History of the economy. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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History of the economy. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. The history of economics as a science. Periodization of economic history

History of economics studies the process of economic development of society in a historical perspective. Economic history consists of the history of the economy of various peoples.

The task of the history of economics is to determine the characteristics of the economic development of individual countries, as well as common features and patterns of economic development.

The history of economics as a science is located on the border of two disciplines - history and economics. As an independent science, it stood out at the end of the XNUMXth century. Socio-economic processes have been studied before, but since that time there has been a qualitative breakthrough in research on economic history. At the same time, works appeared in Russia V. Ulyanov, M. Tugan-Baranovsky, P. Milyukov, dedicated to the history of economic development in Russia. Works on economic history appeared in the West M.Weber, W.Sombart, A.Toynbee.

There are several approaches to the periodization of the history of the economy:

1) periodization according to Hildenbrandt-Bücher - the division of historical eras was based on the length of the path that a commodity-product covers when moving from a producing economy to a consuming one:

a) subsistence farming (from ancient times to the middle of the XNUMXth century). The length of the path, no more than a mile, from the farmer's field through the mill to his and the master's house;

b) money economy (until the end of the XNUMXth century). The length of the path reaches several tens of miles from the peasant's field or from the artisan's workshop, through the market with the help of a merchant to the homes of consumers;

c) credit economy (since the beginning of the XNUMXth century). The length of the path reaches several thousand miles from fields, mines, mines from all over the world, with the help of merchants and bankers, to European markets and factories, and from there to the homes of consumers, and in the opposite direction other goods, as well as raw materials, machinery and equipment;

2) periodization according to K. Marx, the division is based on the type of ownership of the means of production, which determines the nature of the method of production and the entire social system:

a) primitive communal system (from the XNUMXth millennium to the XNUMXth century BC) The main means of production is land. There is no private ownership of land, hence there is no exploitation and class stratification;

b) the slave system (from the XNUMXth century BC to the XNUMXth century AD). Private property appears, including for slaves. The exploitation of slaves brings a surplus product to the slave owners. A division into classes is formed - slaves and slave owners - and contradictions arise between them;

c) the feudal system (from the XNUMXth century to the XNUMXth century). Land is the main object of private property, a source of surplus product and exploitation. Rent becomes the main social relation, the main classes are peasants and feudal lords;

d) the capitalist system (XIX century). The means of production in industry become the main object of private property. The main social relation is surplus value (capital), the main classes are workers and capitalists;

e) the communist system comes with the victory of the workers over the bourgeoisie. The means of production pass into public ownership. Exploitation and stratification into classes do not exist;

3) historical and chronological periodization:

a) ancient (XXXIII-VIII centuries BC);

b) antique (from the XNUMXth century BC to the XNUMXth century AD);

c) medieval (from the XNUMXth century to the middle of the XNUMXth century);

d) revival (from the middle of the XNUMXth century to the middle of the XNUMXth century);

e) enlightenment (from the middle of the XNUMXth century to the last quarter of the XNUMXth century);

f) free competition (from the last quarter of the XNUMXth century to the last quarter of the XNUMXth century);

g) monopolistic competition (from the last quarter of the XNUMXth century to the middle of the XNUMXth century);

h) market economy.

2. Nomadism and settled way of life. Appropriating and producing economy. Rise of civilizations

In the history of the economy of primitive society, the following periods are distinguished:

1) Paleolithic - the ancient Stone Age (400-40 thousand years BC);

2) Mesolithic - Middle Stone Age (40-14 thousand years BC);

3) Neolithic - New Stone Age.

The economy of primitive society had the following characteristic features:

1) creation of vital goods on the basis of collective labor;

2) collective communal ownership of the means of production;

3) egalitarian distribution of life's blessings.

The first economic unit of primitive people was the tribal community, which came to the place of the primitive herd. The tribal community is based on the joint management of the economy, the division of labor was carried out according to gender and age. Each community existed autonomously, that is, separately from the other community, independently of it.

nomadism originated at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium BC. in the course of the social division of labor when cattle breeding was identified as an independent type of economy. Nomadism contributed to the development and settlement of previously uninhabited areas and the development of ties between tribes. The ancient tribes developed the rudiments of barter transactions. The nomads combined their main occupation - cattle breeding - with gathering and hunting. During this period, the most primitive stone, wood, and bone tools were used.

With the advent of new stone processing techniques, more advanced tools, including agricultural ones, began to be created. In this regard, agriculture began to develop at a faster pace. The development of agriculture led to sedentary lifestyle and contributed to the formation of peasant villages.

Appropriating economy - This is the simplest form of economic activity, including gathering and hunting.

With the invention of more advanced tools, the appropriating economy is replaced by the producing economy.

Producing farm - this is a form of economic activity in which there is a transition from the appropriation of finished products of nature to their production with the help of human activity. Primitive people consciously began to domesticate animals, cultivate cereals, and master simple crafts. The emergence of such skills and abilities has allowed people to systematically achieve sustainable results and be less dependent on the natural environment. Thus, the tribal community of hunters and fishermen was replaced by a tribal community of farmers and cattle breeders.

Ancient civilizations, originated at the dawn of human history, are also called primary, as they have grown directly from the primitive. Unlike later civilizations, they were not yet preceded by a civilizational tradition whose experience could be used. On the contrary, primary civilizations had to create it themselves, overcoming primitiveness.

In the IV-III millennium BC. centers of civilizations arose in Egypt, in the valley of the Nile River, as well as in Mesopotamia - between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The foundations of the Egyptian and Babylonian civilizations were laid there. Later, in the III-II millennia BC. In the Indus River Valley, Indian civilization was born, and in the XNUMXnd millennium, in the Yellow River Valley, Chinese civilization.

Let's note some facets separating primitiveness from civilization:

1) a clearer division of labor;

2) the emergence of various social strata of society, differing from each other in material status, professional characteristics, etc.;

3) the appearance of writing;

4) the emergence of cities.

3. Features of the economic development of Ancient Egypt

The Egyptian state arose in the middle of the XNUMXrd millennium BC. on the banks of the Nile. In ancient times, Egypt occupied the same territory as now.

Egypt owes its prosperity to irrigation agriculture. Grapes, dates, oats, cucumbers and other crops were grown here.

The Egyptians were craftsmen. They knew how to process metals, created elegant utensils. In Egypt, they learned how to create papyrus, glass, baked bricks. A wide variety of objects found in the tombs proves that the Egyptians were able to process gold, silver, copper with skill, they created wonderful jewelry from precious stones. Jewelry (rings, bracelets, pendants, earrings) were of incredible perfection. Such mechanisms as a vertical loom, a potter's wheel, foot furs were used. Since the era of the New Kingdom, the Egyptians erected huge stone structures - pyramids and temples.

Scientists standardized writing, calendar, studied astrology, mathematics and medicine.

In ancient Egypt, there was a despotic form of government with unlimited power of the pharaoh. The state controlled the state of the irrigation system and performed economic functions.

During periods of fragmentation, the country broke up into regions (nomes), where the tribal nobility ruled, did not want to reckon with the will of the pharaohs, and created despotism in miniature. The lack of centralization affected the economic well-being of the country: irrigation canals fell into disrepair, famine and unrest began. And this again caused an urgent need for centralization. It was the times of centralized government in Egypt that coincided with the periods of its highest prosperity and prosperity.

In ancient Egypt, it was believed that the relations of people in the state are built on the basis of maat, that is, on the basis of divine justice and order, truth. The gods and kings affirm it: thanks to the laws, chaos and disharmony are overcome.

In Egypt, there was a class structure of society. Each estate (priests, officials, peasants, artisans) performed a certain economic function in the state system.

The priests participated in the political struggle, strengthening their positions more and more. They were a fairly cohesive force. They were headed by the high priest of the temple of the god Amun in Thebes, the capital of Egypt.

Captive slaves became the collective property of communities, temples, and pharaohs. In the era of the new kingdom, individual ownership of slaves appears. Slaves worked in construction, agriculture, and were used as domestic servants. In Egypt in the II millennium BC. even middle-class people had slaves: artisans, gardeners, shepherds.

There was no money in ancient Egypt. The goods were exchanged for goods, the value of which, according to the merchants, was the same.

The peoples of Nubia, for example, they gave their agricultural products and handicrafts - wheat, onions, weapons, jewelry in exchange for wood, leather, gold and ivory. Spices and incense were brought from Arabia, Phoenicia supplied wood (cedar). Starting from the XNUMXth dynasty, the Egyptians established quite profitable business relations with the countries of the Euphrates and the eastern islands of the Mediterranean Sea: copper, for example, was brought from Cyprus.

Later, a special system was developed, according to which the value of the goods was estimated in weight units of copper. This unit was called deben.

Ancient Egypt reached its greatest prosperity in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. BC. when Ethiopia, Palestine, Syria and Libya were conquered. The power of Egypt was built on its economic prosperity.

4. Economic Development in Ancient Greece

antique they call the ancient European civilization that appeared on the islands and the northern coast of the Mediterranean Sea by the beginning of the XNUMXst millennium BC.

The slave-owning economy reached its peak in the ancient world - Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The development of these states followed a different path than the development of the countries of the Ancient East. Tribal relations rather early gave way to slave-owning relations. The state structure of the ancient countries differed markedly from the eastern despotisms. In ancient states, economic activity was based on private property. Private property has become the foundation for the formation of a civil society and a state with democratic institutions. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, in their heyday, respectively, had the form of a democratic or aristocratic republic, which meant a huge step forward in the development of the socio-political consciousness of people.

Economy of Ancient Greece in its heyday, it was the economic activity of individual policies, independent small city-states, formed as a result of the decomposition of tribal communities. The policy united not only the townspeople, but also the population of agricultural communities located in the surrounding territories. The basis of the economic life of the policy was ancient property, which was a combination of state, communal and private property. All full-fledged citizens of the policy jointly possessed the right of the supreme owner of the land. All members of the policy had political rights that allowed them to take part in state activities. Therefore, the Greek policy is called a civil community. It was in the policy that the foundations of ancient democracy, commodity-money relations were laid, and a special type of personality was formed.

One of the most important branches of the economy of Ancient Greece was agriculture (olives and grapes were grown). Small farms dominated. Favorable conditions in Greece were for the development of cattle breeding: the Greeks have long bred goats and sheep.

The country was rich in minerals: silver, copper, lead, marble and gold.

Active trade meant that farmers and artisans worked not only for themselves, but also for the market. The largest trading center by the XNUMXth century. BC. became Athens. In Athens, there was an active trade with the colonies and countries of the East: grain, linen fabrics were brought from Egypt, carpets from Carthage, ivory from Africa, grain, cattle, honey, and leather from the Black Sea region.

Land trade in ancient Greece was much less developed than maritime trade. It was disadvantageous due to bad roads and mountains. Also, difficulties often arose due to wars that broke out periodically between policies. But even in Greek cities remote from the sea, local markets operated, where they traded mainly handicrafts, products, and household utensils. Each city-state minted its own coin, thus, currency exchange developed.

Commodity-money relations in Greece were unusual for this era, when compared with other civilizations. Scientists believe that already in antiquity, a special model of the economy was born in the Mediterranean, from which European capitalism subsequently grew. But still, it is wrong to call the ancient Greek economy capitalist, since the economy was basically of a subsistence nature. Commodity-money relations in some policies were more developed, in others - weaker, that is, they spread unevenly and existed within the framework of a subsistence economy.

5. Features of the economic development of ancient Rome. The role of ancient heritage for European culture

В Ancient Rome, in comparison with Ancient Greece, private land ownership has received a stronger development due to its significant consolidation and the development of a legal basis for land ownership. In ancient Rome, the consolidation of private land holdings led to the flourishing latifundial economy. An important problem is the efficiency of exploitation of such vast lands as latifundia. The development of latifundial slavery is connected with this. From II-I centuries. BC. slave labor was used in almost all areas of economic activity (in agriculture, craft, everyday life). Due to slave labor, a surplus product is created and its monetary realization takes place. The slave class was not homogeneous. Part of the slaves were state slaves, but mostly they passed into the hands of private owners, forming two groups: rural and urban.

The small and middle peasants were ruined or simply forcibly deprived of their land. Peasants deprived of land became tenants or farm laborers. However, the farm laborers could not secure a permanent income: their work was seasonal. And a huge mass of peasants poured into the cities, increasing the number of urban plebs. Some managed to get a job as artisans or construction workers, others formed a special layer - the ancient lumpen proletariat and existed at the expense of state distributions of bread, money and the generosity of politicians.

In ancient times, trade reached the highest level, both domestic and foreign trade are actively developing. The Mediterranean maintained trade relations with Northern Europe, Asia, and Central Africa. There was a unified system of measures and weights, a unified monetary system. Such payment systems as bills of exchange, offsets, and factoring were also used. However, the development of commodity-money relations and trade did not change the essence of slave-owning production. The ancient world, with its deep stratification, was fraught with sharp contradictions, which found expression in the uprisings of slaves, which ultimately led to its death.

However, the ancient world left behind a rich cultural heritage. The contribution to the global civilization of ancient Greek scientists turned out to be invaluable Archimedes (c. 287-212 BC) - an ancient Greek mechanic and mathematician, originally from Syracuse (Sicily), Pythagoras, Socrates. In the field of economic thought left their mark Plato, Aristotle, Xenophonand other ancient philosophers. In their works, the laws of the organization of economic life in the conditions of a slave-owning society were substantiated. They explained the principles underlying commodity exchange, including the principles of the social division of labor, as well as the origin, essence and movement of money. In addition, ancient Greek scientists studied natural phenomena and laid the foundations of such sciences as logic, history, chemistry, physics, geography. Astronomers first put forward the idea that the Earth is spherical and revolves around the Sun.

Roman philosophers Seneca, Epicteti others preached contempt for the material goods of life and the search for a high moral ideal. The image of a sage standing above the crowd, a sage for whom the highest value is his own inner world, was extolled.

In Rome, in the 50st century, the Colosseum was completed - a unique amphitheater in size, designed for 43 thousand spectators. A little later, a temple was erected to "all the gods" - the Pantheon: its concrete dome was 2 meters in diameter until the XNUMXth century. humanity could not create anything like this.

6. The specifics of the development of Eastern civilizations. China and India

The medieval East was for Europeans a symbol of wealth and refined luxury. The standard of living there until the end of the XNUMXth century was significantly higher than in the West, the cities outnumbered European cities in their numbers. However, the life of the medieval East was restless: the old empires disintegrated, new states arose in their place. If Western Europe by the XII century. basically freed from the fight against the nomads, then in the East the hordes of nomads continued to destroy the ancient centers of culture.

The East did not represent a single whole: the historical paths of the ancient eastern civilizations (Chinese and Indian) and the younger ones that appeared by the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries were different. AD (Japanese and Arabic).

In general, the development of Eastern societies was characterized by traditionality, therefore Eastern civilizations are called traditional.

Chinese civilization often also called Confucian civilization.

Confucianism - a doctrine created in middle of the XNUMXst millennium BC. philosopher Confucius (551-479 BC), the goal of which was to make the state ideal, based on solid moral principles, with harmonious social relations.

State according to Confucius - this is a big family in which everyone should take their place and behave as befits their position. For the philosopher, the core on which the state rests was devotion and humility.

Later, Confucianism became the state religion and, thanks to the ideas of humanity and morality of state power, strengthened the bureaucracy and statehood itself.

The most important pillar of state power in China was the right of supreme ownership of land. By directing economic processes, the authorities sought to limit private property, maintain a monopoly in the use of natural resources, and control trade and handicrafts. Gradually, the production and sale of the most important commodities: salt, iron, copper, and tea came into the hands of the state. State power regulated market prices, and sometimes even loan interest, fighting against usury. State trade existed in parallel with private trade, but at the same time the government taxed merchants heavily.

Indian civilization had its own specific features. One of these features was the emergence and spread of Buddhism.

Buddhism - religion of salvation, which is based on four postulates:

1) the world is suffering;

2) the source of suffering is human passions and desires;

3) liberation from passions allows you to go to nirvana;

4) one can reach the state of nirvana only by choosing the path of salvation.

The kings of India tried to use Buddhism as a unifying ideological basis for a strong centralized state, but Buddhism did not play the role in India that Confucianism did in China. Its impact on the structures of civilization was weak: as before, castes remained one of the greatest evils of India. The main castes corresponded to those social strata that stood out in other civilizations: priests (Brahmins), warriors (Kshatriyas), free community members and merchants (Vaishyas), as well as the lowest caste of servants (Shudras), which also included peasants deprived of land. However, the castes were distinguished by the insurmountability of their borders. Each person from birth belonged to a certain caste, and this predetermined his future life. The isolation and isolation of castes, their social and religious and moral inequality reduced the activity of society, made it static, and created great obstacles to its development.

7. The contribution of young Eastern civilizations. Japan and Islamic Civilization

For Japanese civilization characterized by both the common features of all Eastern civilizations and the features of the Western model of the development of society.

In 604-605. prince Shotoku taishi, a proponent of the Chinese model of development, created a code of laws that combined the principles of Confucianism and Buddhism. The entire life of Japanese society began to be transformed according to the Chinese model; some scientists even consider Japanese civilization to be secondary, peripheral to China. However, elements of Chinese civilization were significantly transformed in Japan, and in addition, a new trend towards Japanese cultural autonomy emerged. From the 16th century Japan turned into one of the most isolated civilizations: the Japanese were prohibited from leaving their country, and foreigners were prohibited from entering Japanese territory (with the exception of Chinese and Dutch traders).

In the XIII-XIV centuries. Japanese cities began to flourish. They arose near numerous Buddhist monasteries. Together with the cities - centers of crafts and trade in the country, commodity-money relations began to develop rapidly. The cities were mostly independent of the state, and some of them even achieved self-government. Copper, gold, silver, fans entered the foreign market, Japanese weapons were especially valued.

Islamic civilization, like Japan, is one of the youngest in the East. It began to form only in the XNUMXth century. AD

The basis of Islamic civilization, which subsequently expanded its borders, was Arabia. Prophet Muhammad (570-632 AD) laid the religious foundations of the future Islamic civilization. Mohammed acted as a politician and religious leader, later caliphs (Muhammad's successors) had full power, both spiritual and secular.

A century after the death of Muhammad, by the middle of the XNUMXth century, the state he created occupied a vast territory: Arab Caliphate stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indus, from the Caspian to the rapids of the Nile. All conquered peoples converted to Islam, which was facilitated by the economic policy of the caliphs, Muslims paid only tithes to the treasury, and those who retained their faith received a high land tax and a poll tax. Islam has become the force that holds civilization together. The holy book of the followers of Islam is the Quran.

The state power possessed the right of supreme ownership of the land. Private landownership existed in the caliphate, but did not reach large proportions. Most of the state land was occupied by communities that paid rent-tax to the treasury. Trade and handicrafts were also under state control.

The central government could not cope with separatism: in the governorships into which the caliphate was divided, the true rulers were emirs. At their disposal were finances, the army, the bureaucracy.

The culture of Islamic civilization began to develop simultaneously with statehood, even the collapse of the Arab Caliphate did not negatively affect it. Philosophical and historical works, medical treatises, works on physics, chemistry, astronomy were created, Islamic law was formed. The Arab conquerors created a civilization that absorbed the achievements of cultural centers with long traditions. Outstanding poets and scientists worked on the territory of the Arab Caliphate: the poet Firdousi, scientist-encyclopedist Ibn Sina (Avicenna), astronomer Biruni.

European medicine, geography and other sciences developed under the influence of the works of Arab scientists. A powerful impetus to European rationalism was given by Arab, Jewish and Persian philosophers. Poetry in Europe absorbed elements of Persian love lyrics.

8. Imperial type of reproduction: hierarchy of power and property

Imperial or Asiatic type of production - this is a mode of production in which state bodies strive to completely control the very process of production of the necessary and surplus product, as well as its distribution and consumption.

This mode of production is typical for the Eastern states, in the economic development of which there are the following common features:

1) community-state form of farming.

Private property was much rarer, the authorities sought to limit it. As soon as large private land ownership began to grow, the revenues of the treasury fell sharply. In response to this, the state imposed increased taxes on large land holdings, sometimes the sale of land was prohibited for some time, in rare cases the land was confiscated from wealthy landowners. The state economy was a single complex and was managed centrally. The authorities sought to establish their monopoly on the development of subsoil and the use of water bodies. State production covered shipbuilding, coal mining, foundry, etc.;

2) government structure in the form of eastern despotism.

Despotism - a form of autocratic power, translated from Greek means “unlimited power.” In different states it had some differences, but its essence was the same: at the head of the state was a ruler who had full power and was the owner of all the land. Local officials exercised power. Officials not only collected taxes from the population, but also organized construction, agricultural work, and administered justice;

3) the presence of communities of peasants and artisans, who were the main producers of material goods.

Eastern societies were built according to the estate (or caste) principle. Each social group performed a certain economic function. Belonging to a community was a privilege: free community members had much more rights than those who lost their land. The way of life of the community had its own characteristics: it was closed economically, i.e. lived by subsistence farming, she produced everything necessary for her existence. The state intervened in her life mainly when it was necessary to collect taxes or wage war. The main economic unit in the community was a large patriarchal family, which had its own house, property, and garden plot. From the community, she received a plot of land and used the harvest from it, but such plots were considered the property of the entire community and, as a rule, they could not be sold.

The existence of the community was built on traditionalism, strict observance of ancient customs. As a result, the life of the community, both economic and spiritual, was very conservative;

4) the economy was based on the use of forced labor of free residents performing labor duties.

Slave labor remained in the East complementary to the labor of free and dependent peasants and artisans: it did not play a decisive role in economic life;

5) strict hierarchy and the phenomenon of “power-property”.

Each social stratum occupied its well-defined place and differed from others in its social significance, as well as duties, rights and privileges. Therefore, Eastern society is often depicted as a pyramid. Depending on their position, everyone had the right to dispose of a certain part of the surplus product. Thus, each level of power corresponded to a strictly defined part of state property.

9. Kievan Rus

В IX century state was formed Kievan Rus. Kievan Rus laid the foundation for statehood among the Eastern Slavs. Kievan Rus is considered an early feudal state - feudal relations during this period are only in their infancy, two main classes are being formed: feudal lords and feudal-dependent peasantry. The bulk of the population were peasants.

The following categories of dependent peasants can be distinguished:

1) serfs - slaves;

2) purchases - peasants who have taken a loan and work for their creditors until the return of the debt;

3) ryadovichi - peasants working under a contract;

4) smerds - peasants who left the communities under the rule of the prince, as well as resettled on the lands of the prince, representatives of the liberated peoples. The prince gave them land, provided protection, and for this protection and land they were obliged to pay dues and participate in military campaigns.

There were also independent peasantswho ran their households on communal land. Over time, the communal land became the property of the Grand Duke.

The feudal class consisted of: Grand Duke, representatives of the senior squad of the prince, boyars, descendants of old local aristocratic families, local princes.

The completion of the formation of the state structure and the development of feudal relations made it necessary to codify ancient Russian law.

Code of Laws of Kievan Rus It was called Pravda Russkaya. Created in 1072. From 1068 to 1072, a new legislation was developed under the name "Truth of the Yaroslavichs". This legislation supplemented the old "Russian Truth", which did not meet the requirements of the development of society. Blood feuds have been replaced by fines. The new "Pravda" punished for violation of property rights and personal safety of residents. The new law attempts to preserve the internal order in the country.

An important role in the development of feudal relations was played by Christianity, adopted by Russia during the reign of Vladimir I. The monasteries and the church were large landowners, collecting huge taxes from the peasants living on church lands.

The economy of Kievan Rus had a predominantly subsistence nature, the main industry was agriculture. By the XNUMXth century, more advanced tools (ploughs, harrows) appeared, and they began to use the three-field system.

The craft has reached a high level. The pottery industry became widespread.

New forms of handicraft production arose, which were characteristic only for Rus' - artels and contracts. The construction of city walls, towers, laying of pavements were carried out by artels.

In the XI-XII centuries, the craft begins to move to the stage of commodity production. Craftsmen sold products to merchants who took them to remote areas.

There were 8 markets in Kyiv, each of which was specialized.

Of great importance for Russia was international trade. Kievan Rus was on transit trade routes. The trade route from Asia to Northern Europe led along the Volga and Dnieper to the Baltic Sea. This allowed Russian merchants to trade in Asian and European markets.

The development of trade led to the emergence of the monetary system.

Initially, in Russia, cattle and expensive furs served as money. Gold coins from Byzantium and Arab countries were used, silver coins from Western Europe, mainly in foreign trade.

From the end of the X century. in Russia they began to mint their own coin.

The development of commodity-money relations contributed to the concentration of large sums of money in the hands of merchants, who began to actively engage in usury. Under the influence of popular unrest, the princely government tried to limit usury.

Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh в 1113 Mr.. issued a "Decree on cuts", which forbade usurers to set the annual interest rate above 50.

10. Baptism of Russia

During the reign of the prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich one of the greatest events of centuries-old Russian history took place - Rus' adopted Christianity.

Old Slavic paganism developed long before the rise of the Kievan state. As farmers, the Slavs deified nature: the earth, the sun, rivers. Despite the undoubted commonality of the religious ideas of all the Eastern Slavs, they differed in many respects among individual tribes. Unification under the rule of Kyiv required the replacement of various tribal beliefs with a single nationwide religion. The rallying of pagan cults was also dictated by the need to resist the growing influence of Christianity in the Slavic environment.

The states neighboring Kievan Rus professed religions based on monotheism, i.e. faith in one God. Christianity dominated in Byzantium, Judaism dominated in Khazaria, Islam dominated in Volga Bulgaria. However, Rus' had the closest ties with Christian Byzantium.

The history of his marriage to the Byzantine princess Anna, the sister of the co-emperors Basil and Constantine, is closely connected with the decision of Vladimir to convert to the Christian faith. The chronicle story is supplemented by Byzantine sources. They report that Emperor Basil II turned to Vladimir for help against the rebellious commander Varda Foki, who claimed the imperial throne. The prince agreed to help if the princess was given for him and, in turn, promised to be baptized. Seeing no other way out, the Byzantines agreed, and Vladimir was baptized in Chersonese.

Returning to Kyiv from Chersonesus, Vladimir ordered the destruction of pagan idols. After the defeat of the pagan temples, Vladimir began to convert the people of Kiev to Christianity.

The adoption of Christianity by Russia is dated 988 year (This is the date of the baptism of Vladimir himself). For a long time, overcoming serious resistance, the Christianization of the vast Kievan state took place.

The significance of the conversion to Christianity was enormous and manifested itself in everything from the daily diet and agricultural practices to the international position of the country.

The adoption of Christianity influenced the development of the craft. The methods of laying walls and erecting domes, stone-cutting, as well as mosaics, which were used in the construction and decoration of churches, were transferred by the Greeks to Russian masters.

Stone architecture, icon painting, fresco painting arose in Russia thanks to Christianity. Through the mediation of Byzantium, Russia touched the traditions of the ancient world.

About a hundred years before the baptism of Kievan Rus, Christianity was adopted in Bulgaria. Orthodox missionaries, Bulgarians by origin, Cyril and Methodius created the Slavic alphabet - "Cyrillic" and translated liturgical books into Slavic. The Cyrillic alphabet was created on the basis of the Greek statutory script at the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries. with the addition of a few letters. After baptism, Rus received writing in the Slavic language, which contributed to the spread of literacy.

Christianity contributed to the strengthening of princely power. The divine origin of princely power, according to the teachings of the church, demanded unquestioning obedience from the subjects, and from the prince an awareness of his high responsibility.

The adoption of Christianity radically changed the international position of Kievan Rus. Yesterday's barbarian power now entered the family of European Christian peoples on an equal footing, which was manifested in the numerous dynastic marriages that Russian princes entered into in the XNUMXth century. with the royal houses of Western Europe.

Outside of Christianity, it is impossible to imagine the unification of various East Slavic tribes into a single Russian people.

11. Creation of the Russian centralized state

In the era of feudal fragmentation, a change in the economic conditions of the economy, when the social division of labor required new, stable economic ties between various parts of the country, the economic and political centralization of the state, served to unify Russia. The unification of the feudal forces was also necessary to fight the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

The leading role in the unification of the Russian principalities was played by the Moscow principality, which eventually became Ivan Kalita (1325-1340) the basis for the centralization of disunited principalities.

At the first stage of centralization, the struggle between Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow and Tver for becoming the new center of Russia intensified.

After Battle of Kulikovo (1380) the second stage of the unification process began.

Dmitry Donskoydid a lot of work to streamline the collection of taxes from the principalities in favor of the state, tried to create a monetary system independent of the Golden Horde.

An important factor contributing to the consolidation of Russia around Moscow was the activity of the church. From 1326 the metropolitans lived permanently in Moscow. Thus, Moscow received the benefits of the religious center of Russia.

In the first half of the XNUMXth century, a fierce struggle took place against the opponents of centralization, which ended under Ivan III with the victory of the Moscow principality. So, at the third stage of the formation of a centralized state, the Yaroslavl, Rostov, Kozelsk, Tver principalities, the Novgorod Republic and other lands were subordinated to the Moscow principality.

The completion of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow falls on the years of government Ivan III (1462-1505) и Basil III (1505-1533).

Under Ivan III, a centralized apparatus of power begins to take shape, landownership develops, and the role of the nobility increases.

The reign of Ivan III was a time of active growth of landownership and the gradual pushing aside by him of the boyars. The process of active dissemination and legal registration of the local system began. The estate is a land allotment issued for service (often military). The level of exploitation of the peasants in the landlords' farms was much higher than that of the boyar or in the monastic lands. The expansion of the social stratum of the landowners contributed to the strengthening of the centralized Moscow state.

At this time, the economy of Russia is intensively developing, especially such an industry as agriculture. The basis of progress in agriculture was the almost universal transition to three fields. The use of organic fertilizers has become a necessary component of agricultural work.

Crafts and the mining industry also developed. The production of firearms began. The development of crafts led to the development of commodity-money relations, domestic and foreign trade. The process of organizing and regulating foreign trade was concentrated in the hands of the Moscow sovereign.

International relations were actively developed. The marriage of Ivan III to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleolog in 1472 not only strengthened the position of the Moscow autocracy, but also raised the status of the Russian church. The Moscow state had a Byzantine coat of arms - a double-headed eagle, which was connected with the former Moscow coat of arms with the image of George the Victorious. At the same time, the Moscow sovereigns also acquired the Monomakh's cap, a golden filigree pointed headdress of the Central Asian work of the XNUMXth century with a sable edge, decorated with precious stones and a cross, a symbol of the heritage of the Byzantine crown. Since that time, the doctrine appeared, according to which Moscow is the Third Rome.

12. The economy of Russian lands during the period of feudal fragmentation. Russia under the conditions of the Mongol-Tatar yoke

In the middle of the XII century. The Kievan state broke up into feudal principalities. Large independent principalities were called lands. The principalities that were part of the lands were called volosts.

The period of feudal fragmentation was a natural stage in the development of feudalism, through which all states passed in the middle of the century.

The reasons for feudal fragmentation were:

1) princely strife;

2) the absence of a serious external threat to the whole of Russia;

3) natural character of the economy.

The economic basis of feudal fragmentation was the subsistence nature of the economy, in which everything is produced within the feudal patrimony for domestic consumption. At the same time, the country did not constitute a single economic space and was divided into economically closed regions, within which trade exchange took place, agricultural products were exchanged for handicrafts.

The feudal fragmentation and disunity of the Russian principalities made Russia an easy prey for foreign invaders. In 1237, the Mongol Empire launched an offensive against Russian lands. Russia was completely subjugated. In 1242, in the lower reaches of the Volga, Batu Khan created a state Golden Horde.

The Mongol invasion brought great ruin to Russia. Fifty cities were destroyed, in fourteen of them life was no longer revived.

Transit trade was disrupted. The growth of handicraft production stopped. In addition, there was a process of a certain primitivization of the craft and even the disappearance of part of complex industries, which was combined with an increase in the production of simple products.

During this period, such old cities as Kyiv, Vladimir, Ryazan and others lost their primacy not only in the political but also in the economic field. In the domestic and foreign markets, such cities as Tver, Moscow, Kursk, Galich and others began to actively push them. In essence, only two old cities were able to strengthen their positions: Novgorod and Pskov.

The restoration of the economy of the Russian lands took place in unfavorable conditions, with the withdrawal of a surplus product in the form of tribute (or "exit"), the Golden Horde weakened the economy of the Russian principalities. The collection of tribute was not fixed either in size or in time. It was carried out by tax-farmers, who often simply robbed the population. This caused serious discontent in Rus', so in 1257 the Khan of the Golden Horde established a fixed amount of tribute. To control the collection of tribute in Rus', special commissioners were appointed - Basques, but they did not interfere in the internal political life of the Russian principalities. The Mongol-Tatar conquerors also followed a policy of non-interference in the religious affairs of the conquered countries, even granting privileges to the church in paying tribute.

At the end of the XIII century. the Basque Institute practically ceased to exist. From that time on, the only means of influencing the situation in Russia was the issuance of labels for reigning and the provision of military support to one or another prince in the internecine struggle.

The most important political and economic consequence of the Mongol-Tatar invasion is that the yoke played a huge role in the formation of a centralized Russian state. Only by united forces it was possible to get rid of the Mongol yoke.

The initiator of the union is a militarily strong prince, who subjugates weaker neighbors. Boyars and noblemen go to his service, wishing to receive princely awards from the fund of the annexed lands. As a result of the unification, feudal landownership based on the exploitation of dependent peasants is being developed.

13. Civilization of the Christian West in the Middle Ages. The main features and stages of economic development

A characteristic feature of the emerging Western European states was that their economy was to some extent based on feudal relations. The predominant form of management was large landed property, concentrated in the hands of the feudal lords. Personally dependent peasants worked on their farms. The peasants received land allotments from the feudal lords on the condition that they would give part of the crop to them in the form quitrent, as well as the duties of the peasants included working out corvée. Thus, feudal ownership of land assumed the existence of two owners - the feudal lord and the peasant. The feudal lord had the right to receive rent, the peasant had the right to dispose of the land granted to him, he could inherit it and even sell it, and the buyer also had the obligation to pay the rent.

In such countries as Byzantium, Italy, Spain, France, where the influence of Ancient Rome was especially felt, feudalism was the natural successor to slavery. On the territory of these countries, the columns were further transformed into dependent peasants, and large-scale landownership appeared in economic forms inherited from the Roman latifundists. At the same time, on the territory of Western Europe, the process of decomposition of the rural community was taking place, gradually giving way to feudal relations. The state, with the help of military squads, destroyed the community and contributed to the enslavement of the peasants.

In the Scandinavian countries, as well as in Germany, England, the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, where the influence of the Roman Empire was not so strong, the formation of the feudal economy took place on the basis of the internal decomposition of the community and the gradual emergence of private property in it.

The main form of relationship in that period was feudal rent, which came to the disposal of landowners. At the first stages it was dominated labor rent (corvée), later rent in kind (rent), at later stages - cash rent.

The development of the Western European economy of the era of feudalism can be divided into three stages.

The first one is Early Middle Ages (VX century) when the formation of large feudal property took place, the foundations of future state formations were laid. This period is characterized by feudal fragmentation and internecine wars of kings and feudal lords.

Agriculture in the economy played a predominant, leading role compared to trade and handicrafts. This time was characterized by a subsistence type of economy, the weak development of trade relations, and the widespread use of manual labor.

The second stage, called High Middle Ages (XI-XV centuries), was characterized by the fact that feudal relations reached their peak. In this era, in addition to agriculture, crafts and trade in cities also successfully developed, and large centralized states were formed.

At the third stage (in the XVI-XVII centuries), during the period Late Middle Ages, the feudal economy was decomposing, the foundations of a market economy were being created, the colonial system and the world market were being formed.

Christianity and the Christian Church play a special role in the history and economy of Europe. The church at that time assumed a number of economic functions, had a great influence on the development of cities in Western Europe. The city was reborn around the episcopal centers and soon the urban structure spread everywhere, as Europe was divided into dioceses and there were many episcopal centers.

14. Crusades

The preconditions for the Crusades were: traditions of pilgrimages to Holy places; a change in views on the war, which was considered not a sin, but a good deed, if it was waged against the enemies of Christianity and the church; capture in the 2th century. the Seljuk Turks of Syria and Palestine and the threat of the capture of Byzantium; difficult economic situation in Western Europe in the 11nd half. XNUMXth c.

November 26 1095 city Pope Urban II urged those gathered at the local church council in the city of Clermont to recapture the Holy Sepulcher captured by the Turks. Those who took this vow sewed patchwork crosses on their clothes and were called "crusaders". The Pope promised earthly riches in the Holy Land and heavenly bliss in case of death to those who went on the Crusade, they received full absolution of sins, it was forbidden to collect debts and feudal duties from them during the campaign, their families were under the protection of the church.

But the goals of the crusaders were not only religious. By the XNUMXth century land in Western Europe was divided between secular and church feudal lords. Only his eldest son could inherit the lord's land. As a result, a numerous layer of feudal lords who did not have land was formed. They yearned to have it. The Catholic Church, not without reason, feared that these knights would not encroach on her vast possessions. The clergy, led by the Pope, sought to extend their influence to new territories and profit from them. Rumors about the riches of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, which were spread by pilgrims (pilgrims) who visited Palestine, aroused the greed of the knights. In the plans of the crusader knights, the liberation of the "Holy Sepulcher" was of secondary importance: the feudal lords sought to seize overseas lands, cities, and wealth.

Timeline of the Crusades:

▪ 1095-1096 - Poverty campaign or peasant campaign.

▪ 1095-1099 - First Crusade.

▪ 1147-1149 - Second Crusade.

▪ 1189-1192 - Third Crusade.

▪ 1202-1204 - Fourth Crusade.

▪ 1202-1212 - Children's Crusade.

▪ 1218-1221 - Fifth Crusade.

▪ 1228-1229 - Sixth Crusade.

▪ 1248-1254 - Seventh Crusade.

The Crusades left their mark on the history of Europe. They did not lead to the consolidation of the Christian Church (split into Western and Eastern branches), but increased the authority of the Catholic hierarchy. The knights, peasants, and artisans who took part in the campaigns acted not as Germans or French, but as Europeans obsessed with a common messianic idea. The campaigns of the Crusaders led to the formation of orders, one of which, the Teutonic Order, directed its aspirations towards the Christianization of the Baltic lands.

The messianic campaigns of the crusaders were accompanied by robberies and pogroms. The world in the minds of pilgrims was divided into the world of Christians and the world of infidels.

The Crusaders' campaigns are a complex and contradictory panorama of the confrontation between two churches, Western and Eastern worldviews.

At the same time, the Crusades were a reflection of the essence and character of the feudal system, the basis of which was military-political domination, the increase of wealth through seizures and subjugation of dissidents. Foreign policy actions expressed the meaning and direction of the internal policy of the hierarchs of secular and church power.

Crusades - exhausting wars and influence on the changes that were brewing in Europe. One of the results of the campaigns of Christians in the holy lands was the close interaction of cultures, familiarity with the technical achievements of the East, the development of intermediary trade, and the enrichment of Western and Eastern civilizations. During the period of the crusader movement, the Mediterranean centers of trade and crafts, the Italian city-states, strengthened.

15. Centers of world trade XIII-XIV centuries. The emergence and development of the banking structure

During the Middle Ages, there was a decline in cities, a reduction in trade relations. The reasons for the decline are devastating wars (the Hundred Years War between England and France - 1337-1453), massive epidemics (the plague, which was called the Black Death, swept across Europe in 1348-1350), crop failures and terrible famine (at the beginning of the XNUMXth century). .), peasant uprisings that swept Europe from Spain to Russia.

Even earlier - in the XI-XII centuries. The European economy experienced a long recession, which affected the lives of all strata. Merchants and artisans were losing their former incomes, and the urban population was declining.

Only gradually there is an increase in trade, the credit system is being revived. The centers of world trade are Italian cities - Florence, Venice, Pisa. These cities were the first in Europe to enter a period of great economic growth.

The following factors contributed to this:

1) a convenient geographical location at the intersection of land and sea routes from Europe to the Middle East;

2) high population density, early emancipation and stratification of the peasants, which ensures the flow of labor to the city, the growth of specialization and labor productivity;

3) a high degree of monetization of the urban economy.

The shopping centers of the north of Europe compete with the Italian trading cities. In the Baltic, the North Sea, the German Hansa, uniting almost two hundred cities. At the end of the XV century. leading positions are taken Amsterdam, London, other cities of the north, the center of Europe.

The development of international trade is accompanied by the improvement of the technique of monetary and commercial transactions. And here the Italian merchants, merchants, and bankers played a paramount role.

During the economic and political fragmentation, each of the feudal rulers had the right to mint their own coin. And often they issued incomplete money into circulation. Everyone who moved from one country to another, especially merchants engaged in international trade, had to carefully monitor the exchange rate and quality of metallic money. It is quite natural that money changers became the first bankers, they are also goldsmiths.

Money changers were primarily engaged in money trading. Merchants left money with them for safekeeping. And the custodians of funds began to provide them on credit, and also became intermediaries in the calculations, issuing bills of exchange to the owners of the money.

Large banking firms arose at the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth century. in Florence, Venice. Firms combined trade in cloth with banking and usurious operations. The loan was provided at relatively high interest rates, reaching 20-40% per year. On deposits, Florentine firms paid an income of 6-7%.

The first banking companies began to conduct large operations, had representatives in the cities where the fairs were held. They enjoyed the patronage of kings and monarchs, to whom they provided loans. But rulers were often reluctant to repay loans, and banking houses did not always adhere to the strict rules necessary for conducting monetary transactions. Large banks failed, which affected many depositors, and governments began to regulate banking. To conduct banking operations, it was necessary to obtain a special permit, bankers were forbidden to engage in certain types of trading activities.

With the expansion of the scale of commercial and industrial operations, the problem of improving banking techniques and the problem of legislative restrictions on the level of interest charged for loans arose.

16. Great geographical discoveries

Geographical discoveries of the middle of the XV - the middle of the XVII centuries. are called "great" not so much by their scale, but by their significance for the subsequent development of Europe and the whole world. Great geographical discoveries - a set of the most significant discoveries on land and sea, made during almost the entire written history of mankind.

The great geographical discoveries became possible thanks to the improvement of ship building technology, as well as the modernization of the compass, sextant, and the development of nautical charts.

As a result of the research of Columbus, Vasco de Gama, Magellan and other navigators, the contours of the inhabited continents were determined (except for the north-west of America and Australia). The discovery of new lands by Europeans unusually expanded Europeans' understanding of the geography of the globe and strengthened contacts and interactions between countries.

Agriculture in Europe and other countries was enriched with new crops, such as corn, tomatoes, potatoes, and tobacco. Geographical discoveries had a significant impact on the development of natural sciences and people's worldview.

The immediate incentive to equip sea expeditions and search for new trade routes was the desire to find lands rich in precious metals. Europeans who traded with the countries of the East experienced a shortage of gold and silver. Also the reasons were the desires of Spain, Portugal, and Holland to explore new trade routes from Europe to India.

Geographical discoveries served as a powerful impetus for changes in trade and entrepreneurial activity. Trade has multiplied the range of goods offered, acquired a global character. However, trade with the countries of the New World was of an unequal nature and, in fact, was a robbery. The discovery of new lands marked the beginning of colonial conquests. By the end of the XVI century. the first colonial empires were formed - the Spanish in Latin and Central America and the Portuguese, whose center was Brazil. From the middle of the XVI century. England, France, Holland joined the struggle for colonies. The development of commodity-money relations, trade relations contributed to changes in the system of the feudal world.

The first sea expeditions were equipped in Portugal and Spain. At the same time, industrial production developed at the fastest pace in the Netherlands, then England, and France. In exchange for industrial goods, merchants and entrepreneurs of these countries concentrated gold and silver captured from the Aztecs and Incas.

Gold mined in America and pumped into the storehouses of industrial leaders increased their military and naval power. It was they who began to dominate trade routes and ousted less successful competitors. The defeat of the "Great Armada" of Philip II (1588) is one of the dramatic events that marked the end of Spanish-Portuguese power.

At the end of the XNUMXth century, the ideas of Europeans about the globe completely changed. New seas and new lands opened up on all sides. The Spaniards, the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British set out to discover or conquer new lands. The result of this movement was that many of the old trade routes were abandoned and deserted, and many centers of medieval trade lost all significance; on the other hand, world trade came into the hands of new leaders, and new cities arose.

The center of gravity of international trade has shifted from east to west, to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. Indian goods began to penetrate into Europe in large quantities and fell significantly in price. Rich new markets have opened up for world trade. Constant interaction with the colonial periphery has become a condition for the economic well-being of Western Europe.

17. Price revolution in Western Europe

One of the most significant economic consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries was the "price revolution" in Western Europe.

"Price Revolution" - a period of a significant increase in commodity prices due to a fall in the value of precious metals, which perform the function of a universal equivalent.

The civilizations of Ancient America, developing independently, by the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth century. reached a stage corresponding approximately to the level of state formations of the Ancient East. The civilizations of the Aztecs, Incas, Maya achieved a lot, but they were not familiar with the technical achievements of Babylon or Mesopotamia, they did not breed domestic animals. Copper, gold, silver were used by the natives of the New World for cult images or jewelry.

On the new continent, the Spanish conquistadors were interested in one thing - precious metals. Columbus's sailors saw thin gold plates and small ingots of gold among the inhabitants of Hispaniola. The Spaniards were terribly surprised that the natives had no idea about the value of gold. They gave it for a shard of glass, for a shard of a broken cup.

The conquistadors acted the same way everywhere. They took away all the gold that they could seize from the locals, and then forced them to work in quarries, mines, where the noble metal was mined. The civilizations of Mexico and Peru were simply plundered. Cheap gold and silver flowed to Spain and other European countries. Due to the powerful influx of gold and silver from the colonies, the amount of precious metal circulating in Europe increased in the XNUMXth century. four times. In turn, this contributed to the rise in prices.

Over the past half century, the prices of basic consumer goods have remained virtually stable over the long run. Their growth was 20-30% per century and was almost invisible to contemporaries. This phenomenon is explained by the limited and almost unchanged amount of gold and silver in Europe during the Middle Ages.

With the increase in the amount of gold, the value of the monetary unit fell. On average, the price increase was 1-2% per year. It proceeded unevenly and ambiguously for various commodity groups. Prices for industrial and agricultural products grew especially rapidly, by an average of 3-3 times, and for individual goods even by 5-5 times.

The "price revolution" in European countries was accompanied by a fall in real incomes. Wages have not kept pace with rising prices.

The feudal lords sought to compensate for the fall in prices by increasing taxes. The peasants, forced to pay increasingly large amounts of taxes to landowners, suffered losses. Peasant uprisings that swept across Europe were brutally suppressed.

When gold flowed into Europe from the New World, prices began to rise, and the feudal lords found themselves in a vice. Like everything in medieval life, the feudal rents and dues they received from their serfs were fixed and unchanging. But not commodity prices. Although more and more duties of serfs were transferred from natural to cash, prices rose so rapidly that the feudal lords could not pay their bills.

The price revolution helped to strengthen the position of merchants, burghers and farmers, since the prices of goods produced (imported) by them increased significantly.

In general, the price revolution did not undermine, but to a certain extent helped to strengthen the power of the military-feudal elites, contributed to the process of the emergence of national states with royal power at the head. Absolutism was established in many countries of Western Europe. During the period of mercantilism, absolutism contributed to the development of trade, manufactures, and then, at some stage, became an obstacle to the establishment of capitalist relations.

18. Renaissance and Reformation

In the XV-XVI centuries. two striking events Renaissance (or Renaissance) и Reformationrevolutionized the social life of Western Europe.

Renaissance - this is the revival of the ancient heritage, the worldly beginning.

Reformation - renewal of the church, accompanied by a surge of religious feelings.

What unites these two phenomena is that they destroyed the old medieval system of values and formed a new view of the human personality.

The Renaissance culture originated in Italy in the second half of the XNUMXth century and continued to develop until the XNUMXth century, gradually covering all the countries of Europe one after another. The return to antiquity, the resuscitation of its ideals manifested itself in a variety of areas: in philosophy, literature, art. The culture of the Renaissance appeared first among intellectuals and was the property of a few, but gradually new ideas seeped into the mass consciousness, changing traditional ideas. One of the most important achievements of the Renaissance is the emergence of humanism in philosophy. Contributed to the development of the ideas of humanism Bruni, Alberti и Vittoriano da Feltre. The humanists did not subvert religion, although the church itself and its ministers were objects of ridicule. Humanists sought to combine the two scales of values.

XNUMXth century humanists came close to the problem of a new scientific method, different from scholastic dialectics. This had a positive effect on the development of natural science. famous mathematician Luca Pacioli (1445-1514) made a great contribution to the development of algebra, geometry, accounting.

Drawing the ideal of the human personality, the figures of the Renaissance emphasized its kindness, strength, heroism, the ability to create and create a new world around itself. Humanists considered the accumulated knowledge that helps a person to make a choice between good and evil as an indispensable condition for this. The individual chooses his own way of life and is responsible for his own destiny.

The value of a person began to be determined by his personal merits, and not by his position in society. The era of self-affirmation of the human personality has come, freeing itself from medieval corporatism and morality, subordinating the individual to the whole.

Otherwise, the question of individual freedom was decided Reformation.

Germany was the birthplace of the Reformation. Its beginning is considered the events of 1517, when the doctor of theology Martin Luther (1483-1546) made his 95 theses against the sale of indulgences. The Reformation quickly spread in France, England, and the Netherlands. In Switzerland, reform ideas were supported and continued by John Calvin (1509-1564).

In Europe, embraced by the ideas of the Reformation, new, reformed churches began to form - Anglican, Lutheran, Calvinist, not subordinate to the Roman Catholic.

The Reformation destroyed ideas about the unshakable spiritual power of the church, about its role as a mediator between God and people. Calvin propagated that the sign of Divine favor to man is revealed in his practical activity. The work ethic of the Reformation sanctified practicality and entrepreneurship. Over time, the Protestant ethics, developed by John Calvin, embraced wide sections of society and the bourgeois became its main carriers. And this is natural: it provided guidelines that were necessary for life in the emerging capitalist society, where much depended on diligence and enterprise, and social origin no longer predetermined the fate of a person.

19. Development of crafts and industry

The special development of handicrafts and local crafts was in XVI-XVII centuries. The construction of new cities, villages, settlements was underway, and the old cities were fortified: Pskov, Yaroslavl, Novgorod, etc. The main thing Moscow was the economic center, with a population of up to 100 thousand inhabitants. It was a city where there was a large craft, and trade was carried out. However, many cities in Russia were still the centers of feudal and princely estates, and the inhabitants of the city depended on the feudal nobility. In the cities located to the south and southeast, there was no commercial and industrial population, they were military garrisons.

The population engaged in trade and crafts in the XV-XVII centuries. were called townspeople, since they lived in the suburbs, i.e. outside the fortified area of the city. They created one community, which performed various duties established by the state. They were distributed among the entire population, as a result of which the townspeople were not interested in evading the implementation of city duties by all people.

At this time, the craft was developing, which occupied a certain share of the country's economy, the number of craft specialties was increasing, and the level of skilled workers was increasing. Artisans did more work not to order, but to the market. Handicrafts began to be in great demand in the markets of the city, since the feudal lords gave their preference to the products purchased in these markets, and not the craft of rural artisans, and the peasants began to purchase such products, which contributed to an increase in domestic supply and demand.

In Russia during this period there was no guild handicraft production, and it was common for an individual artisan to make not one, but many different types of products.

A special manifestation of commodity specialization was in XVII centuries metallurgy in Ustyug, Tula, Serpukhov, etc., leather production in Kostroma, Kazan, Yaroslavl, Murom, production of linen and canvas in Pskov, Tver, Novgorod, cloth making in Moscow and the Volga region.

The expansion of specialization and the development of demand contributed to the formation of other forms of production. Began to be created manufactories, representing enterprises that were based on manual labor, but still applied the division of labor more deeply. In their activities they used serf labor and received the name patrimonial manufactories. The explanation for this was the absence of non-working people in the country, in contrast to Western Europe, where the functioning of manufactories was based on the hiring of free workers. Peasants and serf artisans were forced to work at enterprises, they were practically not paid for labor, these manufactories operated until the middle of the XNUMXth century.

В 1631 in the Urals was produced construction of the first manufactorynamed Nitsinsky copper smelter. Metallurgical plants were created near Tula, state manufactories arose in Moscow.

Began to develop scattered manufactory, i.e. at home. This circumstance led to the emergence of buyers who acted as intermediaries between artisans and the market, i.e. they were engaged in distributing orders to manufacturers' houses, while demanding high-quality products and in a certain quantity.

Began to appear latrine trades, mainly in the Non-Black Earth Region. During the autumn and winter, peasants went to the cities in order to earn money, and in the spring they returned back to work in the fields. Such activities were encouraged by the feudal lords, since they were paid dues by the peasants, and this was profitable during the emergence of the market.

20. The spirit of capitalism

At the end of the Middle Ages in Europe, in its purest form, a new type of socio-economic relations was born - capitalism.

In the XNUMXth century began to use the word "capitalist" - the owner of money capital. The term "capitalism" first entered the scientific lexicon in the second half of the XNUMXth century. Some scholars consider the emergence of a market of goods, labor and capital free from restrictions as the main properties of capitalism. Others consider its main feature to be a high degree of rationality, which is manifested both in the organization of production and in relation to labor and makes it possible to subordinate economic life to the norms of efficiency and profitability.

There are several conditions for the emergence of capitalism in Western Europe:

1) the influence of the Greco-Roman world with a high level of development of commodity-money relations and an orientation towards an active creative personality;

2) urban communal movements (in the city that won self-government, a stratum of people was formed with free capital, which gave birth to the future bourgeoisie);

3) registration of active estates defending their rights.

The position of the church in relation to economic issues and commerce was also important. Since the XNUMXth century it softens its doctrines: condemning usury, the church did not condemn bills, investments. This led to the fact that after the Reformation trade began to be considered a very worthy occupation.

In "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" M. Weber reveals the influence of religion on the economy. The Protestant Church played a certain role in shaping the system of capitalist entrepreneurship in the West. Weber speaks of "the undoubted predominance of Protestants among the owners of capital and entrepreneurs", among the "higher skilled strata of the workers", and "above all, among the highest technical and commercial personnel of modern enterprises."

According to Weber, the ascetic features of religious denominations (as opposed to mystical ones) contributed to the formation of appropriate incentives and norms of behavior that make up "spirit of capitalism". By the “spirit of capitalism” we do not mean an abstract concept, but “a complex of connections that exist in historical reality” and represent one whole. This is not a pursuit of profit at all costs, but purposeful activity, professional duty, adherence to certain standards of economic ethics.

The Protestant religion, primarily Calvinism, contributed to the development of business acumen and entrepreneurial activity. It helped to form thrift, prudence, enterprise, resourcefulness, readiness for risk.

It was from among the Protestants, first of all, that the entrepreneurial class - owners and organizers of production. In Europe, and not in India or China, the ethical norms of religion and the norms of economic behavior to some extent coincided. As a result, a "rationalist" form of capitalism took shape and spread.

The cause-and-effect relationships between the norms of religious ethics and the “capitalist spirit” are quite complex and contradictory. The “social ethics” of capitalist culture is formed and established through economic selection. The ideologists of the bourgeoisie created their ideal, starting from the aristocratic ideal, born in the Middle Ages, because the bourgeoisie claimed to be the new elite in society. However, now the right to elitism was given not by noble origin, but by personal merit. The “gentleman merchant” who himself has achieved wealth, knowledge, and the ability to behave in society is worthy of true respect.

21. The Russian economy in the XVII century. Formation of the all-Russian market

As a result of the "distemper", about 50% of the previously arable land was abandoned, and many villages were deserted.

The restoration of the economy continued for several decades, and only by the middle of the XNUMXth century did the area of cultivated land reach its former size. The revival of economic life took place against the background of exacerbation of social contradictions in the process of strengthening serfdom. In the first decades of the XNUMXth century, broad grants of land increased the size of the enslaved population. The role of large feudal land ownership increased.

The natural nature of the production of the peasant economy did not contribute to the improvement of farming techniques, agriculture followed an extensive path of development. The government continued the policy of tightening serfdom, under pressure from the nobility.

By the middle of the XNUMXth century gradually restored urban economy. Districts specializing in the production of certain goods are being formed. So, for example, the manufacture of linen in the XNUMXth century was concentrated in Novgorod, Pskov, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda. Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Vologda, Kazan became centers for leather processing. Railway production developed in the Tula-Serpukhov, Tikhvin, Ustyuzhno-Zhelezopol regions. Pomorye was famous for salt mining and carpentry skills.

In the 20-30s in Russia the first manufactories appeared - large-scale production with the division of labor, which used the labor of skilled craftsmen. The first manufactories arose in metallurgy, their creation was accelerated by the state's need for weapons.

In addition to state-owned, there were manufactories owned by foreigners. The state invited foreigners and provided them with everything necessary for production in order to receive the products needed by the state.

Also, large landowners founded manufactories to meet the needs of their estates.

But decisive importance in providing the population with industrial products and the formation of the all-Russian market belonged to small-scale commodity production.

The formation of a single all-Russian market took place as a merger of local markets serving the inhabitants of a certain region into a single network. There was a system of wholesale fairs in large shopping centers, which covered the entire territory of the country.

During this period, trade fairs of all-Russian significance arose - Makarievskaya near Nizhny Novgorod, Svenskaya near Bryansk, Irbitskaya in the Urals. Trade in the countries of Western Europe was carried out through the port on the White Sea - Arkhangelsk. Trade with Asian countries was carried out through Astrakhan. Hemp, linen, furs, lard, and leather were exported from Russia. Imports from Western European countries were industrial products, luxury goods were imported from Asian countries.

22. Prerequisites for Peter's reforms

В XVII centuries. Russia was a huge country, covering the territory from the Dnieper to the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian Sea, with a population of about 13 million people. People lived mainly in the central and northern European parts of the country, since the Volga region was practically undeveloped, and the North Caucasus, Kuban, Black Sea coast of Ukraine did not belong to Russia. As a result of the entry into Russia of all Siberia and the Left-Bank Ukraine at the end XVII century the country became a state with many nationalities, orthodox christians, muslims, buddhists, pagans. The country began to manifest itself more clearly two civilizations: European and Asian. The country aspired to both Europe and the East, which led to the dual nature of the economic and political development of the state.

In the period of the XVII-XVIII centuries, the country needed to eliminate the socio-economic backwardness from Western European states, such as England, France, Holland, which achieved certain success at this turn in terms of the development of a market economy. The economic condition of the country continued to be based mainly on natural form, since the industry was underdeveloped. There was a huge and immovable system of management of the national economy. At the same time, the process of abolishing serfdom was already completed in many European countries, however, the opposite was true in Russia, enslavement by feudal lords, representatives of the royal family and peasant monasteries continued. Since the 1th-5th centuries, monetary rent existed in Western Europe, which provided the peasants with greater freedom and interested in the final results of their labor, which contributed to an increase in labor productivity by 2-XNUMX times compared to Russia.

For Russia, a characteristic feature was autarky, i.e. the country was closed in economic terms, isolated from the outside world and rigidly supported by the state. The need for international relations was great, but the lack of access to the seas did not give them development. For a long time it occupied a path through the White Sea, and through the Baltic Sea there was control from Sweden, which covered all the lands of the Baltic states. Turkey and the Crimean Khanate controlled the exit through the Black and Azov Seas.

During the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and his daughter Sophia, attempts were made to enter Europe, wishing to complete with economic isolation, they formed the basis for the development of trade relations with Western Europe. To achieve access to the Black Sea and the formation of the Russian fleet there, headed by Prince V.V. Golitsyn carried out two campaigns in the Crimea, which were unsuccessful.

By the end of the XNUMXth century, the country lagged sharply behind the military level of European states, the army was poorly equipped with equipment and firearms, the noble cavalry was the main force, the archery troops, distributed in cities and villages, did not undergo regular military service, only during the war the army gathered. The country did not have a navy.

В middle of the XNUMXth century passed in the country city uprisings Moscow, Novgorod, Tambov, Kursk and other cities. The southern lands of the country were covered peasant war in the period 1970-1671 led by S. Razin and detachments of Cossacks and peasants, as well as the steppe population of the Volga region.

At the end of this century, the country needed to make decisions regarding economic, political, military, cultural and educational problems. At the same time, there was an increase crisis in religion, there was a struggle between the Orthodox and Old Believer churches.

23. Reforms of Peter I and their significance for the Russian economy

Reformation in the economic and political life of Russia, a time of fundamental changes, is closely connected with the reign of Peter I. The main goal of the reign of Peter I was to turn Russia into a powerful European power.

Four main directions can be distinguished in the transformative activities of Peter I.

1. Reforms of the state apparatus - administrative and military.

2. Economic and social reforms.

3. Church reforms and transformations in cultural life.

4. Reforms related to raising Russia's international status.

Economic policy during the reign of Peter I was mercantilist character and combined with protectionism in relation to domestic industry. The policy of mercantilism meant encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. Encouragement of types of production that were “useful and necessary” from the state’s point of view was combined with a ban or restriction on the production of “unnecessary” goods. The development of industry was dictated by the needs of warfare. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. Copper smelting, silver smelting, and iron factories appeared. The Arsenal and the Admiralty Shipyard grew up in the capital, from the stocks of which 59 large and 200 small ships rolled off during the life of Peter I.

By 1725, the country had 25 textile enterprises, rope and gunpowder manufactories. For the first time, paper, cement, sugar factories, as well as a wallpaper factory were built. The growth of industrial production was based on the intensification of feudal exploitation. Forced labor was widely used at manufactories - the labor of serfs, bought (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black) peasantry, which was attributed to the plant as a constant source of labor, was used.

Transformations also took place in small-scale production. In 1711, craft schools were established at the manufactories. And by decrees of 1722, a shop device was introduced in the cities. This testified to the patronage of the authorities to the development of crafts.

Agriculture continued to develop exponentially. New crops were introduced - medicinal plants, fruit trees, tobacco, etc.

In the field of domestic and foreign trade an important role was played by the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods, which significantly replenished the treasury. By the end of Peter's reign, exports of Russian goods were twice as high as imports, and high customs tariffs reliably protected the domestic market.

The reforms of Peter I were of great historical significance, as they contributed to the prosperity of the country. On the other hand, they were carried out by feudal methods. Therefore, the transformations of Peter I initially carried conservative features, which, in the course of the further development of the country, became stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result, Russia in its economic development could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development.

24. Economic development of Russia under Catherine II

The reign of Catherine II left a noticeable mark in the history of Russia. Her policy of "enlightened absolutism" was characteristic of many European states of that time and assumed the rule of a "wise man on the throne." The desire to match this image did not prevent Catherine from strengthening the oppression of serfdom.

As before, the leading branch of the Russian economy was agriculture. Due to the development of new lands, the production of bread increased significantly.

In the second half of the XNUMXth century, two regions finally took shape using different forms of exploitation. Corvee dominated in the black earth regions, and in regions with infertile soil - cash dues.

During this period, peasant crafts were greatly developed, especially in the non-chernozem zone. In the Tver province, leather crafts became widespread, in the Nizhny Novgorod province - metalworking. Handicraft production gradually developed into manufacturing.

In the second half of the XVIII century there was a further growth of manufactories. In addition, the organizational forms and types of manufactories changed. The patrimonial manufactories were located in the noble estates, serfs worked for them, for whom it was a kind of corvée.

Increased merchant enterprises, mainly in light industry. As a rule, hired workers worked at merchant manufactories. Wage workers were, as a rule, quitrent serfs, and only in the course of time did they buy themselves free and join merchant guilds.

In the 60s and 70s, the number of civilian workers almost doubled, and this is how the labor market gradually formed.

In 1762, it was forbidden to buy serfs for factories, and the assignment of peasants to enterprises was also stopped. After 1762, the newly opened manufactories began to work on freelance labor.

In the second half of the XNUMXth century, the process of formation of the all-Russian market continued. The number of fairs has steadily increased, the status of fairs has risen, and they are becoming the economic centers of the regions.

In 1754, internal customs duties were eliminated, which also contributed to the development of the all-Russian commodity market.

Exports outnumbered imports. Metal, hemp, linen, sailcloth, timber, and bread were exported from Russia. Added new points of foreign trade - St. Petersburg and Odessa.

During this period, the first banks appeared in Russia. In 1754, the Noble and Commercial banks began their work.

In 1769, as a result of the monetary reform, paper money was put into circulation - banknotes in the amount of 1 million rubles. By 1786, more than 46 million rubles were issued to cover budget expenditures, of which half could have been covered by copper money. Banknotes depreciated, the attempt to withdraw them from circulation failed. Only by the middle of the XNUMXth century did the Russian financial system stabilize.

The emergence of various types of manufactories, the development of the all-Russian commodity market, the use of freelance labor and the increase in the role of commodity-money relations testified to the formation of new social and production relations and the creation of prerequisites for the development of capitalism in Russia.

25. Peasant question. Agriculture and land use under Catherine II

Formation in the second half of the XNUMXth century the all-Russian market и international trade contributed bringing agriculture to market.

The landowners wanted to get as much money as possible from their own estates for the purchase of luxury goods, the creation of estates and other expenses.

In order to increase agricultural production and sell its products on the market, the feudal lords intensively used the labor of peasants on estates. The landlords on the territory of the Chernozem region constantly increased the number of corvee, i.e. worked rent, sometimes up to six days a week. Some landlords took allotments from the peasants, forcing them to work on their land, and gave them a natural ration, i.e. peasants were transferred for a month. In non-chernozem regions, peasants were transferred to quitrent, forcing them to take an active part in the market, and the control of landowners over farming by peasants was also strengthened, by collection of state poll tax. However in 1734 year was published decree, according to which landlords were obliged in lean years to feed their peasants, provide them with seeds for sowing the land.

As a result of the increased exploitation of the peasants, they began to express their resistance by looting the estates of the landowners, and even killed them, carried out uprisings, arbitrarily plowed their lands, seized meadows, cut down forests, fled to the southern free lands or beyond the Urals. The country had to expand the territory of serfdom in the Trans-Volga region, to the Don, in the Urals, under the reign of Catherine II, the territory of Ukraine was included, on which the Cossack freemen remained.

В 1736 landowners have had right install at will measure of punishment for escaping serfs, And in 1760 year was published decree on the right to exile peasants to Siberia or include them in the recruitment for various faults.

В XVIII century applied in agriculture new methods of cultivating land and growing crops. Many landowners had the opportunity to use new technology and introduce agronomic achievements into agricultural production. AT 1765 year was created institution "Free Economic Society to encourage agriculture and housing construction in Russia". The use of these achievements contributed to an increase in labor productivity, an increase in the volume of marketable products and its sale on the market, while the serfdom of the peasants continued to exist.

In the second half of this century, the share of agricultural products increased markedly through the development of new lands in the Trans-Volga region, the southern territories of the country and Western Siberia. The areas under crops of new crops, such as potatoes, sugar beets and sunflowers, have been expanded. The area under crops of hemp and flax increased. Most of the grain was sold by the landlords on the market.

The number of serfs began to increase, as the previously free population was enslaved, thus the feudal system expanded.

Peasant class were three categories: state, palace and landlord. At this time, the most pronounced were the signs of the property stratification of the peasantry, i.e. by the amount of land that is in direct use, by the number of livestock, etc. The most enterprising peasants were engaged in crafts, traded, rented land, and some even bought peasants for themselves, but this was prohibited by law. Peasants who had the necessary amount of cash ransom their families to freedom. Basically, such peasants tried to hide their capital, since they could be taken away by the landlords.

26. Nobility and the system of local government in the second half of the XNUMXth century.

During the reign of Catherine II, a number of transformations were carried out, mainly relating to the unified legislative and executive powers of the Empress, and restrictions on the rights of the Senate in the performance of the previous functions that were established under Peter I. 1764 year the empress accepted decision to limit the economic dominance of the church. Catherine II held secularization of church lands, i.e. transferring it to public or private ownership, in accordance with government regulations. As a result of this process, the state budget was replenished. A huge number of monastic peasants found themselves under the jurisdiction of the College of Economy, which eventually received the name economic. After some time they were annexed to the state peasants.

For the purpose of economic development of the country in 1762-1763 Catherine II appealed to foreigners with an appeal to settle in Russia, for which she promised to provide them with tax benefits, freedom of religion, preservation of their culture and language. The colonists who moved from Germany were given the black earth steppe in the Trans-Volga region. They soon created farms, which was an example for the landowners of Russia. In these years, potatoes were brought into the country from Ireland, which became an obligatory cultivated crop in agriculture.

The rights and privileges of the nobles were strengthened and expanded, which was the basis of an absolute monarchy. Catherine II in 1785 year signed "Diploma of law, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility", securing all their rights and privileges, including Russian nobles, Polish gentry, landowners of Ukraine and Belarus, as well as the barons of the Baltic states. They had the right to own land and serfs, and could also transfer them by inheritance, etc. It was forbidden to confiscate noble estates for crimes of a criminal nature, in this case, the estates remained with the heirs.The nobles were not subjected to corporal punishment, the title of nobility could be canceled only by a court decision, and they were not subject to duties and personal taxes. was administrative power, they were recorded in special genealogical books.This book consisted of two parts, one of which recorded the nobles, who were approved by the supreme authority, and the other, who had a noble rank according to the table of ranks. Noble title and family coat of arms, as well as taking part in the meetings of the nobility was the exclusive right of the nobility yours.

The support of the government of this class contributed to their attack on other classes, so they wanted to oust the merchants from agriculture, opposed the rich merchants receiving new sources of increasing prosperity. In some regions of the country, the nobles, who had the right to distillation, did not allow merchants to enter this sphere. The nobles appealed to the government to prohibit citizens of the city and merchants from fishing, cutting wood, etc. As a result, Catherine II approved monopoly right of nobles to own land, to distill alcohol, and to serfs.

Under the influence of the ideas of the enlighteners of France, the empress gradually passed into the form of government enlightened absolutism, the essence of which was the formation of a new system of regulation of social relations, by establishing existing laws and developing new ones. It was assumed that social conflicts between state bodies and society could be avoided on the basis of a social contract.

27. Socio-economic policy of Paul I

Paul I was the son of Catherine II, his socio-economic policy was different from the era of the previous time, but its essence, as before, was autocratic and feudal power. Paul I insisted on the need for the nobility to perform their functions in the public service, he returned all the nobles who had been on vacation for many years and forbade their children to be recorded for military service.

He declared that he had decided to end liberalism, enlightened absolutism, which resulted in revolutions and executions of the king in France. Being a supporter of the unlimited power of the tsar, he decided to cancel the "Charter to the nobility" established by Catherine, and also limited their rights in relation to class self-government, introduced corporal punishment, closed all private printing houses, and introduced a ban on the import of foreign literature into the country.

Gradually, Paul I began to produce replacement of boards with a system of ministries, since a stricter subordination to him was carried out through the ministers, but he failed to fully implement this reform, and it was completed in 1802 by Alexander I. It was continued provincial reform, a special administration based on national characteristics was introduced on the territory of the Baltic states.

Paul I was a supporter of the Prussian order, and therefore introduced into the armyborrowed from them Prussian drilland cane discipline, a new form of clothing, which was not adapted to the harsh climatic conditions of the country. There was a transition from recruiting to an army of mercenaries, mostly only from Germany.

The number of serfs continued to grow, as serfdom was extended to the Don region, the southern territories of Ukraine and the northern Caucasus. To strengthen the serfdom, the distribution of peasants belonging to the state to the landowners was carried out, since the emperor believed that it would be better for them to live with them.

Early 1797 g. was published by Paul I Manifesto on the three-day corvee, according to which the landowners were recommended to use the labor of peasants no more than three days a week and not to use them on weekends. However, this order was not carried out by many landlords, the peasants continued to work on corvee for four or five days, and sometimes six days a week.

Paul I, wanting to relieve social tension and fearing uprisings of the population, made a ban on the sale at auction of householders and peasants who did not have land, as well as serfs who were without land, etc. As a result, his relations with the nobles aggravated.

Paul I sought to improve the condition of state-owned peasants by issuing Senate decrees about allotment of land to them about 15 acres per male in the non-chernozem territories and about 8 acres in all the rest. However, this decree was not implemented in practice.

The emperor strictly monitored the food and uniforms of the soldiers, prevented theft and bribes in the army. He introduced restrictions on the style of clothing, forbade the Russian population to study abroad, and foreigners to freely enter the territory of Russia.

Paul I severed all relations with England, which, as a result, affected the incomes of the landed estates, which were the main suppliers of agricultural products to England. At the same time, he became an ally of Napoleon Bonaparte in order to destroy British rule in the lands of the East. The plan of the military campaign was drawn up, so through Astrakhan, then the Caspian Sea and the territory of Afghanistan went to India, but this project was not implemented, since a conspiracy against Paul I was carried out and his death in March 1801 in St. Petersburg.

28. Formation of an industrial civilization. The industrial revolution and its aftermath

Under industrial revolution (or industrial revolution) understand the transition from an economic system based on agricultural production to an industrial-type economy.

According to the Marxist approach, industrial revolution - this is a historical period during which the transition from manual labor to machine labor was carried out and the establishment of factory production on the scale of the national economy. There are two aspects of the industrial revolution: technical - the transition from manual labor to machine and social - the formation of social classes associated with factory production (wage workers and the bourgeoisie).

Late XNUMXth-early XNUMXth century the time when the industrial revolution took place in most of Europe. A stage in the development of the economy begins, which is called industrial, or machine. This name indicates that machines are increasingly being introduced into production and are replacing manual labor. Machines are turning into a kind of value in itself, the machine industry occupies an important place in the life of society, determining its economic well-being, military potential, and international status. Dynamics, technical progress are the basis of the life of a new type of civilization.

The ever-increasing speed of technological progress is only possible thanks to the gradually forming close alliance between machine industry and science oriented towards practical ends.

The industrial revolution had the following consequences:

1) the industrial revolution made factory production the leading one. Mass production turned the worker into an appendage of the machine. This was clearly manifested at the beginning of the XNUMXth century, when G. Ford introduced the conveyor at his automobile plants in the USA. The level of labor productivity rose sharply, but labor was mechanized to the limit;

2) factory technology and the associated sharp increase in the volume of production went hand in hand with changes in the production of raw materials, machinery, transportation methods, etc. That is, there is a chain reaction. The development of machine production causes the need for the production of machines themselves, a new branch is developing - mechanical engineering. Thus, industrial production began to be divided into two groups: group "A" - the production of means of production and group "B" - the production of consumer goods;

3) technical changes in production were reshaping the market. It was no longer consumer demand that pushed the development of production, but the factory production of goods required the expansion of markets and gradually formed demand;

4) the industrial revolution required large investments. Entrepreneurs, wanting to quickly recoup the costs of introducing machines, lengthened the working day without raising wages. The situation of the working people worsened, they began to wage an economic, and later political struggle;

5) one of the negative results of the technical revolution was industrial crises - periods during which entrepreneurs could not sell their products. They were called overproduction crises;

6) new technical inventions and scientific discoveries led to the development of little-known industries and the creation of new, hitherto unknown ones. In the second half of the XIX century. the importance of the oil industry has risen sharply. Last third of the XNUMXth century became the era of the development of electricity, which gave production a new energy base. New industries emerged: electrochemistry and electrometallurgy. Advances in chemistry made possible the rapid development of the chemical industry: the production of dyes, artificial fertilizers, synthetic and explosives began.

29. Industrialization in England

Scientists call England a country of exemplary industrialization and the birthplace of the industrial revolution.

In the middle of the XNUMXth century, the industrial revolution began in England, which was facilitated by the following factors:

1) the abolition of serfdom and the elimination of feudal fragmentation;

2) the forcible dispossession of peasants in the process of fencing ensured the emergence of a free labor force, the so-called paupers. By the middle of the XNUMXth century, the class of the peasantry, as small producers, had disappeared. The laws of the government, called bloody, contributed to this process - the ruined peasants were forcibly sent to enterprises;

3) as a result of the colonial trade, the slave trade, significant financial resources were accumulated to subsidize technical research;

4) religious tolerance for scientific research, proclaimed back in the XNUMXth century, allowed scientists not to be afraid of persecution;

5) in the course of the bourgeois revolution, the English bourgeoisie gained access to power, and feudal remnants in industry, trade and agriculture were eliminated;

6) an important role was played by the fact that the field of activity for English capitalism was not only the city, but also the countryside. In England, the countryside not only did not hold back the transition to capitalism, but, on the contrary, the base for the most important industry, cloth-making, was concentrated here.

The Industrial Revolution began in England with the cotton industry. In 1733

D. Kay invented the so-called shuttle-plane, which improved the loom. This allowed the production of wider fabrics and much faster. From that moment began "age of textiles"... In 1765 g.

D. Hargreavesa spinning machine was created, which increased the productivity of spinners several times over.

In 1771 entrepreneur R. Arkwright built the first factory in which a spinning machine was used, and after 20 years there were already 150 factories in England.

In 1769 was

D. Watt invented the steam engine, and 15 years later - its more advanced model - double action, thereby opening "age of couple", which, in a few decades, will replace the "age of textiles".

The transport problem was also solved. Since 1785 to 1835 the country was covered with a dense network of paved roads, canals and railways. As a result, the cost of transportation decreased by an average of 3 times.

In 1807, the first steamship was launched and a steam fleet began to take shape.

The leadership of British technical thought, as well as the early development of the raw material base, provided England with a dominant position in engineering. British technology was in demand in Europe in connection with the railway construction unfolding there. British colonies and dependent territories were completely dependent on the supply of British goods and technology.

During this period, England abandoned the policy of protectionism and reduced or eliminated duties on goods imported from most European countries and urged them to follow their example. As a result of the industrial revolution in England, shipbuilding, cloth making, the production of gunpowder and paper, and coal mining successfully developed.

Agriculture in England was dominated by large landownership. Landowners earned rent by leasing land to farmers. To make a profit, farmers used advanced agricultural technology, the latest fertilizers. As a result, agricultural productivity in England has become much higher than in other countries.

Until the 70s of the XIX century, England remained the leading industrial power and was rightfully considered the "workshop of the world."

30. Industrialization in France and Germany

industrial revolution in France began in the 20s and 30s.

Industry in France developed in a slightly different direction and at a slower pace than in England. But here, too, technical thought did not stand still. Since 1805 by 1810 a machine for the production of patterned silk fabrics, a flax spinning machine, as well as the technology of industrial canning of products were invented.

However, the industrial revolution in France is considered incomplete, unsuccessful compared to the English.

This is due to the peculiarities of the development of the French economy during this period.

1. A significant part of the industry was focused on the production of luxury (perfumes, furniture, tapestries). These goods were produced individually and required manual processing. In addition, French industrialists had cheap labor.

2. Due to the agrarian overpopulation of the country. Therefore, small workshops and manufactories dominated the industry, the most developed was the manufacturing sector of industry.

3. The main branch of the economy was agriculture. The agricultural sector employed 75% of the population. Most of the farms were small and their owners could not use the technical improvements.

4. Banking capital flourished in the country. In its concentration, France was ahead of other countries. In the sphere of usury, capital accumulated more slowly, and did not always pass into the sphere of production. In France, a special type of bourgeois has become widespread - not an industrialist-entrepreneur, but a rentier living on income from securities.

During the XNUMXth century, France remained an agrarian-industrial country in terms of its economic structure. At the beginning of the XNUMXth century, there was a revival in the industry of France, as the production of automobiles began to develop successfully, but the overall lag was very noticeable, especially from Germany.

The beginning of the industrial revolution in Germany attributed to the 30s of the XIX century.

Since in Germany until 1871. feudal fragmentation was preserved, and the emancipation of the peasants was not completed, the pace of the industrial revolution was slow. Germany had to solve a difficult task: to eliminate the remnants of feudalism and to choose a "catching up" pace of development.

By the middle of the XNUMXth century, the course of the industrial revolution accelerated, which was influenced by the following factors:

1) the formation of the Customs Union in 1833, which at first united only part of the German states, and then others joined it;

2) in 1848, a bourgeois revolution swept Germany, which ended with a compromise agreement between the feudal lords and the bourgeoisie. Feudal relations were gradually eliminated, but Germany still remained a semi-feudal country;

3) the process of emancipation of the peasants was completed by the middle of the century and gave impetus to the development of industry.

The rapid leap forward in half a century has turned Germany into a strong capitalist power. At the beginning of the XNUMXth century, it moved into first place in Europe in terms of industrial production, in which the leading positions were occupied by ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering and the chemical industry. Particular growth was observed in heavy industry, which was due to a large number of military orders.

Agriculture in Germany developed along a different path than the "farm" path, which was called "Prussian" or "Junker". Its essence was that large landholdings were transformed into capitalist farms, on which the latest achievements of science and technology were introduced centrally (steam plows, cultivators, threshers, etc. were used).

31. Features of the industrial revolution and industrialization in the USA. Imperial modernization of Japan

After the end of the War of Independence (1775-1783), which was waged by the American colonists against England, an independent state was formed. USA.

The results of the war of independence and the prerequisites for the industrial revolution were the following factors:

1) the elimination of the feudal system in agriculture, imposed by England, after the destruction of plantations in the South of the United States, the lease system spread;

2) exemption from restrictions in international relations: trade, capital flow, inflow of labor resources;

3) formation of a single and capacious internal market, transport and monetary systems;

4) the expansion of the borders of the States to the West, as a result of which a huge power was formed, rich in various natural resources.

The industrial revolution in the United States began with the cotton industry. In the United States, mechanical engineering, especially agricultural, developed successfully. This was facilitated by the invention E. Whitney cotton gin, new plow design T. Jefferson, reapers O. Gassi и S. McCortic. Between 1860 and 1900, 676 thousand inventions were patented in the United States. Among the most significant is the theory of the electric telegraph S. Morse, telephone A. Bella, incandescent lamp T. Edison.

In addition to scientific and technological advances, the following reasons contributed to the rapid pace of industrialization in the United States:

1) rich raw materials;

2) a large influx of immigrants who provided the growing industry with a labor force;

3) an extensive system of water and rail transport;

4) a policy of protectionism that protects American industry from foreign competition.

In the middle of the XNUMXth century, the United States was predominantly an agrarian country, but by the beginning of the XNUMXth century, the United States was ahead of all other states in terms of industrial production.

In 1893 was G. Ford built his first car, and two decades later, the US industry produced more than half a million cars a year.

By 1913, the output of the ferrous metallurgy and coal mining industry exceeded that produced in these industries by England, Germany and France combined.

Great changes took place in the life of Eastern civilizations in the XNUMXth century: their traditional character began to collapse. But if in Europe this happened due to the natural course of things, then in the East, under the pressure of Western civilization. In a special position among all the countries of the East was Japan. It became the first powerful capitalist power of the East, having declared itself at the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth century.

Japan made extensive use of the experience of European countries and successfully learned from them the organization of capitalist production. The Japanese increased the pace of economic growth, modernized industry, gave the country a new right, changed political structures and the education system.

A set of radical reforms called Meiji Restoration, was held by the emperor Mutsuhito in 1868 city

Feudalism was put an end to in Japan in one blow: the government abolished feudal allotments and hereditary privileges of daimyō princes. The princes became officials, headed the provinces, but class distinctions between them and other classes were abolished.

The peasants were given the right to buy land, acquiring it as their property, and this opened the way for the development of capitalism in the countryside.

The state actively encouraged merchant capital, giving it firm social and legal guarantees.

Political transformations should include the adoption in 1889 of the constitution. In Japan, a constitutional monarchy was created with great rights for the emperor, following the example of the Prussian version.

32. Cyclicity in the economy. Periodic crises and long waves N.D. Kondratiev

Economic growth is not constant and sustainable. In some years, the production of goods and services increases at a high rate, in others it grows in a negative direction. Even under conditions of centralized planning, the growth of the national economy of the USSR was not absolutely uniform. The annual growth rates of the most important macroeconomic indicators fluctuated from year to year. Countries with market economies are subject to even sharper fluctuations.

Periodic fluctuations in production growth are called economic, or opportunistic, cycles.

In this case, the economic cycle can be divided into four phases.

1. Rise phase.

2. Phase of recession (crisis).

3. Phase of stagnation (depression).

4. Phase of recovery.

The reasons for business cycles are:

1) scientific and technological revolutions of a basic nature, causing an increase in innovative activity;

2) a fundamental change in the socio-political system;

3) transformation of the structure of the economy and price proportions.

There are more than a hundred theories that claim to explain the cyclical nature of economic growth. According to supporters innovation cycle theory, economic upsurges are based on transitions to fundamentally new technical principles of production. Another group of theories of economic cycles proceeds from the actual economic explanation of this phenomenon. These include theories overproduction and underconsumption.

There are many types of economic cycles.

Here are some of them:

1) sectoral - lasting from a week to several years, associated with the specifics of creating a product in various industries;

2) small - lasting 2-4 years, associated with uneven reproduction of working capital;

3) large - lasting 8-13 years, associated with uneven reproduction of fixed capital;

4) long-wave - lasting 45-60 years, described by the Russian economist N.D. Kondratiev (1892-1938) associated with fluctuations in government spending.

Let us consider in more detail the theory of long waves by N.D. Kondratiev. In the course of economic analysis, Kondratiev built a theoretical series for each empirical series that most accurately reflected the general direction of development. For each economic indicator, a series of deviations of the empirical series from the theoretical one was built, which was then leveled using the "moving average" method for 9 years. On the basis of the analysis carried out, Kondratiev established for the period under consideration the presence of two and a half large cycles, the periods of which for all indicators coincide very closely.

The first of the cycles described by Kondratiev began around 1788 and continued to rise until 1814, followed by a decline that lasted until 1843.

The rise of the second cycle continued until the crisis of 1873 and was replaced by a recession until 1895.

The third rising wave continued until the end of the twenties and was replaced by the Great Depression (1929-1933).

The established long waves of the economic cycle, as a rule, are accompanied by the following changes in economic and social life:

1) before the upward wave, a surge of technical inventions is observed for 10-20 years, their application in industry coincides with the beginning of this wave;

2) downward waves are accompanied by a prolonged depression in agriculture;

3) medium cycles superimposed on the down wave of a large cycle are characterized by a longer stagnation, a short-term and weak rise; in the case of superimposition on the upward period of a long wave by opposite features

33. Oligopoly. Oligopolistic relationship

Economists refer to the conditions under which market competition takes place by the term market structure. The structure of the market is determined by the number and size of firms, the nature of the product, the ease of entry and exit from the market, and the availability of information.

There are four main types of market structures:

1) perfect competition;

2) monopolistic competition;

3) oligopoly;

4) monopoly.

Perfect competition and monopoly are abstract types of market structures. Markets that fully correspond to the parameters of these structures do not exist in reality. Monopolistic competition and oligopoly as market structures are characteristic of a large number of markets. In many sectors of the national economy, there are oligopolies that are leaders in pricing.

Oligopoly is a market structure consisting of a small number of firms, at least some of which are large in relation to the size of the market.

Features of the behavior of firms in an oligopoly:

1) close interaction;

2) rivalry;

3) the need to consciously maintain a uniform price level in the industry.

In the industry as a whole, rigid uniform prices may appear, independent of the costs of individual firms, output volumes are limited, and barriers are created that prevent new firms from entering the industry. There is an oligopolistic relationship.

Oligopolistic relationship, the need to pay great attention to the actions of competing firms in an oligopolistic market in determining the price and volume of output. An oligopolistic relationship can lead not only to a fierce confrontation, but also to an agreement. An agreement is made when oligopolistic firms see opportunities to jointly increase their income by raising prices and dividing the market. If the agreement is open and formal and involves all or most of the producers in the market, it results in the formation of a cartel.

Cartel is a group of producers who jointly maximize profits by fixing prices and limiting output.

Although cartels are good for their members, they are not so good for consumers. Fortunately for consumers, cartels have internal problems that make them difficult to form and unstable. The main problems of cartels are control over market entry, as well as the establishment and observance of output quotas.

There are also agreements between oligopolistic firms without formalization. "Formal cartels" are not unknown, but are rare due to their inherent instability. The distrust of firms, as well as unplanned market changes, lead to the fact that the price and volume of output are at a level that does not correspond to optimal operating conditions. Profit maximization for all firms in an industry is in conflict with profit maximization for an individual firm, so complete and long-term collusion is impossible. Violation of the contract, self-cutting prices, conducting aggressive advertising campaigns can only give a short-term increase in profits at the expense of other participants in the collusion, but in the long term they will lead to a decrease in profits and even depletion of financial resources.

Economists assess the economic consequences of an oligopoly ambiguously. Some scientists believe that the oligopoly ensures the development of scientific and technical progress, contributes to an increase in employment, an increase in product quality and an increase in production volume. Others, on the contrary, believe that oligopoly hinders the development of scientific and technological progress.

34. Monopolization of the US economy and antitrust laws

Due to the lack of free capital in the United States since the 1860s. active corporatization of production began. Subsequently, independent joint-stock companies began to conclude temporary agreements (pools) on uniform prices, tariffs, and production volumes. The most common form of monopolies are trusts and holdings.

Trusts were created by transferring their management rights to a single centralized board by shareholders.

The second form of monopolies in the United States were holding companies. Holding companies acquired controlling stakes in various enterprises, which allowed them to control, manage and finance these companies, although the latter retained legal independence.

State regulation plays an important role in maintaining the necessary level of competition in the market.

There are three main directions in its development in this area.:

1) measures aimed at the prohibition of monopolies (antitrust legislation);

2) state regulation of natural monopoly;

3) protection of companies from "excessive competition".

Antitrust Law - is a complex and extensive network of laws and regulations aimed at achieving the successful functioning of the market and the regulation of competition between firms.

The antitrust laws of many countries have been modeled on the US antitrust laws: the Sherman Act, the Clayton Act, and the US Federal Trade Commission ruling.

Sherman Act of 1890. constitutes the core of antitrust policy in the economic life of the United States. It outlaws "every contract and association, whether in the form of a trust or in any other form, or conspiracy to restrict commerce between the states or with foreign countries."

The federal government agencies that oversaw the implementation of the Sherman Act were successful in implementing antitrust programs, for example, they managed to demonopolize and break up Standard Oil and American Tobacco in 1911.

However, the Sherman Act had a number of omissions: this piece of legislation did not say anything about the status of monopolies formed by merger. In addition, many of the activities that restricted competition in the free market were interpreted here in a vague and ambiguous way.

Therefore, in 1914, the Clayton Act was passed, the main provisions of which were:

1) virtually all forms of discrimination in pricing policy were prohibited;

2) restrictions were imposed on the sale of goods with a forced assortment;

3) it was forbidden to merge firms by acquiring shares of competitors if such actions reduced competition;

4) it was forbidden to combine positions on the boards of directors of different firms.

Simultaneously with the Clayton Act, the US Congress ratified FTC ruling, which supplemented Clayton's law. This piece of legislation was intended to protect the interests of the consumer, to prohibit advertising that misleads consumers, and to prevent unfair competition practices. This act gave the US Federal Trade Commission, a newly created and independent body, the authority to determine, on a case-by-case basis, evidence of antitrust violations.

Since 1914, two amendments to the Clayton Act have been passed: the Robinson-Patman Act (1936), which strengthened measures to combat discrimination in the field of price policy, and the Celler Act (1950), which regulated the practice of merging monopolies even more strictly.

35. Various models of the "welfare state". F. Roosevelt's "New Deal" and the Swedish model of reform

F. Roosevelt, who was president of the United States in 1933-1945, proposed a program for overcoming the crisis (1929-1933 - the "Great Depression"), which was called "New Deal". The program included a number of reforms designed not only to eliminate the consequences of the crisis, but also to improve American society as a whole. As part of Roosevelt's New Deal, assistance to the needy was organized, millions of the unemployed were given the opportunity to take part in public works subsidized by the state. A law on social security was adopted, providing for insurance of the unemployed, the introduction of pensions, state assistance to widows, orphans, the disabled and other socially unprotected sections of the population. The Labor Relations Act finally secured the right of workers to strike and organize trade unions. Thanks to the "New Deal" the population of the United States received the right to social support from the state.

The course of reforms was also carried out in Scandinavia, especially in Sweden. The characteristic of the so-called "Swedish model" lies in the fact that the Social Democratic Party played a paramount role in its implementation. The Social Democrats achieved the introduction of state unemployment insurance, pensions, twelve days of paid leave, maternity leave, the right to receive child benefits, etc. An important measure was also an agreement between the central association of trade unions in Sweden and the association of employers, according to which the terms of collective agreements should be drawn up only with the participation of both parties.

The "new course" reforms of F. Roosevelt and the reforms of the Social Democrats in Sweden were of great importance, since they were the simplest models of the "welfare state", on the basis of which more complex and modern ones began to be developed later.

"Welfare state" is a democratic state that expresses the interests of society as a whole and mitigate excessive social inequality. The welfare state means the implementation of the social orientation of the economy through the state policy of income, employment and prices, the use of direct and indirect regulators of social processes.

The general world movement towards the welfare state is multivariate, generating its own national models in different cultures.

After the end of World War II and the defeat of fascism, the goal of creating a welfare state became pivotal for all capitalist countries. And such a course made it possible to achieve certain successes: as a result, in the 50-60s, a new type of society was formed in the leading capitalist states.

Here are its characteristic features:

1) a high standard of living;

2) social security;

3) observance of basic democratic principles.

One of the criteria for the growth of material condition in those years was the presence of a personal car: if in 1945 there were only 5 million car owners in Europe, then by the beginning of the 80s there were already 100 million.

However, a significant improvement in the material situation of the working people as a whole did not mean the complete elimination of the problem of social contrasts. Significant progress has been made on the road to a welfare state, but the ideal itself has never been realised.

36. General characteristics of the economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. The Crimean War and its impact on the economic situation in the country

The main share of industrial output, especially consumer goods, was produced small businessesrather than large enterprises. The population of various villages and fishing areas ceased to engage in agriculture and began to conduct industrial activities. The most famous villages that became the centers of the metalworking, leather, and textile industries were Ivanovo-Voznesensk, Pavlovo, and Kimry.

Of great importance in the development of the country's industry was scattered manufactory. The number of industrial enterprises was constantly increasing, and a large proportion of them were small-scale industries with a staff of 10-15 people, mostly consisting of hired workers. Cotton production and the woolen industry developed more rapidly. First half of the XNUMXth century has been characterized transition from manufactories to factories, which contributed to the creation of large enterprises that used machine technology, and which gave rise to industrial revolution. Russian culture began to emerge and develop engineering.

An indicator of the development of economic relations was increase in urban population, the construction of shopping centers in the Volga region proceeded at a rapid pace, as a result of which large commercial and industrial villages were created. It was started railway construction, the first was built between Tsarskoye Selo and St. Petersburg. On the rivers began to appear first steamships, mostly foreign-made.

The share grew fairs, which were the centers of wholesale trade and were the basis for the development of entrepreneurship. Implemented international trade, mainly aimed at the Western European market. England continued to be the main trading partner, and Germany and France also occupied a large share in the country's trade turnover.

Great attention was paid customs policy, as they believed that this would provide an opportunity not only to support domestic producers, but also to replenish the state treasury.

The financial system of the country had a huge impact The Patriotic War 1812 years, as a result of which large human losses were incurred, and material costs were also increased. Moscow was almost completely destroyed by fire, and many other cities and villages suffered from this.

Monetary reform Was held in 1939 year, according to which the silver ruble was declared the main monetary unit.

By the middle of the XIX century. there was an acute issue in relation to Turkey and Russia, namely, the presence of Russian ships in the Black Sea, and then their passage through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles and access to the Mediterranean Sea. However, during this period, a struggle arose between Russia and France, England and Austria regarding influence on the Caucasus, the Black Sea and the Balkans, as a result of which a military conflict, and was declared Crimean War from 1853-1856. The reason for this conflict was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox churches over the ownership of Palestinian shrines, and which churches have the right to own Christian monuments in Jerusalem.

The Russian army was not prepared for war and could not defeat the enemy. Russia was forced to sign peace treaty in 1856 in Paris, according to which Russia was deprived of many territories and did not have the right to find ships, military fortresses on the Black Sea, and the degree of its influence in the Caucasus, the Middle East and the Balkans also worsened. In Russia, it was necessary to carry out socio-economic reforms.

37. Prerequisites for the reforms of Alexander II

Serfdom in Russia existed for a long time, compared with other European countries. In the XNUMXth century during the reign of Catherine II, domestic educators raised the question of the abolition of serfdom, and the Decembrists constantly wrote about this in their programs. However, only by the middle of the XIX century. conditions were formed in the country for granting freedom to peasants, but at the same time the problem of establishing relations between landlords and peasants arose. By this period of time, a huge number of prerequisites for the implementation of agrarian reform had formed.

The first premise appeared landowner's farm, which was based on non-economic coercion of peasants to work, and was in a crisis situation. The efficiency of these farms was constantly declining, and the question of the transition from a natural form of farming to a market one arose more and more acutely. The next prerequisite was accelerated industrial development, resulting in contradictions with feudal relations in the agricultural sector. There was not enough market for industrial enterprises to sell their goods, since the bulk of the population was represented by peasants, as a result of which there was low purchasing power. The industry needed free labor, since serfs occupied the majority of the population and did not have the right to free movement from villages to cities to industrial enterprises.

It was also a prerequisite painful experience by the country of defeat in the Crimean War, the results of which were lagging behind in military and technical terms from other countries of the world, since in France and England there was a steam fleet, new small arms and artillery weapons, and in Russia there was still a sailing fleet and smooth-bore weapons.

The number grew peasant anti-feudal protests, which worried the government of the country. IN 1856 g. Alexander II stated about intentions to abolish serfdom, a huge number of projects and proposals began to arrive in St. Petersburg to find a way out of their current situation in the country. Everyone liked the freedom of speech, and the opportunity to express their thoughts.

At first 1857 g. the leadership of the country began to form Commission и committees with the aim of developing measures for the improvement of landlord peasants. Their members were governors and representatives of the landed estates. The editorial commission for the development of the law on granting freedom to the peasants, which was formed in 1859, included major officials, public figures, economists, etc.

The landowners had different attitudes towards the upcoming changes, most of them were negative about the reform, believing that the peasants were not yet ready to live without their guardianship and control. The members of the leadership also did not adhere to a single opinion, so the Minister of State Property believed that it was not necessary to free the peasants, and this issue was raised by people who do not have real estate.

Many landowners put forward conditions according to which the peasants were freed without allotment of land and for the ransom of their freedom. The minority of the landlords, who managed to adapt to market relations, offered more liberal conditions, i.e. upon liberation, provide the peasants with land and establish a moderate ransom for their personal freedom.

В 1860 g. were prepared documents, which were the results of a compromise between the government and various noble groups. The content of these documents took into account all the objective requirements of the development of the country's economy and politics.

38. The attitude of the peasants to the reform of February 19, 1861

Alexander II 19 February 1861 year approved "Regulations on the peasants who left their serfdom" and consisted of 17 legislative acts. Simultaneously with this king was signed Manifesto for the liberation of the peasants, according to which serfs from this time received personal freedom and the rights of citizens. Civil rights provided them with the opportunity to conclude civil and property transactions, create personal trade and industrial enterprises, transfer to other classes, move to other populated areas, enter into a marriage without the permission of the landowner, etc.

Elective peasant self-government, presented village elders и volost foremen. Elections were held at village and volost gatherings or meetings. Was introduced rural municipality court, which considered property claims and minor crimes, upon the adoption of which the peasants had the right to independently distribute communal lands, determine the order of priority and the measure of duties, etc.

At the end of the reform, the use of the peasants turned out to be less land than before 1861. They lost more than 1/5 of their allotments as a result of cuts, i.e. the landlords, under various pretexts, cut off the surplus land from their allotments. On the most valuable lands, the peasants were cut off up to 30-40% of the size of the allotments.

The peasants were given such conditions that they had to redeem not only their allotments, but also their personal freedom. The calculated amounts of redemption payments for most peasants were huge, so they could not pay them right away. As a result, the government decided that those peasants who received an allotment pay the landowner either immediately or in installments, as well as in the form of working off their duties, 20% of the ransom.

Until the completion of the full payment, the peasants were obliged to pay dues in accordance with established norms or to perform corvée. After 20 years, it was decided to end with a ransom, i.e. all peasants who were temporarily liable had to make a mandatory redemption of their allotments. AT 1907 year data payments have been cancelled., however, by this period, the peasants paid almost three times the amount that was originally established.

The peasants reacted negatively to the adopted law on liberation, as in 1861 year passed everywhere peasant protests, expressing a negative opinion regarding the conditions on the basis of which the peasants were released to freedom. They did not understand why they still remain subordinate to the landowners, pay dues and work off corvée. They were dissatisfied with the norms of allotments, the size of the established ransoms, which they paid without fail to the landowners or the government. In some regions of the country, rumors began to circulate that landowners were forging documents and real laws issued by the tsar were hiding from the people. Military and police forces were used to suppress peasant unrest.

Completed was agrarian reform в 1863 year.

The reform of February 19, 1861 testified about the end of the era of feudalism in the country, however, its remnants remained active in Russian economic activity for a long time. This quality was manifested in the preservation by landowners of huge amounts of land ownership, taking away lands from communities when the majority of peasants experienced a land shortage. Almost 4 million serfs were released with virtually no land or with minimal allotments, and for many years they worked off duties and redemption payments to the state or landowners.

39. The abolition of serfdom in Russia

With the beginning of the reign Alexander II (1855-1881) In Russia, the "epoch of great reforms" began. The most significant were the reforms that abolished serfdom.

Alexander I was already planning to abolish serfdom, but the reaction that followed the Decembrist uprising slowed down this process.

В 1857 year the government of Alexander II announced its intention to solve the serf problem. The central issue of the reform was the discussion about whether to free the peasants with or without land. The manifesto of February 19, 1861 was a compromise between various groups of nobles and the government.

The essence of the reform was as follows.

1. Peasants received personal freedom and civil rights;

2. The land was retained by the landowner for 2 years, the peasant used it on the terms of corvée or dues until he redeemed his allotment (temporarily obligated state);

3. The amount of redemption payments was determined by the size of the peasant dues, i.e. it was not the personal dependence of the peasants and not the land that was redeemed, but the duties. This amount, being deposited in the bank at 6% per annum, was supposed to bring the landowner an annual income in the amount of quitrent payments;

4. Yard people were declared free, but within 2 years they had to serve their masters or pay dues;

5. Serf workers of landlord and government factories were transferred to rent and received the right to redeem their former allotments.

The reform of 1861 launched the process of social stratification both among the peasantry and among the landowners.

After the reform, the landlords, who did not have the means to cultivate their lands, began to sell them off. Landownership from 1861 to 1894 decreased by 30%. To support the landowners, the Noble Land Bank was opened (1885).

By the end of the XNUMXth century, four types of farms had formed in Russia:

1) slowly modernizing landlord farms based on the labor of former serfs, but still dependent peasants, are ineffective;

2) modernized farms based on hired labor - highly efficient;

3) the farms of wealthy peasants, based on highly productive personal labor, they could use loans from the peasant land bank;

4) the farms of small-land peasants united in a community are inefficient. The ownership of the land belonged to the community, which distributed and redistributed allotments between households.

During this period, agricultural production made significant progress - there is an increase in sown areas and grain yields per capita. At the same time, the extensive nature of the development of agriculture remains.

In general, the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 served as a dividing line between the two largest eras in Russian history - feudalism and capitalism. The peasant reform of 1861 was bourgeois in content, since it created the conditions necessary for the victory of the capitalist mode of production.

40. Reforms of 1860-1870 and their consequences

After the agrarian reform in the country, transformations in respect of local government. Until the reign of Alexander II, self-government bodies had a class character. Constantly developing market relations contributed to reforms in the formation of management structures, consisting of all estates to transform the feudal monarchy into a bourgeois one, which could adapt the country's political system to the new economic conditions.

Early 1864 years new was approvedRegulations on provinces and county zemstvo institutions", according to which classless, election-based local governments were created, called zemstvos, whose members were elected for three years. They consisted of administrative and executive bodies, respectively of district and provincial zemstvo assemblies and councils.

The next reform in Russia was urban reform, according to the “City Regulations”, which were published in 1870, cities were established system of elected city government. In place of class city administrations, a city council led by city council, representatives who were elected for four years.

The right to vote belonged to citizens with high property status, such as merchants, industrialists, wealthy homeowners, officials and bankers. City councils and councils were supposed to resolve issues of improvement, health care, education, local trade, law enforcement, etc.

С 1864 years started judicial reform, according to which was approved unclassified and public court, with the participation in it of jurors, as well as lawyers and confrontation of the parties. On the basis of universal equality before the law was formed unified system of judicial institutions.

Education reform was held in 1860 years. Began to be created in cities elementary public schoolsand also started their activities real schoolswho paid more attention to the study of natural sciences, mathematics and the acquisition of skills in technical practice. In these educational institutions, students were prepared for entering technical institutions, and did not provide the right to enter universities.

В 1863 year was re-created university charter, which consolidated the partial autonomy of universities and the rules for the election of rectors and deans, etc. The first women's educational institutions in 1869.

Military reform was carried out between 1860 to 1870. It was necessary because of the defeat in the Crimean War. The term of military service was reduced to 12 years, and then corporal punishment was abolished. 15 military districts were formed, each headed by its own department, which was subordinate only to the ministry. Simultaneously with the reforms in military educational institutions, they began to create cadet schoolstraining junior officers, and military academieswho trained the middle and senior command staff.

There was cancellations in 1874 recruiting and introduced classless general military service, covering the entire male population who have reached 20 years of age. In the ground forces, the period of military service was 6 years and 9 years in the reserve, in the navy 7 and 3 years, respectively. The period of active military service depended on the level of education, so for those who received higher education it was equal to six months, for those who graduated from the gymnasium 1 years, primary school - 5 years

Historically, not a single conceived and ongoing reform in the country has been brought to full completion. So many of the reforms of Alexander II remained unfinished, but they were still called Great Reforms.

41. Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century

The socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XNUMXth century can be characterized as pre-crisis, as the decomposition of the feudal-serf system of the economy begins and the emergence of a new one - market.

In the first half of the 90th century, Russia continued to be an agrarian country. XNUMX% of the population lived in the village.

Innovations in agriculture remained insignificant. The use of technical means was limited due to the lack of the necessary capital from the landowners.

В 1816 year began planting military settlements. The soldiers were settled together with state peasants, who were also transferred to the category of military settlers.

Agricultural work in the settlements was carried out under the command of the military authorities and was combined with drill exercises. Trade, crafts and other contacts with the outside world were prohibited. Thus, the peasant settlers found themselves attached to the land even more strongly than before.

The use of hired labor in industry has steadily increased. The labor productivity of civilian workers exceeded the labor productivity of serf workers by 2-4 times.

В 1804 year civilian workers made up 48% of the workforce, 1825 year- 54%, in 1860 year- 85%.

But even these workers were serfs, whom the landowner let go for dues. This determined the instability in providing enterprises with labor and its relative high cost, since the salary also included peasant dues.

Cotton production was based primarily on hired labor.

In the second half of the 30s machines began to be widely used in the cotton industry.

By the 60s The industrial revolution in this industry has been completed.

Later, the industrial revolution swept the cloth, stationery and other industries.

However, the government did not provide financial support to entrepreneurs, did not encourage the development of large-scale factory production, but even this factor could not restrain the growth of industrial production.

The development of production, the strengthening of the specialization of economic regions stimulated trade. A permanent trade network developed in the industrial zone. The number of fairs increased. The largest of them turned into commodity exchanges.

With a general increase in exports, the share of manufactured goods in it decreased. This was due to Russia's lagging behind European countries. The export of raw materials and semi-finished products prevailed. Bread became the main export item.

Despite protectionist customs tariffs, introduced to protect the domestic producer, as well as to replenish the treasury, imports increased. Raw cotton, dyes and machines were added to previously imported goods.

42. Peasant land bank

В 1911 year came out Regulations on land management, on the basis of which bran and farmstead farms were formed. They were created due to the elimination of stripes.

Cut called a plot taken instead of scattered strips in many fields and land on a plot in one place, which was considered equivalent and at the same time there was also a yard in the village.

Farm was a place when a peasant moved with his entire household to his plot.

According period 1907 to 1914 formed almost 2 million households, released their mundane land use, although more applications were submitted. In subsequent years, such yields were reduced. Conducted reform was suspended as a result of the outbreak of the First World War and formally abolished in the summer of 1917 by decree of the provisional government.

Basically, the poor and wealthy peasants managed to use the right to leave the community, most of them fell on the poor. They, selling their allotment, moved to cities or to new territories beyond the Urals, in general, they sold more than 3 million acres of land to the kulaks and middle peasants, as well as to communities. However, the peasants, who were the strongest, did not want to leave the community, since it was much more profitable for them to continue to stay there and keep their community neighbors in bondage.

As a result of the current decree, almost 400 thousand jobs have been created in the country for several years. farms, which aroused the envy of the peasant population, since many of them were economically successful. As a result, various attacks on the property of farms were recorded, crops were destroyed, damage to equipment and livestock, arson of houses, etc.

One of the indicators of the agrarian reform was the emergence Peasant Land Bank, who has the right to independently purchase land, primarily from landowners, and then sell it to peasants. Landowners put up over 15 million dessiatines for sale, as a result of which the highest authorities needed to artificially restrain land prices in order to stabilize them. Almost 11 million were sold by landowners. tithes of land, which made it possible to reduce their land ownership without the outbreak of revolutions and other forms of their manifestation.

During this period, there was an active the process of ousting a layer of landowners from the agricultural sector of the economy. In 1917, the Peasant Bank had its own land fund equal to 6,7 million dessiatinas, 5 million dessiatines of which were lands that were acquired from landowners.

The land was sold only through the Peasants' Bank, which financed this process, which was expressed in the issuance of loans to the peasants at a certain percentage for a period of 55 years. Financing was strictly carried out for purposes involving the sale of land. AT 1912 in summer was given the opportunity peasants issuing loans on bailwhich were necessary for their purchase of plots of land. The most common were the following types of loans: mortgage, reclamation, land management and agricultural. During the period of the reforms, the Peasant Land Bank issued loans in the amount of more than 1 billion. gold rubles, in addition to the land of the landowners, almost 4 million were sold. acres of state lands and specific. At the same time, a restriction was introduced in these transactions, namely, it was forbidden to sell land to other persons, i.e. not to peasants and foreign people.

The main place among the buyers belonged to the otrubniks and farmers, since loan benefits were created for them. The peasant land bank strengthened the position of strong peasant farms.

43. Agriculture in the post-reform period

The development of market relations in the agrarian sector of the economy was hampered by the remnants of serfdom. Large sums of payments were laid on millions of peasants. At the same time, the oppression of the community was added to the power of the landlords, who had the right to impose a fine on the peasants who worked on holidays or sentence them to exile in Siberia for adultery. The development of agriculture was carried out slowly, but in the years 1880-1890 market relations also penetrated into agriculture. began to happen social differentiation of peasants, there were changes in the essence of the landowner economy, there was an increase in the focus of specialized farms on the market and regions.

В 1880 years various peasant strata, so began to form layer of wealthy peasantswho had their own allotments and allotments of community members who became impoverished. The next folding layer was introduced fistsrunning a business enterprise. They used hired labor of farm laborers, sent a huge volume of products to the market, which contributed to the growth of the level of marketability of their production. The peasants who were poor also formed their own stratum, among them stood out a group of households that had lost their economic independence. They went to the cities and were hired as farm laborers, thereby forming a labor market for industrial enterprises and kulaks. This group of peasants received a certain payment for their work, which gave them the opportunity to influence the demand for consumer goods.

The creation of a layer of prosperous peasants contributed to the formation of a stable demand for fertilizers, seeds, livestock, a certain breed, agricultural machinery, which as a result developed the market economy of Russia.

Changes also took place in the landowners' farms, since they did not have the right to force the peasants to work on their lands. A layer of prosperous peasants quickly wanted to buy their allotments from them and not work out the segments that arose after 1861. The peasants who went to the city and were hired as laborers did not want to work out the ransom, since it was profitable for them to work there and get paid for it.

Landowners, in order to profit from farming, had to purchase new machines, seeds, fertilizers, which required investment of capital and highly qualified managers. However, not all landowners were able to adapt to the new economic conditions and some of them were forced to mortgage their farms to credit institutions or sell them.

In the southern steppes and in the Ukraine began to be created large estates - savings, consisting of several thousand acres of land and the production of which was aimed at the foreign market. They operated with good technology and used hired labor. As a result of these changes, the level of production in the agricultural sector of the economy in the country has increased markedly, and the harvest of grain and potatoes, as well as sugar beets, has increased.

However, despite this, by the end of the 1861th century, the issue of agriculture was acute, since the reform of 1861 was not completed. The peasant shortage of land rapidly increased, since the population living in the villages almost doubled in 1899-1, and the size of allotments per capita of the male decreased by more than 5 times. During this period of time, peasants paid huge tax payments.

The agricultural sector lagged behind in terms of equipment, the use of agricultural techniques, which as a result had an impact on the economic condition of the country, as well as social tension, since the population of the village occupied more than half of the total population.

44. Socio-economic policy at the turn of the century. Russian reformer S.Yu. Witte.

Having ascended the throne, Emperor Nicholas II declared the succession of the direction of his father Alexander III. During his reign, among statesmen there were several persons with a reformist mindset, one of these figures was S.Yu. Witte (1849-1915), possessing economic organizational and reform abilities, and he was also a talented financier.

They were held stabilization of the financial system Russia, since by 1890 it was not stable, the rate of paper money was constantly declining, and gold and silver coins disappeared from monetary circulation, and there was also high inflation in the country. Russia needed a transition to the gold standard, which interested both domestic and foreign manufacturers, giving them a guarantee of stability in business activities. It was necessary to introduce metal money instead of paper money. But for such changes it was necessary to have a sufficient gold reserve of the country, to the formation of which the Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte. The accumulation of gold in the State Bank was due to an active foreign trade balance and external loans, and high indirect taxes were introduced, in the form of excises on consumer goods.

In the country in 1895 g. was introduced wine monopoly, as a result of which at the beginning of the XX century. 148 wine warehouses were built everywhere, which increased the revenues of the treasury.

Based on the measures taken, the ruble was stabilized, and the country was ready to implement monetary reform. In late 19th century. was accepted Law "On the minting and release of gold coins". The monetary reform made it possible to increase the influx of domestic and foreign capital into the country's economy, which made it possible by the end of the century to move from an agricultural country to an agrarian-industrial power of a medium level of development.

Special attention to S.Yu. Witte gave railway construction, in 1898, about 3 thousand miles of railways were built, which increased in the subsequent years of service of this Minister of Finance.

Agricultural sector of the economy for this reformer was an important issue, since he understood that in order to increase the size of the domestic market, it is necessary to increase the demand of the main part of the population, i.e. peasantry, by creating private landownership in place of the communal one.

В 1902 g. headed by S.Yu. Witte was approved meeting to determine agricultural needs, which was engaged in the revision of laws relating to peasants. Provincial and district committees were formed that analyzed agricultural production, as well as developed measures to improve the social life of peasants.

Industry in the country developed at the turn of the century through the use of backward agriculture, which was taxed. AT 1890 g. happened mass ejection of the peasant populationwhich had no place either in cities or in villages. This layer of society became the basis for the revolutionary movement. At the beginning January 1905. took place in St. Petersburg mass demonstration, which turned to the king with a petition to improve the welfare of the workers, as a result of which over two thousand people were killed. It was necessary to find a compromise between the government, the emperor and the revolutionary movement. In the second half 1905 g. S.Yu. Witte participated in the development Manifesto "On the Improvement of State Power", according to which the population was given the right to personal integrity, conscience, freedom of speech and press, etc. Censorship was abolished, workers' wages were increased and the working day was shortened.

45. The development of industry and trade in Russia in the second half of the XIX century

After the abolition of serfdom, the industrial revolution in Russia entered a decisive stage.

The industry was funded by both private individuals and the state. Joint-stock banks were created for lending. Foreign capital from England, France, Germany was invested, as a rule, in heavy industry.

Growth rates of extractive and heavy industries in 60-90s were the highest in the world.

The number of machine-building plants that produced machine tools, steam locomotives, and agricultural machines grew rapidly. During these years, two largest Russian machine-building plants were built: the Putilov plant in St. Petersburg and the transport machine-building plant in Kolomna.

Of particular importance for the Russian economy was the construction of railways. New lines connected the industrial areas with each other. Also, railway construction increased the demand for products of the metallurgical and engineering industries and caused a boom in coal. In the 1870s, the construction of new mines and mining enterprises began in the Donbass.

During this period, the class of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie grew significantly. Among the major entrepreneurs were people from the merchant class, peasants and nobles. In 1863, officials were allowed to combine public service with business activities.

In the 70s and 80s, organizations of industrialists appeared:

1) Council of Congresses of Industrialists of the South of Russia (1874);

2) Council of congresses of miners of the Ural region (1880);

3) Council of Congresses of Baku oil owners.

The abolition of serfdom led to the rapid growth of the wage-working class. Due to the absence of special labor legislation, a strict regime of exploitation of hired labor was established at enterprises. This led to the fact that the workers began to organize strikes, especially at large enterprises, demanding higher wages and better working conditions. In response to the labor movement, the government issued a series of laws regulating labor relations: "On the restriction of the work of minors and the establishment of supervision over their occupations" (1882), "On the prohibition of night work for minors and women in factories and manufactories" (1885). ), "On the supervision of the establishments of the factory industry and on the mutual relations of manufacturers and workers" (1886).

The development of industry and the improvement of the transport system contributed to the development of trade.

A characteristic feature of internal trade in the second half of the XNUMXth century was the decline in the importance of fairs and the development of commodity exchanges.

In foreign trade, Russia's main partners were Germany (32% of imports and 25% of exports) and England (20% of imports and 20% of exports). Bread remained the main exported commodity from Russia. Industrial goods accounted for 25% of exports. Imports were dominated by raw cotton and machinery.

46. Agrarian reform P.A. Stolypin

The aggravation of the agrarian question at the beginning of the 1902th century (peasant uprisings in XNUMX and in the first revolution) led to a change in the government's agrarian policy.

The reform was preceded manifesto November 03, 1905 on the abolition of redemption payments from January 01, 1906 by half, and from January 01, 1907 in full.

The initiator of the reform was the Chairman of the Council of Ministers P.A. Stolypin. The main goal of agrarian reform P.A. Stolypin was the destruction of the community and the provision of land to the peasants in private ownership. Stolypin believed that, having become the full owner of the land, the peasant would work with great diligence, strive to increase productivity in order to feed himself and sell the surplus. Stolypin hoped to create a layer of prosperous peasantry in the countryside, which should become a reliable support for monarchical power.

Started the reforms Decree of November 09, 1906, according to which the peasants received the right to leave the community with the consolidation of the part of the communal land due to them into personal ownership. Leaving the community was made as easy as possible - the consent of the community meeting was not required. The decree was discussed in the III State Duma and became law on June 14, 1910.

The second line of reform was resettlement policy. On March 9, 1906, the tsar approved the regulation of the Council of Ministers "On the procedure for applying the law of 1904", which introduced freedom of resettlement. This measure was supposed to solve the problem of land shortage in the European part and promote the economic development of distant territories (beyond the Urals, in Siberia and Kazakhstan).

Settlers were exempted from taxes for a long time, received a plot of land, cash benefits, men were exempted from military service.

The reform was designed for at least 20 years.

The number of peasants who moved in 1904-1914 from the central regions of the country beyond the Urals amounted to 3 million people. However, in organizational terms, the process of resettlement was poorly prepared, because of which the flow of "reverse" migrants grew.

Economic stimulation of the reform was carried out Peasant Land Bank. The Peasant Bank acquired land from landowners and sold it to peasants, encouraging by providing benefits the creation of cutting and farmstead farms. In addition, the Peasant Bank financed the resettlement movement.

The reform remained unfinished. After the assassination of Stolypin in 1911, the reform began to be curtailed, and with the outbreak of the First World War it was discontinued.

The agrarian reform did not solve all the tasks assigned to it. The community was not completely destroyed, about 25% of the peasants left it. The tension of the peasants remained, they considered the reform fair, since it did not affect the landlords' land ownership.

However, the reform provided some economic gains:

1) the area of agricultural land has expanded and the gross grain harvest has increased;

2) further specialization of agriculture continued and its intensification increased;

3) the industry associated with agriculture is developing - sugar, flour milling, wine.

47. Economic development of Russia at the beginning of the XNUMXth century

By the beginning of the XNUMXth century, Russia was an agrarian-industrial country; in terms of industrial production, it was among the five largest industrial powers in the world. Unlike the countries of the "first echelon" of capitalist development, Russia embarked on the path of capitalism much later, economic development was of a catch-up character.

An important feature of Russian industry there was a high concentration of production. Using the experience of Western European large-scale capitalist production, foreign investment, government orders and subsidies, large enterprises were created and grew in Russia. In the 80-90s of the XIX century, the process of monopolization began, marketing associations appeared, operating under the guise of entrepreneurial unions.

In the second half of the 90s the merging of Russian banks with industry began.

In 1899 Russia was shaken economic crisis, which lasted until 1903. The crisis affected one or another sector of the economy. Heavy industry suffered the most.

Crisis of 1899-1903 gave a new impetus to the development of monopolies. During this period, various forms of marketing monopolistic associations, from cartels to syndicates, became widespread.

In the early 900s, monopolies established themselves in all the main branches of Russian industry that produced the means of production.

The process of monopolization also covered some industries that produced consumer goods, in particular the textile industry.

A new industrial boom began in 1909.

The following factors influenced the growth of industrial production during the recovery period:

1) increased development of agricultural production;

2) urban growth;

3) growth of government orders, mainly military ones.

Despite the rapid pace of industrial production, agriculture provided almost half of the country's national income. Since feudal (feudal) survivals were still preserved, the capitalization of the peasant economy proceeded slowly. The main brake was the peasant lack of land.

The financial system of Russia during this period was also covered by changes. In the 90s of the XIX century, a new Charter of the State Bank. The State Bank becomes the country's main bank, taking over the functions of storing the country's gold reserves and centralized issue of money. The State Bank also engaged in short-term lending.

Long-term mortgage loans were provided by the Peasant Land Bank and the Noble Land Bank. Also, loans were issued by commercial banks, but at a higher interest rate. Commercial banks also made transactions with bills, raised funds in deposits and were engaged in maintaining current accounts.

48. The first socialist transformations. War Communism as a Stage in the Formation of the Command-Administrative System (1917-1921)

Since October 1917 g. to March 1918 g. Soviet power was being established throughout most of the Russian Empire. This process was characterized by the collapse of the management structure created before the revolution and the formation of a new apparatus for governing the country, which began to be Congress of Soviets. During its breaks in the consideration and approval of laws, the Commissioner was proclaimed All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Executive duties were assigned to Council of People's Commissarswho had a legislative function. Economic management was entrusted to people's commissariats, at that time the former justice system was liquidated, in its place were formed revolutionary tribunals. An 8-hour working day was approved, a decree was created on the independence of the school and the church, equality in religion was established, in family and political relations there was an equalization of the possession of rights by men and women.

Soviet power, fearing the fall of Petrograd, 3 March 1918 g. signed Brest peacewhich was perceived by the population as a shame and an insult.

The formation of the command economy was characterized by the constant persistence of the Bolsheviks against the development of private property, the changes of which are connected with the Decree on Land. This document stated that all strata of society, with the exception of the peasants, were deprived of the rights of private ownership of land.

В December 1917. a single center for managing the public sector of the country's economy was formed - Supreme Council of National Economy, operating under the Council of People's Commissars.

Soviet power in April 1918. was created decree on the nationalization of foreign trade, and she also canceled large external and internal debts formed by the Provisional Government.

The new law on the socialization of land since February 1918., who proclaimed the transition of land from private to public property.

В 1918 g. The Soviet government introduced food dictatorship, which was characterized by the forced seizure of grain supplies from wealthy peasants by food detachments.

This period of time was marked by the formation of a rigid socio-economic system, which was called - war communism. All material, labor and financial resources were in his power.

The Supreme Council of the National Economy, in order to manage the industrial sector, over 50 higher departments were formed (Commander in Chief). At all enterprises there was military discipline, economic independence was excluded, decisions were made only with the consent of the Commanders-in-Chief.

В 1920 g. was accepted State plan for electrification of Russia, which included tasks for the restoration and reconstruction of enterprises, the construction of new hydro and thermal power plants.

During the period of war communism, it was established product exchange between the village and the city, the main goal was to provide for the needs of the army and workers of defense enterprises. This process has been named surplus appropriation.

The Soviet government printed a huge amount of money, which depreciated and lost purchasing power, which led to depreciation of money, by issuing and served as the main source of replenishment of the state budget. The issue of money led to a sharp jump up in product prices. As a result, the Soviet ruble depreciated and only the golden tsarist ruble was of high value. Bread and salt were common measuring units of value. The implementation of this monetary policy led to destruction of the financial system of the state.

49. Growing crisis phenomena in the economy and the beginning of the NEP

As a result of huge losses during the First World War and the Civil War, for Soviet Russia, the end 1920 g. was characteristic economic crisis. Thus, industry produced seven times less products compared to 1913, and railway freight turnover decreased by more than four times. As a result of fighting, wounds and illnesses, hunger, there were enormous human losses, about 10 million people died, about 1-5 million people emigrated. The war years and the time of collapse of the national economy caused a decrease in the number of workers employed in industry, so in 1920 g. it was equal to 1 million 270 thousand people, decreased by almost half compared to 1913. The number of unemployed in cities increased, many began to move to the countryside and master handicraft production in order to save themselves from hunger. During this period, Moscow lost half of its population, Petrograd about two-thirds, almost 5 million people went to the villages.

In Russia from 1921 to 1922. existed hunger, at the beginning about 20% of the country's population starved. The main reason was the existence of surplus appropriation, since the family fund was confiscated from the peasants in the spring, there were no food reserves in the country, and there was a great drought in the Volga region.

The peasants who participated in the civil war along with the Bolsheviks stubbornly opposed the policy of war communism. The explanation for this was the lack of economic incentives for the development of agricultural production. The Soviet government maintained the application of emergency measures to the peasants and demanded that they properly fulfill the conditions of the surplus appropriation regarding the supply of grain to the cities, while promising them to return the debts for bread. Peasants everywhere reacted to these demands anti-government uprising. Large detachments were formed in Ukraine, in the Tambov and Voronezh regions, in the Volga region, in the Urals, Kuban, etc. The Red Army was sent against them, whose military leaders were M. Frunze, S. Kamenev, S. Budenov, etc. Military equipment and poisonous gases were used against peasant detachments that were hiding in the forests.

The reason for the suppression of the policy of war communism was not a peasant uprising, to a greater extent for the Soviet government, the danger was the expression of discontent of the workers in the cities. As a result of the announcement to the workers about the reduction of bread rations in February 1921. Strikes and demonstrations of factory workers took place in Petrograd. Against the protests, a state of siege was introduced in the city and an order was issued not to issue boots to the Red Army soldiers; in order to prevent them from going over to the side of the strikers, mass arrests took place.

Mutiny of Sailors and Red Army Soldiers of Kronstadt was larger, they put forward demands against the policies of the Bolsheviks. This rebellion was brutally suppressed by order of the government, and in March 1921 g. IN AND. Based on these speeches, Lenin determined that in order to save the revolution in Russia, it was urgently necessary to establish an agreement with the peasantry and tighten measures to combat political parties, destroying their influence on workers employed in the industrial sector.

As a result of this, the Soviet government, on the one hand, decided to revise its economic policy, on the other hand, it began to suppress various attempts to democratize society and expand the rights and freedoms of citizens.

Thus, the transition to the formation of a new economic policy (NEPU) contributed to the government's failure to enforce the brutal laws and decrees it had created and the realization that insisting on their harsh enforcement would lead to economic disaster.

50. Economic development of the country

In March 1921, the RCP, having decided to cooperate with the peasants, produced replacement of food surplus with food tax, which made it possible to change the way food and agricultural products are prepared. This fact was the main provision for the beginning of a new economic policy direction.

The leadership of the PKK made great efforts to change the economic policy, since it was difficult to convince the party members of the need for it. These decisions were reacted negatively on the ground, the NEP was presented to them as a betrayal of the communist idea. V.I. Lenin May 1921. announced that the NEP was being introduced for five to ten years. WITH 1923 g. was introduced unified social tax, which replaced taxes in kind, it was levied in both money and products. After the end of the monetary reform, it acquired only a monetary form and its size was half the size of the surplus appropriation system, and was also mainly collected from the wealthy peasantry.

The provinces that carried out the procurement plan could freely trade in grain and other products, and the state grain monopoly was also abolished in them. The right to lease land and to hire workers was given, but these relations were subject to enormous restrictions.

In the process of economic transformations, agricultural production increased, reaching pre-war levels. IN AND. Lenin believed that the main forms of implementation of the NEP are: rent, concessions, cooperation and trade, in general, state capitalism. The use of private capital was under state control and encouraged development simple cooperation. The cooperative movement embraced more than 1/2 of the peasant economy, as well as trade and industry. During this period, cooperative legislation existed, insurance and credit organizations developed to serve cooperatives. Industrial indicators gradually increased: the extraction of coal, iron ore, the production of electricity, engineering products, light and food industries, the freight turnover of railways, etc.

The development of the NEP was accompanied by permission for the private sector to rent small and medium commercial and industrial enterprises that belonged to the state. It was allowed to create their own enterprises with the number of workers no more than 20 people.

A characteristic feature of the NEP was the development concessions, in other words, enterprises that operated on the basis of an agreement between the state and foreign firms in the manufacturing and extractive industries. The Soviet government, despite the slogans of the Bolsheviks, believed that large funds were needed to stabilize the economic situation and the country would not be able to achieve this without foreign assistance. The government believed in restoring international ties in the world market through interaction with foreign enterprises. IN Italy in April 1922 g. - signed agreement между Soviet state and German, diplomatic relations were established between them. As a result of this, the Soviet Republic became recognized by many countries of the world, which made it possible to conclude agreements with the USA, England, Germany and other countries.

One of the hallmarks of state capitalism was the development trade. In March 1921. it was supposed to carry out trade exchange within the country, enterprises were supposed to hand over their products to the commodity exchange fund of the republic, but in October This year, for the purpose of economic development, it was decided to trade freely. The regulation of trade relations was carried out by established commissions called "Komvnutorg", and in 1924 g. converted to People's Commissariat of Internal Trade.

51. Changes in the monetary and credit-financial sphere

An important role in the implementation of the NEP was played by the formation of a stable monetary system and the formation of the ruble. AT 1922 g. There were many views on carrying out monetary reform. In order to stabilize the ruble, we carried out currency denomination, changed their value, according to the ratio of old signs to new ones. Published this year Sovsigns, i.e. one ruble was equal to 10 thousand old rubles, and in 1923 other sovznaki appeared, one ruble was equal to 1 million old money and 100 rubles of the previous year.

In the end of November 1922 g. A new currency came into circulation, called chervonetsthrough which the country's financial system developed. There was a limitation on the payment of the budget deficit by the gold coin, their purpose was to lend to industry and commercial activities in wholesale trade. Back to top 1923 g. the share of chervonets was small - 3% of the total money supply; in the second half of this year it replaced the sovznaki. Peasants sold only grain for chervonets, even at a reduced price, since its stability was regulated by the State Bank, which exchanged these banknotes for foreign currency at a stable rate.

At the end of 1922 g. were educated stock exchanges, i.e. these are places where it was allowed to buy, sell currency, gold, securities at a free rate. Gradually, the exchange rate of the chervonets rose and in 1925 g. it became a convertible currency, i.e. it was officially listed on world currency exchanges. The final result of this reform was the procedure redemption of Sovznak.

During this period, the tax reformso at the end 1923 g. The main source of replenishment of state budget revenues began to be various deductions from profits received by the enterprise, and not by the population. WITH August 1921 to February 1922. a tax was introduced on tobacco, honey, alcoholic beverages, matches, etc.

Over time, the credit system began to improve, so in 1921 g. started working State bank country, founded in 1918, the State Bank began to issue loans to industrial and commercial trade enterprises at interest rates of 8 to 12% per month, over time, this rate was reduced. Large banks arose: to service industry - the Commercial and Industrial Bank, to finance electrification - Electrobank, to lend to foreign trade - the Russian Commercial Bank, and many others.

В 1922 g. was started subscription to the state grain loan the amount of 10 million poods of rye in grain, as well as interest-free bonds worth 100 poods were issued, payment for which was to be made from December 1, 1922 to January 31, 1923. in cash or in kind at the market value of rye on the day of repayment.

This period was marked by the discovery networks of joint stock bankswho were engaged in lending to a specific industry in the country. Savings banks were formed for the population's savings. There were 1923 banks operating in the country in 17, and by 1926 their number increased to 61 banks. As a result of this process, the State Bank's credit investments decreased from 66 to 48%, so competition began to arise between banks for clients, by means of creating more favorable lending conditions. Commercial credit became the most common; it consisted of many enterprises lending to each other.

It was of great economic importance development of foreign trade, and as G. Sokolnikov believed, this is possible only if the country can get closer to the world market. IN AND. Lenin argued that it was necessary to pursue a state monopoly of foreign trade.

52. Growing crisis phenomena in the economy

The rapid development of market relations could not mitigate the regulation of economic processes by the state, since the activity of many elements of the market was allowed, i.e. there was free trade, monetary relations were carried out, and the state retained the rights to manage industry, transport, banks and foreign trade. At this time, it was assumed that the socialist sector would exist for a long period of time with non-socialist ways, and it should also gradually eliminate the rest of the ways from the economic activity of the state.

NEP, according to V.I. Lenin, was a direction towards socialism, and believed that the proletarian revolution would be the winner in the developed Western states. He always emphasized that it is necessary to have appropriate legal justifications in case of termination of any contracts with domestic and foreign entrepreneurs. The necessity of this fact was in state control over the private sector.

The main direction of the economic development of the state in that period of time was restoration and intensive activity of large industrial enterprises, which was the main basis for Soviet power in a peasant country, as well as the foundation for strengthening the country’s defense. Large funds were needed for industrial development; they could only be obtained by establishing taxes on agricultural products and implementing an appropriate pricing policy.

At the same time, the Soviet government tried to regulate the ratio of economic growth, but as a result, a disproportion arose in practice, i.e. given price policy led to inequivalence of commodity exchange between the village and the city, since huge funds were withdrawn from the village.

Trusts and syndicates, having an oligopolistic position in the domestic market, could make big profits by setting monopoly high prices even with a decrease in production volumes, which was one of the reasons for the current situation in the country.

В 1923 year emerged sales crisis, due to the high yield of the year and the lack of desire of peasants to sell grain at reduced prices, since they could not recoup production costs. As a result, they were unable to purchase industrial goods, which were in abundance in warehouses and stores. The peasants began to delay the delivery of grain under the tax in kind; peasant uprisings arose in some territories, suppressed by the Soviet government, which again needed to make concessions to them.

For 1924-1925 yyy. were typical changes in pricing policy, namely, the right to lease land and hire workers was given. During this period, there was a transition to monetary taxation of the peasants, which as a result contributed to their greater freedom in economic development.

But at the same time, the situation in the countryside was tense, since the Soviet government pursued a social policy in the agrarian sector of the economy, by supporting the poor-middle peasant households. They were granted preferential loans, taxes were reduced or canceled, they were provided with seeds and working livestock, inventory, but this did little to help these farms. At the same time, the Soviet government held back the development of kulak farms, i.e. wealthy peasants, through the implementation of egalitarian redistribution of land and the withdrawal of its surplus, which ultimately contributed to the division of farms, reducing work efficiency and reducing productivity. The result of this policy was the decline at the end of 1920 of the marketability of peasant farms.

53. Formation of the economy of power (1928 - 1940)

Gradually, the process of completing the NEP began, and the old measures characteristic of war communism were revived. The confiscation of surplus grain was begun, searches of peasants' barns without a legislative basis, posts were established on roads that prevented the transport of grain to the markets of cities. The situation for the preparation of bread in 1927-1928 yyy. became tense, thousands of party members were sent from cities to villages with the aim of forcibly seizing bread, the military was involved in searches for hidden grain.

As a result, NEP was overthrown, there are many opinions on determining the reasons for the curtailment of the NEP.

In 1927, the state established production plans for industrial enterprises. Trusts lost their independence of management and began to act as an intermediary link in the management system, and from 1928 to 1932. have ceased to exist. The syndicates were endowed with an additional function, which consisted in the planned regulation of the economic activities of enterprises, which in 1929 were transformed into industrial associations. The functions of syndicates to regulate wholesale trade were transferred to centralized funds and orders.

The exclusion of private capital from many economic sectors occurred at the beginning 1930 years. This year it was carried out tax reform.

Two types of taxes were introduced:

1) VAT;

2) deductions from profit.

For collective farms, one type of tax was established - income tax, the remaining taxes were eliminated.

С 1930-1932 yyy. completed the implementation of market methods in credit system. Instead of a loan, centralized financing, the circulation of bills of exchange was abolished, and it was prohibited for enterprises to issue commercial loans to each other. For a long time, loans were issued only to collective farms and industrial and consumer cooperatives. Banks ceased to be credit institutions and became at the mercy of the People's Commissariat of Finance.

As a result of the elimination of cooperative banks, the issuance of short-term loans was transferred to the State Bank. in the country by the end of the 1930s. there were seven banks, and in 1959 five long-term investment banks became part of the Stroybank unity, and three banks remained in the country to function.

The Soviet government tried to stabilize wholesale and retail prices in trade, but this circumstance led to a shortage of goods and, ultimately, starting from the second half of 1928 years, was introduced card distribution system. It spread everywhere, first of all, to bread, then to food products, and subsequently to industrial consumer goods.

С 1 January 1935 g. was decided at the end of 1934. abolish the card system for bread, flour, cereals, and then for food products, etc. This process took place in order to improve the standard of living of the population, by implementing the plans of the first five-year plan. Uniform prices for food and industrial goods were introduced.

В 1929 g. statement occurred administrative management system, market relations were forced out.

С 1929 g. started collectivization of agriculture, in some territories they took the form of communes, having full production material conditions and life, in others - partnerships, i.e. the cultivation of the land took place jointly, socialization was carried out with the preservation of peasant allotments. Over time, the main form became agricultural artel, with the preservation of individual farming by peasants and the socialization of material resources. They began to develop simultaneously with collective farms and state farmswhich were in the possession of the state.

54. Great Depression

The deep economic crisis that unfolded in 1929-1933 yyy. and covering almost the entire world is called Great Depressionemphasizing its scope and extent.

The economy of most countries develops cyclically: recovery gives way to recovery, then boom, which ends in recession; after which a new cycle is repeated. Recession, crisis, depression are different names for a phase of the economic cycle, meaning a sharp drop in market conditions, a decrease in production, and a cumulative increase in negative phenomena in various spheres and sectors of the economy.

The first industrial decline occurred in England in 1815, then in 1818-1819. The first cyclical crisis erupted in 1825, after which the fall in production (the crisis of overproduction) was repeated relatively regularly, approximately every ten years.

The crisis of 1929-1933 was exceptionally severe in depth, duration and consequences. US industrial production fell by 50%. The fall in the industry lasted more than three years, in the construction industry - over four and a half years.

The number of unemployed people in the United States exceeded 13 million people; almost every fourth worker found himself without a job. Huge queues formed while waiting for a small allowance or a free lunch.

The stock market crash (1929) and bank runs led to bank failures. Businesses were unable to obtain the resources they needed. Most American families had no savings at that time. Purchases have decreased. Inventories accumulated in warehouses and could not be sold, despite lower prices. Production came to a standstill; people were fired - the number of unemployed reached 5%. The government was balancing the budget when it needed to stimulate production.

In order to stop the fall of prices and overproduction, "surpluses" of produced, but not marketable, products were often destroyed. In Brazil, bags of coffee were dumped into the sea. In the US, wheat and maize were used as fuel. Livestock was destroyed in Denmark.

The industrial crisis led to a reduction in world trade. The volume of world trade fell from $15 billion (3) to $1929 billion (5); tripled.

The industrial crisis intertwined with the financial crisis, with the crisis of the securities market. The stock price on the stock exchange in New York after a speculative takeoff began to fall sharply. This happened during the "black" days of October 1929. The value of shares fell several times - from 87 billion dollars, it fell first to 55 billion, and then to 16 billion. but a manifestation of the general process of violation of economic proportions.

During the years of the Great Depression, the industrial production of the capitalist countries was thrown back to the level of the beginning of the century. Several tens of millions of people became unemployed, and the lack of any measures of social protection made their situation completely unbearable. In this difficult situation, the authorities of some countries managed to find a way out by resorting to a new social policy based on the theory of the economist George Keynes. Keynes proposed to mitigate the disproportion between the latest technologies that allow mass production of goods and the purchasing power of the masses through government intervention. The state should reduce the unemployment rate, regulate prices, give benefits to enterprises that are failing.

With the help of Keynes' theory, capitalism, shaken by the Great Depression, received a new impetus to development. Attempts to change the capitalist system "from above", with the help of liberal reforms, were made in the USA, the states of Scandinavia, France and Spain.

55. The economy of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War

From 1920-1930 the attitude of Western countries towards the Soviet country was contradictory, although the wealth of natural resources and the huge domestic market interested them, nevertheless, hostility and wariness continued to persist in relations for many years. The government of the Soviet Union also pursued an ambivalent policy towards them. The main interest was to establish business ties, at the same time, the USSR supported the principle of proletarian internationalism through the structure of the Comintern, i.e. through gold, weapons and currency. This structure sought to achieve a destabilization of the situation inside the country and the establishment of pro-communist regimes in it, and also demanded that the European communist parties conduct a fierce struggle against social democracy, which was accused of fascist complicity.

As a result of this direction in Germany, in the conditions of a deep economic crisis, the labor movement collapsed, and the Nazis came to power. Military tensions arose in Europe as Germany decided to make territorial claims to neighboring countries.

USSR to late 1930s accepted separate political and economic agreements with Germany, believing to direct his claims to other European countries to France and Great Britain. To pacify the aggressor, these countries agreed to conclude an agreement between Italy, Germany, Great Britain and France in order to dismember the territory of Czechoslovakia and annex Austria to Germany by force.

В August 1939 was signed German non-aggression pact against the USSR.

September 1 this year the Nazis attacked Poland, so it was started The Second World War, in which the USSR chose not to interfere, believing that this war was of an imperialist nature.

USSR in 1939 year included in its territory Western Ukraine and Belarus, which were lost during the years of the Soviet-Polish war (1921).

The Baltic countries: Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were imposed in 1940 yearto join the USSR. AT 1939 year между USSR and Finland was military conflict, where the Red Army suffered huge losses, and the Soviet Union in March 1940 had to sign peace treaty.

During these years, the nationalization of industrial enterprises, the collectivization of agriculture, dispossession of kulaks were carried out everywhere, and also huge territories subject to repressions were a characteristic feature of that time, more than 1 million Poles were deported from Ukraine and Belarus, almost 200 thousand people of the Baltic states and the same number from Bukovina and Bessarabia. In these regions, repressions were also carried out after the war.

The Soviet Union signed a number of agreements with Germany on the supply of food products and raw materials to their territory, September 1939 to June 1941 sent: grain, corn, legumes, oil, raw cotton, timber, manganese ore, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, etc. At the same time, Germany was allowed to use railways, sea and river routes, as well as ports of the Soviet Union for transportation .

Germany towards the end 1940 g. conquered almost all of Western Europe, excluding the territory of England, which continued to resist. At that time Germany decided to start war against the Soviet Unionand then conquer England.

On the eve of the war, the USSR accounted for 10% of world production, ranked first in the production of synthetic rubber, the extraction of manganese ore, aluminum, coal, and many other things, and second in oil production, engineering and tractor building products.

56. First and Second World Wars: Economic Causes

At the end of the Russo-Japanese conflict on the territory of Russia, public opinion arose in the need for a victorious war, as a result of the previous defeat. Interest was also expressed by the military environment of Nicholas II, who wanted awards and career advancement, this opinion was also shared by representatives of the military-industrial complex, for whom the sale of their products was necessary, i.e. weapons. Only a small group of courtiers, including P.A. Stolypin, was against military conflicts, since Russia was not ready for it. Nicholas II, despite the persuasion of P.A. Stolypin, sought to participate in many international conflicts: in the Balkans, in the problems of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As a result, Russia became a participant in these conflicts.

New aggravations of contradictions occurred in 1910, when Russia took the side of Atlanta against the Triple Alliance. One of the reasons for the formation of the military conflict was annexation in 1908. Austria-Hungary in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Each European country reacted differently to this circumstance, which resulted in 1912 g. to education two main military-political alliances.

During this period of time in Europe, including Russia, preparations were made for war, countries increased military spending, carried out additional conscription into the army. FROM 1908 g. existed on the territory of Russia reorganization of the armed forces and 1913 g. was approved army reinforcement program, the restoration of the navy, the creation of powerful artillery, the construction of railways, but the war began much earlier.

В 1914 in the summer в Bosnia hostilities were organized by Austria-Hungary. The event was attended by the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, who was killed by Serbian student Gabriel Princip on the opening day of these maneuvers, which eventually led to the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary on Serbia. She found support from Germany. Despite Russia's attempts to keep countries out of the war, 1 August 1914 g. it began and covered not only Europe, but also other territories and became first world war.

Preparations for the Second World War were carried out by Germany against Russia by the development of a secret plan Barbarossa, scheduled for June 1941. The German leaders declared to the Soviet Union that they would not violate the non-aggression pact and the leaders of the Soviet government believed that they were guaranteed non-participation in the war.

During this period, the technical equipment of the Red Army increased: combat aircraft, combat vehicles, new models of tanks, powerful guns, etc. were produced.

Over half of the military forces of the Red Army in the middle of 1941 were in the western districts with organized training, they could have repulsed enemy offensives, but this did not happen. Great damage to military training was caused by repression between officers of the command staff, a huge number of commanders were repressed, and executions continued until October 1941, when military battles took place near Moscow. The leaders of the army are inexperienced commanders, or military leaders, whose representations were at the level of the First World and Civil Wars.

The consequences of this were errors in the development of the military plan, the Soviet military leaders were confident that Germany would inflict the main blow on Ukraine and the Caucasus, the country's leadership did not respond to the warnings of Soviet intelligence officers about the date of the Nazi attack. The Soviet leadership, fearing to violate the terms of the non-aggression pact, did not give the command to combat readiness. As a result 22 June 1941 г. the enemy attacked the country's western troops.

57. Consequences of the first and second world wars

Russia's participation in the First World War laid a heavy burden on the country's economy, contributed to the aggravation of social relations and the emergence political crisis of 1917, as well as during these war years, almost 15 million people were drafted into the army, vast western territories (the Baltic states and Poland) were occupied by German troops.

By autumn 1916 years there were about 1 million casualties, more 2 million prisoners, nearly 4 million wounded. For Russia, this was a huge loss of the army; many cities, factories, motorcycles and railways were destroyed.

During the war years there was industrial decline и agricultural production. The area under agricultural crops decreased by 12%, and grain and meat production decreased. Industrial enterprises that produced products for the population reduced their production by half, and by 1917 the production of weapons increased 10-12 times, and also stopped importing equipment and raw materials into the industry.

The government decided to evacuate industries to the East in 1915, a slow process.

During the war, state budget expenditures increased almost 4 times, which resulted in budget deficithad to carry out internal and external loans. was started money issueSo 1917 year the number of money in circulation increased by 6 times.

One of the consequences of this war was 1916 grain crisis, shortage of industrial goods, fuel etc., which led to an increase in prices for these products. In November of this year, a surplus appraisal and card distribution of products was introduced. In addition, there was an increase government crisisSo from 1915-1916. there was a change of four chairmen of the Council of Ministers and military ministers, six ministers of the interior, a The Provisional Government. Dual power began to be established in the country, along with state authorities, Workers' Councils began to emerge.

At the end of World War II at Yalta in February 1945 and Potsdam in the summer of 1945 at the conference "big three"It was decided to determine the new eastern and western borders of Poland, to transfer East Prussia to the USSR along with its center of Koenigsberg, and the decision was also approved to demilitarize Germany and divide it into zones of occupation. In the same period, the decision was made by the Western allies to include the central and eastern countries Europe, except for Austria in the USSR.As a result of the capitulation of Japan, the USSR included in its territories South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands 2 September 1945 years.

During the war years, the Eastern Front lost over 75% of its personnel and aviation, about 75% of tanks and artillery pieces. Died about 27 million of people in battles, in captivity, on the lands that were subjected to fascist occupation, almost 18 million people were wounded or sick and became disabled while performing their duties.

The people who were in the rear during the war years had poor health due to hunger, unsettled living conditions, severe physical overload, lack of medicines and many other reasons.

The damage that the country's economy suffered during the war years reached almost a third of the state's national wealth. Cities and urban settlements, villages, industrial enterprises, railways, bridges, collective farms and state farms were completely or partially destroyed. Horses and cattle, pigs, sheep were slaughtered or stolen by the Nazis. However, the national economy began to recover in the course of hostilities, at a time when there was a radical turning point in the war.

58. World wars. Economic results of the first and second world wars

In the first half of the XX century. world shook first (1914-1918) и second (1941-1945) world wars. These wars are called world wars due to their global nature and long duration.

38 countries took part in the First World War, more than 70 million people were drafted into the army, and the losses of the warring countries amounted to about 10 million killed and 20 million wounded.

World wars coincided with the rapid development of science and technology.

The warring countries, as it were, competed with each other, introducing more and more new types of weapons. Already during the First World War, tanks, submarines, and aircraft were used. There were means intended for mass destruction.

After the First World War, the national wealth of European countries decreased by an average of one third, while in Japan increased by 25% and USA - by 40%.

Germany lost 12% of its pre-war territory in Europe and all the colonies, with a total area of 3 million square meters. km. Particularly heavy were reparations payments - 132 billion gold marks.

Industrial production in Germany has halved, agricultural production by 2 times.

The victorious countries understood that in order to receive reparations, it was necessary to restore the German economy. The United States provided economic assistance to Germany. By Dawes plan Germany was granted loans to restore the industry. Reparations payments were set at 1-1 billion gold marks per year, the sources of payments were duties and taxes on consumer goods, deductions from the income of German railways and additional taxes from industry.

As a result of the Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, France received Alsace and Lorraine. 8 billion gold marks were received as reparations from Germany. France received German colonies. These factors partly offset France's losses in World War I and enabled economic growth.

England, as one of the victorious countries, received reparations, as well as most of the German colonies. During the war, England suffered great material losses, and there is a weakening of England's position in the world economy.

In 1924 the capitalist world entered a period of stabilization. The post-war recession gave way to an economic upswing in the 20s. Stable money circulation was restored between the capitalist states, and economic ties were strengthened.

The development of the economy in different countries was uneven. During the years of stabilization, the volume of industrial production increased in comparison with 1913 in the USA by 70%, in France by 43%, in Germany by 17%. However, in England, production barely reached pre-war levels. This inevitably led to a new aggravation of capitalist contradictions.

61 states were drawn into the Second World War, in which up to 80% of the world's population lived. About 65 million people died.

The cumulative expenditures of the warring states exceeded $900 billion at current prices. Industrial production decreased by more than a third compared to the pre-war level, including in Japan by 5 times, in Germany by 2 times.

In April 1948, the US Congress passed a law on aid to European states, and the implementation of the so-called "D. Marshall's plan- US Secretary of State.

In four years (1948-1951) Western European countries received aid worth $17 billion at current prices. American exports during this period increased by 60%, European by 50%. The production of the most important types of industrial products in Europe has grown by 60-200%.

59. Soviet economy during the war

The first six months of hostilities for the Soviet economy were the most difficult, industrial enterprises cut production by half.

State Defense Committeeput into effect 30 June 1941 year, was carried out evacuation of industrial enterprises and transferred the activities of the civilian sector to military production. From the front-line territories, 2593 enterprises were moved to the Volga region, Siberia, the Urals, Central Asia and other places. Eastern enterprises quickly began to produce products for the war. In the period 1941-1942, despite the harsh winter, the construction of new plants was underway, which could further increase the production of heavy industry, and by 1945, almost half of all metal was produced at the Ural plants. During the war years, twice as much military equipment and weapons were produced, which is the labor heroism of all citizens of the country.

At first 1942 years started planned mobilization in relation to industrial enterprises. The working-age population, including 14-year-olds, learned at a fast pace in any profession, and they took up the machines like adult workers. This was later applied to agriculture as well.

However, during the war years also continued there is a Gulag system, in which a large number of people were kept and who were considered enemies of the people.

At the beginning of the war, created card supply system allowed to provide the population of the city with food in a minimum amount, since the main material resources were needed for military needs. The distribution of products was carried out according to certain categories of workers, higher standards were set for those employed in military factories, in metallurgy, mining and chemical industries.

The majority of the population could not buy food in the markets, because the prices for them were high, and the wages of the inhabitants of the cities were spent on their purchase. The main source of food for many in these years was collective farm land, which was allocated to enterprises and organizations in order to grow vegetables for their workers.

As a result of the evacuation of people, the problem with housing in Central Asia, the Urals, Kazakhstan, and Siberia was complicated.

During the war years, a lot of difficulties also fell on agriculture. For military needs, tractors, cars and horses were transferred, so in the village they plowed on cows, the work was done manually. The male population was at the front, the elderly, women and children, as well as the disabled remained there, in order to provide the country with food, they all worked. Collective and state farms were obliged to hand over the entire harvest to the state, and their leaders were severely punished for failure to fulfill the plan. Often, after the harvest was handed over to the state, the farms did not have grain for crops, agricultural production dropped sharply, and the number of animals decreased. The villagers survived by growing food on their personal plots, since they were not given cards. They used the products for personal consumption, sale or exchange with city dwellers.

Donations were made throughout the country for the military defense of the country and the Red Army fund, the population voluntarily gave away things, money, various valuables, bonds, etc. Over 2 thousand aircraft were built and transferred to the army with the funds raised from the population, as well as tanks, weapons, over 5 submarines and boats, etc. The population regularly donated blood in hospitals, which was necessary for the treatment of wounded people.

60. Post-war development of the national economy

The USSR began economic recovery from 1943 gradually with the expulsion of the occupiers. In addition to these activities, it was necessary to carry out industry conversion, since more than half of the industrial output produced military products, at this time they also began to develop new types of weapons.

В 1949 year was published in the press that in the USSR, passed atomic bomb test, And in 1953 year test hydrogen bomb.

During these years, there was mass demobilization, as a result of which the composition of the army dropped sharply, but by the beginning of 1950 it had doubled compared to 1948.

Particular attention during the years of the first five-year plans was given to the development of industry: mechanical engineering, the fuel and energy complex, and metallurgy. Financing of the food and light industry took place on a residual basis; as a result, the created products could not satisfy the needs of the population.

The economic development of the country had several sources of, first of all, it the prescriptive nature of the economy, which retained the mobilization direction. The population organizedly restored the Dneproges, metallurgical plants, mines, was engaged in the construction of new hydroelectric power stations and factories, etc.

USSR received reparations for a total amount of 4,3 billion dollars from Germany, equipment, machines, etc. were also exported from Germany. German and Japanese prisoners of war worked in the Soviet Union, and there were also 8-9 million prisoners in the Gulag system, whose work was not paid.

During these years, the policy of redistribution of funds for the heavy industry of their social sphere continued to operate. The population every year had to subscribe to loans provided by the state.

The difficult situation was in the production of agricultural products, as well as the drought of 1946, which covered the territory of Moldova, the Volga region, the Crimea, the Central Black Earth region, did not allow it to grow.

After the war, non-equivalent commodity exchange between the population of the city and the countryside continued to operate through the implementation of a pricing policy. Purchase prices for agricultural products changed slowly, thereby not reflecting changes in the costs of their production, as a result, the cost of milk, grain, and meat did not pay off. They were covered either by subsidies or by state loans, which were then written off.

At first 1946 years the Soviet government began to reduce household plots and tax farm cash taxes, and also each yard was obliged to hand over to the state natural tax.

The existence of the card system was until the end of 1947, although its abolition was planned for 1946, but due to drought and crop failure, the deadline was pushed back. Prior to the abolition of these cards, the Soviet government established a single cost for food products, which resulted in an increase in food prices for city residents.

Simultaneously carried out monetary reform, due to the large release of money into circulation during the war years for the army. The decrease in the level of retail trade turnover led to the fact that the population had more money than was necessary for the stable operation of the national economy, and as a result, their purchasing power fell. One of the reasons was the release of counterfeit money by the Nazis.

According to statistics, the average wages of workers for the period 1928 to 1954. increased more than 11 times.

Particular difficulties existed with housing, as many families huddled in hostels, communal apartments, basements and barracks. However, the construction took place on a limited scale.

61. The country on the eve of reforms

The end of the Stalinist period of rule in March 1953 was marked for the history of the USSR by the initial attempt to reform the command-administrative system. early 1950 to 1960. In 1953 year the country was governed by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers - G.M. Malenkov, Minister of Internal Affairs - L.P. Beria, Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU - N.S. Khrushchev. Each of them tried to take power into their own hands, counting on the support of the party and state nomenklatura. The secretaries of the Central Committee of the republican regional committees, communist parties, regional committees and many other organizations were ready to vote for these leaders if they allow them to independently make decisions regarding local issues, and most importantly, provide them with a guarantee of personal security, i.e. end of repression.

Thus, the formed new layer of Soviet society was ready to agree to reforms within certain limits, without going beyond them. In the process of these reforms, it was necessary to reorganize the Gulag system, as well as to abolish it, carry out social transformations, stimulate the development of agriculture, reduce the degree of tension in the constant search for solutions to emerging economic problems and in finding both internal and external enemies, and much more.

As a result of political rivalry N.S. came to power Khrushchev, which quickly outperformed its competitors. In this year, L. Beriy was arrested and then shot, as he was accused of plotting to restore bourgeois domination. forced resigned at the beginning of 1955 G. Malenkov, and in 1957 they expelled him and V. Molotov, L. Kaganovich and other participants, and their anti-party group from the top leadership.

N.S. Khrushchev became Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR in 1958, and also was still First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee.

In connection with the huge losses incurred in the lives of people during the war years, the Soviet leadership decided to 1948 year to use the work of Gulag prisoners in an economical way, which consisted in preventing their death from starvation or malnutrition, the absence of extra hard work, as well as medical care. For some workers, wages were fixed or rations were increased. The desired results from these measures were not obtained, in addition, in 1940-1950 yyy. everywhere, from the Komi Republic to Kazakhstan and Kolyma, Gulag uprisings, suppressed in a cruel way. As a result, the Soviet authorities were faced with a choice, either to go in the direction of improving conditions for prisoners, or to close all camps.

This system was unprofitable, since the costs of the state grew, and it could also operate under the condition of constant replenishment of people. The new Soviet leadership, fearing the resumption of repression, decided to choose the second direction. Thus, people began to return home in 1953-1954 yyy. from exiles, prisons and camps, and to 1956 year this system was completely abolished and the rehabilitation of prisoners began. In February 1956, at the regular congress of the CPSU, these events were critically assessed and an assessment was made of the work done for a whole period of time.

This made it possible to take a step forward towards the formation of civil peace in the country, towards the beginning of reforms in all public spheres, especially in the economy. This rehabilitation turn affected not only political growth, but also economic growth, since a huge number of specialists were released, they acquired the rights of citizens and could apply their knowledge and experience in practical activities.

62. Reforming the Soviet economic system

В August 1953 G.M. Malenkov identified the main directions of economic policy, which consisted of a sharp increase in the production of food products and consumer goods, and an increase in investment in light industry. In his opinion, such changes should radically change the development of the Soviet economy and destroy the guidelines that were established in past years.

The main task was solution to the food problemand bring agriculture out of the crisisthrough the use of financial incentives.

В September 1953 years at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU it was adopted decree on necessary measures to sharply increase agricultural production. During this period of time, collective and state farms had particular difficulties in recouping the costs of production; the situation was especially difficult in the non-black earth and northwestern regions of the country.

To get out of this situation, the new leadership planned a number of measures, which consisted in reducing the agricultural tax, writing off tax debts over the past years, increasing the size of household and personal subsidiary plots of collective farmers, as well as workers and employees of cities and towns. The norms for the supply of livestock products to the state were reduced, purchase prices for agricultural products were raised, and the limits of collective farm markets were expanded.

Early 1954 years at the plenum of the Central Committee was adopted program for mass development of virgin lands.

Much attention was paid to the industry, in particular its technical level. AT 1955 year it was said that growth of technical production level should be based on electrification, mechanization and automation.

To the middle 1950 years a new idea was born development of new scientific paths of the Soviet Union, not only in the economy, but also for the purpose of military confrontation with Western countries. During this era, large material, financial and human resources were directed to the prosperity of fundamental sciences and natural sciences, to the education and training of highly qualified specialists, thus a sharp rise in science and technology was achieved.

During these years, there was a rapid development of the energy base state, the construction of hydroelectric power plants and thermal power plants was carried out everywhere.

The initiated reforms in a few years became slow down developmentSo in 1959 year many benefits were eliminated, residents of the city were forbidden to run their own farms, restrictive norms were introduced for the procurement and sale of feed for personal subsidiary plots, etc. As a result of unfavorable climatic conditions in 1963 year was collected low yield, the drought led to a shortage of food products, there was a problem with bread, its sale was limited to one person. Bread began to be bought abroad with the available gold reserves, in order to prevent the famine of past years. This year it was adopted agricultural chemicalization program, i.e. use of mineral fertilizers in agriculture.

To the beginning 1955 years there has been an increase in the number mergers of collective farms and their consolidation, subsequently the country's leadership began to implement a policy of widespread transformation of collective farms into state farms, from collective farmers into agricultural workers. IN 1962 year Was held restructuring of the agricultural production management system, state and collective farm administrations were established in the regions, and committees were established at the level of republics, territories, and regions.

At the end of 1956 years summing up the results of the sixth five-year plan, the indicators of the next plan for the development of the national economy were outlined.

63. Transformations in the social sphere

Transformations in the social sphere in 1950-1960. mostly affected the urban population. During this period there was anti-worker law repealed, adopted in 1940, which introduced severe penalties for absenteeism and tardiness, and also included prohibitions against changing workplaces. In September 1956, the minimum wage was approved; below this amount, enterprises did not have the right to pay for work.

One of the main changes was pension law, which was introduced July 1956 of the yearaffecting the interests of many citizens of the country. The size of the pension was influenced by age and work experience, so men had the right to retire if their work experience was equal to 25 years at 60 years old, women with 20 years of work experience at 55 years.

This law did not provide for automatic retirement when people reached the age limit. For senior officials, this fact provided the opportunity to remain in their jobs for life. In addition, the system of individual pensions was increased, which were appointed for special services to the country. The size of these pensions was much higher than the established state pensions, and there were also privileges for paying for housing, free vouchers for treatment in a sanatorium were issued, free travel on public transport, etc. There was also a special system for determining the amount of pensions for state security employees and the military.

В 1965 year was determined pension provision for collective farmers, so men could receive old-age pensions at the age of 65, and women at the age of 60, provided they lived on their collective farm. For those who moved to the city in old age, the payment of pensions was not provided, they were deprived of it.

The amount of pensions for villagers was equal to 8 rubles, and then 12-15 rubles, it was assumed that they would receive other means of life from their personal subsidiary plots. At the beginning 1960 residents of collective farms got of the passportas well as the urban population.

Adoption work week law was carried out in 1956 year, i.e. there was a decrease from 48 to 46 hours, Saturday became a short working day. During the seven-year plan period, this week decreased to an average of 40 hours, which was the result of the work of employees and workers 5 days a week for 7 hours. To late 1960. Saturday hours were distributed among other working days, and as a result it became two days off: Saturday and Sunday. It was decided to increase the paid maternity leave: 56 working days before childbirth and 56 days after childbirth.

ubiquitous Housing construction was started from mid 1950translated into the industrial part. For the construction of houses began to use reinforced concrete panels, which reduced the construction time. Housing cooperatives began to emerge, which created favorable conditions - installments for 15 years in relation to the full payment of the cost of an apartment.

В 1956 year was fees for school and higher education canceled. The main expenses in the family were payments for utilities and food costs.

Taxes were reduced for low-wage workers 1957 year, increased benefits for children with many children, as well as temporary disability benefits, increased the cost of living from 30 to 40-45 rubles. per month, and by 1960 it became equal to 60 rubles.

В 1958 year it was decided stop issuing money on government loans for 20 years, since the state’s funds were exhausted. During this period abolished compulsory subscription to government loans.

64. The Soviet economy in the era of the command-administrative system. Features of economic and political life

The implementation of the achievement of the limit in the direction of a certain improvement in the command-administrative system has achieved its results by mid 1960. In order to move forward, it was necessary to make a decision on cardinal changes in all spheres of life. The political leadership failed to do this, since the temporary period of N.I. Khrushchev. He was more popular internationally than in his own state. The state party apparatus, due to constant reorganizations that could not be predicted, was dissatisfied. Broad social strata came up with proposals for the abolition or reduction of various privileges to the highest nomenklatura, in order to prevent social social differentiation in the future, which did not suit the ruling structures.

Many party leaders believed that the process of de-Stalinization, which was launched at the XNUMXth Congress, provided many rights in managing the economic and political, as well as the spiritual spheres of the life of the state. At this congress, new principles of development in international relations were determined, it was confirmed that it is necessary for all countries to coexist peacefully, regardless of the diversity of the social system. The USSR tried to enter into negotiations with the leading Western countries regarding mutual disarmament, as well as to reduce the number of armed forces of the states. AT Moscow in 1963. was signed by representatives of the USA, Great Britain and the USSR Treaty banning nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere, under water and in outer space.

These countries did not express much confidence in the Soviet Union, as a result of which the development of weapons was carried out all over the world. The USSR also developed new military programs for the construction of nuclear submarines, the construction of missiles with nuclear warheads to strengthen the army and navy, and also deployed its military bases in third world countries. As a result of the Soviet import of nuclear missiles into Cuba, tensions arose that autumn 1962. led to the formation caribbean crisis. This conflict was resolved through negotiations between representatives of the Soviet Union and the United States. The current foreign policy situation for the USSR did not provide an opportunity to reduce military spending.

Among the dissatisfaction were the claims of a huge number of the military about the widespread reduction of the Armed Forces, so from the end of 1950 to the beginning of 1960 a large number of highly paid general positions, as well as officers, were eliminated.

The intellectual population was dissatisfied with the ban on the liberalization of spiritual life, as well as the intrusion of party members into their creative activities.

increased dissatisfaction on the part of workers regarding price increases and reductions in tariff rates in wages. Residents of state and collective farms were tired of the constant changes in agriculture, which as a result did not lead to the effective operation of the agrarian sector of the economy, were dissatisfied with the import of food products and foodstuffs that the country could produce itself.

As a result of these discontents, the party-state nomenclature was able to eliminate N.I. Khrushchev. In October 1964, at the plenum of the Central Committee, he was accused of "voluntarism and subjectivism", he retired. It was decided in the future not to combine the highest ruling party and state posts in one person. In this way, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Party appeared L.I. Brezhnev, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR was A.N. Kosygin.

65. Modern scientific and technological revolution (NTR)

The twentieth century is called the era of scientific and technological progress. Under his influence, great changes took place in material culture and in the minds of people. Scientific and technological progress tends to wave-like development. The most significant and large-scale leaps forward, as a result of which science and production underwent qualitative transformations, are called scientific and technological revolutions (STR).

NTR is characterized by:

1) qualitative transformation of all elements of production forces;

2) an increase in the interaction of sciences, an integrated approach to the study of complex problems;

3) the fusion of science and technology, science and production;

4) increasing the importance of information activities;

5) an increase in the level of education and culture of the population.

Scientific and technological revolution is characterized by the accelerated development of science-intensive industries (instrument making, electrical industry, electronic engineering, etc.), which contributes to strengthening the material and technical base of scientific organizations and opens up new opportunities in the development of natural science and technical knowledge.

Home first scientific and technological revolution refer to 50-60s XX century. In the process of the first scientific and technological revolution, the energy of the atom began to be purposefully mastered; quantum electronics was developed, which made it possible to create laser technology and electronic energy converters; the first computers were invented. The highest achievement of the first scientific and technological revolution was space exploration.

In agriculture, there was a "green revolution" - an unprecedented rise in productivity due to the use of pesticides and herbicides. But the first scientific and technological revolution also carried negative consequences.

In the conditions of the "cold war" there was an accumulation of atomic, thermonuclear, bacteriological and chemical weapons. In addition, the achievements of science and technology were used to improve "traditional" types of weapons. All this could lead to the third world war. Environmental issues are also of great importance.

Second NTRcovering last quarter of the XNUMXth century, is of a different nature and is trying to overcome the negative consequences of the first scientific and technological revolution. One of the most important tasks now is the conservation of natural resources.

The main directions of the second scientific and technological revolution are the development of such industries as microelectronics, biotechnology and informatics.

Modern science is trying to master new sources of energy: solar, wind, energy of sea and ocean tides. Low-waste and non-waste technologies are being mastered, allowing the production process to be carried out at minimal cost. The development of microelectronics makes it possible to significantly reduce the size of machines and energy consumption, and reduce the cost of products.

In agriculture, the problem of the production of environmentally friendly products becomes a priority.

Computer technologies are being improved. The demand for computers is constantly growing. In many countries, personal computers have already firmly entered the life of the population along with household appliances.

Information technologies are also being improved. All spheres of society's life are connected with the latest types of communications (telecommunications, satellite communications, e-mail, cellular communications, etc.).

However, it should be remembered that scientific and technological progress does not spread uniformly across all regions of the world. Favorable conditions for its development exist only in leading countries. Scientific and technological progress depends on the general level of social and material well-being of society.

66. Economics of developed socialism. Search for new forms and methods of management. Reforms of the 1960s-1970s: essence, goals, methods and results

During the period of developed socialism, the idea arises of developing a seven-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1966-1972, but by the end of 1964 the Soviet government decides to abandon it and return to the eighth five-year plan (1966-1970). This project was planned increase labor productivity in the industry by 33-35%, get profit double, produce production growth to 80%.

The development of territorial production complexes, the agricultural sector of the economy, the production of consumer goods, and an increase in the income of the country's population were envisaged. The implementation of these goals is impossible without economic changes, as a result of which there was a need to reform the economy.

At the Plenum of the Central Committee in the second half 1965 g. was approved Resolution "On improving industrial management, improving planning and strengthening economic incentives for industrial production". According to this document, it was started economic reform in the country. It was decided to abolish economic councils and form all-union and union-republican ministries for individual industrial sectors.

The main indicator was the growth in the volume of sales of products by the enterprise, and it was supposed to evaluate the results of its activities for making a profit, as well as the implementation of tasks for the supply of products.

Mandatory indicators of economic activity were established, such as the wage fund, deductions to the budget, tasks for the introduction of modern equipment and technology, and much more, and the rest of the indicators of the enterprise had to be determined independently. The economic rights of economic entities expanded, relations between producers and consumers began to develop, it was necessary to introduce agreements regulating their relations.

In order to stimulate economic price policy in relation to manufactured products with a low level of profitability.

It was scheduled improve the wage system, by linking it with an increase in tariff rates and material incentives, at the expense of the profit of the enterprise. Many enterprises were given the right to create incentive funds at the expense of profits, i.e. various incentives, housing construction, cultural events, etc.

It was developed in October 1965 "Regulations on the socialist state enterprise", which established his rights in relation to production and economic activities, duties and liability for their crime. The reform contributed to the transition to new operating conditions for 43 enterprises in 1966.

This reform also affected Agriculture, it was decided to cancel the mandatory sowing of corn, to pay special attention to the Central Black Earth regions, etc. The purchasing system has changed, firm procurement plans have been approved, purchase prices for crop products have been increased, etc. The Soviet government has increased the financing of agricultural production.

The system of organizing agricultural units was revived in order to make workers more interested in their labor results. A transition was envisaged from large brigades to links that were responsible for the technological process and wages were to be made according to the quantity and quality of products.

Particular economic improvements occurred during the first half of the eighth five-year plan.

67. USSR and the world in the mid-60s - early 80s.

The widespread resettlement of the people and the historical past of the country laid the foundation for the formation of a collective organization of labor, which manifested itself in the creation of collective farms, comprehensive programs, basic production rules necessary to guide the government and collective producers. Based on these principles, the highest authorities and party bodies decided that in order to strengthen and improve the socialist society, it would be necessary to carry out fundamental changes in the development of productive forces, the management structure, and coordinate the improvement of all components of the economic process.

The implementation of changes in the economic mechanism, which took shape at the initial stage of the formation of socialism, arose by the beginning of the 1960swhen, on the party initiative, it was started economic reform. The measures intended to form a new system of planning and economic incentives consisted of changing the territorial principle of managing an industry by sector, since it was necessary to carry out the development of scientific and technical thought in each industry, as well as the gradual introduction of volumetric indicators of production activity, which would reflect its results . The relationship between economic entities and the state was changed, enterprises began to pay for land and water resources, as well as for production assets. Enterprises that transferred to a new management system and produced any product were awarded a state Quality Mark.

During these years, the agricultural reformas a result of which debts of state and collective farms were written off, prices for the purchase of agricultural products were increased, a surcharge of 50% was established for additionally produced products, measures were taken to strengthen the financing of agricultural production, work was started on programs of chemicalization, melioration and mechanization of agrarian sectors of the economy.

During these years, positive results were achieved in the USSR, for example, the volume of agricultural production was increased by 21%, industrial production by 50%, there was a formation unified national economic complex, which included a single raw material, transport, energy system of the European part of the Soviet Union. Was created energy system of Central Siberia, the degree of influence of intensive factors on the growth of national income was increased, which was reflected in an increase in the rate of labor productivity, a reduction in the material intensity of products and a more efficient use of fixed production assets in various industries.

Workers in industry and the agricultural sector have increased wages and, accordingly, the standard of living, since prices for consumer goods and food products have remained unchanged for a long time. improved food quality, and increased equipping with durable consumer goods, so in 1960 household appliances: refrigerators, televisions, etc. were inaccessible to many families, and in 1970 they were in the majority of the population.

The problem with housing continued to exist, in the cities there were mostly communal apartments, and the houses that were built from the beginning of 1950 were small. From the beginning of 1970, the population with high earnings began to acquire cooperative apartments, with more improved living conditions.

At this time the number of people has increasedwho received entitlement to social security funds. The amount of state pensions depended on length of service and was equal to up to 70% of earnings.

68. Shifts towards a post-industrial society. Globalization and separatism

Post-industrial society (or post-industrial civilization) is a stage of social development that replaced industrial civilization, which was entered by the leading industrial countries of the world in the last quarter of the XNUMXth century.

The main features of a post-industrial society:

1) formation of a computer-technological structure of production. The basis of production is knowledge-intensive, resource-saving, waste-free technologies;

2) minimization of human physical labor in the production process, activation of creative abilities, mental costs;

3) development of small and medium-sized businesses, an increase in the role of small enterprises and their "soft" forms of association (associations, commercial and industrial groups), deconcentration (downsizing) of production;

4) the process of deurbanization - the outflow of the population from cities. This allowed workers in metropolitan areas not to suffer from overcrowding, air pollution, an overabundance of transport and other problems, since they prefer to live in suburbs remote from large cities.

The formation of a post-industrial society is a complex, uneven process riddled with contradictions. These are the contradictions between man and modern technology in the social, economic and psychological aspects, the conflict between the trend towards globalization and the traditional principles of national-state sovereignty.

Globalization - the process of increasing the integrity of the world. Many scientists see globalization as a sign of the beginning of the formation of a single planetary civilization.

Throughout the XNUMXth century, economic, political, cultural ties between different countries became more and more strong. The interdependence of all countries, which today can no longer lead an isolated existence, has noticeably increased.

The process of globalization entails:

1) the formation of a world economy system with a "division of labor" between countries and continents;

2) creation of the world market.

World market it is a single set of international trade-money, trade-economic and credit-financial relations of countries;

3) the growing role of regional economic unions (such as the European Union);

4) strengthening the authority of international organizations (UN, UNESCO, etc.); intensive exchange of scientific knowledge and cultural values.

At the present stage of development of the world economy, new directions of its progress have appeared:

1) international cooperation of states is built on the basis of their material interest. Now the former non-economic coercion of countries and peoples is excluded;

2) the global market space is expanding. Many economically backward countries that had natural or semi-natural production are moving to market relations;

3) all forms of economic relations between countries are developing. Economic relations between countries are becoming more diverse and include not only foreign trade, but also the exchange of scientific and technical information, international credit and foreign investment, currency relations, integration, the movement of labor from one country to another, etc.

4) The reverse side of the globalization process is world wars, major economic crises, the danger of using weapons of mass destruction, etc.

The process of globalization is opposed by the opposite trend - the separatist one.

Separatism - the desire for secession, isolation. The desire to secede is caused, as a rule, by the desire to preserve political, cultural, and religious independence. The collapse of the USSR and Yugoslavia, Islamic fundamentalism and other events are vivid examples of the manifestation of separatism.

69. Newly industrialized countries: Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Korea, Singapore

Newly industrialized countries - this is a group of developing countries that have completed over the last decades of the 20th century. leap in economic development.

Industrially developed countries began to move labor-intensive industries to Asia, create enterprises for the production of components, individual semiconductor devices and integrated circuits. As a result, by the 80s. XNUMXth century in Asia, "new industrial countries" or "Asian dragons" appeared - Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, which supplied electronics, telecommunications, high-quality cars, etc. to world markets. The cheapness of labor in these countries makes their products competitive.

A little later, new industrial countries of the second generation appeared. Their characteristic feature is that although most of their population is still employed in agriculture, the volume of industrial production and the export of industrial products are growing rapidly. In Latin America, such states include Venezuela, Colombia, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay.

Over the years of independent development Taiwan made significant progress in the economy. This was facilitated by the liquidation in 1949-1953. landownership, US assistance in industrialization. From the 60s. the process of economic development was accelerated by the encouragement of the state of the private sector and the influx of foreign capital. Taiwan has evolved from an agrarian state into an industrial one with a highly developed agriculture.

Hong Kong also belongs to the four "Asian dragons", which account for 40% of the industrial exports of developing countries. Clothing, electronics, watches, toys are the main exports from Hong Kong.

Economy Malaysia It occupies an important place in the world economy, accounting for about 50% of the world rubber production and 40% of tin. The investors of the Malaysian economy were England, the USA and Japan.

Korea a course was taken towards the development of a "managed capitalist economy", which meant that the state encouraged the creation of manufacturing industries and other industries that could replace imports of products from other countries. For this purpose, foreign capital, both American and Japanese, was attracted. From the 70s. export-oriented economy developed intensively. Some of the large factories and plants belonged to the state, some - to monopolies, such as the world-famous Samsung, Hyundai and others, whose products, microelectronics, automation and computer science, televisions, cars successfully compete on world markets with goods from the United States, Japan and Western Europe. The competitiveness of South Korean goods is explained not only by their good qualities, but also by their lower cost and high labor productivity.

Over the years of development in the newly industrialized countries, the structure of exports has changed. The share of raw materials and foodstuffs in it has fallen significantly, while the share of machinery and equipment has increased. Most of these countries have reached the level of the industrialized countries of the world in the export of cars.

Gradually, industrial exports are also growing in the newly industrialized countries of Latin America, Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina: in their share in the late 1990s. accounted for about 20% of industrial exports.

70. World economic crises of the late XX century

First, after World War II, global cyclical crisis broke out in 1974-1975 yyy. It hit all sectors of the economy in all countries, caused a huge drop in production, and in its destructive power was compared with the "Great Depression" (1929-1933).

The highly developed countries suffered more than others from the crisis. Thus, industrial output in Japan decreased by 20%, by 15% in the USA. In all countries, there was an underutilization of production capacities, which led to mass layoffs of workers. The most important cause of the economic upheavals that occurred in the mid-6s was the intertwining of cyclic production crises with structural crises.

Structural crises - these are long-term shocks of individual sectors of the world economy, such that they play a key role and affect the entire world economy.

Since the mid 1970s. there were several structural crises. Their common base was energy crisis. The energy crisis erupted after the creation of OPEC, an organization of oil producing and exporting countries, since this organization began to determine the size of oil production for each member country, the size of its exports and, on this basis, dictate prices on the world oil market.

As a result of a huge jump in oil prices (from 2 5-3 to 10, and subsequently, up to 30 dollars per barrel), called "oil shock", in developed countries production costs have risen sharply, which has had a negative impact on production volumes. Prices for gasoline, aviation fuel, electricity, and transport services have increased. Inflation rates increased to 8-14% per annum. Unemployment has increased significantly.

In the second half of the 70s. the recovery from the crisis began, which, however, proceeded rather slowly.

In the early 1980s a new cyclical crisis broke out in the world economy. There was a second oil shock, much larger than the first.

The peculiarity of the economy at that time was stagflation - rising prices with a fall in production and a reduction in employment. The phenomenon of stagflation did not allow the application of Keynesian recipes for economic policy based on the choice between inflation and unemployment.

As a result, in developed countries, GDP growth rates, labor productivity growth rates decreased, and unemployment increased. This gave impetus to the search for new oil fields, at the same time resource-saving technologies began to be developed and applied, and the modernization of production began. Large cars had to be abandoned, and the era of small cars began. A powerful impetus was given to nuclear energy and the development of new ways of generating energy - wind, geothermal, solar stations. Economic crises served as a stimulus for the transition to the second stage of the scientific and technological revolution.

It took about 10 years to overcome the consequences of the oil shock, after which the leading Western countries entered the trajectory of sustainable economic growth.

Rising oil prices led to a temporary redistribution of income in favor of countries located in the Persian Gulf, where half of the world's oil reserves are concentrated. Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, the Emirates took advantage of the current situation and stepped out of feudalism straight into post-industrialism.

In economic policy, the Keynesian school was replaced by the neoliberal - monetarist school, the essence of which is to reduce the degree of state intervention in the economy, reduce the tax burden, maintain stable and moderate growth in the money supply, and free up entrepreneurial initiative.

71. Economic problems of the countries of the "third world"

The term "third world" arose at the stage of active confrontation between the two systems: capitalist and socialist. States that remained aloof from direct participation in this struggle began to be called "third world" or developing countries.

The states of the "Third World" usually include the former colonial and dependent countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. These countries became politically independent, but entangled in networks of economic dependence tied to the foreign capitalist economy, its industrial, scientific and technical base. Abnormal economic relations have been established for a long time between the Western states and most of the developing countries. These relationships were built on non-equivalent trade. Western countries sell their finished industrial products at higher prices and buy raw materials and energy from third world countries at lower prices. As a result, the debt of developing countries to developed countries is growing rapidly.

The interaction of former colonial and dependent countries with highly industrialized powers is their clash with the "challenge" of industrial civilization. It is not easy for developing countries to give a worthy response to such a "challenge": they have to create a new economic structure, look for optimal forms of statehood, get involved in international relations, interact with "foreign" cultural values.

Developing countries can be conditionally divided into several blocks:

1) tropical Africa;

2) Arab countries;

3) Hindu-Buddhist-Muslim bloc;

4) Confucian block;

5) Latin America.

The population in developing countries more often suffers from hunger, disease, poverty, and local ethnic conflicts.

Third world countries are also characterized by the following socio-economic problems:

1) high birth rate and overpopulation.

The demographic problem is generated by the fact that in the second half of the 80th century a population explosion began - the rapid growth of the world's population. XNUMX% of world population growth is in developing countries. While the per capita consumption in these countries remains small compared to the actual needs of the people;

2) underdevelopment of the education system;

3) low level of life expectancy;

4) unemployment;

5) lack of capital;

6) uneven distribution of natural resources.

Integration associations of developing countries play an important role. These countries are interested in integration because they have the same conditions and tasks for economic development. Cooperation gives them advantages in the use of natural and other economic resources unevenly distributed among them. States belonging to the same region, as a rule, differ greatly from each other in many economic indicators, including natural resources, labor force, industrial structure, etc. Integration, on the one hand, gives states that do not have the necessary resources access to their sources. On the other hand, it allows countries that have resources, but are not able to independently develop them, to benefit from their use.

The problems of the multistructural nature of the economy, its dependence on foreign capital, and the role of the external factor have become the focus of attention of scientists from developing countries. Third world theorists, rejecting both capitalism and Soviet-style socialism, were ready to use their experience, relying on their traditions, national and other characteristics.

72. The growth of crisis phenomena in the Soviet economy

Over time, the word began to go into the pastreform", which has been replaced by concepts like improvement or perfection. In the role of the main tool for solving economic and social problems was increasing the role of the leadership of the Communist Party. They were authorized to control all spheres of production activity, research institutes and educational institutions, etc., but at the same time state bodies or heads of enterprises bore full responsibility for any violations.

The direction of realizing unprecedented results of production, delivering huge amounts of production indicators to the state began to spread everywhere. As a result, the areas of fertile lands were degraded, the areas intended for growing cotton were flooded, swamps were drained for arable land, which ultimately led to the shallowing of rivers, and the productivity became low on the new lands. Plots of land that supplied the population with vegetables, fruits and flowers began to be seized, greenhouses were destroyed.

As a result of these circumstances, began to develop shadow economy, which consisted of carrying out strictly prohibited activities, for example, engaging in handicraft production, retail trade, consumer services, etc.

The country continued to make the transition from domestic work methods to the use of machinery, while the industrialized countries were far ahead in the direction of scientific and technological progress.

The state economy experienced lack of human resources, since the birth rate was constantly declining, and, accordingly, the proportion of young people who were necessary for industrial development. There was a massive migration of the population from villages to cities, young people got jobs in hazardous conditions, whose work was cheaper for managers compared to the introduction of new technology.

During these years there was relocation of extraction of natural resources to the Northern regions and regions of Siberia, the cost of delivering the raw material base to the territory of their processing began to increase. Investment was made in the oil and gas producing regions of western Siberia, and a huge number of people were sent there to develop them. As a result of the existing 1970s commodity and energy crisis in the West, their prices increased sharply, and it was decided to supply these types of resources to Western markets. Thus, the share of exports of fuel and raw materials increased, while at the same time the share of exports of machinery and equipment decreased.

There were many contradictions in resolving the issue of nuclear energy; a plant for the production of nuclear reactors for nuclear power plants was built in the Rostov region.

Despite the development of certain sectors of the national economy, their share was below the level of the leading industrialized countries. Government in 1979 year made an attempt economic reform, by introducing indicator of standard-clean products, according to which enterprises had to keep records only of newly created value without costs for materials, etc. Such a new introduction implied incentives for the introduction of modern technology, an increase in the level of product quality, i.e. modernization, but did not assume a change in the command-administrative system.

Gradually, the average annual volume of output began to decline, there was a shortage of goods, the needs of the population were unsatisfied, there were no incentives for labor activity, which as a result led to the process of suspension of the socio-economic development of the country.

73. Beginning of perestroika. 500 days program

General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU after the death of K.U. Chernenko, in March 1985 becomes M.S. Gorbachev, Chairman of the Council of Ministers - N.I. Ryzhkov. From this period of time, a new and final stage in the development of the USSR began, which was called perestroika. The elected leadership began to carry out reforms of all social structures, as well as economic transformations.

В May 1985 years was approved decree The Central Committee of the CPSU and the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on reducing the production of alcoholic beverages and their sales, breweries began to be liquidated, the production of glass bottles was closed, and much more, which led to the growth of underground moonshine.

One of the initial ways out of the country's crisis situation was the way accelerating its social and economic development. This path consisted in realizing an annual increase in national income of more than 4%, due to the extraction of fuel and raw materials, investments, and the involvement of a huge number of people in the production process. Consequently, it was necessary, through the introduction of modern equipment, and hence the acceleration of the rate of increase in mechanical engineering, as well as the attraction of investments in these industries, to ensure an increase in labor productivity.

To control the growth of the level of product quality, an instance was created, called Gospriemka, endowed with the rights to reject low-quality products and punish those responsible for defects in production. Since the production was not equipped with advanced technology and qualified specialists, a huge number of accidents occurred, for example, at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986.

The beginning of economic restructuring was marked by June 1987 years, upon acceptance"Law on State Enterprise". According to this law, the heads and teams of enterprises were given the right to independently enter the foreign market, as well as conduct joint activities with foreign countries. In practice, this gave enterprises greater freedom in distributing their own profits. They could either contribute to its production or increase the wages of workers.In general, enterprises chose the second direction, which did not ensure scientific and technological development.

The country began to develop lease relations, in order to increase the interest of workers in the final results of their work. In April 1989 years was accepted "Lease Law", which granted the right to the labor collective to rent their enterprise from the state, and then privatize it by buying it out.

The formation of new forms of production associations took place in the period 1989-1991 yyy., were created concerns and corporations, united by the common interests of the heads of enterprises, the purpose of which was the profitable privatization of the republican and union institutions, which sought to reserve decisions on financing issues.

В 1990 year arose"500 days program", which was proposed by a team of economists headed by Academician S. Shatalin. It was approved by the Supreme Council of the RSFSR.

The main directions of this program were the restoration of private ownership of all production factors, the introduction of antimonopoly measures, the privatization of enterprises, the recognition of the sovereignty of the Union republics, the reduction of government spending by stopping the construction of large industrial enterprises, providing assistance to various countries and crushing military spending. At first, the program was accepted by the government of the country, but then, due to some hesitation, was rejected.

74. Perestroika and its results. Reforming the political system

The economic situation of the country has not improved since 1988, so the indicators of agricultural production were sharply reduced, and in 1990 the indicators of the industry, the country's budget deficit, external debt increased, inflation rates increased, the state's gold reserves decreased, and the level of oil production decreased.

The economic downturn was affected by the huge military spending of the USSR, the number of military personnel per 1000 people was 15 people, and in the USA - 6 people, etc. The USSR produced more tanks, artillery pieces, submarines, missiles, and more than the United States. A large number of tons of fuel was spent on military needs, while it was not enough in the agricultural sector of the economy.

According to official statistics, direct spending on armaments accounted for over 7% of the state budget, and together with indirect spending, less than half of the entire state budget. These military spending had a significant impact on the country's economy, since these funds were not directed to the development of agricultural production, housing construction, etc.

As a result of the development of international relations, the Soviet government decided to measures to change foreign policy. The division into capitalism and communism was completed, with 1987 g. were concluded agreements with the United States on the destruction of weapons strategic purpose. Soviet troops were withdrawn from the territory of Afghanistan in 1989, at the same time, the withdrawal of troops from the countries of Eastern Europe began. In 1991, the Warsaw Pact organization was disbanded, and the question arose about the termination of the activities of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, which was dissolved as a result.

In 1990, the Council of Ministers of the USSR decided to reconsider the issue of raising prices for products, which was followed by an immediate increase in demand for all goods, and there was a shortage everywhere. In the end 1990 early 1991. was introduced sales tax, equal to 5%, in order to replenish the state budget, which over time has decreased to a minimum.

В agriculture was carried out Food programThus, the country's leadership insisted on increasing the level of investment in this industry, without discussing the issue of switching to new forms of management. Since 1989, the food deficit began to increase for food products, coupons, cards, coupons were introduced everywhere, regulating the distribution of necessary food products. In early 1991, humanitarian aid began to arrive from around the world. Thus was completed the introduction of the food program.

Such programs were carried out in the housing sector, in the development of the production of consumer goods, as well as in the service sector. As a result of the growing economic difficulties, the country's leadership decided to reforming the political system of the USSR.

В 1989-1990 g. passed elections of new authorities, formed Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, republican congresses, on the basis of which they were formed Supreme Soviets of the USSR and republics, arose republican congresses of people's deputies. In referendums in 1990-1991. the republican structure decided to leave the Soviet Union and acquire the status of sovereign states. Ethnic conflicts began to arise, in 1989 the workers' strike was held for the first time. The republics began to form their own budgets and reduce contributions to the Union budgets. This confrontation was especially manifested in relations between Russia and the USSR, after the approved in June 1990, Declaration of Sovereignty of the Russian Federation.

75. Attempts to transform the economy. V. Pavlov and monetary reform. The collapse of the USSR

In second half of 1990. Soviet the government gave freedom to state-owned enterprises in the field of pricing, as a result of this, payments to the budget from turnover tax were reduced. The Russian Government, in order to get ahead of its rival, decided to increase purchase prices for products from the agricultural sector of the economy; such rivalry worsened the economic situation in the country. The ruling structures of the USSR made an attempt to change the crisis situation in the economy, so in the end of 1990. became the head of his government V.S. Pavlov. He represented the interests of conservative circles in economics and politics, as well as the military-industrial complex.

The new head of government accused private banks of foreign countries of wanting to destabilize the situation in the USSR. President Gorbachev gave the right to the KGB and the Ministry of Internal Affairs to interfere in the activities of economic entities. There was a decrease in investment and a reduction in the trading activity of foreign capital in the USSR. AT early 1991. was implemented monetary reform, which did not have a positive result. Quite suddenly, they announced the seizure of banknotes, namely 50 and 100 rubles. from monetary circulation and their exchange for new banknotes corresponding to the old ones. The next step was revision of retail prices, regarding them increase. At the same time, the increase in prices was compensated by cash payments to the population, their amounts were inconsistent with the increase in prices. The measures taken led to the loss of confidence in the national currency.

The sharp rise in prices formed the legal use of production assets of enterprises, since the USSR government gave the right to use part of the funds from these funds in order to compensate for price increases, and some enterprises began to include their depreciation deductions in this direction.

In mid-1991, V. Pavlov put forward a demand to the Supreme Council for the provision of certain powers to stabilize the economic course, thus coordinating all power in the person of the executive bodies. This requirement was rejected, and the legislative authorities began to develop legal acts that determined the process of formation and development of a market economy.

All attempts to achieve conservative stabilization for some of the leaders of the USSR led to the formation State Committee for Emergency Situations in August 1991. Members of the newly created committee came up with a program that was aimed at solving their country's crisis situation. IN August 1991 happened coup failure, at the same time, it became impossible to sign a union treaty relating to the Novo-Ogarevo process, and which was necessary for the reformation of the USSR.

Since that time there has been the collapse of the USSR beganas a single state. The union government was liquidated and transformed into Interstate Economic Committeewho does not have the authority to manage the country's economy. Its functions included the development and signing of economic agreements with the union republics. As a result of the appearance of claims of the republics to each other, these agreements could not be signed.

In the second half of 1991 the Baltic republics announced leaving the USSRand at the end of this year Ukrainian population made a statement about his complete independence.

8 December 1991 g. Russia, Belarus and Ukraine signed Belovezhskaya agreement and announced the formation Commonwealth of Independent States, to which other republics joined by the end of December.

76. Russia in the first half of the 1990s.

In the second half of 1991, the state of the economy in the USSR deteriorated sharply, the market for consumer goods ceased to exist, the shops were empty, the distribution of goods was carried out by coupons and business cards. In large cities, there was a threat of starvation, not due to a lack of food in the country and not a poor harvest, but as a result of the unprofitability of agricultural enterprises to sell their crops to the state at established prices. The villagers were expecting an increase in prices for the purchase of their products. Prices on the "black" market for bread were much higher, which contributed to the process of buying and smuggling it abroad. At the end of 1991, the government purchased less than 20% of the crop.

The budget deficit was equal to 20% of GDP and it became impossible to control, foreign loans were used in full, and no one wanted to provide them, since at the end of 1991 the country was unable to pay interest on them. The gold reserve of the currency was also completely exhausted, reached a minimum level - 289 tons and became incomparable with the needs of the state and its financial obligations.

For the current situation in the country, at the end of 1991 year took Russian government responsibility, whose president was B.N. Yeltsin, who had two ways of further development.

According to the first, it was necessary to stabilize the economic situation by strengthening measures in the supply and marketing system, increasing the size of the distribution of consumer goods, by cards and balancing prices, namely by increasing them. This procedure was provided for in the “500 Days Program”.

In accordance with second direction it was necessary to carry out reforms in relation to the market system, through a combination of certain measures.

The first path was more understandable for all levels, and for the people, who expected the state authorities to quickly overcome economic and political difficulties. One of the problems in the implementation of this path was the lack of well-established political and organizational processes that had the opportunity to carry out this stabilization of the country's economy. The state institutions that remained from the USSR were weakened and needed to be re-formed.

Unlike the first, the second path was incomprehensible and difficult for all levels of management. It assumed a sharp transition to a new environment, and was also associated with a several-fold increase in prices.

The President of the country chose the second way of economic development, at the end of 1991 year was created new government. The reform of the political system was stopped, i.e. it retained its original structure.

During this period of time, uncertainty continued to persist in relations with the former union republics, as their leadership made decisions that did not correspond to the views of the Russian government, which as a result was reflected in the economic situation of the country. After the signing of the agreement on the formation of the CIS, the highest authorities acquired the ability to control the monetary and financial system, to initiate the development and implementation of an independent policy in the field of the economy.

В end of 1991 year the country's president announced his intention implementation of economic reforms, which the government, mainly consisting of academic economists, began under the leadership of B.N. Yeltsin. The young staff, knowing the main directions of development of the Western economy, did not have practical experience in economic activities of large-scale government management.

77. Beginning of economic reforms in Russia

В early 1992 was the path to a market economy has begun. It was expressed in a reduction in prices for almost all goods and services, and the system for their distribution was also terminated. The absence of strict state control over prices, in the conditions of monopolization of production, led to a sharp jump in all prices. To end of 1992 prices were increased almost 100-150 times, while wages increased 10-15 times.

The first steps of the new government were not evaluated positively by Vice President A.V. Rutskoi and Chairman of the Supreme Council R.I. Khasbulatov. Various socialist forces began to form around them, the manifestation of which was especially noticeable during the non-payment crisis, which by mid-1992 had engulfed almost the entire economy of the country. Enterprises with different financial positions had complex mutual settlements, which created additional difficulties in determining their place in the new market conditions.

One of the factors that stimulated enterprises to merge was the issue of price liberalization for state-owned energy resources. The situation was complicated by the fact that March 1992 government sent to the International Monetary Fund Memorandum on the upcoming liberalization of energy prices.

To the middle 1992 years formed civil union, consisting of members of the military-industrial complex and the agrarian sector of the country's economy, as well as parties of the centrist and center-left persuasion, and many trade union organizations. In order to avoid the bankruptcy of enterprises, they were ready to promote the process of inflation, as they believed that this would be a better outcome for the workers than unemployment. AT 1992 year was introduced preferential lending to industrial and agricultural enterprises, which influenced the reform process. There was a fall in the inflation rate and a reduction in the budget deficit, etc.

The government of the country for the heads of state-owned enterprises, who have adapted to the new economic conditions, began to give some encouragement in relation to the monetary and credit sphere, as well as the foreign economic sphere. The government began to include directors of large enterprises of the military-industrial and fuel-energy complex, as a result coalition government.

Under the influence of economic structures, the government loosened its tight monetary policy, as a result of this, in the second half 1992 prices increased, and it happened sharp depreciation of the ruble, 3 times in two months. From July to the end of 1992, reforms were suspended because V. Gerashchenko, who was a supporter of increasing the money supply in the country, became the chairman of the Central Bank of Russia.

At the end of 1992, instead of E. Gaidar, V. Chernomyrdin was appointed to the post of Prime Minister, and B. Fedorov became Minister of Finance. During the period 1992-1993 yyy. existed in the country conflict of interests individual groups in relation to the role of inflation and directions for overcoming it.

Some thought to continue state financing of business enterprises, through the operation of the credit and budget system. Others, adapting to modern market conditions, needed macroeconomic stability. As a result of the struggle in 1993, the country's economic condition was unstable, and the inflation rate was constantly fluctuating.

В April 1993 of the year passed referendum on resolving the following questions about confidence in the president and his policies, whether it is necessary to hold early re-elections of the president and people's deputies, to which the population should have responded.

78. Development of reforms in 1993-1994

In mid-1993, reform progress was slow. The Central Bank of Russia unexpectedly carried out exchange of banknotes, which were released in the USSR and Russia before 1993, with new ones. This exchange was carried out without the consent of the Ministry of Finance. This desire of the Central Bank of Russia was explained by the fact that it was necessary to separate the money supply that was in circulation within the former republics of the USSR. The exchange of banknotes was carried out in a short time, which led to the formation of huge queues at savings banks. After the intervention of the country's president, the terms of the exchange were extended, but the population's trust in members of the government was undermined.

One of the hard results of the reforms was the adoption at the end of the summer 1993 years Supreme Council state budget with a 25% deficit, and there was also an increase in the amount of government loans for the next quarter.

Members of the government disagreed, which led to a critical situation, as a result of which the president of the country was forced to September 1993 years issued decreein which it was decided dissolve the Supreme Soviet and the Congress of People's Deputies. One of the reasons for issuing such a decree was the legislature, which prevented the implementation of economic reforms and interference in the activities of the government by deputies, by creating confusion in resolving various issues. Before the president was two ways, one of which was signing of the budget law, Thus, violated the constitution, and the second was reduced to the dissolution of parliament. The second path was chosen, as a result of which the deputies decided not to leave the parliament building. With the use of military force, the "White House" was taken by storm, which gave rise to a new stage in the development of Russia.

E. Gaidar was returned to the place of Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Economy. AT end of 1993 year was implemented full liberalization of the agricultural sector of the economy and changed grain prices. Was published presidential decree on private ownership of land, and in September they stopped issuing preferential loans, and The Central Bank increased the refinancing rate, by establishing a real interest rate from November this year. Inflation rates began to decline, which contributed to macroeconomic stabilization.

According to the new election law 12 December 1993 g. elections to the State Duma were held in the country, as a result of which the Council of the Federation and accepted The Constitution of the Russian Federation. The approval of the new Constitution made it possible to change the socio-political structure of the state, to establish the separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. The stage of liberalism and the predominance of the communist system were completed.

Due to the lack of votes E. Gaidar and B. Fedorov decided to to retireThus, in government the positions of industrial deputies prevailed.

В 1994 dynamics of the ruble exchange rate constantly decreased, so unexpected it the fall occurred in September by 20%, at first October by 17% and middle of this month emerged collapse of the ruble, the day named black tuesday. Over the course of two days, the rate was raised, and the devaluation of the ruble was constantly maintained.

In the period 1991-1993 yyy. was due collapse of the ruble zonethat arose on the basis of the dissolution of the USSR. In 1991, 15 Central Banks were formed, which could increase the money supply by issuing ruble loans. As a result of the non-recognition of Russia's leading position in this area by independent countries, it became necessary to divide the ruble zone and form its own currency in each republic.

79. Beginning of the privatization period

В December 1990 years was accepted Business Law, allowing the establishment of various forms of individual activity, partnerships, private enterprises, limited liability partnerships, and joint-stock companies. After only one year, enterprises of this type began to operate; most of the employees continued to remain in the public sector of the country.

В end of 1991 year in place Chairman of the State Property Committee Was assigned A. Chubaiswho insisted on the implementation rapid privatization, i.e. formation of personal property rights. In order to prevent direct transactions between the apparatus of officials and buyers, it was necessary for the reformers to develop rules for privatization that take into account the maximum degree of corruption in the highest structure of the state. It was proposed to open tenders and auctions, i.e. where supply and demand arose.

В end of 1991 year by presidential order large enterprises acquired form of joint-stock companies, and a large share of the shares of which was transferred to the state privatization committees. In the end December 1991 were approved "Basic provisions of the program for the privatization of state and municipal enterprises in the Russian Federation in 1992". According to this publication, standards, procedures for privatization, and the total amount of income from it to the state budget for 1992-1994 were determined. Due to high inflation, it was not particularly difficult to obtain these amounts, and as a result of this, the state did not receive the real income it expected.

It was decided that employees should receive 25% of the capital of the enterprise free of charge, i.e. preferred shares. This event was held to involve employees in the privatization process, i.e. they could become individual owners. At this time, the government was worried that foreign entrepreneurs could buy up all large enterprises at a low cost, since the ruble was constantly devaluing. However, foreign investors, fearing the country's political and economic instability, were in no hurry to do so.

Restrictions were adopted in the privatization program, ie. privatization could not be carried out on natural resources, objects of cultural heritage, etc.

At the beginning of 1992, disputes flared up regarding the essence and directions of privatization, although the law and the program on it had already been adopted. The main problem in resolving this issue was to determine a more accurate ratio of shares in their distribution between workers' collectives and the state. The highest authorities believed that the workers of the enterprises could receive 25% of preferred shares free of charge and without voting rights and an additional 10% of ordinary shares with voting rights, and then the directors were given the right to buy 5% of the shares at par.

Many academic economists were against such a development, as they believed that the government should carry out rapid privatization and give all property to the workers free of charge. Thus, property would be returned to the people and universal justice would be proclaimed. However, members of the government were against it, since state employees, pensioners, military personnel and others could not participate in the privatization process. The leaders and employees of many enterprises did not agree with these proposals for privatization, who demanded that they be given a large part of the property. As a result, representatives of these layers developed the second privatization program for 1992.

80. Voucher privatization

The first stage of privatization is voucher privatizationcovering period 1992-1994. During this period, important normative and legislative documentswhich secured the basic rights of shareholders, individual and collective owners.

В mid 1992 the government came up with the idea introduction of privatization vouchers. At the end of this summer, the President approved decree "On the introduction of a system of privatization checks in the Russian Federation", which includes conditions for the formation of demand for all types of property subject to privatization. Everywhere, Russian citizens, including children, were given the right to purchase one voucher, with a nominal value of 10 thousand rubles, by paying 25 rubles. in a savings bank. This process took place from October 1992 to the end of January 1993, about 97% of Russian citizens received their checks.

Vouchers could be sold, invested in the shares of enterprises that were privatized, and also transferred to another person. To the government, the voucher market seemed to be the initial stage of the securities market, and the concentration of their huge number could create real owners.

Everywhere in 1993 year began to take shape checking investment funds, for which the government has introduced licenses to carry out this activity. The State Property Committee prohibited them from buying up more than 10% of the shares of various enterprises. The new structure was considered by the government as the basis for the creation of the future financial market and the free movement of capital, as well as the investment of capital in the production process. However, these funds were only interested in increasing their own dividends.

In the first quarter, more than half of the funds of these funds were directed to speculation in vouchers, the rest to the shares of enterprises that were privatized, which was explained by the concentration of small and medium-sized enterprises in them, which are not in great demand.

At the end of the voucher privatization, various investment funds ceased to function through the sale of vouchers.

First stage of privatization was marked by the formation of the institutional principles of a market economy based on the development of the non-state sector of the economy, the formation of markets for securities exchanges, insurance and pension companies, as well as commercial and investment banks, the emergence of shareholders, shareholders, as one of the new social strata of society. By mid-1995, the number of privatized enterprises turned out to be greater than the number of non-privatized enterprises.

81. Privatization of housing, land, small-scale privatization

В 1995 g. has begun second stage of privatization, which is characterized by transition to cash. The government assumed that potential investors would be foreign companies, Russian banking investment structures, the public and investment companies. In the process of privatization, the state and investment companies intended to increase their own budget by selling shares in order to further channel these funds into investments. The sale of shares had to take place on schedule at auctions in order for the proceeds to be made gradually. The proposed scheme was not effective, as monetary privatization proceeded slowly, and incomes were consequently not constant.

В period 1994-1996. was developed by the government monetary privatization, by conducting loans-for-shares auctions. It consisted in the fact that the shares of individual state enterprises are not subject to sale, but are transferred to trust management for a specific time. During this period, the winner of the tender has the right to manage this block of shares, based on his own risk. In the course of privatization, a large proportion of enterprises became a private form of ownership.

At the same time small privatization, especially active in 1992-1993 yyy. the sale of enterprises in the service sector, retail trade, public catering, etc.

Process privatization of housing was started in the middle 1991 g. with the publication Act on the privatization of housing in Russia, as well as in relation to its regulatory documents. According to them, citizens who lived in apartments owned by the state had the right to buy them at a certain price and acquire ownership of them. Citizens could sell apartments, rent them out, or leave them as an inheritance under a will.

At the beginning, the population was afraid to buy apartments, as they were afraid of paying high taxes on real estate, but by 1993, privatization of housing was widespread. In cities, a housing market has formed, which has become a characteristic feature of the development of a market economy.

Land privatization evoked the approval of the majority of the population of the country, but it was a difficult process. This was explained by the large scale of the agricultural sector, the high share of monopolization of agricultural processing enterprises and supply and marketing enterprises, there was no complete registration of land areas, there were no inspectors for it, etc.

Under the Law on Peasant (Private) Farming and the Law on Land Reform, peasants in 1990 were prohibited from leaving collective farms and state farms with their own share of land and assets, and, according to the amendments, it was forbidden to sell land for 10 subsequent years. It was necessary to carry out land reform. In the end December 1991. was taken resolution on the reorganization of collective farms and state farms into standard various forms of associations, most of which have been converted into partnerships, resulting in the completion of the subordination to the Ministry of Agriculture.

One of the areas of land reform was the development family farms, providing for a transition from the rental form to private management. The continuation of the land reform was the development of personal subsidiary plots, an increase in the number of land plots in garden associations, etc. During this period of time, there was a massive privatization of land plots, which contributed to the growth in the number of private land owners. Land reform in the agricultural sector of the economy was slower compared to other sectors of the economy.

82. International monetary system. gold standard

Gold standard means accepting gold as the basis for comparing national currencies. The value of a monetary unit - dollar, franc, mark, pound sterling - is officially equated to a certain weight of gold. Paper money (banknotes) is exchanged for gold at a set rate.

The gold standard promotes price stability. Minor fluctuations occur when there is an inflow or outflow of gold. A sharp influx of gold, for example, during the discovery of new deposits (1845-1851), can lead to an inflationary surge in prices.

Along with the gold base, some countries used silver as a standard (silver standard), others used a bimetallic standard (both gold and silver served as the standard). Finally, there was a system of paper money circulation. Thus, in the USA, a bimetallic circulation system was initially adopted; during the Civil War, “greenbacks” did not have a solid metal base - the inflationary issue of paper money served as a means of financing military expenses. After the end of the Civil War, the gold standard was adopted.

Gold as a universal universal equivalent came to the fore spontaneously. When metallic money (silver, gold, copper as a bargaining chip) functioned in domestic trade and in international trade, there was no particular problem in the mandatory international standard. When making payments and converting national currencies, the determining criterion was the weight, quality of gold coins, the prevailing ratio of the purchasing power of silver and gold on the market.

With the transition to a mixed system of monetary circulation and payments (metal and paper money), the problem arose of comparing the real purchasing power of the mark, pound, franc, dollar. The role of the world standard began to be played by gold, gold coins and gold bars of a certain standard and weight. This guaranteed the stability and reliability of the system of international settlements.

The gold standard did not emerge overnight. In England, it was introduced (practically restored) shortly after the Napoleonic wars - in 1816-1821, in the USA, in fact, in the 30s. XIX century., Legally, by the end of the century. As a universally recognized form of world money, the gold standard was established in 1867 at an international conference held in Paris.

The gold standard in its classical form, as a universal value equivalent, implies the presence of two conditions: a firm fixation of the gold content in paper currency (banknotes); ensuring the free exchange of banknotes for gold coins.

It turned out to be not so easy to meet these two conditions - the country must have gold reserve (stored in the central bank), the national currency must have international authority, be accepted as a means of payment.

The gold standard system was based on the commercial and industrial authority of Great Britain and the financial role of London as the world center for international settlements. Silver money (pence, then shillings) functioned in internal circulation in the country. Gold was used as a means of payment mainly in large transactions. But even at the beginning of the XVIII century. the official price of gold was set: one ounce of gold (31 g) cost 1 pounds sterling, 3 shillings and 17 pence. The price of one ounce of gold determined in this way remained until the crisis of the late 10s and early 5s.

83. International Monetary Fund and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created at the international monetary and financial conference in Bretton Woods (USA) in 1944. The governing bodies of the IMF are in Washington, and its European branch in Paris.

The tasks of the IMF are to promote the development of international trade and monetary cooperation by establishing norms for regulating exchange rates and monitoring their observance, providing member states with funds in foreign currency to equalize balances of payments.

Currently, the IMF includes more than 170 countries, the fund's capital is more than 150 billion dollars. Russia was admitted to the IMF in 1992 with the sixth largest participation share.

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) was established in July 1944 at the international monetary and financial conference in Bretton Woods and began its activity in 1945. It is included in the UN system as a specialized agency. Headquarters - Washington (USA). President - James Wolfensohn (USA), in September 1999 was re-elected for a second five-year term.

The objectives of the work of the IBRD are: to assist in the reconstruction and development of the economies of member countries by encouraging investment for production purposes; encouragement of private and foreign investment through the provision of guarantees or participation in loans and investments of private lenders; promotion of prospective balanced growth in international trade and the maintenance of a balance of payments balance through investment in the development of productive resources.

There are 181 states among the IBRD participants. Countries applying to join the IBRD must be members of the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

The authorized capital of the Bank is about 191 billion US dollars. Subscribed capital amounted to 188 billion US dollars. It is divided into 220 shares, provided by subscription only.

The share of Russia in the capital of the IBRD is 44795 shares (about 5 billion US dollars - paid shares worth about 403 million US dollars) or 333% of the total number of votes in decision-making.

IBRD loans are eligible for member countries with a GNP per capita of $760 or more per year. At present, the IBRD is focusing on developing countries, on the states of Central and Eastern Europe. The main directions of its activity are medium and long-term lending of investment projects, including their preparation, technical and financial and economic justification.

Among IBRD loans, there are stabilization(usually budget replacement) and investment. Stabilization loans are intended to cover temporary balance of payments deficits and government budget deficits that arise when borrowing countries pursue macroeconomic stabilization policies and structural reforms. Investment - provided for the implementation of projects for the rational and efficient use of natural, financial and labor resources of borrowing countries.

IBRD lending cooperation with borrowers is built on the basis of a country aid strategy regularly approved by the Board of Directors, prepared on the basis of an analysis of the economic and social situation of the country, its needs for borrowed resources, arising from development priorities determined by the government and agreed with the Bank.

The IBRD was actively involved in the problems of environmental protection, participated in the financing of national environmental action plans.

An important element of the Bank's strategy is investment in labor resources, healthcare and education.

84. Russia in the second half of the 1990s

The economy was in a state of crisis that lasted almost 10 years. The volume of GDP in 1999 in relation to 1991 decreased by 40%. Capital investments have failed significantly. The largest drop was experienced by mechanical engineering, instrument making, light and food industries. The production equipment is worn out and outdated, which has led to a decrease in the quality and competitiveness of Russian products.

Agriculture was in trouble. Prices for machinery, fuel, fertilizers and building materials have risen much more than for agricultural and livestock products. As a result, the costs of most agricultural products (grain, meat, etc.) exceeded the selling prices, and the producer was captured by intermediaries who repeatedly inflated retail prices.

Inflationary rise in prices - one of the main obstacles in the development of production. The inflationary process has a number of features. Inflation is generated by outstripping growth of prices for products of "natural" monopolies, inflationary expectations, instability and instability of economic development. Inflation is accompanied by a reduction in the nominal exchange rate, a reduction in the purchasing power of the ruble. In 1994, one ruble was worth 41 cents; in 1999 - 4 cents.

Rejection of the currency monopoly and transition to the principles of currency regulation was carried out in the country through a quick and drastic restructuring of the previous system without the formation of appropriate prerequisites. A massive leak and non-return of foreign exchange earnings began. As a result, the inconsistency and inconsistency of financial policy, combined with adverse events in the world financial markets, led to an acute financial crisis in 1998.

The quality of life of the majority of the population has deteriorated. Monetary income of every third Russian is below the subsistence level; 70% of the population have less than 10% of the total income, and 0% have 2% of the national wealth.

While the real sector was in a state of crisis, the shadow economy was expanding in the country. In Moscow in 1996 every third enterprise did not submit reports and did not report to the tax authorities.

Strict financial regulation, carried out according to monetarist schemes, led to a drop in investment and undermined incentives for production growth. This kind of regulation has become increasingly destructive. Attempts are being made to correct the economic course.

Beginning with 1999 g. There has been some progress in economic development. It did not happen due to qualitative, structural changes in the economy.

The main source of positive indicators, favorable international conditions, high prices for Russian export products (fuel, metal, gas), which ensured the influx of dollars, an increase in foreign exchange reserves, and the formation of a deficit-free budget.

At the same time, an internal factor also worked. The fourfold depreciation of the ruble against the dollar (after August 1988) made a considerable part of imports unprofitable. This revived light industry and created more favorable conditions for agricultural production.

An enterprise with a short production cycle and a relatively high profitability (15-20%) has the opportunity to take a loan at 24% and pay it back within a year. A short cycle takes place in the food, light industry.

There is a need for a resolute implementation of a more flexible and efficient tax policy. Support was needed for leading industries, especially science-intensive and export industries (aviation, space). So far, the search for conditions for intensifying investment activity has not yielded results.

85. Structural crisis of the Russian economy

One of the manifestations of the systemic crisis of the Russian economy is its structural crisis.

Late 80s - early 90s. The idea that the market mechanism is capable of automatically, without any government intervention, ensuring rapid progressive structural restructuring of the domestic economy has become widespread. However, analyzing the consequences of the monetarist version of structural policy, one can draw a disappointing conclusion: the 90s. were marked by a degradation of the sectoral structure of the economy of a relatively recently powerful superpower, which has no analogues in world history.

Recent years have been characterized by a sharp increase in the share of the fuel and energy complex in the industrial structure, which is increasingly acting not only as the basis of export potential, but also as the basic complex of the economy as a whole. Compared with the pre-reform level, the share of the metallurgical complex also increased, with a sharp decline in the share of machine building and light industry.

The monetarist variant of structural "transformations" of the domestic economy has led to an unprecedented decline in production in the machine-building complex, which, as you know, is designed to ensure the technical reconstruction of the entire national economy. Production volumes in the light and food industries fell catastrophically.

The deepest decline in production in Russia covered, first of all, those sectors of the national economy that play a key role in achieving a new quality of economic growth (progressive science-intensive industries and industries that directly meet the needs of the population).

The fuel and energy and metallurgical complexes turned out to be in a relatively more favorable position, which, in the conditions of a deep decline in production within the country, increasingly began to focus on exports. In essence, the export-oriented sector influenced the achievement of temporary financial stabilization in 1995 - the first half of 1998.

The recovery in Russia that began after the August (1998) financial crisis is mainly due to the favorable economic situation in the world oil market for our country, which determines the high level of world oil prices. However, this economic recovery is not yet accompanied by progressive shifts in the sectoral structure of the Russian economy.

World experience shows that in a market economy, both progressive and regressive variants of its structural restructuring are possible. The progressive option in modern conditions involves the entry of the country's economy into the stage of post-industrial development. In a regressive scenario, the country's economy loses this prospect and embarks on a path of ever greater degradation.

History at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. put Russia before a choice: either turning into a raw material appendage of economically developed countries, or a "breakthrough" into a post-industrial society based on a radical restructuring of the national economy.

Overcoming the severe structural crisis of the Russian economy is impossible without a transition to a fundamentally new macroeconomic model. First, key positions in the national economy should be occupied by industries that provide a new quality of economic growth (high-tech industries and industries that directly meet the needs of the population). Secondly, the main criterion in determining the priorities of the progressive structural restructuring of the economy should be recognized as the maximum savings in the total economic costs of production at all stages of the movement of the social product.

86. Entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial activity in Russia: history and modernity

Businessman is the main character of the market economy. It is he who, deciding what, how and for whom to produce, organizes the production of goods and services. The purpose of entrepreneurial activity is to make a profit. But, guided by considerations of personal gain, the entrepreneur takes the risk and responsibility for the production of those goods and services that will be in demand. And in this regard, it performs a very important economic function.

In Rus' since ancient times they knew how and loved to trade. Everyone was engaged in entrepreneurship: peasants, petty bourgeois, nobility. The largest trading organization was the economy of the royal court, those who were supposed to do this because of their class affiliation - merchants - traded.

In the middle of the XVII century. merchant Vasily Shorin created a huge commercial and industrial empire in Russia. He organized a system of wholesale and retail trade that covered almost the entire country, sent trading expeditions overseas and provided loans to foreign merchants.

Kursk merchant Grigory Shelikhov created a powerful Russian-American company and presented Alaska to Russia, ousting the French, British and Spaniards from there in the fiercest competitive struggle.

Russian merchants, having survived their "golden age", managed to adapt to the innovations introduced by Peter I and survive all the upheavals of the turbulent XNUMXth century.

At the beginning of the XIX century. The Russian government carried out two reforms that hit the business class. Taxes were increased and duties on imported goods were reduced. In Russia, the mass ruin of domestic entrepreneurs began. Their number began to decline already in the XNUMXth century, but now this process has become catastrophic.

From 1800 to 1824 the number of merchants in Moscow halved, and three times in the European part of the country as a whole. The core of the estate was destroyed - the old merchant dynasties, the keepers of centuries of experience, knowledge, and the spirit of Russian enterprise. Two decades later, the situation began to improve. New entrepreneurs appeared, often coming from peasants. Among them Ryabushinsky M.Ya., founder of the first weaving factory in Russia (1846).

For many decades after the October Revolution of 1917, Russia had a centrally planned system of economic organization in which private enterprise was given a modest place.

In the development of modern society, the economic reform of 1965 was the first attempt to liberalize the conditions for the development of entrepreneurial activity. In economic life, a boost was given to commerce and entrepreneurial activity.

Now entrepreneurial activity in Russia is actively developing. Business has flooded all areas of the Russian economy: trade, manufacturing, services. In addition to economic tasks, the Russian entrepreneur today also performs a number of social functions.

Entrepreneurs are interested in developing centers for advanced training and retraining of workers. Businessmen see the payment of bonuses and scholarships to talented students, scientists, cultural figures, and athletes as their second most important social mission (after creating jobs). The people do not regard this task as a top priority. The emergence of new jobs is more desirable for entrepreneurs than for the population.

But 60% of entrepreneurs, who are familiar with financial and organizational difficulties firsthand, are sure that the main thing for Russian business today is efficiency, not social programs. After all, many small firms barely make ends meet, trying to secure a reserve for the future.

87. Economic reforms of the government of V.V. Putin

A group of St. Petersburg economists led by Minister of Economic Development and Trade German Gref developed a program of economic reforms that included a new approach to budgeting, tax and banking reforms.

A new one was adopted Budget Code. A treasury system was created to streamline the spending of budgetary funds. It allowed streamlining the spending of funds, in accordance with the adopted laws, in particular, by establishing intra-annual line-item spending limits. Since 1999, the Federal Treasury has been implementing the Concept for the Functioning of a Single Account of the Federal Treasury for Accounting for Revenues and Funds of the Federal Budget, which makes it possible to reduce the period for the passage of income from taxpayers to the possibility of their use, and to accelerate their turnover.

New approaches to budget policy were dictated by the desire to establish tight budget control, balance state resources and obligations, powers and responsibilities at all levels of the budget system, and purposefully manage public debt and assets.

The next step in economic transformation was tax reform. The first drafts of the new tax code were considered in the State Duma back in 1997. The changes introduced reduced taxes by 1997% compared to 8. At the same time, it was envisaged to increase liability for tax evasion and tighten measures for tax collection. A number of tax benefits were cancelled. A single income tax rate was established - 5%.

The overall goal of the tax reform was to build a unified tax system, to ensure revenues for federal, regional and local budgets.

As part of the tax reform, a new Tax code.

Simultaneously with the tax reform, customs reform is also being carried out. The new Customs Code significantly reduced customs import duties.

Reform of the banking system was the next step in economic transformation.

A working group on banking reform was created, headed by A. Mamut, Chairman of the Board of Directors of MDM Bank. The working group developed the principles of banking reform, which later became known as the Mamut plan.

The reform of the banking system should provide the most comfortable conditions for the concentration of banking capital, including through the purchase of banks in the regions. The number of banks with a "federal license" may not exceed 30-40, while the number of small and medium-sized banks that will receive a "regional license" may decrease by 2 times.

The greatest discussions in the State Duma were caused by the project Land Code. The new Land Code should fix private ownership of land and the right to buy and sell land not only for Russian citizens, but also for foreign citizens.

This part of the project was the main objection. However, on October 9, 2001, the Land Code was adopted in the version proposed by the President.

After the adoption of the Code, about 40 million Russian citizens who owned land in one form or another received legally protected property rights to it.

Serious benefit, in the current difficult time for Russia, is provided by measures to counter the shadow economy and the illegal export of capital from the country. Decree of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin (November 2001), a new body was established - the Financial Monitoring Committee, designed to monitor the movement of financial flows in the country, to identify cases of tax evasion and legalization of proceeds from crime.

88. Russia and the European Union

Simultaneously with the development of bilateral relations with the states of Western Europe, Russia is integrating into a number of international and European organizations.

In January 1996, Russia was admitted to Council of Europe. This organization was established in 1949 to promote integration processes in the field of human rights. It examines the level of protection of individual rights in individual countries. The bodies of the Council of Europe are located in Strasbourg.

Another association, which included Russia - "Big Seven". The G1976 took shape in 1997. It includes the USA, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, France, Italy and Canada. The heads of these states meet annually to discuss economic policy issues. In June XNUMX, a GXNUMX meeting was held in Denver (USA) with the participation of Russia. On it, US President B. Clinton named the group "Eight". Commentaries on the Birmingham summit in May 1998 said that for the first time Moscow acted as a full member of the community of leading world powers. A significant event was the G1999 summit in Cologne in June XNUMX.

In 1993, in accordance with the Maastricht Treaty, the European Union, uniting 12 countries: Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal and France. In 1994 Austria, Norway, Finland and Sweden joined the EU.

Russia actively cooperated with the EU in 1993-1997. On the basis of semi-annual plans, since 1995 consultations of experts from the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs - the EU "troika" began to be held on topical issues of European and world politics. On December 1, 1997, the Russia-EU Partnership and Cooperation Agreement came into force, which provides for the development of in-depth relations between them in the political, trade, economic, financial and other fields. However, in 1998 both Russian exports to the EU and Western European exports to Russia dropped sharply. Foreign investment in the Russian economy has noticeably decreased. Since the autumn of 1999, the inflow of investments began to increase again. In 2000, Russia-EU summits were held in Moscow and Paris. One of the most acute topics of these meetings was the "Chechen question". The Chechen theme was also central in a number of other summit meetings, during the visit of the EU Troika to Moscow on April 7, 2000, at the meeting of the Russia-EU Cooperation Council in Luxembourg, at the EU-Russia summit on May 29, 2000 in Moscow.

On November 16, 2000, an Agreement on cooperation with the European Union in the field of science and technology was signed in Brussels.

Among the actions that embody the trend towards increased cooperation, it should be noted the Action Plan for the joint fight between the EU and Russia against organized crime.

Orientation towards the development of cooperation with Russia was also manifested in the next work program for the implementation of the "EU Collective Strategy towards Russia", published by Sweden as the presiding state.

In 1994, Russia applied for membership in World Trade Organization (WTO).

WTO - an economic organization created on the basis of the former GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade). The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, originally signed by 23 countries in 1947, now includes more than 90 states.

Currently, the World Trade Organization is seeking to reduce customs duties and other barriers that impede the exchange of goods between countries.

89. Russian Federation and NATO

The Russian leadership paid great attention to relations with the largest military-political bloc in the West - the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

The collapse of the USSR made the very existence of NATO irrelevant. The military bloc opposed to NATO - the Department of Internal Affairs was disbanded in 1991, and by 1995 Russia had already withdrawn its troops from all countries of the former Department of Internal Affairs.

In June 1994, Russia, along with other states of the former USSR and the "socialist community", joined the "Partnership for Peace" program proposed by NATO.

With the advent of the new Minister of Foreign Affairs EAT. Primakov Russia's position on the issue of NATO expansion has changed. The official point of view on NATO expansion was set out in the National Security Address of the President of the Russian Federation to the Federal Assembly of June 13, 1996 and in the President's Address to the Federal Assembly of March 6, 1997.

It was said in the Addresses that Russia has a negative attitude towards NATO expansion to the east, since it contradicts Russia's security interests. Russia is primarily concerned about the military aspect of NATO expansion, the possibility of military infrastructure approaching Russia's borders, the movement of nuclear forces, the reduction in flight time, as well as issues related to changing the military balance in the field of conventional weapons.

In addition, the expansion of NATO to the east can lead to a new split in Europe, as well as reduce the importance of other European general political organizations.

In 1997 g. An agreement on a special partnership between Russia and NATO was signed in Paris. In July 1997, at a regular session of the NATO Council, it was decided that Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary would join NATO by the spring of 1999. In the second place, the rest of the former members of the Warsaw Pact were to be accepted into NATO, and in the third place the Baltic countries.

In 1999 g. Relations between Russia and NATO have become significantly more complicated. One of the reasons for this was the events in Yugoslavia in March-June 1999. Another reason for the tension was the “Chechen issue”.

There was a real possibility of direct intervention of the united Western countries in the affairs of Russia - tangible economic, political and even military sanctions in the event that hostilities in Chechnya continued. Under these conditions, the Russian leadership has repeatedly stressed that the "Chechen question" is Russia's internal affair.

But with 2000 g. the problem began to be interpreted somewhat differently. The connection between Chechen terrorists and a number of states hostile to the Russian Federation turned out to be undeniable. The experience of fighting Chechen terrorists forced the state to take a broader look at the problem of terrorism in general and international terrorism in particular.

Awareness of the need to organize the fight against terrorism on a national scale was reflected in the new concept of National Security.

11 September 2001 g. Terrorist attacks occurred in the United States, the response to which was the anti-terrorist operation in Afghanistan, carried out mainly by US and British forces. The Russian Federation supported the United States.

Since then, relations between the Russian Federation and NATO have entered a new stage.

NATO members talk about the new goals of the North Atlantic Alliance, the fight against international terrorism and the creation of a system of collective security.

At the same time, Russia does not pretend to participate in NATO on a full scale and to influence NATO's defense policy. It is assumed that Russia will become an equal partner of NATO only in certain issues, the main of which will be the fight against international terrorism.

90. Russia's relations with the countries of Western Europe and the USA

Russia's relations with Western Europe developed steadily.

At the first stage, the main partner in Europe was considered Germany, one of the main creditors of Russia.

Since 1997, Russia has been activating the French direction of its foreign policy. J. Chirac visited Russia three times during 1997, and repeated his visits in the next two years. In 2000, V. Putin and J. Chirac met several times, which demonstrated the closeness of the positions of both countries on a number of issues, in particular on the problems of the US withdrawal from the missile defense system.

Russia's main partner in Northern Europe remains Finland - close ties with it were established in Soviet times. Finnish leaders have visited Russia over the past years. Russia actively interacted with Sweden and Norway.

The Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, Portugal, Ireland remained on the periphery of Russian political interests.

Recently, relations with England. The visit to London in April 2000 was Putin's first foreign visit since his election as president. The choice of Putin's first trip was not accidental. England treated the Chechen problem with more understanding than other Western European states. England's position on the issue of relations between Russia and NATO has been balanced. In addition, England supports Russia's efforts to join the World Trade Organization.

During a visit to London, Putin was received by the British Queen. He presented the diploma of an honorary citizen of Volgograd to the Queen Mother. It is no coincidence that once George VI sent his sword to the Stalingraders, the first sister cities were Stalingrad and Coventry.

In the early 90s. The position of the Russian Federation was characterized by a desire for rapprochement with the United States. In April 1993, the first meeting of US President B. Clinton with Russian President B. Yeltsin took place in Vancouver. The result of the meeting was Clinton's assignment to Deputy Prime Minister Gore to oversee US-Russian relations. He contributed to the establishment of business ties between the countries of the CIS-US Trade and Economic Cooperation Council, the American-Russian Business Council and the American Chamber of Commerce in Russia.

In parallel with economic relations between the Russian Federation and USA military contacts also developed. An important step in creating an atmosphere of trust between the states was the agreement they reached in December 1994 on the exchange of secret information, on the size and composition of their nuclear arsenals.

One of the factors that led to the deterioration of relations between the two countries was the victory of the Republican Party in the midterm elections to the US Congress in November 1994. From that moment on, some US politicians began to criticize B. Clinton for his insufficiently active and tough foreign policy, including with regard to Russia.

In Russian-American relations, the process of expanding cooperation is constantly accompanied by aggravation of relations between the two powers. Thus, for example, the United States has repeatedly threatened to reduce or stop all assistance to the Russian Federation, expressing support for Japan's demands for the return of the South Kuriles to it. Serious contradictions between Russia and the United States arose as a result of American air and missile strikes on Iraq, planned since 1998. Russia, like many other states, sharply condemned US military actions against Iraq, undertaken unilaterally without the sanction of the UN Security Council. A similar situation has developed around Kosovo and Serbia, which also came under attack by American bombs and missiles.

Other problems in the relationship between the two countries were "NATO eastward expansion", the US attitude to the "Chechen question".

91. Russia's relations with the states of the "near abroad"

The importance of the problems of relations with the countries of the near abroad (the former republics of the USSR) is determined by the new geopolitical position of Russia.

After the collapse of the USSR, the European part of the Russian Federation turned into practically an inland semi-isolated territory. Minimized access to the Black and Baltic Seas; along the western and southern perimeter of its borders, the country was pushed aside from Europe and Central Asia; the end sections of the unified Soviet system of land transport communications remained mainly on the territory of the new independent states.

This factor set the Russian leadership on constructive and mutually beneficial cooperation with neighboring countries. A favorable background for cooperation was the fact that the vast majority of the former Soviet republics became part of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

After signing in January 1993

CIS Charter, further strengthening and expansion of forms of cooperation between the CIS member states began. The growing awareness of the need for the active formation and development of a common economic space, the establishment of comprehensive and mutually beneficial ties in the economic sphere led in September 1993 to the signing of an agreement on the Economic Union of the Commonwealth.

In October 1994. the leaders of the CIS countries confirmed their course towards economic integration following the example of the European Union and decided to establish Interstate Economic Committee headquartered in Moscow. In 1995, an agreement was adopted on the creation of a Customs Union consisting of Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. He established a preferential regime for the movement of goods and capital across state borders.

In March 1996. Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan signed an agreement to deepen integration in the economic and humanitarian fields. In 1999, Tajikistan also joined it. These countries set a course for interaction within the framework of the Customs Union, which in October 2000 was transformed into an international organization - the Eurasian Economic Community.

In 1996, the conditions for military-political cooperation between the CIS countries began to take shape. The Council of Heads of State adopted the Concept for the Protection of the Borders of the CIS Member States with Non-Commonwealth States. At the same time, agreements were signed on collective peacekeeping forces in the CIS and on the protection of CIS airspace.

One of the steps in the integration of the Russian Federation with the CIS countries was cooperation on combating terrorism. It was formalized by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of February 2, 1998 and the Treaty on Cooperation in Combating Acts of Terrorism, in Particular of a Technological Character, Affecting the Common Interests and Security of the CIS Member States.

Russia's relations with the Baltic states are developing more difficult, which, having found themselves outside the CIS, immediately introduced a visa regime for Russians. The Baltic countries show their pro-Western orientation and are in no hurry to strengthen political ties with their "eastern neighbor".

Choosing foreign policy allies at the present time, Russia focuses on the CIS countries. Contacts with Ukraine, Uzbekistan, inclusion of Turkmenistan in the queue of the first foreign policy visits of V.V. Putin, they talk about the president's desire to cement all the CIS, and not just its integration core. Attention is focused on issues of interaction between law enforcement agencies, on joint efforts to counter terrorism and on the situation of the Russian-speaking population. Much attention is paid to economic cooperation on an equal footing.

92. The role of innovation in the Russian economy

Throughout the world, Russia is known as the owner of two treasures: the scientific and intellectual potential accumulated by our country throughout its history, as well as natural resources. The synthesis of these two reserves determines the strategic line for the rise of the Russian economy through the reconstruction of a powerful modern industry based on domestic raw materials and new technologies.

infocommunication technologies is the foundation of the economy of the future and an indispensable condition for the maturity of civil society.

It is necessary to emphasize the achievements of the domestic information technology sector, which has been growing steadily for a number of years. Only in the last four years, thanks to domestic demand, growth amounted to more than 80%. The fleet of computers is being updated, their number is increasing.

It should be noted that positive changes are also taking place in the structure of the information technology market. The software and services sector is growing approximately three times faster than the hardware sales sector. The demand for consulting services is also growing.

Demand is growing from not only large, but also medium-sized Russian companies. At the same time, companies, which is very important, are beginning to perceive information technology as one of the sources of competitive advantage and a serious potential for developing their own business.

Cooperation between Russian law enforcement developers and other foreign companies is also successfully developing. An important indicator is also the growth rate of the number of Internet users. It clearly demonstrates the degree of literacy and activity of the population in the field of information technology. As a result, it determines the dynamics of the country's socio-economic progress.

The number of Russian Internet users over the past four years has increased annually by 35-40%. In the future, there should not be a single settlement left in Russia that does not have a telephone, which does not have access to the Internet, or access to information resources.

Russian export of information technologies by 2005 increased in comparison with 2001 by no less than three times. While it is many times less than, for example, in India and Israel. Nevertheless, Russia has every opportunity to increase this volume and improve product quality.

First of all, it is necessary to ensure access and promotion of Russian software companies to promising world markets. Secondly, we need to actively create new jobs in specialized centers such as technology parks, incubators, and clusters. To maintain high growth rates and the attractiveness of the Russian IT sector for the international and Russian investment community, a favorable investment climate is certainly needed.

The adoption of the Law "On Communications" clearly indicates the government's intentions in this area. The Law contains a set of norms of direct action, ensuring the transparency of the industry, eliminating bureaucratic barriers to the development of the communications and infocommunications market. The Law on Communications improves the business climate in the industry and promotes further liberalization of the sector.

The introduction of legal acts will increase the transparency of the main regulatory procedures - licensing, distribution of a limited resource, radio frequencies, numbering, interconnection, and setting tariffs for regulated communication services. It is clear that an adequate legal and regulatory framework must be created in the information technology sector. And the Government of the Russian Federation can and should become an example in the use of ICT.

Authors: Zilbertova T.N., Takhtomysova D.A.

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