways to resolve marital conflict. Psychologists believe that legal divorce is preceded by emotional and physical divorce.

CHILD-PARENT CONFLICT

Child-parent conflicts - one of the most common categories of conflict in modern times. This type of conflict is present even in prosperous families and is a contradiction in the relationship between children and parents.

Basically reasons the emergence of conflicts between parents and children are personal and psychological factors present in the relationship between parents and children.

Intra-family relationships are divided into two main types:

▪ harmonious type of relationships (predominance of balanced relationships, rational division of psychological roles within the family, ability to resolve emerging contradictions);

▪ disharmonious type of relationship (negatively colored relationships between spouses lead to conflictual interaction between spouses, the latter can cause negative emotions and feelings of anxiety in children; respect for parents is lost, psychological roles are violated, tension increases).

The disharmonious type of intra-family relations leads to conflicts between parents and children and projects destructive parenting style.

Features of destructive parenting:

▪ excessive prohibitions for children in areas of life that are significant to them;

▪ use of threats in demands made on children;

▪ condemnation of the child’s wrong actions in return for rewards and praise for achievements and successes;

▪ inconsistency and contradictory actions of parents;

▪ discrepancy between parents’ views on issues of education.

The causes of parental conflicts may be inadequate reaction of parents to age-related crises of children (crisis of 1 year, crisis of 6-7 years, crisis of puberty, etc.).

Age crises

▪ transitional periods of child development cause increased irritability in the child. Aggressive behavior of children, a negative attitude towards previously acceptable requirements are the causes of conflict interaction. The task of parents and children is to smooth relations during this period, and mutually strive to make compromises.

Types of conflicts between parents and children of adolescents:

1) the conflict of instability of the parental assessment of the child;

2) conflict when lowering the level of independence of the child, excessive control;

3) the conflict of overcare;

4) conflict of undeniable parental authority.

Conflict in the relationships and actions of parents causes a special reaction in children, expressed in different styles of behavior of the child :

▪ demonstration of a negative attitude, opposition on all issues;

▪ failure to comply with the requirements;

▪ avoiding communication with parents, hiding information about oneself and one’s actions.

CONCEPT AND FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL CONFLICT

social conflict - this is a conflict of large social groups that arose on the basis of social contradiction. In the modern world, there is an aggravation and an increase in the number of social contradictions, which leads to an increase in conflict in society.

Definition of social conflict Babosova reflects the modern specifics of social contradictions: "social conflict - an extreme case of exacerbation of social contradictions, expressed in a clash of social communities. "The communities that the domestic conflictologist speaks about here are not only national and ethnic groups, states, classes of society, but also social institutions that exist in society at this stage of development. Various goals pursued by institutions or social groups, as well as a mismatch of interests and values supported by social communities lead to social contradictions.Each social conflict is limited by its specific situation (causes, duration, scope, intensity), therefore, it requires resolution of the problem precisely in It is impossible to unite all social conflicts.

A significantly different definition of social conflict can be found in Zaprudsky "social conflict - this is a clear or hidden state of confrontation, objectively diverging interests, goals of social actors. "The causes of social conflict remain the same, the forms of conflict and ways of demonstrating the interests of social communities are changing. Zaprudsky interests are expressed by the social attitude of a particular community to the existing order in society, the distribution of social forces and the expression of general tendencies (social action). Social forces that participate in conflict do not always reflect the tendencies of their development in a conflict way or in a way of open struggle. Preserving one's positions and interests can already lead to a new "social unity." Therefore, social conflict is also the formation of a new order in the system of social relations.

The functions of social conflict were studied in detail L. Koser, defining their specificity for closed and open types of society.

Social conflicts can perform two main functions:

1) negative (destructive);

2) positive (constructive).

Social conflict theory has been influenced by some psychologists who have studied conflicts between large social groups (for example, D. Campbell and his theory of realistic group conflict, L. Berkowitz, D. Turner).

R. DARENDORFF'S THEORY OF CONFLICT

German-British sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf (b. 1929) towards the end 50s XX century. developed and substantiated his theory of the conflict model of society.

Conflict is the central category of all his sociological activity. It is featured in his book "Social Classes and Class Conflict in Industrial Society" (1957) and more mature publication "Modern Social Conflict" (1992). The sociologist's views on conflict echo his earlier dissertation research on the criticism of the theory Marx. Therefore, the class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie is recognized Dahrendorf as the main conflict, but does not explain the conflicts of modern society.

Society, by Dahrendorf, is presented as a constantly changing system of relationships between conflicting social groups or classes. Social conflicts are inevitable and necessary. The absence of conflict is considered abnormal for society.

Dahrendorf identifies different levels at which conflict can occur:

1) between inconsistent expectations that are placed on a person who plays a particular role;

2) between the social roles that we must play simultaneously;

3) intragroup conflicts;

4) between social groups;

5) conflicts at the level of society as a whole;

6) interstate conflicts.

Dahrendorf builds a hierarchy of conflicts that differ in the level of action - from the micro level to the macro level, numbering 15 types of conflicts. Class conflict as the central conflict of society depends on the nature of the power prevailing at a particular historical stage. In modern society, this conflict is defined as a conflict between industrial and post-industrial society. The conflicts of industrial society are losing their severity and significance. New conflicts are emerging, generated by a change in the nature of power and relations in society. For example, a conflict between image and lifestyle. Influence on such conflicts, according to Dahrendorf, meaningless and impractical, since they are formed by the natural evolutionary path of the development of society.

One of the directions of the theory of conflict Dahrendorf dedicated to the development of liberalism in society, the promotion of reforms and other changes in society, revealed in the books "Life Perspectives" (1979), "Law and Order" (1985).

Another important direction of his theory was the analysis of historical events that turned out to be a turning point for society. XX century. A sociologist studies global changes taking place in Europe in general and in Britain in particular, looking for the causes of social conflicts and transformations in society under the influence of revolutions.

THE THEORY OF SOCIAL CONFLICT G. SIMMEL

German sociologist Georg Simmel (1858-1918) is the founder of the direction of social conflict, in particular the theory of functional conflict. As the author of 30 books, the theory of conflict Simmel described in works:"Sociology" (1908), "Social differentiation", "Conflict and group bonds", "How society is possible".

On Simmel, conflict in society is inevitable and universal, as it stimulates change and develops society for the better. Within the framework of formal sociology, to which he belonged Simmel, the conflict was considered primarily at the macro level. At the same time, the sociologist writes: "The individual is the place where social threads are connected."

Personality forms the social interactions that construct society. Perceiving another person, we endow him with some of our own traits and create a "generalized type". Typifying his environment, the individual realizes that this does not exhaust the content of the personality, therefore, a contradiction arises - a conflict.

Simmel the first emphasizes the importance of spatial distance, which can arise in the social interactions of individuals. Appears status isolation - the status of a stranger, who is the most socially distant, and therefore free, causes a negative attitude on the part of others. But it is the emergence of such a status through conflict that leads to positive changes.

In society, there are various groups that have an independent reality and act according to intra-group laws. The conflict in the group affects the structure of the elements of this group, believes Simmel. The resulting contradiction can strengthen the centralization in the group and contribute to its self-preservation. The group may intentionally look for conflict situations outside in order to develop and progress in society. Another way of development is the closeness of the social group, its localization, the crystallization of forms of social interaction, adherence to traditions. All this slows down the development in society.

The inclusion of a third party in social contradiction is Simmel's undeniable contribution to social conflict theory. In confrontation, the sociologist believes, the conflict can develop in only one direction and have one outcome that excludes others. The inclusion of a third party provides multifaceted interactions, forms various relationships - from group solidarity to open confrontation.

Due to the variety of social interactions, society acquires different opportunities and conditions for development and is transformed. Thus, according to the theory Simmel, conflict performs an important positive function in the social process.

THE THEORY OF CONFLICT L. KOSERA

American functionalist sociologist Lewis Coser (1913-2003) developed the leading theoretical provisions, which became the fundamental prerequisites for the formation of the science of conflictology. His theory of conflict is presented in the writings "Functions of Social Conflict" (1956), "Further Studies of Social Conflict" (1967).

The main questions considered by Coser:

▪ causes of conflicts;

▪ types of conflicts;

▪ conflict functions;

▪ types of society;

▪ severity of the conflict;

▪ consequences of the conflict.

Koser saw the causes of conflicts in the shortage of any resources: authorities; prestige; values.

People by nature always strive for power and possession of more resources, so tension exists in any society. The differences between the conflicts that arise in this way can only lie in where the energy of the conflict itself is directed. Closed and open societies direct the energy of conflict differently.

Closed Society (rigid, unitary) is usually split into two hostile classes. The conflict between them completely destroys social harmony. Energy goes to the manifestation of violence, revolution.

open society is pluralistic in its political and social structure and more conflicting, as it is open to new influences. In it, there are several conflicts at once between different layers and groups. But at the same time, in an open type of society there are social institutions that can maintain social harmony and direct the energy of the conflict to the development of society.

That is why conflicts are of two types: constructive; destructive.

Conflict, in theory coser, is necessary and natural for any society, as it performs adaptive and integrative functions, contributes to the stability and viability of individuals in the social system. But with improper development, it can perform a negative or destructive function.

Therefore, the theory of functional conflict analyzes: the negative consequences of the conflict for society; positive consequences for society.

The emotions prevailing among the participants in the conflict, the level of values for which there was a struggle, determine the degree of severity of the conflict. The theory of functional conflict is often compared with the theory R. Dahrendorf, although Koser criticized his German colleague for the lack of research on the positive consequences of the conflict. The focus of conflict theory L. Koser generally opposed to the ideas of the theory of class struggle K. Marx and the theory of social harmony and "human relations" E. Mayo, which dominated in socialist countries.

THE THEORY OF CONFLICT K. Boulding

The American sociologist had a significant influence on the formation of conflictology Kenneth Boulding (1910-1993).

In his work "Conflict and Defense: A General Theory" (1963) he tried to reflect his concept "General Theory of Conflict".

boulding I am convinced that conflict is a characteristic feature of any process and any environment in society, including chemical, biological, physical. Regardless of the conditions in which the conflict was born, its functions, stages of development, methods of resolution will be identical. Conflict is a general and universal category.

boulding explained this by the special nature and form of human behavior. It is human nature to use violent methods to achieve their goals, to fight with surrounding individuals for the necessary resources.

That is why all social interactions are predominantly conflict.

This can be countered by:

▪ human mind;

▪ standards of morality and ethics.

The general theory of conflict distinguishes two models of conflict:

1) statistical;

2) dynamic.

In the statistical model, conflict is a system of two elements:

1) conflicting parties or objects;

2) the relationship that arises between them.

In a statistical conflict, the parties compete with each other for a particular position or resource that excludes mutual possession. The dynamic model of conflict is based on the principle of behaviorism, which states that the behavior of a person or animal is based on a stimulus that comes from the “stimulus-response” environment. Acting according to his own interests and various motives and facing difficulties in satisfying his social needs, a person is forced to build his behavior within the framework of the conflict. The motives of people are more complex in comparison with the motives of animals, some of them may be latent. Collisions in society can be called "reactive processes" and be considered conflicts.

In the dynamic model, conflict is diverse and dynamic.

boulding believes that it is possible to determine the main cause of the conflict - the incompatibility of the needs of the warring parties. Or, in other words, the principle that the sociologist called “scarcity” - the scarcity and limitation of resources that individuals strive to possess.

It is also possible to resolve or prevent conflicts using the principles of behaviorism, in particular the principle of learning. Conflicts in society can be modeled and, with the help of games, rational ways of behavior can be worked out, creating a plan or strategy of behavior in a conflict situation. The latter ultimately lead to harmonious and non-violent interaction in society.

THE THEORY OF AGGRESSION K. LORENTZ

Austrian biologist and ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) studied the nature of instincts and aggression. AT 1973 BC became a Nobel Prize laureate for achievements in the field of medicine and physiology. Features of human behavior Lorenz explained the biological component of his body and became one of the founders of ethology. His theory of aggression, which largely explains the conflict nature of a person, is presented in his books. “So-called evil: on the nature of aggression” (1963), “The other side of the mirror: an experience in the natural history of human knowledge” (1973), “Eight sins of modern humanity”.

Studying animal behavior Lorenz transferred the obtained data to the human body. He was a supporter of evolutionary development, therefore he believed that, like animals, man, with the help of the instinct of the struggle for survival, achieves his higher position compared to others.

Lorenz identifies three functions that the innate instinct for survival in the struggle performs:

1) the distribution of groups of people in various remote territories;

2) aggression, which is the basis in the struggle for survival, affects genetic changes - only the stronger and more aggressive representatives of the genus survive;

3) the strength of the organism and natural aggression make it possible to protect the offspring, guaranteeing its survival.

In ethology, aggression is characterized not just by struggle, but by the presence of anger, rage, and cannot be characterized by the criteria of justice/injustice. Lorentz was convinced that in any living organism aggression has the properties of accumulation, generation and uncontrolled release. The more aggression accumulates, the easier it is to provoke its outburst. In more cohesive communities where people have knowledge of each other and bring emotion into relationships, aggression is most natural and quicker to manifest. At the same time, aggression has positive consequences, as it contributes to the preservation and evolution of a genus or species of a biological organism.

The theory of aggression explains the existing violence in the world of human society, emphasizing the dominance of intraspecific aggression in animals and humans. Aggression cannot be avoided, since it is natural for a person as a biological organism. Social norms and rules that exist in society are partly capable of influencing aggression, sometimes even controlling it. A change in activity or a reorientation of a person's interests performs a regulatory function for aggression. Culture, traditions, rituals also have successful methods in reducing aggression in society.

THE THEORY OF FUNCTIONAL CONFLICT T. PARSONS

American sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), being a representative of structural functionalism, had a specific view of the content and nature of the conflict. His ideas are presented in books "The structure of social action", "The concept of society: components and their relationships".

Parsons defined society as a special type of social system that reaches the highest level of self-sufficiency in comparison with other surrounding systems.

Self-sufficiency - it is a function of providing control over the relations that arise in social systems, and the internal mechanisms that occur in the social system itself.

Parsons identifies five environments of social systems.

1. Higher reality.

2. Cultural systems.

3. Personality systems.

4. Systems of behavioral organisms.

5. Systems of the physical-organic environment.

As well as subsystems operating in an open system:

1) biological organism;

2) assimilation of norms and values;

3) a set of behaviors, roles;

4) goals and ideals of society.

The subsystems identified by Parsons provide the following functions:

▪ adaptive;

▪ personal (“goal achievement”);

▪ social (“integration”);

▪ cultural (“maintaining a social standard”).

If any function in a system or subsystem is disrupted, this causes destabilization and disorganization of the entire society and gives rise to conflicts. Conflict in society is an unnatural and anomalous phenomenon.

Parsons was convinced that between all elements of society one should strive to maintain conflict-free relations, balance and cooperation.

Parsons developed this idea of "social order" in which conflict is dominated by the achievement of consensus in the structure of relations and society.

In this way, Parsons rejects conflict as a way of social development, which causes 1950s. sharp criticism of the scientific community, nevertheless, his views remain a weighty alternative position of Western sociology. The development of society, according to Parsons, is possible due to the desire for the effective functioning of all elements of society. Over time, society increases the adaptive capacity, which prevents the formation of conflicts and failures. The internal integrating function of the social system can also help maintain consensus in social relations.

For example, through the development of legal institutions, the strengthening of the role of religious relations, the strengthening and preservation of customs in society, it is possible to ensure mutual understanding and order in public life.

R. PARK'S THEORY OF CONFLICT AND SOCIAL INTERACTION

Robert Park (1864-1944) is the founder of the Chicago School of sociology, which developed in 1920s. in America due to the rapid growth of the city Chicago. Sociology Park defined "as the science of collective behavior" and therefore explored all social processes that in one way or another affect a person, forcing them to use various forms of interaction.

The park identified four main types of interaction:

1) competition;

2) conflict;

3) fixture;

4) assimilation.

Any social phenomenon in society goes through these types of interaction and is associated with the natural environment in which it develops. For Parka becomes decisive ecological approach, i.e., the interaction of the individual with the social and natural environment. Fast growth Chicago how the cities of migrants assumed a mixture of forms, habits, attitudes of social interaction and provided a perfect field for research activities.

"Society cannot be broken up and then put back together again", - considers Park, explaining this by the fact that the individuals that make up society are united. The union of individuals is expressed:

▪ in attachments;

▪ habits;

▪ internal structure.

As a result of the collective actions of individuals, the unification of individuals takes place, social institutions are formed through the division of labor. Takova urban development concept, which was proposed Park. The extent to which an individual is free in collective action and can openly express himself, choose a status in the social hierarchy, move freely and compete for a place in the economy, determines the significance of a person in society. The marginal personality is a product of the cultural process and is the result of liberation from localist traditions, I am sure Park, therefore, although a marginal person or group is not fully included in social education, they are capable of forming new communities. The competition for resources and better conditions that arose initially gives rise to a conflict of social interaction among individuals or groups. Conflict is the main stage in the transition to new conditions of society.

Through empirical research into deviant behavior, crime, family organization, and the ways in which individuals adapt to the urban industrial environment, Park and others at the University of Chicago contributed conceptual knowledge of the sociology of the city, the ways in which individuals socially interact and cooperate.

Park for the first time explores the mechanisms of social control that are effective as a result of the use of symbolic means of the urban environment.

DIALECTIC THEORY OF CONFLICT K. MARX

The theory of social conflict in conflictology was significantly influenced by the views K. Marx (1818-1883). Being an adherent of a materialist approach to the history of the development of society, Marx believed that people tend to enter into various social relationships.

Social relations, like the desire to organize them, are phenomena independent of the consciousness of individuals. Society is formed due to this natural tendency and includes large and small social groups.

Society develops on the basis of the law of dialectics about the unity and struggle of opposites, in this case - classes.

Class relations, as stated Marx, are the basic relations that exist in society. They are characterized by a constant distribution of the material and spiritual resources of society between classes.

Distribution cannot occur without infringing on someone's interests, therefore conflicts are possible in society and relations between classes.

The main provisions of Marx's theory of conflict:

▪ a more uneven distribution of resources between classes gives rise to a more acute and deep-seated contradiction;

▪ knowledge about the interests and goals that make existence optimal is directly related to knowledge about the illegal distribution of resources for these goals;

▪ knowledge about the illegal and uneven distribution of resources in society contributes to the unification of the oppressed and open struggle with other classes;

▪ the conflict between classes will be resolved violently in the event of greater polarization between the ruling class and the oppressed class;

▪ the polarization of classes in society is influenced by the internal structure and ideological affiliation of class leaders;

▪ significant structural changes in the system of society and the system of class relations occur as a result of violent forms of conflict;

▪ A more significant redistribution of society's resources between classes can be expected from violent conflict.

Marx believed that the basis of social conflict in society is economic relations and relations arising in production. The set of production relations influences all other systems of relations in society: political, legal, state, family, collective, etc. Society develops progressively thanks to cause-and-effect relationships. Naturally, the historical process of development of society and relations in it is based on the only desire of individuals and social groups - the fair distribution of scarce resources between classes.

CONFLICTOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

The conflict has always occupied one of the leading positions in philosophy, but it has not received scientific development within the framework of this science. Chinese sages talked about the confrontation between positive and negative forces in man and in nature.

Heraclitus в Ancient greece believed that all development is generated by the struggle of opposites and this struggle is necessary and inevitable. War as a social conflict has always been at the center of attention of ancient philosophers. (Herodotus, Xenophon, Thucydides, Tacid, Plato).

Plato believed that war is evil, but sometimes it is necessary even in an "ideal state".

Epicurus was sure that military and violent methods would someday be replaced by peace and harmony in society. For philosophers, social confrontation in society was a natural phenomenon; it was only necessary to determine the criteria for the rationality of collisions.

Cicero believed that war could be "just and pious" or bring "unjust" violence.

In the Middle Ages, the comprehension of the inevitability of war continued, there are ideas of sanctioning such actions by the state.

Thomas Aquinas believed that the war could be called just.

N. Machiavelli saw the source of evil in power, influential people, in particular the nobility. The conflict, in his opinion, exists inextricably with society and can bring both destruction and positive moments.

T. Hobbes believed that the desire of people for equality always leads to wars and gives rise to rivalry.

F. Bacon approached the nature of conflicts in the society of the theoretical side and therefore was able to explain a lot in the causes of contradictions. One of the main reasons, in his opinion, was the existing poverty and its political ignorance in society.

In the period New time knowledge about the conflict as a special stage in the historical development of a particular society prevailed. At a certain point in time, society ceases to be equal and homogeneous, the harmony of existence is lost, so it becomes necessary to conclude a social contract. Obeying him, people regain the necessary values, a peaceful existence begins.

G. Hegel believed that only the state can resolve conflicts, since only it has effective power.

Later, the conflict was considered as an illiterate settlement of the situation, since the conflict has only negative functions and hinders the normal development of society. The concept itself "conflict" appears in the scientific world in 1970s.

THE PROBLEM OF CONFLICT IN SOCIOLOGY

Sociologists are pioneers in the development of conflictological concepts and views, which later made possible the emergence of a separate branch of knowledge. In the second quarter XX century. sociological research in of Russia were devoted to conflicts that arise at the enterprise and in any sphere of work. Workers' strikes, strikes, trade union movements and other forms of workers' struggle for better working conditions and their rights, which were especially common at that time, required researchers to analyze the whole situation and find ways to resolve it. Foreign colleagues were more concerned about the study of the conflict as a universal phenomenon and the definition of its functional significance for society. In the end XNUMXth century G. Spencer defined conflict as a natural struggle for survival, identifying society with a living biological organism;

G. Simmel at the beginning XX century. continues to argue that society will not be viable if it does not change due to conflict.

Simmel developed a functional theory of conflict and for the first time determined that the participation of a third party in a conflict situation contributes to the multifaceted development and positive consequences of the conflict.

Living in a society, individuals are involved in various social relations, which do not always depend on their actual desires. These social relations form the basis of the whole society and give rise to the problem of uneven distribution of social and material goods. In this vein, the conflict was considered K. Marxwho preferred economic explaining and resolving conflicts in society.

Approaching the middle XNUMXth century, sociological theories of conflict continue to be considered in a functional aspect, but the ways of explaining the nature of the conflict are becoming more diverse. Representing society as a structure and system of various spheres, the American sociologist T. Parsons saw the cause of the conflict in the disorganization of the social system. By developing adaptive abilities and contributing to the stability of ties in society, it is possible to reduce conflict. Strong in the scientific and practical sense are theories of conflict L. Koser, R. Dahrendorf... At the beginning 60s XNUMXth century. the general theory of conflict became especially popular K. Boulding.

Today, modern trends in the sociology of conflict are especially significant. :

▪ ethnic and international conflicts;

▪ conflicts in the family;

▪ labor conflicts and ways to overcome them;

▪ connection of conflicts with crime and deviations in society;

▪ analysis of theories of domestic and foreign “sociologies of conflict”.

THE PROBLEM OF CONFLICT IN PSYCHOLOGY

The development of theoretical postulates of the conflict is largely possible due to the significant scientific contribution of psychologists in this area. First XX century. Foreign psychologists are especially productive in studying the conflict.

The psychoanalytic direction (Z. Freud, A. Adler, K. Horney, E. Fromm) determined the areas of causes of conflicts in the individual:

▪ in the human unconscious;

▪ in interaction with the environment;

▪ impossibility of realizing personal aspirations.

Sociotropic direction (W. MacDougall, S. Siegele) in the psychology of conflicts, she paid attention to social instincts (fear, self-affirmation, crowd instinct, etc.) that exist in any society and therefore cause conflicts.

Allocate an ethological direction, in which the theory of conflict of the Austrian researcher K. Lorenz and his Dutch follower N. Tinbergen. The main cause of the conflict here is aggression, which can occur both in an individual and in a whole group or crowd. The leading direction in the psychology of conflict is occupied by the theory of group dynamics, the founder of which is K. Levin.

The theory explains the functioning of small social groups, the laws of formation and development of their structures, the relationship of the individuals that form them among themselves. Between the individual and the environment there is an undeniable connection, violation or distortion of this connection leads to tension and causes conflict in the individual.

Relations between people are always significant for individuals and cause them special reactions and emotions, therefore there are emotional preferences and antipathies in society. Their study according to the theory of sociometry I. Moreno able to prevent and resolve interpersonal conflicts and harmonize relations in a particular group or in society as a whole.

Significant theories of psychological conflict are also the theories of representatives of the Chicago school (T. Shibutana), D. Mida, transactional analysis theory E. Berna. Considering the main opposing sides "personality-environment", "personality-personality", these theories paid special attention to the rational organization of any interaction and conflict-free relations.

Among domestic theories of the psychology of conflict, the most valuable approach is L. Petrovskaya about the general methodology of the conflict, the study of conflicts of socialization A. Royak, T. Dragunova, approach to intrapersonal conflicts A. Leontiev, V. Myasishchev, A. Spivakovskaya and more

Modern trends in the development of conflict in psychology: the theory of organizational systems; negotiation processes (R. Fisher, D. Rubin) ; game direction in conflict prevention.

PSYCHOLOGY OF CONFLICT BEHAVIOR

Human behavior can sometimes be the cause of conflict in the system of interpersonal relationships. Conflict behavior can be conscious and unconscious. In the first case, the individual intentionally creates conflict situations and by his actions supports the development of the conflict.

This behavior is due to many reasons. : the desire of the individual to assert himself in this way; a conflict situation reveals the true position of the communication partner, therefore a contradiction is created to clarify the motives of the other party’s actions; conflict reveals the individual qualities of a person, projects his social attitudes and value system; deliberately causing discord in order to establish a new system of relations.

Conscious conflict behavior can be used by leaders and instructors of trainings in their professional field. Simulation of conflict situations in trainings and business games launches a mechanism for team building, generation of non-standard solutions and search for strategies to resolve the conflict. Conflict models are effective techniques in the prevention and prevention of conflict situations in real life and interactions.

Unconscious conflict behavior is a more frequent example in the system of interpersonal relationships.

The conflict behavior in this case is determined:

▪ incompetence of the individual;

▪ lack of practices and experience in constructive and conflict-free communication;

▪ individual characteristics of a person’s psyche and character;

▪ undeveloped social and moral attitudes of the subject of interpersonal relations;

▪ unorganized or poorly organized system of norms, rules regulating conduct and defining acceptable forms;

▪ low culture of communication in the social community and its representative in particular;

▪ imbalance of role relationships: discrepancy between the role occupied and the role expected by others;

▪ uncontrollability with the requirements;

▪ the individual’s reaction to frustration, physical condition, depression;

▪ problems in a personally significant area can lead to aggression and conflict behavior in another area.

There can be many reasons for conflict behavior, since they are mostly of a subjective nature. The objective component can be corrected, for example, by teaching the skills of rational criticism, arguing one's position, non-verbal communication. The level of competence is especially important in the field of management. Incompetent management and, as a result, conflict behavior leads to serious negative consequences at any level.

BORDERS OF THE CONFLICT

Any conflict has certain boundaries. For example, boundaries in space, in time, internal or external.

Spatial boundary of the conflict - this is the territory on which the conflict occurs (sea, land, air, etc.). The territory can be physical (or geographical) and social.

Social space is divided into three types:

1) economic (for example, financial struggle);

2) social (for example, the immediate environment or a group of people);

3) symbolic (various attributes of power and prestige: flags, portraits, monuments, hymns, streets, etc.).

The definition of physical boundaries is of the greatest importance in matters of international relations and contradictions.

Temporary boundary of the conflict is the duration of the conflict. There are short-term, periodic or long-term conflicts.

The conflict begins with the outward manifestation of one's actions by one participant, provided that the participant to whom these actions are directed is aware of them as hostile to himself and begins to counteract them. The coincidence of these three conditions determines the beginning of the conflict. If an individual is only aware of the negativity of the act of behavior directed at him, but does not oppose him with his actions, then the conflict cannot be considered begun. The actions of the opposing sides in the beginning of the conflict must be objective and expressed physically, and not mentally. The opposite of positions is not yet a conflict. Mental planning of a future conflict situation is defined by some theorists of conflictology as a latent stage of the conflict.

The conflict can be considered over in various situations: the conflict is over; exit from the conflict of one of the parties (for example, in wartime); intervention in the conflict of a third party (mediators, judges); termination of all opposing sides.

Another aspect of determining the boundary of the conflict is the number of participants (organizations or groups) or elements of the conflict system. If the external conflict can be resolved and the situation recovers by itself, then the internal conflict must be resolved. Determining the internal boundaries of the conflict is associated with the identification of all conflicting parties.

The elements of the system can be:

1) directly opposing sides;

2) the organizers of the conflict, not participating in the escalation of the conflict;

3) instigators;

4) advisors;

5) supporters of the conflict.

Having determined all the elements of the conflict situation system, it is possible to influence the ongoing processes.

STRATEGIES OF BEHAVIOR IN CONFLICT SITUATIONS

Each party to the conflict chooses a form of behavior that the party adheres to throughout the entire conflict interaction. The choice of strategy is determined by the individual characteristics and social attitudes of the participants in the conflict. The chosen strategy is not transformed into another even under the influence of the strategy occupied by the opponent.

Strategy of behavior in a conflict situation - this is the direction and features of the action of the conflicting party, maintained until the end of the conflict.

Five main strategies of behavior are defined:

1) cooperation;

2) compromise;

3) avoidance;

4) fixture;

5) rivalry.

In addition to the individual preferences of the subject of the conflict and his moral principles, the choice of strategy is also influenced by objective factors. : the degree of damage and the amount of losses in conflict interaction; an objective assessment of damage to the opponent; the quantity and quality of resources that can be used to achieve their goals and satisfy interests; the status of the opponent; the position of the opponent in relation to the other side in the conflict interaction (the chosen strategy of the opponent's behavior); assessment of the consequences of the conflict in a particular strategy of action; temporal and spatial characteristics of the conflict; principledness of solving the problem, the significance of one or another outcome of the contradiction for the subject of the conflict.

Cooperation is the most effective behavior strategy. The positions of the parties are equated with the positions of allies and partners, therefore a constructive resolution of the conflict is possible. The choice of cooperation is determined by the high significance of the problem being solved for all parties to the conflict, as well as their interdependence.

A compromise is preferable when the subjects of the conflict have equal statuses and resource capabilities or there is a danger of losing them with any other choice of action. Compromise is the most common strategy in real life, as it allows you to quickly resolve the conflict.

In the absence of a desire for active action to achieve the goal or time to achieve it, an avoidance strategy is chosen. If avoidance is used at the initial stage of development of the contradiction, the conflict fades and keeps the forces and resources of the conflict subjects unspent.

Adaptation - this is a forced strategy of action, due to the loss of strength, the understanding of the impossibility of an alternative outcome, or other subjective reasons.

Rivalry is assessed by practitioners in two ways, as it sometimes brings immediate positive consequences, but can also cause significant damage to one of the parties to the conflict.

TYPES OF STRESS IN CONFLICT

The state of stress may arise as a result of a conflict situation, and may be the cause or reason for the start of the conflict.

Stress is characterized by psychophysiological parameters and manifests itself individually. Each person has their own stress tolerance threshold.

Based on the nature of stress, the following types of stress are distinguished:.

1. Physiological.

2. Psychological.

3. Emotional and psychological.

4. Information-psychological.

Classification of stress by areas of manifestation can look like this:

1) autogenous;

2) professional;

3) technogenic.

Psychological stress is associated with the individual characteristics of a person, his reaction to a particular situation. The work of the protective mechanisms of the psyche, the emotional-volitional stability of the individual, the ability to relieve stress - characteristics that influence the degree of a person’s resistance to psychological stress. This stress includes phenomena of the group or mass psyche: fears, panic, frustration, anger, aggression and all the problems that arise with their manifestation.

Psychological stress manifested by anxiety, depression, increased irritability, anxiety, increased fears.

Physiological stress occurs as a complication or consequence of psychological stress, but in some people it may precede other types of stress.

Physiological stress - an atypical reaction of the physical (physiological) nature of a person to a conflict situation. This reaction is manifested by a change in the physical condition of a person: insomnia, chronic fatigue, exacerbation of chronic diseases, dizziness, loss of appetite and other body reactions.

Emotional stress - emotional unstable reaction to conflicts, the inability to cope with the emotional stress that increases during conflict interaction. In this case, the individual spends large emotional resources of his psyche, so stress sets in.

Information and psychological stress occurs due to information overload. In any interpersonal interaction, the human brain receives a large amount of information that must be processed. Excessive amounts of work, numerous contacts increase the amount of information, causing overwork.

In a conflict, the subjective attitude of a person to the contradiction is important, since it can contribute to stress.

But the objective conditions are no less significant - the technogenic, professional environment in which a person is located. In a conflict situation, it also affects the human psyche and body, increasing susceptibility to stress.

CONFLICT PREVENTION

Conflict prevention - this is a system of various methods, methods of influence and knowledge that contribute to the prevention of an open conflict at the stage of a contradiction brewing. The conflict prevention technology can be used both by the participants in the emerging conflict, and by a third party - an invited expert, mediator, or an independent and objective person in a growing contradiction.

The basis for conflict prevention lies in changing the actions of any participant in a conflict situation. A more complex and, as practice shows, less effective way of prevention is to influence and change the views and actions of the opponent. It is easier to prevent conflict by changing your behavior.

Techniques to help build conflict-preventing behavior:

▪ the latent stage of the conflict does not last a minute and takes a significant period of time, during which you can notice the beginning of pre-conflict interaction and change your behavior (for example, partially admit that the interlocutor is right, change the topic of conversation, remain silent and return to the conversation later);

▪ at the stage of conflict unfolding, find out as accurately as possible the motives and interests of your opponent and express yours, so that the cause of the conflict does not become a common misunderstanding of each other;

▪ always remember that preventing conflict is easier at the initial stage and very difficult at the stage of open conflict;

▪ showing patience with opposing opinions will earn you respect from your opponent and set him up for less conflictual interactions;

▪ demonstrate your understanding of your opponent's views when he speaks;

▪ think in advance about the upcoming conflict interaction: predicting the possible course of development of the contradiction will help you minimize negative emotions and act rationally;

▪ if you lose control of the situation, reduce the conversation to a joke, since continuing the conversation will still not be productive, it is better to continue it at another time.

If you are trying to change the behavior and views of the opponent and thereby prevent conflict, remember the following rules :

▪ the opinion and actions of any person cannot be changed quickly;

▪ each person is unique, his behavior is determined by his individuality;

▪ do not increase the area of contradictions with the opposing side;

▪ when criticizing your opponent’s position, do not mix analysis and your attitude with his personal qualities;

▪ be an example for your opponent of changing behavior and concede in some positions, this is the most effective technique for changing your opponent’s actions.

WAYS TO OVERCOME THE STRESS CONSEQUENCES OF THE CONFLICT

There are various ways to relieve stress, the technology of working to overcome it is now well-established and can offer a variety of options, taking into account the individual characteristics of a person.

In increasing the threshold of a person’s stress resistance, the following parameters are distinguished:.

1. Maintain a healthy lifestyle.

2. Recovery of health after exercise.

3. Prevention of stress.

Paying attention to one's health, a person provides his psyche and body with additional resources necessary for full functioning in society.

Allocating the necessary time for sleep, walking in the fresh air, organizing a balanced diet, and changing physical activities are important conditions for maintaining a healthy lifestyle. A healthy lifestyle allows a person to cope with daily work more easily and to respond rationally to emerging contradictions and conflicts. His health potential helps him to be active in all areas of life and not notice or overreact to any obstacles.

Restoring health after exercise is also an essential condition for overcoming stress. It is important to replenish expended resources every time, since the accumulation of fatigue leads to irritability, deterioration of health and aggravates the stressful state. The best methods of recovery involve a temporary change in a person’s social environment. For example, going to the theater, museum, gym, walking by a pond or in a park. Any bright and unusual impressions at this time will diversify the routine and distract from the conflict. Replenishing spent resources can be a short-term change from an active rhythm of life to a more passive one - resting at home, increasing sleep time. If it is not possible to immediately restore the optimal functioning of the body and psyche, it is recommended to properly organize your vacation, during which you can also restore your health.

Prevention of stress is one of the most effective and relevant now areas of overcoming conflict stress. There are many ways to prevent, from excellent daily routine planning to yoga.

The main condition in the prevention of stress is the desire of a person to expand the boundaries of his worldview. Time limits can be expanded by analyzing past actions and predicting future ones. The emergence of any conflict can be predicted, therefore, it can be prevented. The increase in spatial boundaries allows a person to become information-savvy, the breadth of knowledge makes it possible to see alternative options for resolving the conflict.

THE CONCEPT OF "CONFLICT MANAGEMENT"

Conflict management - this is the activity of the subject of the conflict, carried out by him throughout all stages of conflict interaction and involving conscious control of what is happening.

Conflict management involves the implementation of the following activities by the subject of the conflict or an independent person:

▪ detection of symptoms of a conflict situation;

▪ diagnostics of ongoing relationships and possible contradictions in this area;

▪ forecasting probable conflicts in the future and ways of their development;

▪ conflict prevention;

▪ collision prevention;

▪ weakening of emotional tension and intensity of the conflict situation at the stage of development and escalation of the contradiction;

▪ conflict resolution using the necessary methods and techniques for a specific conflict situation.

The level of competence of the individual affects his ability to manage the conflict.

Competence can lie both in the relevant professional training and in the rich life experience of the individual. Conflict can occur in any area and have a different nature of contradiction. Management can only be carried out if the individual is aware of this area. It is also necessary to have all the information about the happened or possible conflict situation, knowledge must be meaningful and deep, since only knowledge allows you to influence the situation and manage it. The lack of competence in the conflict issue leads to negative consequences both in the development of the conflict itself and in the social environment.

Management of an already unfolding conflict consists in providing the conflicting parties with the opportunity to disclose and protect their interests, openly demonstrate their position. This possibility should be provided within the framework of the organization of non-conflict modes of expression. The lack of opportunity for opponents to develop a problematic situation leads to greater tension, which should be removed when managing a conflict. By managing, the individual provides interaction through constructive ways: cooperation, avoidance of confrontation, mutual compromise.

The practice of conflict management shows that radical changes in the structure and dynamics of a conflict situation cause a negative attitude among the subjects of the conflict, therefore, making fundamental changes and rules of behavior should be avoided. It is only recommended to direct the conflict without interfering with its natural course of development.

Suppressing, overcoming, eliminating and extinguishing conflict - methods of influence used in conflict management.

FORMS OF ENDING CONFLICTS

Ending the conflict - this is the activity of the subjects of the conflict, based on the desire to resolve the conflict and the problem that led to it.

Basic forms of ending the conflict : permission; attenuation; settlement; elimination; ending by escalating into another conflict.

The first two forms of termination are carried out by the forces of the subjects of the conflict.

Resolution requires the joint participation of opponents to change their initial positions. This can happen through mutual concessions or mutual compromise of the warring parties, or through the establishment of cooperation.

Attenuation - This is a temporary and partial completion of the conflict. The contradiction that caused the collision is not resolved, tensions may remain between the opponents.

It leads to a similar form of completion: changing the priorities of the motives driving opponents; loss of significance of the object of the conflict situation; insufficiency of forces to continue the conflict or depletion of resources.

The settlement and elimination of the conflict are forms of completion that occur with the participation of independent parties.

Settlement can occur without the consent of the conflicting parties.

As a result of ongoing negotiations, third parties reduce the conflict to a compromise solution, seek concessions from the main subjects of the conflict.

Elimination conflict is based on a radical change in the elements of the conflict structure. This is a fairly tough form of conflict resolution, but in some conflicts it is the only possible one.

Methods of settlement upon elimination:

▪ long-term temporary prevention of interaction between conflicting parties;

▪ ensuring complete exclusion of interactions between opponents;

▪ liquidation of the object of the conflict;

▪ satisfaction of the interests of all subjects of conflict interaction.

Sometimes, during conflict interaction, a new object of conflict appears. If its significance for opponents is greater than the previous object, then their interaction develops into another conflict. This form of ending the conflict is possible both with independent joint actions of the conflicting parties, and with the participation of a third party in resolving the conflict.

With any form of conflict ending, it is important to understand when the conflict can be considered completed.

The main criteria for the end of the conflict :

1) satisfaction of the conflicting parties with the results of completion;

2) cessation of opposition;

3) achievement of the goal of one of the parties;

4) division of the object of conflict between opponents;

5) elimination of one of the participants in the conflict;

6) change in the position of one of the parties to the conflict.

WAYS TO RESOLVE CONFLICTS

There are two main ways to resolve conflict:

1) forceful suppression;

2) negotiations.

Force suppression (both moral and physical) occurs, as a rule, after the conflicting participants apply the strategy of rivalry. The stronger subject of the conflict asserts his position, forcing the opponent to submit to it and accept the demands of the strong side. In this case, the goal of only one side is fully achieved. The other party fulfills all the requirements of the winning party or by apology admits its mistakes.

Negotiation is the opposite way to resolve conflicts.

Talks - a process in which mutually acceptable positions of the parties are developed. Here, all the conflicting parties are aimed at achieving mutual interests and resolving the problem that caused the conflict. To use the negotiation technique, it is necessary to transfer the course of relations between opponents from emotional to rational. It is important to have a clear understanding of the ongoing process in order to find compromises or establish cooperation. There are special techniques to normalize the relations of the conflicting parties. One of them is the "PRISN" technique, proposed by the psychologist Charles Osgood.

"PRISN" - consistent and reciprocal initiatives in stress reduction. This technique serves as an effective tool in reducing tension among the subjects of conflict in any type of conflict (interpersonal, intergroup, interstate).

Rules of the PRISN method :

▪ show the conflict participants some steps aimed at reconciliation, explaining their content and functional necessity;

▪ openly declare that one of the opponents is trying in every possible way to stop the open conflict;

▪ fulfill all promises made publicly;

▪ in every possible way encourage the opposing side to determine the concessions it is willing to make in exchange for concessions from the other side;

▪ the stage of concessions takes quite a long time, it should not be accelerated;

▪ While expecting concessions from your opponent, it is important to protect the reciprocity of the relationship.

Another effective technique on the way to the negotiation process can be the technique of open conversation.

Some points of this method:

1) make a proposal to end the conflict;

2) analyze their behavior in the conflict, find mistakes or shortcomings in it and recognize them as such for the opponent;

3) explain to the opponent the content of the concessions that you expect from him;

4) demonstrate and make clear your concessions;

5) keep the conversation calm, control your emotions;

6) record the constructive results that have been achieved together.

POSITIVE EFFECTS OF THE CONFLICT

Thanks to many studies in the field of conflict, a large number of positive consequences or functions of the ongoing conflict have been identified. Positive consequences are identified both at the personal level, where the participants in the conflict are considered, and at the social level, where the environment of the conflict is considered.

Positive consequences for the first category (on a personal level):

1) the conflict is aimed at creating a structure in a social group, it contributes to the rallying of like-minded people or the group as a whole;

2) the conflict stimulates the development of personality and individuality, gives new knowledge that is useful in the future to prevent a conflict situation;

3) the conflict eliminates the "submission" syndrome, provoking individuals to activity;

4) the conflict performs an informational function (in a conflict situation, participants reveal many personal traits and characteristics, so they get to know each other better);

5) conflict can improve interpersonal relationships, positively affects the quality of activities, the behavior of the parties involved;

6) the clash of views and opinions leads to the expansion of behavioral strategies, the boundaries of the worldview of the participants in the conflict.

Positive consequences and functions of conflict at the social level:

▪ conflict forces already established relationships, groups, systems to change towards improvement;

▪ the innovative function of conflict is also aimed at developing existing interactions;

▪ conflict, as an indicator, reveals advantages and disadvantages in the system, finds the weakest connections and reveals the strengths of relationships - a diagnostic function;

▪ conflict resolution relieves the mental and emotional tension of the participants and the entire environment as a whole, acting as a kind of release for the psyche and body of all subjects of the conflict;

▪ conflict explores opinions common in the environment, reveals collective moods and attitudes, contributes to the actualization of democratic and humanistic values - the moral function of conflict;

▪ conflict creates more harmonious relationships among the participants and optimizes the external conditions in which the participants find themselves;

▪ function of conflict cohesion, establishing a more friendly environment;

▪ conflict is used as a means of stimulating more productive activities of participants;

▪ modeling a conflict situation in business or role-playing games performs a cognitive function;

▪ conflict can be considered as the prevention of conflict situations in the future, the value of consent and conflict-free behavior increases

NEGOTIATION TECHNIQUES FOR CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Talks - a way to resolve conflicts, possible when the conflicting parties realize the futility of the conflict and strive for a settlement. Negotiations are based on the adoption of joint decisions by the conflicting parties, regardless of how much they agree with them. The parties choose solutions that are determined as the best in this particular situation.

Types of negotiations on goals achieved by the subjects of the conflict:

1) extension of existing contracts;

2) normalization of relations;

3) redistribution of resources or the object of the conflict in favor of one of the parties;

4) creation of new agreements and arrangements;

5) achieving secondary effects that distract from the main object of the conflict.

All negotiation techniques perform the following functions: informational; explanatory; coordination; binding / unifying; demonstration/propaganda; distracting; controlling.

Solutions, that can be negotiated:

1) cooperation through a "new solution";

2) compromise solution;

3) compromise of one of the parties (asymmetric decision).

In practice, a compromise solution occurs more often, in which all conflicting parties agree to make concessions. There is a division of the interests of opponents into more important issues and directions for them.

In them, the conflicting party seeks to gain advantages that the opponent can provide. Instead, the conflicting party concedes in matters that are significant to its opponent. Negotiations maintain the necessary balance of concessions, or the "Pareto principle", which ensures the indisputability of a certain level of interests of the subjects of the conflict.

V. Pareto proposed this principle in 1904 BC, now it has not lost its relevance.

If the concessions of one side prevail over the compromise of the other conflicting side, an asymmetric solution occurs. Its degree of inequality can be different: from a complete victory of one of the parties to insignificant losses of the other side.

The most difficult and requiring both creative and professional work is the search for a new solution in the negotiation process. This solution was proposed and justified by the Americans R. Fischer and W. Yurii at first 1980s. It lies in the ability to consider the object of the conflict in a broader context, form a new system of values and offer a non-standard view of the conflict situation. The most common negotiation techniques are waiting, leaving, gradually increasing complexity, dividing problems into separate sectors, false accents, expressing agreement, remaining silent, etc.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE NEGOTIATION PROCESS FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF THE CONFLICT

The negotiation process - a phenomenon that is quite long in terms of time parameter, since it contains certain stages, only the consistent achievement of which leads to the resolution of the conflict.

The structure of the negotiation process

1. Preparation for negotiations.

2. Negotiating.

3. Analysis of the results of negotiations.

4. Implementation of the reached agreements.

The first stage begins with a statement by one of the parties to the conflict or a third party about the desire and preparation for negotiations. A space for negotiations is organized, the optimal number of participants and the timing of the negotiations are determined. The selection of the invited delegation should be carried out according to the principle of observing the teamwork of the participants. At the preparatory stage, the interests of the conflicting parties are analyzed, their hierarchy is built, and the true object of the conflict is revealed.

Possible solutions to the contradiction are developed in advance. Their high variability and alternative outcomes are welcomed. Each decision considers the necessary resources, determines the degree of costs and benefits for each of the conflicting parties.

Any proposal must have a strong motivation, well-formed in a form that is understandable to all subjects of negotiations. Ambiguity and complication of the wording of the proposal are excluded. The decision involves objective arguments, which, if necessary, are explained to the participants in the negotiations.

Negotiation - the stage of open discussion of the conflict. Any unclear points should be clarified at this stage of the negotiations. Each party must have a clear understanding of the interests of other parties, unambiguously understand the position of each subject of the conflict. The concessions that each of the parties can make, as well as the interests that are fundamental to them, are discussed.

The final approval of the decision to be made takes place in two stages:

1) coordination of the general concept and provisions of the decision;

2) clarification and agreement on the details of the decision.

Results analysis stage negotiations helps the parties to understand the position they have achieved. There is a subjective assessment: the higher it is, the more successful the negotiations can be considered. The degree of resolution of the main contradiction is analyzed. As a rule, at this stage a document is drawn up containing the agreements of the parties and other results of negotiations.

The final stage negotiations serves as an objective indicator of the success of the negotiations. The parties fulfill their obligations and act within the framework of the concluded agreement.

PARTICIPATION OF MEDIATORS IN CONFLICT SETTLEMENT

Mediator - a third (independent) party providing direct assistance in resolving the conflict. For the first time, mediation received its recognition in USA в 1960s. The consolidation of such activities in the institution of dispute resolution occurred in 1983 BC There are official and unofficial mediators. In the first case, the mediator has the appropriate status; his social and normative position contributes to the resolution of the conflict. The unofficial mediator is endowed with the necessary powers by the conflicting parties themselves, who recognize his undeniable authority and objectivity.

Mediators can be: organizations of any level and status (international, governmental, public); states; institutions of the state (including the court); law enforcement agencies and their representatives; leaders of various levels and organizations; representatives of religious organizations; specialists in psychology, social work, pedagogy; people who have public respect and authority among the participants in the conflict; professional mediators.

The mediator, depending on the type of conflict, can act in different roles: mediator, observer, arbitrator, assistant, arbitrator.

Positive factors of participation of the mediator in conflict resolution:

1. Ensuring the orientation of all conflicting parties to constructive joint activity in the settlement.

2. Thanks to the experience of the mediator, conflict resolution is achieved in a shorter and less costly way.

3. The mediator is able to reduce the degree of tension of the conflicting parties and the conflict as a whole.

4. A professional mediator chooses tactics and techniques appropriate to a given conflict situation.

The main stages of mediation in the conflict :

1) clarifying the essence of the conflict, the temporal and spatial continuum - achieving a complete understanding of the nature and characteristics of the conflict;

2) the activities of the mediator, aimed at studying the individual characteristics of the conflicting parties: the longest stage, which involves multiple meetings of the mediator with the subjects of the conflict, clarification of positions and requirements, formalization of proposals and criticism in neutral and constructive forms, stress relief;

3) the stage of negotiation: it requires considerable efforts and high professionalism from the mediator, the mediator occupies various roles and performs the functions of control and regulation of the interaction of the conflicting parties, summarizes the statements of the parties, explaining them if necessary, notes the achievement of results after each meeting.

FORECASTING THE CONFLICT

Conflict Prediction - a conscious and reasonable assumption about the possibility of the emergence and development of a conflict. Forecasting is based on empirical studies of conflictology, a thorough analysis of past conflicts and a diagnosis of the current situation.

Conflict Prediction Techniques - accumulated experience of the theoretical and practical component of the scientific discipline of conflictology. Only a high level of development of the scientific industry makes it possible to foresee conflicts and make their forecast.

In predicting conflicts, it is necessary to foresee not only the emergence of a conflict at a certain stage of development of a particular system, but also to determine possible options for the development of a conflict clash. To do this, it is necessary to have systematic data on various types of conflicts. The data includes a complete description of the conflict situation model: subject area or essence of the conflict, structural components of the conflict, functions, spatial and temporal boundaries, stages of development and degree of intensity of the contradiction. After drawing up descriptive models, theorists and practitioners of conflictology prepare explanatory models of conflicts. The development of such models is also possible only after a deep analytical and systematic analysis of conflicts. Explanatory models reveal the main causes of conflict and the driving forces of its development. Thus, the predictive ability of conflictology is formed only after the stages of description and explanation.

The study of conflict for making reliable forecasts includes an analysis of the past, present and future. Existing in some cities of Russia conflictology centers conduct systematic analyzes and develop forecasts of possible social clashes. Particularly relevant are the political and economic spheres of society, as well as ethnic and international issues, conflicts in which can lead to very negative consequences.

Conflict prediction is the most effective way of conflict prevention activities. Forecasting possible future conflicts is one of the main directions in conflict management, since at the earlier stages of the emergence of social contradictions, management is most efficient and least costly in terms of resources and influencing forces. Early identification of contradictions in society, carried out thanks to forecasting, leads to a constructive resolution of the problem situation, avoiding any negative consequences of a possible conflict.

PREVENTION OF CONFLICT SITUATIONS

Conflict prevention - organization of social interactions of individuals, excluding or minimizing the possibility of conflicts between the subjects of society.

The main goal of prevention - create conditions that will not allow social and interpersonal interactions to lead to clashes and destructive characteristics. Conflict prevention is an integral part of conflict management and refers to preventive techniques.

Conflict Prevention Focus Areas :

1) organization of external conditions that prevent the emergence of contradictions or reduce the likelihood of their occurrence;

2) ensuring adequate management parameters in the activities of subjects;

3) influence on socio-psychological attitudes that can lead to conflict - elimination of the subjective causes of the conflict.

The objective external conditions in preventive work include:

▪ fair distribution of resources between all participants in the general system of interpersonal relations;

▪ organization of optimal physical characteristics of the working environment;

▪ social support from the environment and encouragement;

▪ creation of a positive psychological microclimate in the system of relationships;

▪ detailed development of norms, rules and acceptable forms of communication governing relations.

Purposeful management

▪ a significant factor in reducing the likelihood of conflict situations. It consists in creating an optimal structure of interaction, establishing communication mechanisms between the structural elements of the system, correlating functional requirements with the capabilities of subjects and the external environment, timely assessment of performance results and making adjustments. The subjective direction in preventing conflicts and regulating interactions is the most complex set of techniques.

The main preventive actions in this case are:

▪ creating harmonious social roles occupied by participants during interaction, fulfilling the role expected by others, eliminating interactions between obviously conflicting roles, cultivating equality in relationships;

▪ maintaining an optimal balance of dependence/independence of the structural elements of the relationship system from each other;

▪ organization of informal relationships that help fulfill functional responsibilities and regulate the level of socio-psychological comfort/tension;

▪ careful use of punishments; irrational and conflict-free criticism;

▪ creation of criteria for the most fair assessment of the activities of system subjects and for self-assessment.

Author: Kuzmina T.V.

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