Pedagogy. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important

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Pedagogy. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

Pedagogy as a science
Object and subject of pedagogy
Tasks and functions of pedagogy
Pedagogy methods
The connection of pedagogy with other humanities
The concept of "methodology of pedagogical science"
The origin of pedagogical thought in the early stages of human development
Education and school in the ancient world
Foreign pedagogy
The development of schools and pedagogy in Russia
Education in Russia after World War II
Leading trends in the modern development of the world educational process
The main categories of pedagogy: education, upbringing, training
Pedagogical activity
Pedagogical interaction
Pedagogical system
Pedagogical technology
Pedagogical task
Educational process
Aims and content of education
The structure of continuing education
Education as a social phenomenon and pedagogical process
Essence, contradictions and logic of the educational process
The content of education as the foundation of the basic culture of the individual
State educational standard
Content of Primary Education
Curricula and programs
Textbooks
Learning process
Functions of the learning process
Structural elements of the learning process
Laws and patterns of the learning process
Improving the learning process
Learning principles
Teaching methods
Classification of teaching methods
Methods of oral presentation
Visual and practical teaching methods
Developmental learning
The essence of problem learning
Modern models of organization of training
Block-modular learning
Programmed and computer training
Compensatory education
Teaching "difficult" children
Education for gifted children
Typology and variety of educational institutions
Author's schools
Forms of education
Classroom system
Lesson as the main form of work at school
The structure of lessons of different types
Extracurricular work of the teacher
Lecture as a form of education
Seminars, trainings and debates as one of the forms of work of a teacher
Consultation
Exam and test as methods of control at school
The concept of teaching aids
Classification of teaching aids and their types
Technical training
Didactics. The subject and tasks of didactics
The concept of didactic principles and didactic rules
The concept of learning technology
Teaching technologies for innovative teachers
The essence of knowledge acquisition control and its functions
Pedagogical diagnostics
Control methods
control forms
Types of control
Test control
Rating control
Grades and marks in the educational process
Ungraded education in elementary school
Forms of organization of cognitive activity in the lesson
The main forms of organization of extracurricular work
Methods and forms of education
Problems of education at school
Moral education
Labor education
Mental education
The essence of education and its place in the integral structure of the educational process
Physical education
public education
Aesthetic education
self-education
collective education
The team as an object and subject of education
Distance learning
Functions and main activities of the class teacher
The family as a subject of pedagogical interaction and the socio-cultural environment for the upbringing and development of the child

LECTURE No. 1. Pedagogy as a science

Pedagogy is defined as a system of sciences about the upbringing and education of children and adults. There are several branches of pedagogy depending on the tasks and direction of this science:

1) nursery pedagogy;

2) preschool pedagogy;

3) school pedagogy;

4) pedagogy of secondary specialized education;

5) pedagogy of vocational education;

6) pedagogy of secondary specialized education;

7) pedagogy of higher education;

8) industrial pedagogy;

9) social pedagogy;

10) comparative pedagogy;

11) pedagogy of the "third" age;

12) corrective labor pedagogy;

13) special pedagogical sciences;

14) curative pedagogy.

Nursery Pedagogy studies patterns and conditions of education of infants. A characteristic feature is the interaction with other branches of knowledge: psychology, physiology, medicine.

Preschool Pedagogy - the science of the patterns of development, the formation of the personality of preschool children. Develops the theoretical foundations and technologies for educating preschoolers in state and non-state, educational institutions and in the conditions of large, complete, single-parent families.

School Pedagogy is the basis for building university pedagogy, acts as the basis for the formation of teacher and teaching professionalism.

Pedagogy of vocational education - a branch of science, the subject of which is the patterns of training highly skilled workers. Its emergence is connected with the need of the practice of the former USSR to train young people in working professions.

Pedagogy of secondary specialized education develops through borrowing, adaptation of scientific and applied provisions of school and university pedagogy.

Pedagogy of higher education due to the factor of scientific potential. Future specialists are trained by representatives with the highest qualifications.

Industrial Pedagogy studies:

1) patterns of training of workers;

2) reorientation to new means of production;

3) advanced training of employees;

4) reorientation to new professions.

social pedagogy contains theoretical and applied developments in the field of out-of-school education and upbringing of children and adults.

Pedagogy of the "third" age develops a system of education, development of people of retirement age and is in its infancy.

Correctional labor pedagogy contains theoretical substantiations and developments of the practice of re-education of persons imprisoned for crimes committed. This branch of pedagogy is interconnected with jurisprudence and jurisprudence.

Comparative Pedagogy explores the patterns of functioning and development of educational and upbringing systems in different countries by comparing and finding similarities and differences.

Special pedagogical sciences - deaf pedagogy, typhlopedagogy, oligophrenopedagogy - develop the theoretical foundations, principles, methods and means of upbringing and education of children and adults with deviations in physical and mental development.

Therapeutic Pedagogy develops on the border with medicine. Its main subject is the system of educational activities of teachers with sick and poor health students.

LECTURE No. 2. Object and subject of pedagogy

The science of educating a person got its name from two Greek words: "paidos" - "child" and "ago" - "lead". If translated literally, then "paidoagos" means "schoolmaster", that is, the one who leads the child through life. From this it follows logically object of pedagogy - child, person, personality.

The child is the object of many sciences, but each of them forms its own special subject of study in the process of studying it. The patterns of the child's body and the course of physiological processes are dealt with by anatomy and physiology. Pediatrics studies the features and patterns of the state of the child's body in its various diseases. In the center of the study of developmental and educational psychology are the patterns of formation and development of mental functions in a child at different age stages and under the influence of purposeful influence.

Pedagogy combines and synthesizes in itself the data of all natural and social sciences about the child as a whole, about the laws of development of educational social relations that affect the social development of the individual. Pedagogy, one might say, is the highest stage in the development of the sciences about the child, about the formation of his personality in the system of social relations, in the process of education.

Pedagogy In a broad sense, this is the science of human education. She studies the patterns of successful transfer of the social experience of the older generation to the younger. It exists in order to indicate in practice the easiest ways to achieve pedagogical goals and objectives, ways to implement the laws of education and teaching methods.

Concretizing this definition of pedagogy, we can say that this is the science of the laws and patterns of upbringing, education, training, socialization and creative self-development of a person.

Pedagogy as a field of scientific disciplines about upbringing and education, human education reveals the patterns of the pedagogical process, as well as the formation and development of the individual in the pedagogical process. Pedagogy cognizes its object - a growing, developing person - in the indissoluble fusion of the natural, social and individual in him; in its essence, formation, properties and activity. These problems are solved in modern pedagogy on the basis of the philosophical concepts of man, the data of socio-psychological, psychological and psycho-physiological studies.

The subject of pedagogy research is an integral system of upbringing, education, training, socialization and creative self-development of a person. The theory of the pedagogical process, its possibility, necessity and ways of implementation are the subject of general pedagogy, as well as the philosophy of pedagogy.

Theories and scientific approaches in pedagogy are not mutually exclusive; rather, they complement each other. Both in theory and in practice, pedagogical thinking is a special kind of diagnostics, prevention of disorders and therapeutic tactics.

Substance pedagogical thinking lies in the fact that the universal principles are modified in any of their practical application. Concretized, theoretical knowledge adapts to a uniquely individual situation and (or) case. It is transformed, revised, modified.

LECTURE No. 3. Tasks and functions of pedagogy

The tasks of pedagogy are usually divided into two types: permanent и temporary.

Permanent tasks

1. The task of revealing patterns in the areas of education, training, education and management of educational and educational systems. Patterns in pedagogy are the connection between deliberately created and objectively existing conditions and the results achieved, where the results are education and training. Relationships are of two types.

Regular connections - links that meet certain requirements. One of these requirements is the objectivity of communication, i.e., its independence from the desire, mood of the participants in pedagogical interaction. The causal nature of the relationship is also important. It is expressed in the fact that the results of the pedagogical process are predetermined by a strict set of factors. The third important factor is universality, i.e., the manifestation of regular connections in the work of a teacher. And, finally, the repeatability of regular connections is noted: their ability to be reproduced in similar situations.

Causal (random) connections. The main reason for their occurrence is distracting temporary mental states of schoolchildren.

Study and generalization of practice, experience of pedagogical activity. Professional pedagogical activity is always a creative process. However, there are certain rational means of effectively influencing students. This requires a theoretical justification and scientific interpretation of the "creativity of teachers."

2. The task of developing new methods, means, forms, systems of training, education.

3. The task of predicting learning for the near distant future. Forecasting performs the function of managing the development of pedagogy as a theoretical and practical science.

4. The task of introducing research results into practice.

Temporary Tasks

Their emergence is dictated by the needs of practice and the very science of pedagogy:

1) creation of libraries of electronic textbooks;

2) development of standards of pedagogical professionalism;

3) identification of typical stresses in the work of a teacher;

4) creation of didactic foundations for teaching "difficult" children;

5) development of tests for the levels of pedagogical skills;

6) analysis of typical conflicts in teacher-student relationships.

The tasks of pedagogy are determined by pedagogical goals. Among the variety of pedagogical goals are:

1) goals normative (public) - general goals defined in government documents. They are developed on the basis of broad information about the state of education and the economy in Russia. These goals serve as a general guideline in the work of any teacher;

2) goals public - are formed in the form of needs, interests and public opinion of various groups of people;

3) goals initiative - goals developed directly by practicing teachers and available to their pupils;

4) goals knowledge formation, skills, i.e. the purpose of the formation of consciousness and behavior;

5) goal organizational - is put by the teacher and belongs to the area of his managerial function;

6) goal methodical associated with the transformation of teaching technology and extracurricular activities;

7) goals formation of creative activity - development of features, inclinations, interests of students, the ability to implement them.

LECTURE No. 4. Pedagogy methods

Pedagogy methods - these are research methods that serve to study scientific and pedagogical problems. There are several main methods of pedagogical research.

1. observation method. The meaning of the method of observation lies in the direct and indirect perception of the studied pedagogical processes by the observer. With all their possibilities, the methods of observation have one drawback: during observation, only external manifestations are fully revealed, internal processes remain inaccessible. There are direct and indirect methods of observation. With direct observation, the researcher can view the entire course of events, arranging them in a logical chain and analyzing them. The process of mediated observation is much more difficult, since in this case the observed process is hidden and only then is restored according to some indicators. There are several classifications of observation methods:

1) continuous and discrete observations;

2) open and secret;

3) longitudinal and retrospective.

2. Test methods. They are interpreted as methods of psychological diagnostics of the subjects. Testing is carried out on carefully worked out standardized questions and tasks with scales of their values to identify individual differences among the examinees. There are different types of tests:

1) tests to identify student performance;

2) tests to determine professional predisposition;

3) tests to identify the level of intelligence;

4) tests to identify creativity.

3. Questioning methods. They are simple in their application and allow, with the help of minimal time costs and simple organization, to obtain a fairly wide range of data.

In practice, three types of methods are most popular:

1) conversation;

2) interviewing;

3) questioning.

4. Experiment. Pedagogical experiment is considered to be one of the main research methods in pedagogical science. A pedagogical experiment is an organized pedagogical activity of teachers and students with a specific goal. The scale of the experiments are:

1) global;

2) local.

Global ones cover a significant number of subjects, while local ones are held with a minimum number of participants.

5. sociological methods. The study of school documentation and products of students' activities. When trying to make pedagogical generalizations and conclusions, to conduct research, it is necessary to study the products of students' activities, as well as school documentation. The study of class journals, learning sheets allows you to draw conclusions about the level of student achievement.

In the process of studying and generalizing advanced pedagogical experience, the following types of experiments are distinguished:

1) "mental";

2) "bench";

3) ascertaining;

4) creative and transformative;

5) control.

"Mental" - reproduction of experimental actions and operations in the mind. "Bench" similar to a role-playing game in which the subjects participate in the real environment of the pedagogical process.

The ascertaining experiment is carried out at the beginning of the study, studying the problem only superficially. He uses such research methods as questioning, conversations, observation, etc. At the end of the ascertaining experiment, a conclusion is made about the relevance and importance of this problem.

LECTURE No. 5. The connection of pedagogy with other humanities

Pedagogy is an independent science. Having separated from philosophy at one time, it has not lost its close connection with other humanities:

1) philosophy;

2) psychology;

3) school hygiene;

4) sociology;

5) folklore and ethnography.

Philosophy performs an important methodological role in the development of pedagogical theory. But above all, it helps to determine the starting positions in the study of pedagogical phenomena. Pedagogy is united with philosophy by a number of common issues and problems, such as the relationship between the collective and the individual, epistemological problems (problems of the theory of knowledge and student cognition). Pedagogy is also connected with such relatively independent areas of philosophy as ethics and aesthetics.

Psychology helps to solve specific issues of education and upbringing, contributes to the development of the ability to make a rational mode of work and rest, gives knowledge about the age and individual characteristics of children, which are necessary in pedagogical activity. Modern pedagogy is closely related to engineering psychology, which studies the interaction between man and technology. The emergence of this branch of science is due, in particular, to the intensive computerization of education.

School hygiene studies and determines the sanitary and hygienic living conditions of students, which must be taken into account when organizing the educational process.

Sociology, which studies society as a complex integral system, provides pedagogy with a lot of factual material for developing a rational organization of the process of education and upbringing. More recently, a new science has emerged - pedagogical sociology, which is engaged in the translation of general data and the results of sociological research into specific tasks of education.

Folklore и ethnography are engaged in the study of folk traditions, rituals and customs of different peoples, monuments of the folk epic. Currently, there is a special branch of pedagogy - folk pedagogy, which studies the pedagogical content of these monuments of folk culture.

Pedagogy also cooperates with other branches of scientific knowledge, with which at first glance it is difficult to grasp the relationship:

1) human anatomy and physiology;

2) mathematics;

3) cybernetics.

Pedagogy uses them in the following way:

1) borrows scientific ideas;

2) use and process the data obtained by these sciences.

Biological sciences are considered as the natural-scientific base of pedagogy. For example, pedagogy is based on the fundamental works of Russian physiologists I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov on the neuropsychic development of a person, the reflex nature of his activity, etc.

Mathematics serves as a source of methods that are applied in the learning process.

Cybernetics allowed the creation of programmed learning in pedagogy.

LECTURE No. 6. The concept of "methodology of pedagogical science"

The success of the development of any science largely depends on the development of research methods. From the history of the development of pedagogy, it can be seen that initially pedagogical thought was based on philosophical speculative conclusions, acting as the result of the creative activity of outstanding thinkers. The dynamics of its development at that time was less intense in comparison with the period when theoretical activity began to be combined with practice. These teachers are primarily Ya. A. Comenius, G. Pestalozzi, K. D. Ushinsky, A. S. Makarenko, S. T. Shatsky and others. In the XIX century. many experiments and studies began to be carried out that contributed to the development of the theory of training and education. At present, many methods have been developed to accomplish this task. In addition, a whole doctrine appeared about the principles of construction, forms and methods of research activity, called methodology.

The methodology of pedagogical science is a system of knowledge about the principles of the approach and methods of obtaining knowledge that reflects pedagogical reality, knowledge about the structure of pedagogical theory. The methodology also develops programs and methods for conducting research work and its evaluation; it is a system of knowledge on the basis of which new programs are adopted. Each teacher can engage in any type of activity, including all at the same time.

Under methodology understand the totality of the initial philosophical ideas that underlie the development of a particular science.

The main idea of pedagogy as a science is the theory of cognition as a reflection (reflection) of reality in the human mind. Pedagogical science develops on the basis of the following methodological provisions:

1) education as a social phenomenon is determined by the needs of society and the trends of its development.

The personality itself becomes important in education: its aspirations, inclinations and abilities;

2) plays a decisive role in getting upbringing activity the personality itself. A person should strive to receive a worthy upbringing, only under this condition can the best results be achieved.

Without methodological knowledge, it is difficult to competently conduct pedagogical or any other research. After all, the content of methodological culture includes: methodological reflection (analysis of one's own scientific activity), the ability for scientific justification, critical reflection and creative application of certain concepts, forms and methods of cognition, management, design.

The methodology of pedagogy as a branch of scientific knowledge acts in two aspects, such as:

1) knowledge system, i.e. methodological research. Their task is to identify patterns and trends in the development of pedagogical science in its connection with practice, principles for improving the efficiency and quality of pedagogical research, analysis of their conceptual composition and methods;

2) the system of research activities, i.e. methodological support. This aspect involves the use of methodological knowledge to substantiate the research program and assess its quality.

LECTURE No. 7. The origin of pedagogical thought in the early stages of human development

Today, pedagogy is a science that studies the patterns of transmission by the older generation and active assimilation by younger generations of social experience necessary for life and work. In ancient Greece, a teacher was a slave assigned to a student, accompanying him to school, serving him in the classroom and outside of them. The Greek word "peidagogos" ("peida" - "child", "goges" - "lead") can be translated as "schoolmaster", "children" - "children's guidance".

The need to transfer social experience to the younger generations arose together with man. Education as a purposeful process originates from the period of division of labor. Since that time, education has become the content of specially organized activities to prepare the younger generations for life and work. The same period should include the birth of one of the most ancient professions - the profession of a teacher, educator, teacher. The purpose and content of education in the conditions of the primitive communal system was the development of labor skills, a sense of loyalty to the interests of the clan and tribe with the unconditional subordination of the interests of the individual to them, the communication of knowledge about the traditions, customs and norms of behavior in this clan and tribe on the basis of familiarization with the traditions that have developed in them and beliefs. A prominent place in primitive communal education was occupied by games imitating various types of labor of adult members of the tribe - hunting, fishing and other activities. Most of the tribes did not have physical punishments as a means of educational influence, or they were used extremely rarely, in exceptional cases.

For the first time, the beginnings of education appeared in the countries of the Ancient East (India, China, Assyria, Babylon, etc.). The most widespread in these countries are three types of schools:

1) priestly schools were created at temples and trained clergymen;

2) palace schools prepared scribes-officials for the needs of the administrative and economic department;

3) military schools trained military leaders.

The content of education in priestly schools was the broadest and most multi-subject. So, in the schools of the priests of the Babylonian state, in addition to writing, counting and reading, law, astrology, medicine and a cycle of religious disciplines were taught. The training was as long (about 10 years) as it was expensive. It was not accessible to the children of artisans and farmers. Only noble officials and wealthy slave owners could educate their sons (girls were usually not taught). Cane discipline reigned in schools, and classes continued from early morning until late evening.

The emergence of the teaching profession is connected with the history of the development of schools in ancient Egypt and ancient Greece. The first professional teacher is considered Mark Phoebius Quintilian (Roman). He said that harmony can be achieved through properly organized training. At the same time, he emphasized the general humanitarian development of children. Quintilian was the first to make demands on the personality of a teacher:

1) improvement of knowledge;

2) love for children;

3) respect for their personality;

4) the need to organize activities in such a way that each student develops love and trust in the teacher.

LECTURE No. 8. Education and school in the ancient world

In the era of antiquity, there was a further development of schools and the educational process. This was facilitated by achievements in the field of content, methods and organization of education in ancient Greece, Rome, and the Hellenistic states.

The emergence of pictographic writing. On the island of Crete in the III millennium BC. e. a type of writing was born that went back to pictographic signs and reflected the needs of temples and palace households.

The origin of alphabetic writing. In the middle II millennium BC. e. a syllabary appeared, in which there were signs for denoting vowels and consonants, contributing to the emergence of alphabetic writing. The Cretan scribes set firm rules for writing:

1) writing direction from left to right;

2) arrangement of lines from top to bottom;

3) highlighting the capital letter and the red line.

Not only priests, but also servants of royal palaces and even wealthy citizens owned the syllabary.

First learning centers existed at temples and royal palaces. Main directions of education:

1) teaching bright and figurative speech;

2) teaching the history of their ancestors;

3) learning to read;

4) learning to sing;

5) learning to play musical instruments.

The main directions of education:

1) the ultimate goal of education, according to Homer, is to achieve glory, to surpass one's father in valor;

2) in educational practice, they were guided by the ideal image of a perfect person - a mentally, morally and physically developed personality;

3) educators used traditional methods: on the one hand, stimulating positive behavior, on the other;

4) suppressing unwanted;

5) each pupil strove to be the best.

В VI-XNUMXth century BC e., during the heyday of Hellas, the leading educational traditions of the opposite type were laid down by Athens in Attica and Sparta in Laconia.

The main directions of education of the Spartans:

1) the emphasis in education was on the development of physical qualities;

2) spiritual ignorance and illiteracy were little taken into account. In Attica, there were other features of education:

1) the desire to maximize the horizons of the younger generation;

2) a wide universal education for those times for young men was offered;

3) paying great attention to the development of a sense of beauty and the formation of traditional moral attitudes.

Athenian educational institutions were private, paid.

There were two types of schools:

1) musical (learning to read, write, count, music);

2) gymnastic (training in running, wrestling, jumping, throwing).

В Hellenistic era (III-XNUMXst century BC e.) Schools are becoming fairly organized institutions:

1) have their own premises, teachers and leaders;

2) any free-born child could be educated in public and private primary schools (from 7 to 12 years old);

3) a number of philosophical schools were opened, which played the role of higher educational institutions;

4) higher educational institutions were led by outstanding thinkers of that time.

The main directions of education in Rome with XNUMXnd century BC e.:

1) great attention is paid to teaching grammar;

2) the study of laws pushes mathematics into the background;

3) there are practically no lessons in music and gymnastics. Instead, they teach horseback riding, fencing and swimming;

4) for young people of aristocratic origin, there were rhetorical schools, which were based on the mastery of oratory.

LECTURE No. 9. Foreign pedagogy

The first systems of education and training appear in Greece and grow out of ancient Greek philosophy. In ancient Greece, there were two main systems of education.

1. Spartan education system. Much attention in the Spartan system of education was given to military physical training. Physical education was combined with the acquisition of writing, counting, and reading skills, which children learned from the age of 7 to 15. From the age of 15 to 20, the physical training of young men continued, in addition, musical education went on along the way. At the age of 20, young men were tested for endurance, they were publicly flogged at the altar of Artemis. The Spartan system was also applied to girls, they also underwent physical training in order to be healthy and strong. In addition to military physical exercises, they studied home economics, rules for caring for children, and music.

2. Athenian educational system. Its fundamental difference from the Spartan system was contempt for physical labor, which was considered the lot of slaves. Until the age of seven, children were brought up in the house, then they were sent to private schools, where they studied literacy, music, singing, recitation. Then from the grammar school they went to the palette school, where teenagers were engaged in pentathlon and gymnastics. Young men from noble families could continue their education in gymnasiums, where they studied philosophy, politics, and literature. The highest level of education was acquired in ephibia, training in it gave graduates the right to be considered full-fledged citizens of Athens.

As a special science, foreign pedagogy was formed at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. This was facilitated by F. Bacon's treatise "On the dignity and increase of the sciences", in which he tried to classify the sciences and singled out pedagogy as a separate branch of scientific knowledge.

Among the pedagogical figures of foreign bourgeois pedagogy: J. A. Komensky, J. Locke, J. - J. Rousseau, I. Pestalozzi, J. Herbart.

Ya. A. Comenius (1592-1670) - the greatest Czech teacher, expressed the pedagogical ideas of the Renaissance most vividly and fully. His main pedagogical work "Great Didactics" calls for teaching all children, for teaching in their native language, and not in Latin, as was customary in medieval schools. Ya. A. Comenius formulated a whole system of didactic principles, at the head of which lies the principle of correspondence between education and upbringing of the child. The achievement of Ya. A. Comenius is the creation of a class-lesson system of education, which completely changed the organization of school educational work and is the leading system in modern pedagogy.

J. Locke, like Comenius, paid great attention to the education of a moral personality. In his pedagogical work "Thoughts on Education" J. Locke focuses on the psychological foundations of education. He believed that upbringing is of decisive importance in shaping the personality of a child. He denied the influence of the biological (genetic factor) on the child, in his opinion, the child is born as a "blank slate" (tabula rasa), on which you can write anything.

One of the main differences between modern foreign pedagogy and Russian pedagogy lies in the greater participation of the student in the learning process: self-learning and self-control occupy a fundamental place in it.

LECTURE No. 10. The development of schools and pedagogy in Russia

The restructuring of the entire system of public education was one of the main tasks after the October Revolution. 1917 g.

Main areas:

1) pedagogy should be based on new theories and principles of the proletariat: the principle of industrialization, the polytechnic principle, the principle of collectivism;

2) according to Bolshevik theory, the school should become an important means of propagating communist ideology and distributing party literature;

3) an important task was the education of a physically healthy person. For this, mass rhythmic gymnastics, sports under the supervision of a doctor, and games were introduced;

4) the content and methods of general education were substantially revised, which was reflected in the new curricula and programs, educational literature for students and teaching aids for teachers;

5) in the "Program of the seven-year Unified Labor School" 1921 g. an attempt was made to establish a closer connection between education and modernity, to develop initiative among students and teachers;

6) when creating educational programs, everything necessary for solving ideological and political tasks was taken into account;

7) the interests of a person as a person were often not taken into account, which was reflected in the integrated approach to building curricula.

Distinctive features of the Unified Labor School from traditional:

1) the main vocation of a person was to turn to the world of work, nature was considered as the object of his (man's) activity, and society - as a consequence of labor activity;

2) the line of the principle of polytechnics was purposefully traced, that is, the close connection between the education of children and industrial work. However, this relationship did not always take into account the age characteristics of students;

3) the main form of organization of educational work in primary and secondary schools has become a lesson with a strict timetable and a certain composition of students;

4) at the end of the year introduced mandatory screening tests for all students in each subject;

5) knowledge assessment has become differentiated;

6) much attention was paid to the creation of permanent textbooks in all subjects, which were compiled by teachers and prominent scientists.

The events of the Great Patriotic War had a strong impact on the activities of Russian schools:

1) the school was finally put on the path of politicization and ideologization of the educational process and extracurricular activities;

2) labor training returned (schoolchildren were actively involved in socially useful activities, in the productive work of adults, etc.).

The main figures of pedagogical science of the post-revolutionary period:

1) A. S. Makarenko (1888-1939) supported the idea of collective education, the basis of which was the unity of the labor collective of teachers and pupils, contributing to the development of personality and individuality. The most significant works of A. S. Makarenko are "Pedagogical poem" and "Flags on the towers";

2) V. A. Sukhomlinsky (1918-1970) worked on aspects of the theory and practice of education, defended the ideas of humanization of school education;

3) P. P. Blonsky (1884-1941) - developed the theory of the labor folk school, aimed at raising the level of education and developing moral and ethical standards.

LECTURE No. 11. Education in Russia after World War II

In the post-war years, the following changes in the educational system in Russia should be noted:

1) ideologization;

2) the introduction of centralized school management;

3) introduction of uniformity of its types and curricula;

4) control over the school of party organs has increased significantly;

5) complete secondary school became a ten-year one. Children were accepted into it from the age of seven;

6) the number of ten-year schools in cities, in contrast to rural areas, increased rapidly;

7) with 1945 BC compulsory seven-year education was established. It prevailed in the villages, whose inhabitants did not have the opportunity to continue their education due to the lack of passports and the right to leave their collective farms.

A significant increase in production in 1950s led to a significant labor shortage. This affected the general system of school education:

1) compulsory eight-year education was introduced in the country;

2) the term of study in complete secondary school has increased to eleven years;

3) mandatory production training was introduced;

4) vocational guidance work has significantly intensified, often amounting to agitation of graduates to continue vocational training in one of the scarce working specialties;

5) a new type of educational institutions was established - vocational schools. Here, in parallel with vocational education, general educational knowledge was given, although not as thorough as at school. Another feature was the fact that adults could also enter vocational schools. Therefore, people who did not have the opportunity to study during the difficult war years were able to receive a secondary education;

6) return to ten-year education after five years of existence of the system of eleven-year education, which did not reveal any clear advantages;

7) new scientific knowledge, knowledge about the achievements of science in production began to be introduced into all academic disciplines. This period even received a special name - the "era of scientific and technical revolution" (scientific and technological revolution).

The following events had a negative impact on the development of education:

1) general economic crisis in the country;

2) crisis of ideology;

3) the emergence of hidden unemployment;

4) the beginning of ethnic and interethnic conflicts;

5) people with low qualifications turned out to be in great demand in the economy.

They tried to solve the crisis of education by introducing a multi-level system in the field of higher education, as well as by creating various types of secondary educational institutions:

1) colleges;

2) gymnasiums;

3) lyceums;

4) specialized and private schools;

5) national schools.

However, this did not solve the existing problems:

1) in national schools there was an acute issue of underestimation of the study of the Russian language;

2) defending national dignity, the need for a single language as a means of interethnic communication was not taken into account;

3) a significant negative factor was the decline in professional training in higher education.

There were many shortcomings in multidisciplinary education, when educational institutions received the right to train students in specialties that did not correspond to the profile of the university. This caused damage to the basic specialized training and even caused a trend towards changing the profiles of universities. Visual experience has shown that a local approach cannot solve issues of a national scale.

LECTURE No. 12. Leading trends in the modern development of the world educational process

The development of scientific and technological progress and the achievements of the world civilization served as a powerful stimulus for the modernization and development of the ideas of world pedagogy and the education system.

New trends in the modern development of the world educational process:

1) most educators, even those far from radical solutions, insist on individualized learning. It is important that the educational process take into account the personal abilities and interests of the student;

2) it is necessary to increase attention to the individual by reducing the number of students in the class, shortening the school week and changing the class-lesson system;

3) intensification of the educational process.

For individualization education is characterized by the following features:

1) individual mode (flexible schedule);

2) individual rhythm of studying educational material;

3) the use of special didactic materials for independent work;

4) fixing the minimum and maximum volume of assimilation of educational material;

5) mobile study groups;

6) teacher in the role of consultant and coordinator;

7) independent choice of training mode;

8) cooperation between student and teacher.

Today, traditional and non-traditional systems of education coexist simultaneously.

Features traditional learning:

1) consistent formation of knowledge, skills and abilities;

2) the options for lessons in traditional teaching are diverse: lesson-opening, lesson-discussion, lesson-excursion, etc.

Features non-traditional learning models:

1) they are conditionally divided into two groups - reproductive and search orientation;

2) the gradual introduction of proposals regarding the modernization of regimes, methods, forms of education. In some countries, the rhythm of the school year is changing. In some schools, students are not located at standard desks, but in a comfortable position around the teacher;

3) widespread use of non-standard teaching methods;

4) all innovations are based on the need to develop the child's creative abilities and initiative, so the independent work of students comes to the fore;

5) the prospects for the use of the latest technical means in the school as a powerful source of information and self-education, which guarantee the successful modernization of educational activities, are actively considered. The use of technology destroys the stereotype in the lessons, allows you to conduct individual lessons in a new way, manage the educational process. The development of technological progress today allows you to create new technologies that can increase the information content, intensity and effectiveness of education. Although the use of telecomputer devices in schools also creates a number of problems. Among them are the lack of experienced specialists to work with new equipment, issues of hygiene and health protection of schoolchildren, etc.

In Russia a methodology for advanced learning has been developed, where difficult topics are studied first (S. N. Lysenkova) and the methodology of the "collective way of educational work", where each student expands his knowledge with the help of his comrades (V. K. Dyachenko, A. S. Sokolov).

Sh. A. Amonashvili - Doctor of Psychology, professor, an experienced teacher, in his scientific works calls on modern teachers to build their relationship with children, first of all, on deep and serious respect for the child as an actively developing person.

LECTURE No. 13. The main categories of pedagogy: education, upbringing, training

Pedagogical categories in science it is customary to name pedagogical concepts that express scientific generalizations. The main pedagogical categories are:

1) education;

2) education;

3) training.

Education It is:

1) the result of training, assimilation of systematized knowledge, skills and ways of thinking;

2) a necessary condition for preparing a person for a certain work, for a certain type of activity.

An educated person cannot be called a person who owns only a certain amount of systematized knowledge, since an educated person must also logically comprehend what he has learned, creatively applying the knowledge gained in practice.

The essence of education is quite deeply emphasized in the ancient aphorism: "Education is what remains when everything learned is forgotten." Well-read, encyclopedic awareness cannot be identified with education, just as the presence or absence of a diploma of higher education is not always evidence of an educated or uneducated person.

The amount of knowledge gained and the level of independent thinking divides education as follows:

1) primary;

2) average;

3) higher.

According to the nature and direction, education can be divided into:

1) general;

2) professional;

3) polytechnic.

Education usually characterized as a systematic and purposeful impact on the spiritual and physical development of the individual in order to prepare it for production, social and cultural activities. In pedagogy, a narrow and broad understanding of this category is distinguished.

In a broader social sense education can be seen as the transfer of accumulated experience from the older generation to the younger. Experience includes everything created in the process of historical development (knowledge, skills, moral, ethical, legal norms). The lost links of culture are very difficult to restore.

In a narrow social sense upbringing is the directed impact on a person of public institutions in order to form certain knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, moral values, and political orientation.

In modern society, there is a whole range of educational institutions:

1) family;

2) friends;

3) educational institutions;

4) mass media;

5) literature;

6) art;

7) law enforcement agencies, etc.

Training - a specially organized, purposeful and controlled process of interaction between students and teachers, thanks to which the student acquires knowledge, skills, acquires a variety of skills. As a result of training, a person develops a certain worldview and thinking, develops mental strength, potential abilities and capabilities.

The basis of training is:

1) knowledge;

2) skills;

3) skills.

Знания reflect objective reality in the form of facts, ideas, concepts and laws of science. They summarize the experience accumulated by mankind.

thanks skills a person can consciously and purposefully translate theoretical knowledge into practical activities, while relying on life experience and acquired skills.

Skills are components of practical activity. They manifest themselves in the performance of necessary actions brought to perfection through repeated exercises.

LECTURE No. 14. Pedagogical activity

Training is a pedagogical process carried out by the activity of a teacher. The learning process includes: the development of skills and abilities, their application in practice, the formation of a scientific worldview and moral and aesthetic culture. This situation requires the teacher to comprehend the theory of learning.

Pedagogical science carries out the study of fundamental and applied problems.

fundamental problems are: objective reality and objectively regular processes in nature and society.

Applied Problems: the use of learned truths in social practice.

Passion for some theoretical, fundamental problems can lead to the fact that public pedagogical practice will lag behind the requirements of modern life.

However, focusing excessive attention on the study of narrow methodological issues creates the danger of promiscuity in the prospects for development and resolution of emerging contradictions. The scientific and theoretical foundation allows not to lose social guidelines, not to become isolated in oneself.

Pedagogical activity includes two interacting parties: teachers и student. The result of this activity is the impact on the whole personality, its development in the intellectual, procedural, emotional and moral spheres.

The pedagogical activity of the teacher should be carried out in such a way that students master the three sides of the material being studied:

1) theory (concepts, rules, laws, conclusions);

2) practice (ability and skills to apply the acquired knowledge, as well as ways of creative activity);

3) comprehension of worldview and moral and aesthetic ideas.

Allocate a certain range of problems that are in the area pedagogical activity. These include the following:

1) the degree of compliance of pedagogical activity with the requirements of the laws of education as a social phenomenon, the correspondence of the content, forms and methods of training and education to the demands of the practical side of social relations;

2) the connection of pedagogical activity with the laws and data of related sciences (physiology, psychology, philosophy), which allows you to control the knowledge of children, taking into account their interests;

3) a directly proportional dependence of successful pedagogical activity on the relationship between teachers and their students, which requires pedagogy to constantly study and correct the developing interaction;

4) the presence of subjective-objective conditions for the effective flow of pedagogical activity, which make it possible to formulate initial recommendations for the effective use of all forms of organizing children's life;

5) receiving, processing and transmitting back information to teachers, i.e. diagnostics, in order to correct their pedagogical activity with these conclusions;

6) development of new systems for organizing educational work, organization of large-scale experiments;

7) the study of advanced pedagogical experience, the conditions for its dissemination and effective implementation, a separate method functioning in modern life, a set of educational interaction.

The study of pedagogical activity is necessary to improve the entire system of education and training of the younger generation.

LECTURE No. 15. Pedagogical interaction

Pedagogical interaction - this is a process that occurs between the educator and the pupil in the course of educational work and is aimed at developing the personality of the child. Pedagogical interaction is one of the key concepts of pedagogy and the scientific principle underlying education. Pedagogical understanding of this concept was obtained in the works V. I. Zagvyazinsky, L. A. Levshin, H. J. Liimets and others. Pedagogical interaction is the most complex process, consisting of many components: didactic, educational and socio-pedagogical interactions. It is due to:

1) teaching and educational activities;

2) the purpose of training;

3) upbringing.

Pedagogical interaction is present in all types of human activity:

1) cognitive;

2) labor;

3) creative.

It is based mainly on cooperation, which is the beginning of the social life of mankind. Interaction plays a crucial role in human communication, in business, partnerships, as well as in observing etiquette, showing mercy.

Pedagogical interaction can be viewed as a process that takes several forms:

1) individual (between a teacher and a pupil);

2) socio-psychological (interaction in a team);

3) integral (combining various educational influences in a particular society).

Interaction becomes pedagogical when adults (teachers, parents) act as mentors. Pedagogical interaction presupposes equality of relations. Very often this principle is forgotten, and adults use authoritarian influence in relations with children, relying on their age and professional (pedagogical) advantages. Therefore, for adults, pedagogical interaction is associated with moral difficulties, with the danger of crossing the shaky line, beyond which begins authoritarianism, moralizing and, ultimately, violence against the individual. In situations of inequality, the child reacts, he passively and sometimes actively resists upbringing. The importance of pedagogical interaction lies in the fact that, improving as the spiritual and intellectual needs of its participants become more complex, it contributes not only to the formation of the child's personality, but also to the creative growth of the teacher.

Changing social conditions in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to a crisis of educational work in educational institutions. The rejection of communist education led to the loss of the goal of education (a harmoniously developed personality), the main direction of educational work (the activities of the pioneer and Komsomol organizations). As a result, educational work, which is a set of educational activities, has ceased to solve modern problems of education. The upbringing program (Petersburg concept) offered a different view of upbringing, educational work, revealing the humanistic meaning of these events. Education began to be defined as the development, preservation and transformation of human quality in pedagogical interaction.

LECTURE No. 16. Pedagogical system

The subject of the study of pedagogy is extremely complex, therefore, as it develops, pedagogy has turned into an extensive system of scientific knowledge. Modern pedagogy would be more accurately called system of educational sciencesincluding:

1) philosophy;

2) the history of pedagogy;

3) general pedagogy.

The foundation of pedagogy is philosophy. The philosophy of education, which uses the ideas of various philosophical ideas in educational practice, deals directly with the problems of education.

History of Pedagogy explores the development of education as a social phenomenon, the history of pedagogical phenomena. Thanks to this science, with the help of the analysis of the past, we expediently direct the existing positive trends into the future.

General Pedagogy is a basic scientific discipline that studies the general patterns of human education. It develops the general foundations of the educational process in educational institutions of all types.

General pedagogy has two levels:

1) theoretical;

2) applied.

It traditionally distinguishes four main sections, which have now become independent branches of knowledge:

1) general principles;

2) didactics (learning theory);

3) the theory of education;

4) schooling.

Age pedagogy has two subsystems: preschool and school pedagogy. Here at the center of the study are all the existing problems of a growing person. The development and improvement of the specifics of educational activities are determined by the characteristics of certain age groups.

Pedagogy of higher education deals with pedagogical problems of adults. It explores the patterns of the educational process in the conditions of a higher educational institution, as well as the specific problems of obtaining higher education.

Labor Pedagogy deals with the problems of advanced training and retraining of workers in various branches of labor activity, the issues of mastering new knowledge and obtaining a new profession in adulthood.

In the subsystem of social pedagogy, the following branches are distinguished:

1) family pedagogy;

2) re-education of offenders, etc.

Special pedagogy deals with the problems of people with various disabilities and developmental disabilities. The specificity of the education and upbringing of the deaf and dumb is in the center of close attention of deaf teachers, the blind - typhlopedagogues, the mentally retarded - oligophrenopedagogues.

A special group of pedagogical sciences are the so-called private и subject methods. They study the patterns of teaching and studying specific academic disciplines in all types of educational institutions. Each teacher must be impeccable in the method of teaching his subject.

Pedagogy is closely related to many sciences:

1) philosophical sciences help pedagogy to determine the goals and meaning of education, correct the direction of education;

2) anatomy and physiology form the basis for understanding the biological essence of man;

3) psychology helps to understand the development of the human psyche. Its close relationship with pedagogy led to the emergence of frontier branches: educational psychology and psychopedagogy.

Pedagogy is connected with history, literature, geography, anthropology, medicine, ecology, economics and archeology.

LECTURE No. 17. Pedagogical technology

Pedagogical technology is a set of psychological and pedagogical attitudes that determine the special selection and arrangement of forms, methods, methods, educational techniques and means. Thanks to technological education, students acquire knowledge, skills and abilities much more effectively.

Pedagogical technology is used in conjunction with a common methodology, goals and content, organizing the entire educational process.

Pedagogical technology is implemented in technological processes that are focused on a specific pedagogical result. For example, technological processes are:

1) organization of competitions;

2) the system of educational work at school;

3) a system of forms and means of studying a particular topic of a training course.

The educational process is organized by various technological approaches:

1) tests to measure mental abilities;

2) a variety of visual aids and schemes for obtaining and practicing skills;

3) organizational structures for the formation of self-government, competition, uniform requirements for self-service.

The subject of pedagogical technology are specific interactions between teachers and students in any field of activity. As a result of these interactions, a stable positive result is achieved in the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities.

К tasks Pedagogical technology and technical processes include the following:

1) development and consolidation of knowledge, skills and abilities in any field of activity;

2) formation, development and consolidation of socially valuable forms and habits of behavior;

3) awakening students' interest in mental activities, developing abilities for intellectual work and mental activity, understanding the facts and laws of science;

4) training in actions with technological tools;

5) development of independent planning, systematization of their educational and self-educational activities;

6) fostering the habit of strict adherence to the requirements of technological discipline in the organization of training sessions and socially useful work.

Pedagogical technology has a number of features:

1) different pedagogical chains differ in their educational potential. Some suppress creative initiative due to strict requirements for the sequence of the main elements of the program, while others create fertile ground for the development of active conscious mental work;

2) the ability of the content of education or upbringing to be coded without losing its educational and educational capabilities. The introduction of coded physical and chemical formulas into the learning process increases the efficiency of mastering these subjects;

3) creative refraction of pedagogical technology through the personality of the teacher and students;

4) each technological link, system, chain, technique needs to determine the appropriate place in the pedagogical process. But no technology can replace live human communication;

5) pedagogical technology is closely connected with psychology. Any technological link is more effective if it has a psychological justification and practical solutions. The most vivid perception of educational material is facilitated by visual technological means.

LECTURE No. 18. Pedagogical task

There are three main approaches to the concept of "pedagogical task":

1) the pedagogical task is associated with a progressive change in the knowledge, attitudes, skills of the student (B. G. Ananiev, N. V. Kuzmina);

2) the pedagogical task finds its expression in the planned effects of growth, development, advancement of students, in which a person's ability to successfully solve life problems is manifested;

3) the pedagogical task acts as some symbolic model of the pedagogical situation and changes in accordance with the logic of the goals of the pedagogical process.

Classification of pedagogical tasks can be presented in the following form:

1) strategic tasks (super-tasks that reflect the general goal of education, are formed in the form of some reference ideas about the qualities of a person, are set from the outside, follow from the objective need of social development, determine the initial goals and final results of pedagogical activity);

2) tactical tasks (retain their focus on the final results of the upbringing and education of students, timed to coincide with any stage of solving strategic tasks);

3) operational tasks (current, immediate, facing the teacher at each individual moment of pedagogical activity).

In terms of content, pedagogical tasks can be reduced to the following tasks:

1) tasks of excitation (revealing the current state of the formed qualities of the individual and the team);

2) tasks of anticipation (forecasting changes in the formed qualities of the individual and the team);

3) the task of transforming (transferring) the formed qualities of the individual and the team to a new, higher level of development.

It is important to have an idea of what the process of solving pedagogical problems should be like (according to L.F. Spirin). It goes through a number of stages in its development:

1) analysis of the pedagogical situation. It includes an assessment of the initial conditions of pedagogical actions, an explanation and foresight of pedagogical phenomena, the development and adoption of diagnostic decisions, the diagnosis of an individual or group act, the diagnosis of an individual and a team, the prediction of learning and upbringing results, the possibility of students' difficult answers and their responses;

2) goal setting and planning. Goal-setting is guided by the analysis of the available means to test the initial assumptions and the achievement of the result, the design of pedagogical influences;

3) design and implementation of the pedagogical process. The pedagogical process involves a reasonable choice of various types of students' activities, programming of the teacher's control actions and pedagogically expedient actions of pupils;

4) regulation and correction. Assessment of success or failure in the implementation of the pedagogical process and pedagogical actions, their correction and processing is carried out through regulation and correction;

5) final control and accounting of the results. The solution of the pedagogical task ends with a final accounting and comparison with the initial data, an analysis of the achievements and shortcomings of pedagogical actions, the effectiveness of methods, means and organizational forms of educational work.

LECTURE No. 19. Educational process

Educational process - this is training, communication, in the process of which controlled cognition takes place, the assimilation of socio-historical experience, reproduction, mastery of one or another specific activity that underlies the formation of personality. The meaning of learning is that the teacher and the student interact with each other, in other words, this process is two-way.

Thanks to training, the educational process and educational impact are realized. The influence of the teacher stimulates the activity of the student, while achieving a certain, predetermined goal, and control this activity. The educational process includes a set of tools that create the necessary and sufficient conditions for students to be active. The educational process is a combination of the didactic process, the motivation of students to learn, the student's educational and cognitive activity and the teacher's activity in managing learning.

In order for the educational process to be effective, it is necessary to distinguish between the moment of organization of activity and the moment of learning in the organization of activity. The organization of the second component is the immediate task of the teacher. The effectiveness of the educational process will depend on how the process of interaction between the student and the teacher for the assimilation of any knowledge and information will be built. The subject of the student's activity in the educational process is the actions performed by him to achieve the intended result of the activity, prompted by one or another motive. Here, the most important qualities of this activity are independence, readiness to overcome difficulties associated with perseverance and will, and efficiency, which involves a correct understanding of the tasks facing the student and the choice of the desired action and the pace of its solution.

Given the dynamism of our modern life, we can say that knowledge, skills and abilities are also unstable phenomena that are subject to change. Therefore, the educational process should be built taking into account updates in the information space. Thus, the content of the educational process is not only the need to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities, but also the development of the mental processes of the individual, the formation of moral and legal beliefs and actions.

An important characteristic of the educational process is its cyclicality. Here cycle is a set of certain acts of the educational process. The main indicators of each cycle: goals (global and subject), means and result (associated with the level of mastering the educational material, the degree of upbringing of students). There are four cycles.

initial cycle. Purpose: students' awareness and understanding of the main idea and practical significance of the material being studied, and the development of ways to reproduce the studied knowledge and the method of their use in practice.

Second cycle. Purpose: concretization, extended reproduction of the studied knowledge and their explicit awareness.

Third cycle. Purpose: systematization, generalization of concepts, use of what has been studied in life practice.

Final cycle. Purpose: checking and accounting for the results of previous cycles through control and self-control.

LECTURE No. 20. Goals and content of education

Education - this is a socially organized and normalized process of constant transfer of socially significant experience by previous generations to subsequent generations, which is the formation and socialization of the individual.

Purpose of education should be such that:

1) its implementation allowed students to master a certain set of learning skills (and, of course, the logical sequence of their formation should be observed, taking into account age characteristics);

2) the product resulting from its implementation brought some kind of public benefit, or, more simply, was needed by someone other than its author;

3) at work it would be possible to realize their creative inclinations and abilities;

4) work on the project would have access to contemporary problems of human society;

5) the task would imply consideration of the situation in a broad context of relations, including with the natural environment surrounding humanity.

Of course, with more detailed goals, more detailed requirements for the educational task and the organization of work on it are possible, depending on the age of the children and the general strategy for achieving certain goals.

The sources of formation of the content of education are culture or social experience. Content of education consists of four main structural elements:

1) the experience of cognitive activity, which is recorded in the form of methods for its implementation - knowledge;

2) the experience of reproductive activity, which is recorded in the form of methods for its implementation - skills and abilities;

3) experience of creative activity - in the form of problem situations;

4) experience of emotional-value relations.

Each of the above types of social experience has a specific type of educational content:

1) knowledge about nature, society, technology, thinking and methods of activity. The assimilation of this knowledge ensures the formation in the mind of the student of an accurate and real picture of the world, forms the skills of the correct methodological approach to cognitive and practical activities;

2) experience in the implementation of known methods of activity, embodied together with knowledge in the skills and abilities of a person who has mastered this experience;

3) experience in creative search activities to solve new problems that arise before society. It requires independent application of previously acquired skills and abilities in new situations. This ensures the development of students' abilities for self-education and further formation of the cultural level;

4) the experience of a value attitude to objects or means of human activity. This is manifested in relation to the surrounding world, to other people in the behavior of the student, in his practical and intellectual activities. With the help of this element of education, the student develops a certain system of values, which determines the emotional perception of personally-defined objects.

All elements of the content of education are interconnected and interdependent. The assimilation of these elements will allow a person not only to function successfully in society, to be a good performer, but also to act independently.

LECTURE No. 21. The structure of lifelong education

Continuing education - the content structure and organizational composition of the educational system (coverage of a person's entire life by education). Continuing education is all forms and types of education received by individuals after the completion of traditional education.

At the present stage of world economic and social development, the most important global problem should be considered the continuity of education. inclusiveness, i.e., uniting with a common goal and involving the entire population, all its socio-demographic groups; continuity, i.e., the persistence or variability in time and space of general social goals and methods for their implementation; individualization, i.e., accounting for time, types, orientation of the needs of each individual.

The main question related to lifelong education will be asked by scientists in different ways: "education for life" or "education throughout life"?

One of the central ideas should be the idea of transition from the school of knowledge to the school of culture, the consideration of education as part of a common culture and its important factor and source. Continuity will be ensured if, when designing the education system, the conditions for the conscious assimilation of the objective values of culture as a necessary subjective need of the individual are taken into account and considered.

The general point of view of various authors and developers of a number of official documents on the problem of lifelong education and the essence of this phenomenon can be distinguished in the form of conclusions:

1) continuing education - a priority problem brought to life by the current stage of scientific and technological development and political, socio-economic and cultural changes;

2) there have been two diametrically opposed attitudes towards lifelong education - from its complete rejection and the announcement of another utopia to the definition of lifelong education as the main, and perhaps the only productive pedagogical idea of the current stage of world development;

3) there are three main aspects of the essence of lifelong education:

a) traditionalwhen continuing education is seen as professional education for adults, the need for which is caused by the necessary compensation for knowledge and skills that were not received during the course of study, as a kind of response to technological progress that has put human labor in a state of functional illiteracy. This is, in fact, compensatory, additional education, part of "final" education (ie, "education for life");

b) the phenomenon of education as lifelong process ("Learning all your life") and give preference to pedagogically organized formal structures (circles, courses, mass media, correspondence and evening education, etc.);

at) third approach the idea of lifelong education "passes" through the needs of the individual, whose desire for constant knowledge of himself and the world around him becomes his value ("education through life"). The goal of continuing education in this case becomes - comprehensive development (including self-development) of a person, his biological, social and spiritual potentials, and in the end - his "cultivation" as a necessary condition for the preservation and development of the culture of society.

LECTURE No. 22. Education as a social phenomenon and the pedagogical process

Public education prepares the child for life in today's complex and rapidly changing world. Develop creative skills, expand horizons and thinking, strengthen the health and physical abilities of our children:

1) mugs;

2) sections;

3) courses;

4) studios, etc.

The knowledge and skills that a child learns are so extensive that the parent is simply not able to act as a teacher, to master the full amount of the necessary material with the children at home. The work of a school teacher and a kindergarten teacher is complementary to home education and upbringing.

Generally pedagogical process aims to develop in the child those qualities that will make him a strong creative person, able to feel confident in the conditions of modern life, free him from possible conflicts or wrong paths. However, often the strength that educators want to develop in children does not protect them from tragedies, from cruel and painful failures, from a joyless and even meaningless life.

Physical health, a culture of mind and feelings, a strong character, healthy social skills do not save from deep, often tragic conflicts in a person's soul, do not protect him in the terrible hours of lonely meditation. A person turns out to be wider and deeper, more complex and intricate than the idea of him, accepted in the modern system of pedagogical values. "A bright personality", "a person with a strong character" - these concepts can be equally applied not only to wholly positive, highly moral natures, but often, alas, to contradictory, self-willed natures, and even directly possessed by a demonic principle. Modern education and upbringing does not affect the basic secret in a person, it passes by the most essential things in life.

This is possible if you teach him to use the forces of the soul and body to serve the highest ideals and values, and not to please his weaknesses.

Novoye Vremya brought with it a radical turn "to the problems of the child and childhood," studied the child in detail, and reached the very depths of the child's soul. But how to assemble a whole from this motley and diverse "constructor"? There is an abundance of different, sometimes contradictory concepts and theories. Some stand up for discipline and routine, others defend the freedom of the child and an individual approach. A. Rogozyansky says: “Some seek to intensify the process of learning and development, others believe: let everything happen in a smooth, natural way. reality - and they advise teaching them to swim, throwing children into deep water at once. "Each position looks advantageous and reasoned in its own way. But at the same time, it is not possible to establish a common truth, to bring all theories to a common denominator. Everything is explained simply: rules can not be replaced by active participation in children's lives.

Education and the pedagogical process should be not just a "compulsory duty", but a part of the student's life.

LECTURE No. 23. Essence, contradictions and logic of the educational process

With regard to the structure of the educational process, the following questions can be raised.

1. What activity and what information is deployed in each fragment?

2. What activity is cultivated in each fragment?

3. Do they mean each other?

4. How exactly do these fragments imply each other?

With regard to the analysis of the real educational process, the principles put forward raise the following questions:

1) how much educational process there is an introduction to activity, and to what extent it is an introduction to information (and, consequently, to what extent its organization is based on the internal logic of the archive - scientific, theoretical theses);

2) how much educational process is the process of introduction into a holistic activity, that is, to what extent the components of the educational process together represent a functional whole;

3) even if educational process represents a functional whole of its parts, then how realistic is the functionalization of the information corresponding to these parts.

Typical temptations for the educational process in this regard are:

1) the desire to follow the archival organization of knowledge and to turn the educational process into an introduction to "knowledge" and not into activity. On the one hand, there is no normal cultivation of activity, since this strategy disorients the student. On the other hand, there is no functionalization of information, and therefore it does not turn into knowledge;

2) the temptation not to conform with each other different parts of the educational process as a whole;

3) the desire of each fragment of the process to carry out exclusively its own logic in the cultivation of activity and, accordingly, the presentation of information, not in accordance with how it is connected with other parts;

4) the temptation to disregard the extent to which the functionalization of information is actually carried out, whether it turns into knowledge or remains information.

Another perspective of the problem of the functionality of knowledge is the problem of the functional integrity of knowledge in the process of its development during the educational process as a whole - the problem of reproduction of the functionality of knowledge. Since knowledge remains knowledge as long as its real functionality is preserved in the activity structure of consciousness, then, consequently, once functionalized knowledge requires constant reproduction of its functionality in order to remain knowledge. For the analysis of the real educational process, this raises the question of which elements of knowledge retain their functionality throughout the entire process and how their functionality changes.

The main temptation for the educational process here is the desire to divide information into large functional blocks (for example, logic, systematics, etc.) and give these blocks at once in their entirety, but:

1) the size of the volume and homogeneity of information will not allow functionalizing it entirely, and, consequently, the predominant part of it will not turn into knowledge;

2) the same desire will not make it possible to unfold the depth of this information, such a method of unfolding will be doomed to superficiality.

LECTURE No. 24. The content of education as the foundation of the basic culture of the individual

Important social function learning - the formation of a personality that meets social requirements. The process of education takes place on the basis of mastering systematized scientific knowledge and methods of activity that reflect the composition of the spiritual and material culture of mankind.

Under content of education should be understood:

1) a system of scientific knowledge, practical skills and abilities;

2) a system of worldview and moral and aesthetic ideas that students need to acquire in the learning process;

3) part of the social experience of generations, which is selected in accordance with the goals of human development and transmitted to him in the form of information.

stand out main directions content of upbringing and education:

1) physical education and education;

2) aesthetic education;

3) labor education;

4) mental education;

5) moral education.

Components of each direction content of education:

1) knowledge;

2) skills;

3) skills;

4) abilities.

Knowledge in pedagogy can be defined as understanding, keeping in memory and the ability to reproduce and apply the basic facts of science and theoretical generalizations. Any knowledge can be expressed:

1) in concepts;

2) in categories;

3) in principles;

4) in laws and regularities;

5) in ideas;

6) in symbols;

7) in concepts;

8) in theories.

Skills consist of methods of control and methods of regulation. They are considered as an integral element of skill, as an automated action brought to a high degree of perfection.

Skill - this is the possession of ways to apply the acquired knowledge in practice. It includes knowledge and skills, and its formation depends on the abilities of a person.

Abilities - these are the mental properties of the personality that develop in the process of learning, which, on the one hand, act as a result of its active educational and cognitive activity, and on the other hand, determine a high degree of ease, speed and success in mastering and performing this activity.

The content of education at all stages should be aimed at the implementation the main goals of education:

1) to form a comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual;

2) provide mental development;

3) provide technical and labor training;

4) provide physical, moral and aesthetic education.

There are several basic rules for the content of education, namely:

1) the content of education is built on a strictly scientific basis;

2) the content of education includes only facts and theoretical positions firmly established in science;

3) educational material corresponds to the current state of science, contributes to the formation of a life position;

4) the content of education in each academic subject corresponds to the logic and system of a particular science;

5) the content of education is based on the relationship between individual academic subjects;

6) education at school is combined with technical and labor training, promotes the professional orientation of students;

7) education takes into account the formation of strong-willed efforts in overcoming difficulties in mastering knowledge;

8) the content of education corresponds to the age capabilities of students.

LECTURE No. 25. State educational standard

The education system in the Russian Federation is a set of educational programs and state educational standards of various levels and directions; networks of educational institutions implementing them; educational authorities and their subordinate institutions and organizations.

Educational standards - these are the goals of training and education, mandatory requirements for education, enshrined in special regulatory documents. In the Russian Federation, they were introduced under the Law on Education (1992). According to the Law, state educational standards are established, including federal and national-regional components. The standards define the mandatory minimum content of the main educational programs, the maximum volume of the study load of students, the requirements for the level of graduates' training.

Educational programs - documents defining the content of education at all levels and directions. The main tasks of educational programs are: the formation of a general culture of the individual, the adaptation of the individual to life in society, the creation of the foundations for a conscious choice of profession and the development of professional educational programs. There are two types of educational programs in the Russian Federation:

1) general education;

2) professional.

К general education include programs of pre-school education, primary, basic and secondary (complete) general education. Educational programs are successive, that is, each subsequent program is based on the previous one.

К professional include programs of primary, secondary, higher and postgraduate professional education. Professional educational programs are aimed at solving the problems of raising professional and general educational levels, training specialists.

The mandatory minimum content of each educational program is established by the relevant state educational standard. State educational authorities develop exemplary educational programs on the basis of state educational standards. An educational institution may implement additional educational programs.

Educational programs for children with disabilities in psychophysical development are developed on the basis of the main programs, taking into account the psychophysical development of pupils.

Educational programs are implemented in all types of educational institutions and vocational education institutions, including special (correctional) educational institutions and educational institutions for orphans and children left without parental care (orphanages, boarding schools, etc.). Students who have not completed the educational programs of the academic year and have academic debts in two or more subjects, at the discretion of their parents, are left for re-education, transferred to compensatory education classes with fewer students per teacher, or continue their education in the form of family education.

On the basis of educational standards, educational and methodological documents are developed that are focused on various learning technologies.

LECTURE No. 26. The content of primary education

Primary education - the first stage of general education, the purpose of which is the development by students of elementary general educational knowledge that ensures the development of cognitive abilities and social communication, as well as the formation of basic skills in educational activities.

Pupils receive primary education in the interrelated processes of education and upbringing in the primary grades of a general education school or in primary school as an independent educational institution. In the Russian Federation, primary education for children begins at the age of 7 (6) years, the course of study is 3 (4) years.

After streamlining the structure of school education in the USSR (1934), the elementary school became part of a single general education school, its first step. Graduation from elementary school gave students the opportunity to continue their general education. This role of the elementary school was preserved in the future with all the transformations of the Soviet education system.

The first Soviet curriculum and elementary school program were published in 1920. In addition to the Russian language and arithmetic, they provided for the teaching (from the 2nd grade) of natural history and social science. Physical education, singing and drawing were also introduced. In 1923-1927. schools used a comprehensive system of education. In the early 1930s independent academic subjects and the class-lesson system of education were restored, history, geography and natural science were introduced as independent academic subjects.

The work to further improve primary education included three stages.

On the first stage (until 1963) the basic principles of developmental education were worked out. In different versions, they were formulated by L. V. Zankov, D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov and others and began to be used in the mass elementary school in the late 1980s.

On the second stage (1963-1966) developed the main criteria for improving the education system in a 3-year elementary school.

The third stage (1966-1969) was held in various regions of the RSFSR, taking into account the specifics of social, economic and other conditions.

Today, the construction of primary education curricula is based on three areas of knowledge:

1) native language;

2) mathematics;

3) man, nature and society.

This allows you to make the content of training variable, but meeting the requirements of the state educational standard. Textbooks are being created for elementary schools on new integrated courses: "the world around us", "mathematics and design", "literacy", etc. A methodology is being developed for the formation of elementary skills in using computers in teaching (and not only in mathematics), the others

In the system of Russian primary education, two types of schools have coexisted for quite a long time: a 3-year school (starting at age 7) and a 4-year school (starting school at age 6). The main important direction that determines the prospects for the development of primary education is a 4-year school with the beginning of education at the age of 6. In connection with the planned transition of education in secondary education to 12-year education, new approaches to primary education are being developed.

LECTURE No. 27. Curricula and programs

The content of education is specified with the help of curricula and programs. Syllabus is a document that includes:

1) structure and duration of academic quarters, academic year and holidays;

2) a list of subjects studied;

3) distribution of the list of subjects by year of study;

4) division of subjects into compulsory and optional;

5) weekly and annual distribution of time for the study of academic disciplines in each class.

Types of curricula:

1) basic;

2) typical;

3) school curriculum.

Basic Curriculum is part of the state educational standard. It provides for the following items:

1) duration of training;

2) a list of items;

3) weekly load;

4) maximum mandatory load;

5) teacher workload;

6) a variable component that takes into account the national and regional characteristics of the school.

Model Curriculum created on the basis of the basic plan, is the basis for the school curriculum.

School curriculum is compiled on the basis of basic and standard plans and contains:

1) a list of compulsory subjects;

2) compulsory elective subjects;

3) optional subjects;

4) distribution of subjects by year of study;

5) the weekly and annual amount of time allotted for the passage of each subject.

The curriculum of the school is approved by the pedagogical council of the school.

Training program is a document that defines:

1) the content of basic knowledge and skills in each academic subject;

2) the logic and sequence of studying topics;

3) the total amount of time to study certain topics.

Training programs are divided into several main types:

1) standard programs;

2) work programs;

3) copyright programs.

Model Curriculum compiled on the basis of state standards and approved by the Ministry of Education.

Working curriculum compiled by the teacher on the basis of the model. It takes into account:

1) methodological and technical capabilities of the school;

2) the level of training of students;

3) national-regional component;

4) the specifics of the school.

Author's program compiled by experienced teachers and contains author's methods of studying the subject.

Curricula in terms of structures are subdivided into:

1) linear - the material is arranged in a continuous sequence, it is studied only once during the entire training period;

2) concentric - the educational material is divided into two parts. First, the simpler questions are studied, then the more complex ones. When studying the second part, the material of the first is briefly repeated;

3) stepped - the material is divided into two parts. Some topics are covered only at the first level, others - only at the second, there are sections, the material of which is passed at both levels;

4) mixed - combine linear and concentric schemes, which allows you to flexibly distribute educational material.

В curriculum content distinguish three parts:

1) an explanatory note that sets out the goals and objectives of studying the subject;

2) content, including a list of topics, an approximate distribution of time for studying topics and sections, a list of recommended classes and teaching methods;

3) guidelines for assessing knowledge, skills and abilities, a list of visual and technical teaching aids, a list of recommended literature.

LECTURE No. 28. Textbooks

Textbook - a book that systematically outlines the foundations of knowledge in a particular area at the level of modern achievements of science and culture; This is the main and leading type of educational literature. The textbook meets the main goals and objectives of training, education and development of certain age and social groups.

The textbook is an important source of knowledge for students, one of the main means of learning. Through the textbook, the organization of the process of assimilation of the content of education is carried out, it is designed to form the student's ability to accumulate personal social experience, to form his ability to evaluate the phenomena and events of the surrounding reality, to determine his place in society.

As a learning tool, a textbook has a certain material form (expressed in a complex structure), which is rigidly connected with the content of education, with the process and results of assimilation. This feature makes high demands on the designers of textbooks (authors, artists, editors), requires them to know the theory of the textbook and the laws of its creation.

The textbook must meet basic pedagogical requirements:

1) to report scientifically reliable data on the subject under consideration, science within the designated program;

2) provide training and skills for self-acquisition of knowledge in the future;

3) develop the thinking of students and form the methods of mental activity.

textbook theory develops at the intersection of pedagogy, psychology, basic sciences, arts, book science. There are various approaches to substantiating the optimal structure of a textbook: from the point of view of content components (I. Ya. Lerner), a textbook as a complex information model of the educational process (V. P. Bespalko), etc. The final judgment on the quality of a textbook can only be made experimental testing in the learning process.

Exist methodological requirements to the tutorial:

1) compliance with the age characteristics of students in terms of the content and form of presentation of educational material;

2) a clear structural division and graphical selection of conclusions;

3) the presence of illustrations that contribute to the assimilation and memorization of the studied material;

4) the presence of tasks that develop the creative abilities of students, instilling the skills of independence in learning new material;

5) the presence of a clear and thoughtful methodological design (content, subject index, footnotes, references, list of supporting literature, etc.).

Development in the 1970s and 1980s Fundamentals of the theory of the school textbook led to the conclusion that in the conditions of a single school that provides universal secondary education, a single textbook cannot provide students with a modern level of education. The task was to create educational kit (UMK) as an open system of textbooks. The implementation of this idea required the publication of a wide range of additional educational literature. In the early 1980s Teaching materials were created for each class and subject.

During the reforms in the 1990s. the publication of educational literature has become one of the factors in maintaining a single educational space.

LECTURE No. 29. The learning process

Learning process - pedagogically sound, consistent, continuous change of acts of learning, during which the tasks of development and education of the individual are solved. In the learning process, its subjects participate in the interconnected activity - the teacher and the student. How elements of the learning process can be theoretically considered:

1) goals and content of education;

2) the motives of the subjects of learning;

3) forms of its organization;

4) means and results.

The interaction of these elements is mechanism of the learning process.

Functions of the learning process are conditioned by the basic law that determines its very existence: an objective social need for training and assimilation by the young generation of social experience for its reproduction and development.

The learning process is considered at four levels:

1) theoretical (generalized model);

2) individual academic subjects;

3) a project for a specific implementation of the learning process in the form of a plan for each lesson and a system of lessons;

4) real, on which the first three design levels are carried out.

The learning process is distinguished by three groups of properties. Knowledge of the properties of the learning process helps to determine the scope of the search for patterns of nurturing education, the area of possible pedagogical innovations, ways to improve the effectiveness of learning and the quality of education and eliminate shortcomings.

The first group of - irreplaceability in other ways of the function of organizing the assimilation of social experience by the young generation; unity of teaching, teaching and content of education; the unity of the content and procedural aspects of education; the relationship between the form of presentation by the teacher of educational information and the reproducing activity of students; the presence in the teaching of the initial motives of the teacher and students, adequate to the goals and functions of teaching; mandatory one of the organizational forms of training; effectiveness in the form of a versatile influence on the personality of the student.

The second group distinguishes the training of a particular civilization, a specific social organism, i.e., the orientation of upbringing and education and the development of a person's personality; correlation of general education with the life of society; formation of socially valuable activity of the individual and its readiness for self-realization. The second group of properties meaningfully fills the first.

The third group signs of the learning process is due to a specific time and depends on the knowledge of the teacher, his civil and professional views and will.

The means of cognition and management of the learning process is its modeling. The teacher has ample space for creative concretization of methods, means and ways of designing and building the educational process in general and each lesson in particular.

The difficulty of establishing patterns in the learning process has led to attempts to overcome it by identifying aspects of the process for which these patterns can be formulated. Yu. K. Babansky identified (1983) the following didactic patterns:

1) the dependence of the learning process on social needs;

2) its connection with education, upbringing and development as sides of a holistic learning process;

3) dependence on the capabilities of students and external conditions.

LECTURE No. 30. Functions of the learning process

Training - this is a purposeful, organized process of interaction between a teacher and a student, during which the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities takes place. In training, all the most important, basic functions of the learning process are implemented or, at least, should be implemented:

1) educational;

2) developing;

3) educating.

The successful implementation of each function involves the solution of a certain group of learning tasks. The group of educational tasks includes the formation of knowledge, the development of specific skills and the accumulation of personal experience of practical work in a particular area of professional activity. Even a simple enumeration of tasks testifies to the ambiguity of the educational function, and the main duty of the teacher in the process of solving them is not to get carried away by one side of education.

Tasks of the general development of the student (educational function) lie in the plane of development of the intellectual, volitional and emotional spheres of a person, in the plane of the formation of skills in educational and cognitive activity and in the development of his various kinds of abilities and thoughtfully weighed needs.

In the center of the group of tasks of pedagogy concerning the second function - personal development in the learning process - there is a duty to ensure the development of the necessary qualities of economic, technical, moral thinking, effective techniques and methods of self-education, i.e., the ability to rationally learn and educate in students.

Educational function learning is associated with the solution of a group of problems of an educational nature. Here are the tasks of the highest social sounding - the formation of a mature worldview and the most important personal qualities that are formed in the process of moral and aesthetic influence, labor, legal, physical education, etc.

Of course, one cannot take one of the listed tasks separately and try only to solve it. All of them are interconnected and are realized in organic unity. For successful upbringing in the learning process (together with learning, simultaneously with it), some favorable conditions are required, the creation of which will have to work hard for the teacher. This is an effective positive motivation for learning activities (it can be expressed by the words "I really, really want to learn"); training at a high level of intellectual, volitional and even physical difficulties (the verbal formula is "learning, it turns out, is very difficult"); the saturation of all classes with positive emotional experiences (the formula is "it's hard to study, but very, very interesting, I like it"); a high degree of activity of students (the formula - "the one who is more active in learning wins more"); students' awareness of the meaning and essence of educational work and the need to learn on their own (the formula is "it is very necessary to learn, and actively, actively, and you can learn on your own").

Training - a two-way process, teaching and learning merge together. The leading and organizing role belongs to the teacher - the teacher. He also carries out one side of the learning process - teaching. The second side of this process is teaching, it is realized in the activities of students.

LECTURE No. 31. Structural elements of the learning process

The structural elements of the learning process are often called the stages of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities. We list the main structural elements.

Students' perception of the studied material. Mastering the studied material begins with its perception. The essence of this cognitive action lies in the fact that students, with the help of the senses, i.e. auditory, visual, tactile and olfactory sensations, perceive the external properties, features and signs of the objects and phenomena being studied. Perception is nothing more than a reflection in the human mind of the perceived external properties, qualities and signs of cognizable objects, phenomena, processes.

Understanding the studied material. The activity of students in understanding the material being studied and the formation of scientific concepts means the work of thought. This process includes the following mental operations:

1) analysis of the perceived properties and features of the studied objects and phenomena, recorded in the representations, according to the degree of their importance for revealing the essence of these objects and phenomena;

2) logical grouping of essential and non-essential features and properties of the studied objects and phenomena;

3) "mental" comprehension of the essence (causes and effects) of the studied objects, phenomena and the formulation of generalizing conclusions, concepts, laws and worldview ideas;

4) checking the validity, the truth of the conclusions drawn.

Ultimately, the result of students' understanding of the studied material is its understanding, awareness of the causes and consequences of cognizable objects, phenomena, processes and the formation of concepts.

In the process of comprehending the material being studied, students develop the ability to compare and analyze the phenomena being studied, to isolate their essential and non-essential features, as well as the ability to reason, to put forward hypotheses and theoretical generalizations, that is, mental development occurs.

Cognitive activity to memorize the studied material. Memorization of the studied material has nothing to do with its mechanical memorization. On the contrary, it should be based on a deep and comprehensive understanding and understanding of the acquired knowledge and contribute to the mental development of students. For mastering the studied material, the method of memorization is essential. As you know, memory is concentrated, which is carried out "in one sitting", and dispersedwhen the assimilation of the studied material is carried out in several stages and is dispersed in time. With concentrated memorization, knowledge passes into operational, short-term memory and is quickly forgotten. Dispersed memorization contributes to the transfer of knowledge into long-term memory. That is why in the learning process it is necessary to encourage students to use the methods of dispersed memorization.

Application of acquired knowledge in practice. An essential component of cognitive activity in the learning process is the application of acquired knowledge in practice, the development of students' creative abilities. Naturally, both skills and abilities and creative abilities are formed and developed in the process of organizing multiple exercises.

LECTURE No. 32. Laws and patterns of the learning process

Laws in pedagogy - these are the results of cognition of the learning process, expressed in certain theoretical postulates. Let's highlight the laws that are most clearly and clearly formulated and noted I. Ya. Lerner, V. I. Zagvyazinsky, Yu. K. Babansky, M. N. Skatkin and more

The law of social conditionality of goals, content and teaching methods. It reflects the influence of the social system, social relations on the educational process, helps to find clear guidelines in the preparation of curricula and programs.

The law of interdependence of training, education and activities of students. It reveals the relationship between students and the teaching staff, as well as the relationship between the ways of organizing the learning process and its results.

The law of unity and integrity of the pedagogical process. The law determines the use of rational methods in teaching, their correlation, considers the learning process as a holistic, single process, consisting of several components (meaningful, motivational, emotional, search, etc.).

The law of unity and interconnection of theory and practice in teaching. It reveals the ratio of theoretical and practical principles and methods in teaching, reveals the features of the practical activity of the teacher and its rationality.

The law of unity and interdependence of individual and group organization of educational activities. This law considers the relationship between classes with a class and an individual form of education, establishes certain rules and principles for the work of a teacher with a team and individual students.

Patterns in pedagogy is an expression of the operation of laws in specific conditions. Their peculiarity is that the regularities in pedagogy are probabilistic and statistical in nature, i.e. it is impossible to foresee all situations and accurately determine the manifestation of laws in the learning process.

Patterns are manifested and distinguished mainly on the basis of the empirical method, that is, empirically. There are two types patterns learning.

1. The external laws of the learning process characterize the dependence of learning on social processes and conditions.

2. The internal laws of the learning process establish links between its components: between goals, content, means, methods, forms. Suchregularities a lot in pedagogy. Here is some of them:

1) the teaching activity of the teacher is predominantly educational in nature. This regularity reveals the connection between education and upbringing;

2) there is a relationship between teacher-student interaction and learning outcomes. Following this pattern, the learning process cannot be successful if there is no holistic team of students and teachers, if there is no unity between them;

3) the strength of assimilation of educational material depends on the systematic direct and delayed repetition of what has been studied, on its inclusion in new material;

4) in the learning process, in addition to didactic laws, psychological, physiological, epistemological laws and patterns operate.

LECTURE No. 33. Improving the learning process

The improvement of the learning process occurs throughout the history of the development of pedagogy. At present, the most relevant aspects of this problem can be identified.

Student-centered approach to students. This trend is manifested today primarily in the emergence of private schools. Such schools, of course, do not always meet educational standards. However, there are certain positive qualities in private schools. For example, choreography, music, ethics, etc. are taught here. In addition, in any school, an individual plan is developed for each child. Often the level of a child's abilities is determined at the time of his admission to school and, based on it, an individual plan is formed. Such an approach to students requires great pedagogical professionalism. As soon as the teacher ceases to see the student as just a vessel that needs to be filled with knowledge and skills, he has to look for an individual approach to everyone, adapt to his interests, the pace of learning the material, and personal characteristics of the psyche. In general education schools, this approach is manifested in the extracurricular work of the teacher and the creative elements of the lesson worked out by the teacher.

Specialization in the early stages of education. An in-depth study of certain subjects has become a frequent occurrence in modern schools. Not only separate classes with in-depth study of literature, mathematics, chemistry, and so on, but also entire schools are being created. Such specialized schools are aimed at early "immersion" of the student in a particular science. The knowledge acquired in such schools is qualitatively higher than in general education schools. However, there is a danger of "one-sided" development of the student's personality. In this regard, many teachers deny the rationality of such training.

Informatization of the learning process. The computer is a new source of information. Its appearance and introduction into the learning process led to significant changes in the educational process, which are still ongoing. The computer executes the program that is embedded in it, and provides a huge selection of topics for study. Modern methods of presenting information in computers include not just text, but also pictures, video, sound fragments. This allows you to use almost all the senses used to perceive information, while duplicating it through various channels of perception, which dramatically increases the speed and quality of assimilation of the material. A computer textbook can no longer be compared with a book. Many educational programs cannot be distinguished from games, and in order to win in such a game, knowledge will be needed that it is difficult for a child to accept as necessary for him right now, because everyone tends to put off solving many problems until later. And such an element of modern computer documents as a hypertext link allows, if necessary, to go to any place in the document for additional information. It is also important that the computer allows you to organize the material in the form of diagrams, diagrams and others that students themselves can create. This increases the level of knowledge and develops logical thinking.

LECTURE No. 34. Principles of learning

The principles of the learning process are the basic requirements for the organization of education, which guide the teacher.

There are several fundamental principles of education:

1) the principle of developing and nurturing education;

2) the principle of consciousness and activity;

3) the principle of visibility;

4) the principle of systematicity and consistency;

5) the principle of scientific character;

6) the principle of accessibility;

7) the principle of strength;

8) the principle of the relationship between theory and practice;

9) the principle of completeness of the learning process.

The principle of developing and nurturing education aimed at achieving the goal of comprehensive development of the individual. For this you need:

1) pay attention to the personality of the student;

2) to teach the student to think causally.

The principle of conscious activity carried out subject to the following rules:

1) understanding the goals and objectives of the forthcoming work;

2) reliance on the interests of students;

3) fostering activity among students;

4) the use of problem-based learning;

5) development of independence in students.

The principle of visibility - training is carried out on specific samples perceived by students with the help of visual, motor and tactical sensations. In this case, you need:

1) use visual objects;

2) jointly produce teaching aids;

3) use technical teaching aids.

The principle of systematic and consistent. It meets the following requirements:

1) educational material should be divided into parts, blocks;

2) it is necessary to use structural and logical plans, schemes, tables;

3) there must be a logical lesson system;

4) it is necessary to apply generalizing lessons to systematize knowledge.

Scientific principle passes using the following rules:

1) training should take place on the basis of advanced pedagogical experience;

2) teaching should be aimed at developing a dialectical approach to the subjects studied among students;

3) it is necessary to use scientific terms;

4) it is necessary to inform students about the latest scientific achievements;

5) it is necessary to encourage research work.

The principle of accessibility is based on taking into account the age and individual characteristics of students in the learning process. For its implementation, the following rules must be observed:

1) organization of training with a gradual increase in the difficulty of the educational material;

2) taking into account the age characteristics of students;

3) accessibility, use of analogies.

Strength principle based on the following rules:

1) systematic repetition of educational material;

2) freeing the memory of students from secondary material;

3) the use of logic in teaching;

4) application of various norms and methods of knowledge control.

The principle of the relationship between theory and practice. To implement this principle, you should:

1) practice to prove the need for scientific knowledge;

2) inform students about scientific discoveries;

3) introduce the scientific organization of labor into the educational process;

4) teach students to apply knowledge in practice.

The principle of completeness of the learning process based on achieving maximum assimilation of the material. For a successful result you need:

1) after studying a major topic or section, check the assimilation of educational material by students;

2) use such training methods that allow you to achieve the desired results in a short period of time.

LECTURE No. 35. Teaching methods

Teaching method is a way of organizing the cognitive activity of students; a method of activity of the teacher and students, aimed at mastering the knowledge, skills and abilities of students, at the development of students and their upbringing. The teaching method is characterized by three features, it determines:

1) the purpose of training;

2) the method of assimilation;

3) the nature of the interaction of learning subjects.

Teaching methods - specific historical forms of obtaining knowledge, they change with changes in the goals and content of education. American educator K. Kerr identifies four "revolutions" in the field of teaching methods, depending on the predominant medium of instruction (1972):

1) the first was that the teacher-parents, who served as a model, gave way to professional teachers;

2) the second is connected with the replacement of the spoken word with the written one;

3) the third introduced the printed word into teaching;

4) the fourth, which is currently taking place, involves partial automation and computerization of education.

The assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity occurs at three levels:

1) conscious perception and memorization;

2) application of knowledge and methods of activity according to the model or in a similar situation;

3) creative application.

Teaching methods are designed to provide all levels of assimilation. The teaching methods in the practice of many teachers ensure the assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity mainly at the first two levels. The reason for the insufficient introduction of teaching methods that ensure the creative application of knowledge is the poor development of the theoretical concept of teaching methods.

Two more concepts are connected with the concept of "method": "means" and "reception".

Teaching aids are all devices and sources that help the teacher to teach and the student to learn, that is, that which helps him organize the cognitive activity of students. This is the word of the teacher, textbooks, manuals, books, reference literature, educational laboratories, teaching aids, etc. Reception is a detail of the method. For example, storytelling is a teaching method; the message of the plan is a method of activating attention, which contributes to the systematic perception.

Classifications of teaching methods are different.

Depending on how the student acts in learning, one can distinguish:

1) active methods - the student works independently (laboratory method, work with a book);

2) passive methods - students listen and watch (story, lecture, explanation, excursion).

The division of methods associated with the living word of the teacher, according to the source of transfer and acquisition of knowledge, includes:

1) verbal methods - work with the book, experiments, exercises;

2) practical methods - practical work, written answers.

According to the degree of development of independence in the cognitive activity of students, the following are distinguished:

1) explanatory and illustrative method - the student learns ready-made knowledge communicated to him in a variety of forms;

2) heuristic method - a method of partially independent discoveries made with the guiding role of the teacher;

3) research method - experimental work.

Classification by Yu. K. Babansky:

1) organization and implementation of cognitive activities;

2) methods of stimulation and motivation of cognitive activity;

3) methods of control and self-control.

LECTURE No. 36. Classification of teaching methods

There are several classifications of teaching methods. The most famous of them - classification by I. Ya. Lerner and M. N. Skatnin.

According to this classification by the nature of cognitive activity teaching methods are divided as follows:

1) on heuristic;

2) for research;

3) explanatory and illustrative;

4) problem ones;

5) on reproductive.

With the heuristic method of teaching The teacher organizes the search for new knowledge with the help of:

1) leading students to the formulation of the problem;

2) dividing the task into steps;

3) attracting students to participate in a heuristic conversation;

4) directing students to master the techniques of search actions.

With research method the teacher, together with the students, forms a task, during which the students master the methods of scientific knowledge. In this case, the following methods are used:

1) setting research tasks together with students;

2) organization of research activities of students;

3) directing students to find ways and techniques for solving problems.

With the explanatory-illustrated method the teacher transmits information to students in a "ready" form, using various teaching aids:

1) explanation;

2) message;

3) story.

With a problematic method The teacher creates and resolves difficult situations together with students. In this case, the following method must be used:

1) isolate from the educational material questions that can become the subject of a problem situation;

2) prepare a contradiction;

3) put yourself in the place of students to assess the situation;

4) determine ways to solve the problem situation.

With the reproductive method The teacher tries to get the students to memorize and then reproduce the educational material using the following methods:

1) a survey on previously studied material;

2) different types of exercises and demonstration of algorithms for their solution;

3) repeated reproduction of the studied material by students;

4) performance of exercises by students.

For didactic purposes teaching methods are divided into several types:

1) methods of acquiring new knowledge;

2) methods of formation of skills, skills and application of knowledge in practice;

3) methods for testing and evaluating knowledge, skills and abilities.

К group of acquisition methods new knowledge includes:

1) explanatory and illustrative method;

2) methods of oral presentation;

3) work with the book;

4) conversation;

5) research method;

6) problematic method;

7) heuristic method.

Group of formation methods skills and abilities are:

1) exercises;

2) practical work;

3) laboratory work.

К group of verification and evaluation methods knowledge and skills include:

1) oral control;

2) written control;

3) test tasks;

4) self-test;

5) mutual verification;

6) offset;

7) exam, etc.

The classification proposed Yu. K. Kabansky, is based on a cybernetic approach to the learning process and includes three groups of methods:

1) methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities;

2) methods of stimulation and motivation;

3) methods of control and self-control.

Method Functions training is divided as follows:

1) training;

2) developing;

3) motivational;

4) educational.

LECTURE No. 37. Methods of oral presentation

Basic methods of oral presentation:

1) explanation;

2) story;

3) lecture (school).

Common to all methods is that they are used primarily in the communication of new material.

Explanation - verbal interpretation of individual concepts, principles of operation of devices, visual aids, as well as words and terms. For example, a teacher resorts to explanation, bringing some unfamiliar visual aid to the lesson, the meaning of which must be explained for further presentation of new material. Sometimes this method can be used in reinforcement lessons, especially when the teacher sees that the students did not understand something. Today, this method of oral presentation is becoming the most commonly used. This is due to the fact that in the educational process, the independent form of work of students is of paramount importance.

Story (as a method) is a narrative form of revealing new material. Story - one of the most important methods of presenting systematic material. It should be noted that the teacher should prepare in advance for the story. The impact of the story on students will be maximum if the phrases are built accurately and clearly (i.e., in an accessible form of presentation). The emotional side of the story is also important: it expresses the teacher's interest in this problem and attracts students to study this issue.

There are certain requirements for the story:

1) it must not contain factual errors;

2) should include a sufficient number of vivid and convincing examples and facts proving the correctness of the put forward provisions;

3) be built according to a plan - be presented in such a way that the main idea is clear;

4) be presented in a simple and accessible language;

5) be emotional in form and content;

6) be visual, i.e. be combined with the use of visual aids.

A school lecture, in contrast to an explanation and a story, is characterized by greater rigor of presentation. Lectures are given only on major and fundamentally important issues and topics of the curriculum. Their goal is to summarize such information and data that cannot be obtained by students in processed form from other sources. The lecture is designed for the entire lesson and involves note-taking by students. This method is used only in high school. This is due to the fact that when preparing for a lecture, the teacher attracts additional literature that is not included in the school course. Sometimes these methods are accompanied by a demo method, which is a component of each of the methods discussed above. This method allows you to demonstrate real objects, all kinds of visual aids. There are certain rules and demonstration techniques:

1) the demonstrated object, if possible, should be perceived by different receptors;

2) the strongest impression on students should be made by those signs that are the most significant, which means that they (these signs) require special emphasis;

3) the displayed objects should be shown at the appropriate moment of the lesson in order to attract the necessary attention and achieve those educational and educational goals that the teacher has set for himself.

LECTURE No. 38. Visual and practical teaching methods

Visual methods are conditionally divided into two groups:

1) illustration method - showing students illustrative aids: posters, maps, sketches on the blackboard, paintings, portraits of scientists, etc. Illustrative aids can be made by students, as this contributes to better assimilation of the material;

2) demo method - demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, various preparations. It is also a screening of films and filmstrips. Educational television can be used: educational television films, television programs.

The classification of practical methods can be represented as follows:

Conversation is a question-answer method of teaching, which is applied at all stages of the learning process. It can be of several types:

1) a conversation used to communicate new knowledge;

2) a conversation used to consolidate knowledge;

3) a conversation to test and evaluate knowledge;

4) conversation while repeating the material covered.

There are certain requirements for this method:

1) the teacher's questions should be short and clear; they must be given in a logical sequence; should make the student think, remember something; the total number of questions should not be very large, but sufficient to achieve the didactic goal;

2) students' answers must be complete (especially in the lower grades), conscious and reasoned; should reflect the independence of thinking, should be accurate and clear, as well as literary correct;

3) requirements for the organization of the conversation: questions should be asked to the whole class, after which there should be a short pause, during which all students mentally prepare for the answer, and only after that give the name of any student.

In pedagogy, a conversation is characterized as a practical method, it is called a heuristic conversation, that is, a special type of conversation in which the teacher's skillfully posed questions help students find a solution to the problem on their own.

Disputes - discussion of certain issues. Most often it is a form of extracurricular work.

Tour - a source of new knowledge. It can be used to begin acquaintance with new material, or it serves as a means of consolidating and repeating the work carried out in the lesson.

Experiment and laboratory work - a method when students discover new things for themselves, applying their theoretical knowledge in practice. The effectiveness of these methods is determined by the quality of the equipment with which the students work, good instruction from the teacher, and the real significance of the experiment, not only for the study of any subject, but also for life.

Working with a textbook - assimilation of new material independently, using the necessary teaching aids. At the initial stage of carrying out this type of work, it is necessary to start with the method of explanatory reading.

Game It is a means of leisure, physical relaxation. It activates the process of involuntary memorization, increases interest in cognitive activity.

Exercises - the main method of consolidating knowledge and developing skills and abilities, as well as developing the mental abilities of students.

LECTURE #39

Developmental learning - direction in the theory and practice of education, focusing on the development of physical, cognitive and moral abilities of students through the use of their potential.

The foundations of the theory of developmental learning were laid L. S. Vygotsky in the 1930s when considering the issue of the relationship between training and development. The problems of development and learning from different positions sought to be solved F. Fröbel, A. Disterweg, K. D. Ushinsky. In the 30s. XNUMXth century German psychologist O. Seltz conducted an experiment that demonstrated the impact of education on the mental development of children.

When substantiating his hypothesis, L. S. Vygotsky outlined the content of the main genetic law of the development of human mental functions. This law was the basis of his concept. According to L. S. Vygotsky, any higher mental function in the development of a child appears twice - first as a collective, social activity, then as an individual activity, as an internal way of thinking of the child. In the 1960s-1980s. aspects of developmental education were studied in the field of pre-school education, primary and secondary education ( L. A. Wenger, T. A. Vlasova, V. I. Lubovsky, Z. I. Kalmykova, I. Ya. Lerner and etc.). The results obtained made it possible to substantiate the position on the essential role of education in the development of the child, to identify some specific psychological and pedagogical conditions for developing education.

In the late 1950s L. V. Zankov developed a new didactic system for developmental education based on interrelated principles:

1) training at a high level of difficulty;

2) the leading role of theoretical knowledge;

3) a high rate of learning the material;

4) students' awareness of the learning process;

5) systematic work on the development of all students.

These principles were concretized in the programs and methods of teaching grammar and spelling of the Russian language, reading, mathematics, history, natural history, drawing, and music to younger schoolchildren. The developmental effect of L.V. Zankov's system testified to the fact that traditional primary education, which cultivates in children the foundations of empirical consciousness and thinking, does this insufficiently and completely. L. V. Zankov noted that learning itself has a developing value: "The process of learning acts as a cause, and the process of development of a student - as a consequence." This provision lacked the idea of a mediating link between learning and development.

The team of D. B. Elkonin revealed the main psychological neoplasms of primary school age - this is educational activity and its subject, abstract-theoretical thinking, arbitrary behavior control. It was found that traditional primary education does not ensure the full development of these neoplasms in younger schoolchildren, does not create the necessary zones of proximal development, but only trains and consolidates those mental functions that basically arise in children as early as preschool age (sensory observation, empirical thinking , utilitarian memory, etc.). A system for teaching younger schoolchildren was developed, which created zones of proximal development, which eventually turned into the required neoplasms.

LECTURE No. 40. The essence of problem-based learning

Problem learning - training, in which the teacher, based on knowledge of the patterns of development of thinking, with special pedagogical means, works to form the mental abilities and cognitive needs of students in the learning process.

Problem-Based Learning Functions:

1) assimilation by students of a system of knowledge and methods of mental practical activity;

2) development of cognitive activity and creative abilities of students;

3) fostering the skills of creative assimilation of knowledge;

4) fostering the skills of creative application of knowledge and the ability to solve educational problems;

5) formation and accumulation of experience in creative activity.

The activity of the teacher in problem-based learning consists in explaining the content of the most complex concepts, systematically creating problem situations, communicating facts to students and organizing their educational and cognitive activities in such a way that, based on the analysis of facts, students independently draw conclusions and generalizations.

As a result, students develop:

1) skills of mental operations and actions;

2) knowledge transfer skills, etc.

There is a certain sequence of stages of productive cognitive activity of a person in a problem situation:

1) the emergence of a problem situation;

2) problematic situation;

3) understanding the essence of the difficulty and posing the problem;

4) search for ways to solve it by guessing, putting forward a hypothesis and substantiating it;

5) proof of the hypothesis;

6) checking the correctness of problem solving.

There are several types of problem situations:

1) the first type - a problem situation arises if students do not know how to solve the problem;

2) the second type - a problem situation arises when students encounter the need to use previously acquired knowledge in new conditions;

3) the third type - a problematic situation arises if there is a contradiction between the theoretically possible way to solve the problem and the practical impracticability of the chosen method;

4) the fourth type - a problematic situation arises when there are contradictions between the practically achieved result and the students' lack of knowledge for theoretical justification.

There are the following methods used in problem-based learning (system of methods M. N. Skatkina и AND . J. Lerner):

1) explanatory method - consists of a system of techniques, including the teacher's communication and generalization of the facts of a given science, their description and explanation;

2) reproductive method - is used to comprehend the assimilation of theoretical knowledge, to process skills and abilities, to memorize educational material, etc.;

3) practical method - is a combination of techniques for processing the skills of practical actions for the manufacture of objects, their processing in order to improve, involves activities related to technical modeling and design;

4) partial search method - is a combination of the perception of the teacher's explanations by the student with his own search activity for the performance of work that requires independent passage of all stages of the cognitive process;

5) research method - represents mental actions to formulate a problem and find ways to solve it.

LECTURE No. 41. Modern models of organization of learning

Modern models of organization of training include:

1) subject circles;

2) sections;

3) electives and electives;

4) excursions;

5) olympiads;

6) additional classes with students lagging behind in their studies;

7) exhibitions, etc.

They are an integral part of the learning process, complement, expand the main forms of educational work and are called extracurricular or extracurricular forms, as they take place in a more relaxed atmosphere compared to the lesson.

Subject mugs - contribute to the development of creative abilities and cognitive activity of students. Their content is varied:

1) design;

2) modeling;

3) in-depth study of individual subjects;

4) questions of culture and art, etc.

Electives and electives have the goal of developing the cognitive interests and abilities of students, expanding and deepening knowledge, acquiring new skills and abilities. Their organization is usually agreed with the parents of the students. The content of optional classes is determined by special curricula, coordinated with the programs of compulsory subjects.

Excursions allow students to observe the studied objects in their natural form and natural environment, which ensures the implementation of an important didactic principle - the connection between theory and practice.

There are several types of excursions:

1) preliminary;

2) introductory;

3) current;

4) final;

5) final;

6) production;

7) historical;

8) local history;

9) complex, etc.

For a successful tour, the following rules must be observed:

1) preparation of the teacher for the excursion (preliminary acquaintance of the teacher with the object);

2) drawing up a plan for the excursion (determining the route, range of interests, time);

3) definition of tasks for students (collection of herbariums, etc.);

4) briefing students (on safety, on the nature of the work, etc.);

5) processing of collected materials and observations (preparation of albums, wall newspapers, reports, essays).

Excursions for primary school children are of particular importance. They contribute to the development of observation and teach students to approach the holistic study of phenomena.

Additional classes for lagging students are usually organized for a small group of students and are voluntary or mandatory extracurricular activities outside of school hours. They help to prevent the backlog and poor progress of students, to conduct individual educational work with the student.

For the effectiveness of additional classes with lagging behind, it is necessary:

1) establish the reasons for the lag of each student;

2) outline the forms and scope of work with the student.

Olympics occupy one of the leading places in the educational activities of schoolchildren. There are several types of Olympiads, interconnected with each other:

1) school;

2) district;

3) urban;

4) regional;

5) all-Russian;

6) international.

The best students of the school participate in the Olympiads, which are held in various subjects.

LECTURE #42

Block-modular learning - a method of teaching, in which the content of the educational material and the organization of its study is in modules.

Modules are logically completed parts of the content of educational material to be studied over a certain period of time.

Block-modular learning allows you to simply process and update educational material, evaluate the student's creative potential, his ability to independently acquire new knowledge.

Block-modular training is used in higher education institutions, where training modules are:

1) term papers;

2) theses;

3) electives;

4) special courses;

5) special workshops, etc.

The introduction of block-modular learning requires:

1) changes in the organization of work of students;

2) development of appropriate didactic support;

3) preparation of the laboratory base;

4) organization of the knowledge control system.

Structural elements of the training module:

1) information support - implemented in the form of lectures, practical, independent and laboratory work;

2) didactic support - an automated database, a package of applied programs;

3) basic component - a group of interrelated fundamental concepts of the discipline;

4) variable part - allows you to change and update the content without reducing the quality of training;

5) practical support - practical recommendations for the use of the acquired skills, knowledge and abilities during internship, graduation design, etc.;

The content of each module must take into account certain requirements:

1) the content should ensure the achievement of didactic goals by each student;

2) educational material should be presented as a relatively complete block with a single content;

3) it is necessary to use various methods and forms of training.

Control systemused in block-modular learning has its own characteristics:

1) semester control is replaced by rating control (carrying out rating control helps to determine the student's rating in any subject, helps to understand what level of knowledge the student is at. All types of educational activities are evaluated in points, the student's goal is to score the maximum number of points, which in total determine the integral index);

2) the role of intermediate, current control (practical, course and examination papers) is increasing.

The benefits of modular learning include:

1) implementation of the principles of consciousness and activity in learning;

2) flexibility of the module structure;

3) consistency in determining the course content;

4) strengthening the student's motivation and interest in learning outcomes, the development of self-discipline and self-esteem;

5) stimulation of uniform educational work of trainees;

6) improvement of the psychological climate;

7) ensuring effective control over the course of the educational process;

8) reduction of terms of studying disciplines;

9) individualization of the learning process, etc.

LECTURE No. 43. Programmed and computer learning

Programmed learning is a relatively independent and individual assimilation of knowledge and skills according to the training program with the help of information tools.

The theory of programmed learning appeared in the early 60s. XNUMXth century in the USA on the basis of the achievements of cybernetics and gave impetus to the development of teaching technology, the development of the theory and practice of technically complex teaching systems.

In traditional education, the work of a student who reads the full text of a textbook is not regulated. A distinctive feature of programmed learning is the management of the student's learning activities with the help of a training program, which is understood as an ordered sequence of recommendations (tasks) that are transmitted using a didactic machine and performed by the student.

Programmed learning allows you to individualize the pace of learning, activate the independent work of students, and constantly monitor the assimilation of the material.

At the heart of programmed learning are the following principles:

1) the training material is divided into closely related fragments (parts, steps);

2) activation of the cognitive activity of students studying the programmed fragment;

3) taking into account the individual characteristics of each student, etc.

Thanks to these principles, in programmed learning, a systematic, constant feedback appears between the teacher and the student, on the basis of which they improve themselves.

Currently, several varieties have been developed programs in programmed learning:

1) linear - is based on the principle of small steps and immediate confirmation of the answer, and the gradual increase in its difficulty. The program involves the assimilation of information according to a single scheme;

2) branched - is built on the principle of division into parts, after each dose of information there is a question that puts the student in front of the need to independently choose the correct answer among several erroneous ones. After specifying the answer, the correctness of its choice is checked. This program implies the individualization of the pace of learning, depending on the preparedness of the student;

3) mixed - represents various combinations of linear and branched programs.

One of the modern teaching aids with unique capabilities is the computer.

computer training has replaced programmed learning and is widely used for testing, teaching, developing cognitive interests and abilities.

At the heart of computer learning is a training program, represented by a sequence of mental actions and operations.

At present, a huge number of computer programs have been developed. They are designed for different age categories of students, designed to activate the cognitive process, develop the imagination and mental abilities of students.

LECTURE #44

Compensatory education classes are created for children of the "risk group" (mostly children with mental retardation of constitutional, psychogenic, somatogenic origin). Such classes have been created (since 1992) at the initial stage of education in two versions: grades 1-3 (3 years of study) and grades 1-4.

Features of the learning process are determined by the nature of the disease in children. The main category of students in the classes of compensatory education are children with mental retardation (MPD). ZPR - this is a variant of mental dysontogenesis, which includes both cases of slow mental development (delay in the rate of mental development), and relatively persistent states of immaturity of the emotional-volitional sphere and intellectual insufficiency that does not reach the degree of dementia. The process of development of cognitive abilities in mental retardation is often complicated by various mild, but often persistent neuropsychiatric disorders (neurotic, neurosis-like, etc.), which disrupt the child's intellectual performance. The reasons for the occurrence of RPD are:

1) organic insufficiency of the nervous system, often of a residual nature, due to the pathology of pregnancy and childbirth;

2) chronic somatic diseases;

3) constitutional (hereditary) factors;

4) unfavorable conditions of upbringing (poor care, neglect, etc.).

The international classifications of diseases of the 9th and 10th revisions give more generalized definitions of these conditions: "specific mental retardation" and "specific mental retardation", including partial (partial) underdevelopment of certain prerequisites of intelligence with subsequent difficulties in the formation of school skills ( reading, writing, counting). In this regard, it is necessary to develop special textbooks, special methods and types of teaching, etc.

It is important that the child's mental retardation is detected at the earliest stage of its development. Diagnosis of mental retardation and identification of children of the "risk group" is possible in the early stages due to the slowdown in the rate of development of motor skills, speech, the untimeliness of changing the phases of play activity, increased emotional and motor excitability, impaired attention and memory, with difficulties in mastering the program of the kindergarten preparatory group.

Compensatory education classes are not suitable for mentally retarded children. There is a significant difference between mental retardation and oligophrenia: mental retardation is characterized not by totality, but by a mosaic of brain function disorders, that is, the insufficiency of some functions while others are preserved, the discrepancy between potential cognitive abilities and real school achievements.

Types of corrective assistance, typical for classes of compensatory education:

1) actualization of the motive of action, creation of emotional game situations;

2) organization of attention and strengthening of speech control;

3) reducing the volume and pace of work;

4) formation of arbitrary forms of activity;

5) training of functionally immature and weakened functions (fine motor skills, visual-spatial and auditory perception, auditory-speech memory, auditory-motor and visual-motor coordination, etc.).

Children are enrolled in such classes only with the consent of their parents.

LECTURE No. 45. Teaching "difficult" children

The very term "difficult child" can be understood ambiguously, it has at least two meanings.

The category of "difficult" children includes students with unfavorable family living conditions.

The category of "difficult" children includes students with dysgraphia (writing violation) and dyslexia (reading disorder).

In this regard, we can talk about two different methods of teaching each of the above groups of students.

A social pedagogue works at the school to help "difficult children". He works not only with children, but also with their parents. It is important that gradually the child himself realizes the need to communicate with a social pedagogue. It is not recommended to separate "difficult" children from the main team. This will worsen their morally oppressed state, it will be even more difficult to find a common language with them. In addition to the social educator, each teacher should oversee his class and take care of the successful learning of each student.

The founder of the method of teaching "difficult" children is considered Maria Montessori (1870-1952) - Italian doctor and teacher. With the help of a number of peculiar tasks and skillful application of the principle of self-development, she managed to successfully influence the development of mentally retarded children with whom she studied, that by the time they entered school, they even surpassed normal children in their development. Recently, the interest of parents and educators in the works of Maria Montessori has increased. The methods developed by her, based on long-term observations of the activities of children, create unique conditions for the development of motor skills, the accumulation of rich sensory experience, and its gradual generalization by the child himself. The development of the baby occurs in the most natural way - through the innate desire for movement and independent handling of various materials. The motto of Maria Montessori's pedagogy can be considered the words of a child addressed to an adult: "Help me do it myself." Thanks to the development of fine motor skills, the overall development of the child is significantly accelerated, the foundations for learning to read and write are laid, and speech improves. Part of the exercises comes from everyday household chores (caring for flowers, pouring water, cleaning metal things). The child acquires an invaluable experience of free, independent, conscious behavior in the world around him, his independence and self-confidence grow. Today, this method is used not only for children with developmental delays ("difficult" children "), but also for normally developing children. One of the most important differences in the teaching method of Maria Montessori is the role of the teacher in the educational process. The task of the Montessori teacher is to help the child to organize his activities, go his own unique way, develop and realize his potential to the fullest extent, help to cope with the problems that have arisen.Special pedagogical techniques that Montessori teachers must learn are very important.There is no class-lesson system in the Montessori method, instead of school desks - light portable tables and chairs, as well as rugs on which they practice on the floor.The Montessori teacher is not the center of the class, as in a traditional school.He does not sit at the table, but spends time in individual lessons with children.

LECTURE No. 46. Education of gifted children

The education of gifted, talented children is one of the areas of differentiation of education, the main goal of which is to study and encourage the education of people with special abilities.

The concept of "gifted child" includes the following criteria:

1) the ability of the child to achieve excellent results in the intellectual and creative fields;

2) possession of extraordinary psychomotor and social abilities.

Briefly giftedness is a high level of development of any abilities.

Russian scientist V. Yurkevich formulates three main types of giftednesswhich should be taken into account in a comprehensive school:

1) academic talent (a pronounced ability to learn);

2) intellectual giftedness (the ability to think by analyzing, comparing facts);

3) creative talent (non-standard thinking and vision of the world).

With all the differences, V. Yurkevich believes, gifted children are united by a cognitive need, which manifests itself in a thirst for new knowledge and mental work. Other typical signs:

1) the desire and ability to communicate with adults;

2) increased emotionality;

3) sense of humor;

4) special speech.

In pedagogical science, there is the concept of "early schoolchildren" - these are children who begin school at the age of five, more capable than their other peers. They start earlier and complete the course more successfully. There is a known case when a nine-year-old student from a school for talented people in Nice (France) in 1987 BC were awarded a certificate of education, which is usually received by a graduate of a unified college.

In addition to "schools for five-year-olds", the following are organized:

1) the so-called "advanced classes" in ordinary schools;

2) special seminars for the gifted;

3) special pedagogical events for talented children.

There is a dispute over the organization of the education of the gifted: it is proposed to educate talented children in a regular school or in special educational institutions. Supporters of the latter point of view believe:

1) schools are needed where they know the problems of the gifted, where they can really teach and educate children based on the uniqueness of each child;

2) education in such schools should be not only interesting, but also more complex and intense than in ordinary schools;

3) needed специалисты work with gifted children;

4) a policy of targeted identification and training of talented students is objectively necessary, as it encourages the future color of the nation.

According to scientists, in each age group, from 3% to 8% of schoolchildren have outstanding abilities and talents. However, they are not always encouraged. In the typical classroom, gifted children achieve success without much effort, and then stop in their development or move forward not as noticeably as they could. Often teachers do not pay special attention to them, and parents are not able to provide non-standard education.

The specific qualities of a teacher involved in the education of children with high intellectual or creative abilities are:

1) enthusiasm;

2) self-confidence;

3) the ability to help the student and predict his success;

4) passion;

5) the mentor of the talented must have flexible professional thinking;

6) be open to communication;

7) be able to arouse interest in the subject;

8) be able to protect his student.

LECTURE No. 47. Typology and diversity of educational institutions

All educational institutions according to the direction and content of the work can be divided into several types.

According to organizational and legal forms, there are:

1) state;

2) non-state (private, public, religious);

3) municipal educational institutions.

Russia has the following types of educational institutions:

1) preschool;

2) mass, public schools (primary, basic and secondary education);

3) institutions of vocational education (middle and higher level);

4) boarding schools;

5) specialized schools for children with developmental disabilities, etc.

To preschool educational institutions relate:

1) kindergartens;

2) nurseries;

3) development centers, etc.

They are engaged in the strengthening, development and necessary correction of the mental, mental, physical abilities of children aged 1 to 6 years.

Educational institutions are represented by:

1) schools;

2) gymnasiums;

3) lyceums.

In them, students acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for further continuation of education, master the basics of a cultural and healthy lifestyle, etc.

The structure of the general education school includes:

1) initial;

2) average;

3) high school.

Lyceums and gymnasiums differ from ordinary schools in a more serious approach to the study of various subjects.

Vocational education institutions are divided into the following types:

1) institutions of primary vocational education - train specialists in certain professions on the basis of secondary general education;

2) institutions of secondary vocational education - train mid-level specialists on the basis of general or primary vocational education;

3) institutions of higher professional education - train various specialists on the basis of secondary and secondary professional education;

4) institutions of postgraduate professional education - train specialists with scientific, pedagogical qualifications on the basis of higher professional education.

The system of special correctional educational institutions was created with the aim of providing education, education and treatment of children and adolescents with various deviations of psychophysical health.

Persons with disabilities are persons with physical and mental disabilities that prevent the assimilation of educational programs without creating special conditions for education.

The main categories of children with special educational needs:

1) children with hearing impairment;

2) with visual impairment;

3) with impaired speech;

4) with a violation of the musculoskeletal system (ICP);

5) with mental retardation;

6) with mental retardation;

7) with a violation of behavior and communication (psychopathic forms, with deviations in the emotional-volitional sphere, early childhood autism);

8) with complex disorders of psychophysical development.

For such students, special conditions for training, education, educational programs, teaching methods, individual technical teaching aids, medical and social services have been developed.

LECTURE No. 48. Author's schools

Author's school is an experimental educational institution, whose activities are based on the leading psychological, pedagogical and organizational and managerial concepts developed by an individual author or a group of authors. Such schools are a phenomenon of innovative educational practice in Russia at the end of the 1980th century. The term "author's school" has been used since the late 1992s. Their appearance and development is associated with the decentralization of education management in Russia, overcoming the uniformity of educational institutions and the proclamation of the principle of their autonomy as a principle of state policy in the field of education (Law on Education of the Russian Federation. XNUMX).

The differences between the author's school and the traditional one are contained in the concepts and practice of the author's school. The concepts of the author's schools are based on opposing the practice of the traditional school, its criticism and proving the advantages of new approaches over the known ones. A distinctive feature author's school - its creation on the basis of a previously developed original (hence - the author's school) conceptual project. Both scientists and practitioners act as creators of author's schools.

Author's schools are known, as a rule, by two types of names:

1) by the names of their creators - "the school of V. A. Karakovsky", "the school of E. A. Yamburg";

2) according to the generalizing names of philosophical and psychological-pedagogical ideas that underlie the educational system of the school: "school of dialogue of cultures" V. S. Bibler, S. Yu. Kurganov, "school of developmental learning" ( V. V. Davydov), "school of self-determination" ( A. N. Tubelsky) and etc.

The term "author's school" is also applied to well-known educational institutions of the past decades ("the school of A. S. Makarenko", "the school of V. A. Sukhomlinsky", etc.).

Consider, for example, "the school of A. S. Makarenko." He created two exemplary pedagogical institutions - a colony named after A. M. Gorky and the commune named after F. E. Dzerzhinsky. Thousands of offenders and homeless children entered the colony and commune, whose lives had to be organized. Therefore, the path of A. S. Makarenko as a teacher-thinker is inseparable from the path of a teacher-practitioner.

The main contribution of A. S. Makarenko to pedagogical science was the theory of the educational team developed by him. He called the pedagogically expediently organized group of children an educational collective. A. S. Makarenko was engaged in the construction of such a team both in the commune named after F. E. Dzerzhinsky and in the colony named after A. M. Gorky. Ultimately, the teacher ensured that the children's and youth team lived and acted independently, relying on the "tacit" laws of their community. Such a team was organized from detachments formed according to the interests of the guys and their commanders. Due to the fact that the commanders changed every 2-3 weeks, each pupil had a chance to visit this place more than once and learn how to cope with the corresponding duties.

The role of the teacher (leader) - this is the role of the organizer, whose task is to properly organize the children's life, the children's team and correctly manage its life. In the commune headed by A. S. Makarenko, any pupil could "argue" with the head of the commune himself.

LECTURE No. 49. Forms of education

Form of organization of training - specially organized activities of the teacher and students, proceeding according to the established order and in a certain mode.

There are two main forms of organization of training.

1. Individual-group training system. Admission to schools with this form of education was carried out at any time of the year; with new students were engaged individually (except for group classes).

2. Classroom system. This system assumes a constant composition of the group, students of the same age and accepted for teaching at the same time.

In the conditions of the classroom-lesson system of education, it is important to remember about individualization of learning. The overall effectiveness of the entire learning process can only be achieved when the maximum efficiency in the work of each individual student is ensured so that each student can successfully fulfill the requirements of the program.

The main form of individualization of education is the organization of additional classes with lagging behind or, conversely, brilliant (talented) children.

Currently, general education schools use the class-lesson form of education. A lesson is defined as a logically complete integral element in the educational process, in which the goal, content, means and methods of teaching are presented in a complex interaction, the personality and skill of the teacher, the individual and age characteristics of students are manifested, the goals and objectives of training, education and development are realized. .

General requirements for the lesson can be divided into three groups:

1) didactic (or educational);

2) educational;

3) organizational.

The preparation of the teacher for the lesson can be divided into two large stages.

1. Lesson planning. A thematic plan is drawn up - a reflection of the unity and interconnection of all forms of organization in this subject. The teacher identifies the main educational goals and goals for the development of students, the achievement of which can be ensured by organizing the assimilation by students of the material of this section or topic. Here, the concepts introduced in the lesson are specially considered and the general sequence of their introduction is outlined. Selected illustrative material. The structure of the lesson and the methods by which didactic tasks will be solved are specified. As a result of such work, a basic outline (or detailed plan) of the lesson should be written, reflecting the main points in the lesson.

2. Analysis and self-assessment of the lesson. The analysis should be carried out before the lesson, when the outline of the lesson is prepared: the teacher thinks over whether everything has been taken into account when preparing for the lesson. Self-assessment, on the other hand, is based on the analysis of the lesson already conducted, when the teacher analyzes the lesson plan he has planned and looks at what he succeeded and what did not succeed. The following list of questions for self-analysis and self-assessment of the lesson is recommended: the general structure of the lesson, the implementation of the main didactic goal of the lesson, the implementation of development in the learning process, education in the process of the lesson, compliance with the basic principles of didactics, the choice of teaching methods, the work of the teacher in the lesson, the work of students in the lesson, hygienic conditions of the lesson. Some tasks are related to school-wide settings, innovations, decisions of the teachers' council, etc.

LECTURE No. 50. Class-lesson system

There are several forms of organization of training:

1) individual;

2) individual-group;

3) collective;

4) class-lesson.

Individual form - the oldest form of organization of education. It implied a separate education of the child at home, while the help of the teacher was only indirect. The lack of attention of the teacher is a significant disadvantage of this form of education.

Individual-group form. The essence of this educational process is as follows: the teacher deals with a group of students, but their level of training is different, so you have to explain the material individually, spending extra time on each individual student, therefore, this system was uneconomical and also could not meet all the requirements in education.

Gradually, the concept began to take shape. collective learning, which was first tested in fraternal schools in Ukraine and Belarus. From this concept, the class-lesson system of education arose, which was theoretically substantiated by a Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670). According to his scientific developments, the following can be distinguished features of the classroom system:

1) the main basis of the system is the class, which includes a set of students of approximately the same age and maintains a constant composition throughout the entire period of study;

2) the basis of the learning process is the lesson. It provides knowledge and skills of students on one separate topic, subject;

3) the main activity in the lesson belongs to the teacher, who manages the work in the lesson, evaluates the achievements of students and decides on the transfer of students to the next class.

К structural features class-lesson system include:

1) school day;

2) academic quarter;

3) academic year;

4) study holidays;

5) lesson schedule.

The lesson of the class-lesson system includes the following components of the educational process:

1) the content of the lesson;

2) the purpose of the lesson;

3) methods and means;

4) didactic elements of the lesson;

5) the activities of the teacher in the organization of educational work.

classroom the system has existed for about three centuries.

During this time, it was subjected to a thorough analysis. The following can be noted positive aspects this system:

1) economy of training;

2) interaction of students and assistance to each other;

3) a clear structure of the lesson;

4) the dominant role of the teacher, who competently manages the learning process;

5) in the process of individual-collective communication between a teacher and students, the latter master skills, knowledge and develop the ability to communicate with other people, with each other;

6) the process of improving the pedagogical skills of the teacher is carried out, there is a two-way development;

7) a student acquiring new knowledge and a teacher.

In the class-lesson system, there are also a number of shortcomings:

1) the teacher is often forced to take into account the individual abilities of individual students, which slows down the pace of learning for the whole class;

2) a single curriculum is designed for everyone and does not always take into account the individual abilities of students, which creates difficulties for underdeveloped students and does not encourage especially gifted students.

LECTURE No. 51. Lesson as the main form of work at school

The lesson is a collective form of learning, which has the following features:

1) permanent composition of students;

2) a stable time frame for classes (each lesson lasts 45 minutes);

3) a pre-arranged schedule and organization of educational work on the same material.

The main types of lessons, characterized by certain methodological features, are:

1) mixed lessons, or combined;

2) lessons in presenting new material;

3) lessons for consolidating the studied material;

4) lessons of repetition, systematization and generalization of the studied material;

5) lessons for checking and evaluating knowledge, skills and abilities.

Non-standard, innovative forms of lessons are also widely used:

1) lessons-seminars;

2) conferences;

3) role-playing games;

4) integrated lessons.

mixed, or combined, lessons combine different goals and types of educational work:

1) work on the material covered;

2) comprehension and assimilation of a new topic;

3) development of practical skills and abilities.

In accordance with this, the following structural components (stages) are usually distinguished in a mixed lesson:

1) organizing students for classes;

2) re-training work;

3) work on understanding and assimilation of new material;

4) work on the formation of skills and abilities to apply knowledge in practice;

5) homework.

Lessons of presentation of new material by the teacher are devoted to working on new material and are carried out mainly in the middle and senior grades, when studying voluminous and complex material.

Structure of this lesson:

1) organizing students for classes;

2) setting goals for the lesson;

3) short survey;

4) homework.

Lessons to consolidate the studied material and develop practical knowledge and skills are held in all classes after studying certain topics or sections of the curriculum and are aimed at repeating the material covered in order to better comprehend and assimilate it, to develop practical skills and abilities.

Lessons of repetition, systematization and generalization of the material studied are related to the repetition of major sections of the curriculum and are held immediately after studying the topic or at the end of the academic year. The specifics of these lessons are as follows:

1) the teacher, in order to repeat, systematize and generalize the knowledge of students, highlights the key issues of the program, the assimilation of which is crucial for mastering the subject;

2) review lectures, conversations and oral questioning, exercises to repeat and deepen practical skills and abilities can serve as teaching methods.

Lessons-seminars and lessons-conferences are usually held in high school and have a number of features:

1) the teacher develops questions for students in advance on a specific topic of the seminar lesson and determines the necessary time for its preparation;

2) work on the preparation of the seminar is carried out by the students independently with the help of the literature indicated by the teacher;

3) unlike lessons-seminars, lessons-conferences are devoted to the most significant and generalizing issues arising from the study of several related topics. These lessons are designed to deepen and enrich the knowledge of students.

Knowledge testing and assessment lessons are held after the study of major topics or sections of the curriculum. They use various types of oral questioning and written tests.

LECTURE No. 52. The structure of lessons of different types

The structure of the lesson is of fundamental importance in the theory and practice of the modern lesson, since it determines the effectiveness and efficiency of learning. As lesson elements distinguish the following components:

1) learning new material;

2) homework;

3) knowledge control;

4) generalization and systematization of knowledge;

5) consolidation of the material covered.

Some educators tend to highlight also:

1) the purpose of the lesson;

2) the content of the material;

3) teaching methods and techniques;

4) ways of organizing educational activities.

The elements of the lesson are numerous, but the methods and forms of teaching, technical means, knowledge control methods, the purpose of the lesson are not its components.

For a long time, the structure of the lesson was associated with a constant, frozen scheme. combined lesson:

1) checking and repeating the knowledge and skills of students (checking homework);

2) focusing students' attention on the knowledge and skills that may be needed to learn new material;

3) the teacher's explanation of new material and the organization of the work of students aimed at mastering and comprehending the knowledge gained;

4) the initial consolidation of the studied material in students, the development of their skills and abilities in the application of this material;

5) determination of homework and briefing on how to do it;

6) evaluating the work of some students, summing up the lesson, marking.

This lesson plan has its drawbacks:

1) does not give teachers room for creative activity;

2) requires a clear regulation of the time allotted for different stages of the lesson (for questioning the material covered, introducing a new one, consolidating it, summing up.

Teacher M. I. Makhmutov believes that the structure of the lesson should take into account:

1) patterns of the learning process;

2) patterns of the assimilation process;

3) patterns of independent mental activity of students;

4) types of activities of the teacher and students as external forms of manifestation of the essence of the pedagogical process.

The main elements of the lesson, which reflect all these patterns, are:

1) formation and updating of new concepts and methods of action;

2) application of what has been learned.

All components should be a single system - a lesson. At the same time, the lesson will be effective and informatively complete only when the teacher clearly understands that all components of the lesson are interconnected.

Thanks to the above components, a favorable atmosphere is created in the lesson for:

1) assimilation by students of the necessary material;

2) activation of mental activity;

3) formation of students' knowledge, skills and abilities, development of their intellectual abilities.

Components can be swapped (for example, at the beginning of the lesson there may not be a repetition of the lesson, but the introduction of new concepts), but they must be interconnected.

This approach to the structure of the lesson allows you to:

1) eliminate the uniformity of its conduct;

2) make the lesson interesting for students;

3) increase the cognitive activity and activity of students in the classroom;

4) to show the teacher their creative abilities and improve pedagogical skills.

The main aspect of choosing the structure of the lesson is the skill of the teacher. It depends on him whether the next lesson will be an exact copy of the previous one or whether it will be non-traditional, interesting.

LECTURE No. 53. Extra-curricular work of the teacher

The term "extracurricular work" most often, educational work is indicated, which is carried out by the class teacher and subject teachers with students of their school after school. There is also the concept of "out-of-school work", which refers to educational work carried out by special out-of-school institutions.

Extra-curricular educational work actively contributes to ensuring the continuity of the educational process. At the moment, there are several of the most general principles of extracurricular work. One of them is voluntariness in choosing the forms and direction of these studies. It is very important that any type of activity in which the student is involved should have a social orientation. The work that a student is engaged in should be necessary and useful either to society, or to his peers, or to parents, etc. It is very important to rely on the initiative and initiative of students, especially in a school where teachers, trying to help students, take almost all the work to myself. It is desirable that students be involved in active, including search activities related to finding the necessary materials, sources of obtaining them for extracurricular activities. It is desirable that in extracurricular activities there are elements of romance and play, so that they are accompanied by colorfulness and emotionality. One of the important points is the clear organization of extracurricular activities. It should be noted that an important principle of such work is the principle of covering all students, so that the participants in extracurricular activities are not only class leaders and activists, but also the rest of the students. It is important that every child is able to express themselves outside the classroom.

There are several main types of extracurricular activities:

1) lectures on a variety of topics. These may be questions of science, technology, literature, art, lectures on "intimate" topics; thematic evenings, which are primarily educational and dedicated to any one special topic. For example, an evening dedicated to the love lyrics of M. I. Tsvetaeva, or an evening dedicated to the work of Rembrandt;

2) debates, evenings of questions and answers on certain topics, more often on social or moral topics. Students from other schools can also be invited to such evenings;

3) competitions, reviews, olympiads, tournaments, festivals etc. For example, subject Olympiads are a very important means of developing interest in knowledge (the spirit of competition is a certain incentive for this). Preparation for events of this kind is always a creative process in which students must actively participate;

4) organization of exhibitions. These can be exhibitions of handicrafts or thematic stands-exhibitions ("New opportunities for the Internet", "Studying abroad"), or exhibitions-reports about trips and excursions, etc.;

5) excursion - one of the types of extracurricular educational work. These can be excursions such as a trip to a museum, to any enterprise, to a theater, to a library, etc. Excursions have not only educational, but also educational value. Often they are conducted by subject teachers in connection with the study of the next topics and sections of the course.

LECTURE No. 54. Lecture as a form of education

Лекция - one of the methods of oral presentation of the material. When working with older students, teachers have to verbally present a significant amount of new knowledge on certain topics, spending 20-30 minutes of a lesson on this, and sometimes the entire lesson. The presentation of such material is carried out with the help of a lecture.

The word "lecture" is of Latin origin and translated into Russian means "reading". The tradition of presenting material by verbatim reading of a pre-written text dates back to medieval universities. However, in England it is still considered obligatory for a university professor to come to class with the text of a lecture and use it when presenting material to students. In other countries, this tradition has lost its meaning, and the concept of "lecture" means not so much the reading of a pre-prepared text as a specific method of explaining the material being studied. In this sense, a lecture should be understood as such a method of teaching, when the teacher for a relatively long time orally presents a significant amount of educational material, using the methods of enhancing the cognitive activity of students.

Since a lecture is one of the methods of verbal presentation of knowledge by a teacher, the question arises of its difference from a story and an explanation. There are several answers to this question.

The lecture differs from the story in that the presentation here is not interrupted by addressing the students with questions.

A lecture, compared with a story and an explanation, is characterized by a greater scientific rigor of presentation.

The lecture does not cease to be a lecture from the fact that the teacher turns to the students with a question in the course of the presentation (explanation) of the material. On the contrary, sometimes it is useful to put a question in front of students, to make them think, in order to activate their attention and thinking. On the other hand, the statement that a lecture differs from a story in greater scientific rigor or accuracy cannot be recognized as correct, since the scientific nature of the presentation is the most important requirement for all teaching methods. The exact and correct answer to this question still exists.

The only thing honors lecture from the story and explanation lies in the fact that the lecture is used to present more or less voluminous educational material, and therefore it takes up almost the entire lesson. Naturally, this is connected not only with a certain complexity of the lecture as a teaching method, but also with a number of its specific features.

An important point in the lecture is to prevent the passivity of students and ensure their active perception and understanding of new knowledge. Two didactic conditions are of decisive importance in solving this problem:

1) firstly, the very presentation of the material by the teacher must be scientifically meaningful, lively and interesting in form;

2) secondly, in the process of oral presentation of knowledge, it is necessary to apply special pedagogical techniques that excite the mental activity of schoolchildren and help maintain their attention.

One of these methods is creating a problem situation. The simplest thing in this case is a fairly clear definition of the topic of the new material and the selection of the main issues that students need to understand.

LECTURE No. 55. Seminars, trainings and debates as one of the forms of work of a teacher

Seminars, trainings and debates are forms of work of a teacher with high school students. All of them involve the active participation of students, their work not only in the classroom, but also at home.

The training is different in that it is based on the psychological aspect - the ability to work in a group. There are many types of practical training that share a common quality - in all of them, the participants perform activities other than daily learning activities. Let's name the main objectives of the training:

1) identification of problem nodes. The most common are problems related to the human factor and the structure of the class organization. By evaluating students in an "out of work" situation, it is easier to identify which personality traits are more pronounced, how this affects interaction and the effectiveness of task completion;

2) development of a communication system among team members. Most of the training tasks are quite difficult, but ultimately doable. Each team has its own approach to their implementation: someone decides at the meeting, someone develops a plan, but one thing becomes clear - if they do not effectively interact with each other, they will fail, so it is necessary to master the skills of competent communication;

3) development of individual and group reflection skills. During the training, after each exercise, the teacher invites the participants to discuss what just happened: what they did well, what they did worse, what they could have done differently. Reflection is a method of realizing what they have experienced and learned new things, it provides an opportunity to learn from their past experience and transfer knowledge to new areas of activity. Gradually, students learn to synthesize their skills;

4) creating a positive social environment. To do this, during the training, areas such as emotions, aspects of personality and relationships are affected. In addition, the participants of the training learn to express and recognize emotions. All this leads to the fact that team members begin to understand each other better, which leads to effective interaction.

Trainings aimed at preparing students for independent activity and communication in an adult team.

Disputes - discussion of certain issues. This is a form of extracurricular work. The main task of the debates is to discuss topics and problems of interest to students. Questions for the debate are proposed by the students. Disputes can be pre-prepared (questions for discussion are scheduled before class) or spontaneous. This form of work of a teacher with students allows you to establish interpersonal relationships, obtain additional information about the characters of students, their hobbies and passions.

Seminars - this is a thoughtful and prepared "dialogue" on a given topic. Seminars are held to review the studied material. The teacher proposes a series of questions for the seminar, then distributes them among the students. The student prepares the answer at home. Therefore, in addition to already known information, it should contain new interesting facts. A creative approach to the presentation of the material is also welcome. It is recommended that the whole class evaluate the performance of each student. The assessment must be reasoned.

LECTURE No. 56. Consultation

Consultation - this is a pre-examination lesson aimed at solving intellectual and psychological issues that arose in students in preparation for the exam. Many researchers believe that consultation in school practice is not needed. However, as practice shows, a well-organized consultation helps students to pass the exam more calmly and confidently. The consultation has two goals:

1) explanation of the most difficult material, answers to students' questions;

2) psychological preparation of students for the exam.

Often the consultation ends before it even starts. The teacher asks if there are any questions, the students are silent, after which the teacher lets everyone go. However, do not forget that the silence of students may be due to their fear of showing ignorance of the subject (or a specific issue) immediately before the exam. In this case, the teacher will have a negative impression in advance about the preparation of students for the exam. Consequently, the task of the teacher is to prepare in advance for the consultation by identifying the most difficult (controversial, debatable, etc.) questions. The teacher himself offers a number of questions for consideration. If any of the students knows the answer to the solution of the problem, then he is given the floor. If the students cannot give an answer, then the teacher explains the material, based on the knowledge and tips of the students. Another form of work with questions can be chosen for consultation. Each student is assigned a series of questions in advance, the answers to which must be presented by them in a thesis form. At the consultation, students consider all questions. The teacher helps the students as needed.

From a psychological point of view, counseling is a very important activity in preparing for an exam. Students should leave this session confident that they can safely come and take the exam. There are several stages consultations:

1) identification by the teacher of the general mood of the students before the exam;

2) the teacher explains (once again) the examination procedure, focusing on the survey method to be used;

3) the formation of students' confidence in their knowledge.

Consultation is recommended to be held the day before the exam.

The day of the consultation is important, because by the time of this session, students should be practically ready for the exam.

For the teacher, consultation is important from several points of view.

The teacher needs to assess the degree of readiness for the exam of each student. At the consultation, it is recommended to interview all students. It takes a lot of time. It's okay if the consultation will take place over two lessons. Everything will depend on how dynamic it is (it should be interesting and useful for students). Particular attention should be paid to "weak" students who may experience the greatest difficulty in preparing for the exam.

The teacher must understand how psychologically prepared the students are for the exam. To do this, you can conduct a role-playing game: "Today is an exam!" However, such a game should not include standard tickets. These can be questions for erudition, ingenuity, etc. The main goal of such a game is to demonstrate to students the situation "student - ticket - teacher - exam".

LECTURE No. 57. Exam and test as methods of control at school

Exam - a traditional oral method of controlling knowledge at school for a certain period of study (most often for a year). Recently, the exam has received mixed reviews from teachers. There are two main shortcomings of the exam:

1) an element of chance in the "drawing" of a ticket ("exam-lottery");

2) an exam is a stressful situation for students, blocking their intellectual abilities.

In this regard, along with the exam in the classical version, a test form of control often began to be used.

Tests - this is a task consisting of a series of questions and several answers to them for choosing one correct one in each case. With their help, one can obtain, for example, information about the level of assimilation of knowledge elements, about the formation of students' skills and abilities in applying knowledge in various situations. The main advantage of test verification is in the speed of "problem solving", while the advantage of traditional verification through didactic materials is in its thoroughness. There are also certain disadvantages of the tests. If the student presents the results of his work only in the form of a response number, then the teacher does not see the nature of the solution - the student's mental activity and the result can only be probabilistic. There is no guarantee that the student will have knowledge. The disadvantages of tests also include the possibility of guessing. If, for example, a test task contains only two answers, one of which is correct, then half of the answers to such test tasks can be guessed.

Multiple choice assignments are especially valuable because each student is given the opportunity to imagine the scope of the mandatory requirements for mastering the knowledge of the course, objectively assess their progress, and receive specific instructions for additional individual work. It is convenient to use test tasks when organizing independent work of students in the self-control mode, when repeating educational material.

Tests are successfully used along with other forms of control, providing information on a number of qualitative characteristics of a student's knowledge and skills. So, often the test is one of the components of the exam. Depending on the task that is set when performing the test, one of the existing types of test control is selected.

Single Choice Tests. Each question has several possible answers, of which only one is correct.

Multiple answer test. More than one correct answer can be entered in the answer options, but in different forms. Or some of the answers may not be correct at all. Then, as a result, each number of tasks should be given the numbers of correct answers or a dash.

Addition tests. In these tests, tasks are completed with missing words or symbols. The gap must be filled by students.

Cross-selection tests. They offer several tasks at once and several answers to them. The number of answers is recommended to plan a little more than tasks. As a result, the student must provide a string of two-digit numbers.

The test form of control is not recommended as the main and only one. Its use as a final form of control should be combined with other types of control.

LECTURE No. 58. The concept of teaching aids

Means of education - an obligatory element of equipping classrooms and their information and subject environment, as well as the most important component of the educational and material base of schools of various types and levels. The teaching aids include various material objects, including objects artificially created specifically for educational purposes and involved in the educational process as carriers of educational information and a tool for the activities of the teacher and students. The term "learning aids" corresponds to the equivalents: "educational equipment", "teaching and visual and teaching aids", "didactic aids".

A special group is made up of technical teaching aids (TUT). This also includes the means of new information technologies - computers and computer networks, interactive video; means of media education, educational equipment based on electronic technology, etc. Institutes of the Russian Academy of Education, scientific and pedagogical institutions, industrial institutions, various firms, publishing houses are engaged in the design and creation of educational means. The development of teaching aids is determined by the lists of educational equipment, which nomenclature represent the system of teaching aids for each academic subject.

Depending on the discipline taught, there is a choice of teaching aids. The teacher can use teaching aids, visual materials at his own discretion. However, the use of teaching aids is a mandatory component of the educational process.

Often the choice of teaching tools is associated with the choice of teaching method. If an active teaching method is used (also a verbal method, methods of control and self-control), then teaching aids, textbooks and technical teaching aids are used. Particularly actively technical teaching aids are used in the practical method. With the passive method of teaching (students listen and watch), the main types of which are a story, a lecture, an explanation, an excursion, visual teaching aids are used. Visual teaching aids can be made by the teacher himself (posters, banners, etc.).

In the process of systematic learning, acquired knowledge becomes a means of assimilating new knowledge, developing in the emotional and mental spheres of the individual. Basically, they have a significant impact on the intellectual sphere of the individual. Such intellectual teaching aids play a leading role in the mental development of students. They can be given by the teacher during the learning process, but it is better if they are designed by the students themselves in a joint activity with the teacher. This is where problem-based learning comes into play.

In the use of any type of means, it is necessary to observe the measure and proportions that are determined by the laws of learning. For example, the absence or insufficient number of visual aids reduces the quality of knowledge, reduces cognitive interest, and does not develop figurative perception. Their excessive use leads to a frivolous attitude of students to the subject being studied. 4-5 demonstrations per lesson are considered optimal when studying a difficult topic. Of course, this must be combined with methods of independent work and means of control.

LECTURE No. 59. Classification of teaching aids and their types

The classification of teaching aids cannot be clear and unified. The peculiarity of teaching aids is that they are applied collectively, together and never mutually exclusive. The teacher's task is to select the most effective (from his point of view) teaching aids for an active learning process.

There are various reasons for classifying teaching aids:

1) properties of teaching aids;

2) subject of activity;

3) influence on the quality of knowledge, on the development of various abilities;

4) the effectiveness of teaching aids in the educational process.

According to the composition of objects, teaching aids are divided into two groups.

1. Material means of education. These are textbooks, manuals, tables, layouts, models, teaching aids, premises, furniture, teaching and laboratory equipment, schedules, visual aids, etc.

2. Ideal Learning Tools - those acquired knowledge and skills that are used by the teacher and students to assimilate new knowledge. These are drawings, conditional diagrams, diagrams, works of art, speech, writing, etc. The ideal means are "thoughts about thoughts": in order for the teacher to state them, they must be presented in the appropriate form. For example, materialization - means are presented in the form of abstract symbols (graphics, diagrams, codes, drawings, etc.). Another form - verbalization - the means are presented in the form of a speech presentation (reasoning, analysis, proof).

Material and ideal teaching aids complement each other. The effectiveness of the impact is distributed as follows: material resources are associated with arousing interest and attention, the implementation of practical actions; ideal means - with the logic of reasoning, understanding of the material, culture of speech, memorization. There are no clear boundaries between these two types of teaching aids: it is often their mutual influence that contributes to the formation of certain personality traits. Initially, ideal means are used for communication. The teacher influences the mind of students, achieving understanding of the material. The student then uses materialized means, which later become verbalized. This is followed by independent cognitive activity to solve problems, answer questions, etc.

According to the subject of activity, teaching aids are divided into two groups.

1. Means of teaching. For example, equipment for a demonstration experiment. The teacher uses such means to explain and consolidate the educational material.

2. Means of teaching. For example, laboratory equipment. The student uses these tools to acquire new knowledge.

The use of certain teaching aids is often guided by the methods that are used in teaching. Some learning aids are created specifically for certain teaching methods. Due to the large number of new teaching aids, it is increasingly difficult for a teacher to choose the most worthy of them. The function of the teacher is not only to choose the most appropriate teaching aids (this mainly depends on the level of development of the students), but also to give as detailed an assessment as possible to those teaching aids that are not used in a particular learning process.

LECTURE No. 60. Technical teaching aids

In the modern educational system, technical teaching aids are widely used.

Technical training - these are devices and devices that are screen-sound carriers of educational information. These include:

1) educational films;

2) filmstrips;

3) computers;

4) tape recordings;

5) recordings;

6) radio broadcasts;

7) TV shows, etc.

Teaching aids can be divided into the following types:

1) information;

2) combined;

3) simulators;

4) means of knowledge control;

5) audiovisual means.

Functions technical training aids:

1) increase the efficiency and quality of education;

2) contribute to the intensity of the educational process;

3) direct and organize the perception of students;

4) develop students' greater interest in knowledge;

5) help to form the worldview, beliefs, moral character of the student;

6) are the source and measure of educational information;

7) contribute to an increase in the emotional attitude of students to their educational work;

8) contribute to the control and self-control of knowledge.

Educational films - the most popular of the technical teaching aids. With its help, you can demonstrate experiments with various substances, show the operation of complex instruments and machines, saturate the lesson with historical materials and chronicles, etc.

Demonstration of educational films is used for various didactic purposes: when explaining new material or when consolidating knowledge. In accordance with this, the place of the film screening and the methodology of the entire educational process are determined.

Film-strip is a combination of a word with a static image. This is a system of diaframes mounted in a certain way, where the montage is determined by the content of the material, the educational purpose of the filmstrip and its purpose.

Компьютер - one of the most modern technical means of education. It allows you to manage the learning activities of students, helps to acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities. Currently, all schools are undergoing a process of computerization, which will improve the efficiency of education.

Tape recordings are widely used in all schools and are manuals used in the study of foreign languages, music, singing, literature, etc.

Efficiency of use technical means of education depends on:

1) the duration of their use in the lesson (frequent use of technical teaching aids leads to a decrease in students' interest in educational material, rare use creates the effect of an emergency event, distracts students' attention from the learning process);

2) the time of their use (it is necessary to use technical means in the middle or at the end of the lesson, after the explanation of the theoretical material);

3) combination of technical teaching aids with traditional teaching aids (textbook, tables, blackboard, excursion);

4) the use of various types of technical teaching aids throughout the lesson (it is recommended to use different types of technical teaching aids, alternating them with the teacher's explanations).

LECTURE No. 61. Didactics. The subject and tasks of didactics

Education is characterized by the joint activity of the teacher and students, which has as its goal the formation of knowledge, skills, that is, the general indicative basis of a particular activity.

For understanding roles of learning it is important that this process has a broad developmental and formative influence on the personality.

The subject of didactic research is any conscious didactic activity, expressed in the processes of learning, in their content, course, methods, means of organization, subordinate to the goals set. Didactics can study:

1) activities of schools and other educational institutions;

2) learning objectives;

3) program content;

4) the work of teachers and students;

5) organizational and social forms and conditions of learning.

While exploring its subject, didactics performs the following main functions:

1) cognitive;

2) practical.

cognitive function. Didactics discovers or only states facts that are directly or indirectly related to it, systematizes and generalizes them, explains these facts and establishes quantitative and qualitative relationships between them.

At the same time, didactics performs practical, that is, a utilitarian, or service, function in relation to public life:

1) it provides teachers (or other persons involved in teaching and educational activities) with theoretical prerequisites and norms, the application of which in practice increases its effectiveness;

2) didactics explores the phenomena of social activity, which has the goal of educating and retraining people in accordance with changing historical ideals and social needs.

Didactic activity consists of the actions of teachers and students. These actions have certain consequences:

1) rational learning entails learning;

2) as a result of learning, the student acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, forms his own beliefs, attitudes, worldview and his own system of values;

3) learning (or the subject itself) caused by learning leads to various changes in the personality of the student.

Typical didactic fact can not refer only to the activities of the teacher, to the work of students or to the results of learning. This fact allows:

1) establish a certain pattern that manifests itself in all three actions;

2) reveal important relationships between the didactic behavior of the teacher in certain conditions;

3) reveal the relationship between the behavior of students in the course of learning and the changes that have occurred under the influence of the actions of the teacher and their own activities.

These are dependencies between certain actions, content, methods and learning outcomes; and patterns that appear in nature.

The meaning of didactics:

1) didactics is not a purely descriptive and purely speculative science, it explains the causal relationships of didactic phenomena, explores the regularity of these phenomena;

2) clarification of the causes of didactic phenomena and the dependences manifested in them creates suitable conditions for the performance of utilitarian functions;

3) the norms of the activity of the teacher and the student, determined from objectively established causal relationships, are of much greater value than the norms established subjectively, speculatively or on the basis of uncontrolled experience.

LECTURE No. 62. The concept of didactic principles and didactic rules

Training - this is a purposeful, pre-designed communication, during which education, upbringing and development of the student are carried out, certain aspects of the experience of mankind are assimilated.

Knowledge as a subject of assimilation has three interrelated aspects:

1) theoretical (facts, theoretical ideas and concepts);

2) practical (ability and skills to apply knowledge in various life situations);

3) ideological and moral (ideological and moral and aesthetic ideas contained in knowledge).

With properly delivered training, students master all these aspects of the material being studied, namely:

1) master the theory (concepts, rules, conclusions, laws);

2) develop skills and abilities to apply the theory in practice;

3) develop ways of creative activity;

4) deeply comprehend ideological and moral-aesthetic ideas.

This means that in the learning process, the following occurs simultaneously and in an inseparable unity:

1) enrichment of the individual with scientific knowledge;

2) development of her intellectual and creative abilities;

3) the formation of her worldview and moral and aesthetic culture, which makes learning a very important means of education.

The developing educational and formative influence of education on the personality led to the emergence of a special concept in pedagogy - "education".

Under education one should understand the mastery of scientific knowledge, practical skills and abilities by students, the development of their mental, cognitive and creative abilities, as well as their worldview and moral and aesthetic culture, as a result of which they acquire a certain personal appearance and individual originality.

Pedagogical didactics - the theory of training and education, which explores both the theoretical foundations of the learning process and its educational and formative influence on the mental, ideological, moral and aesthetic development of the individual.

Didactics is a theoretical and at the same time normative-applied science.

Research focus didactics:

1) when developing the theoretical foundations of teaching, didactics cannot be limited only to the disclosure of the procedural side of equipping students with knowledge, practical skills and ways of creative activity;

2) didactics should also study those didactic conditions that contribute to the realization of the developmental potential of learning, i.e. the education of students;

3) didactic studies make real learning processes their object, provide knowledge about the regular connections between its various aspects.

Scientific theoretical function didactics is as follows: didactic research reveals the essence, characteristics of the structural and content elements of the learning process.

The obtained theoretical knowledge allows solving many problems associated with learning, namely:

1) bring the content of education in line with changing goals;

2) establish the principles of education;

3) to determine the optimal possibilities of teaching methods and means;

4) design new educational technologies, etc.

Didactics as a pedagogical discipline operates with the general concepts of pedagogy:

1) education;

2) pedagogical activity;

3) education;

4) pedagogical consciousness, etc.

LECTURE No. 63. The concept of learning technology

Learning technology - a set of means and methods for reproducing theoretically substantiated processes of education and upbringing, which make it possible to successfully implement the set educational goals. Teaching technology involves appropriate scientific design, in which these goals are set unambiguously and the possibility of objective step-by-step measurements and the final assessment of the results achieved is preserved.

In the 60-70s. XNUMXth century this concept was associated with the methodology of using technical teaching aids (TUT). In this sense, it is still used in many foreign publications.

The learning technology consists of several interdependent parts:

1) prescriptions of ways of activity (didactic processes). From a didactic point of view, learning technology is the development of applied methods that describe the implementation of the pedagogical system in terms of its individual elements;

2) conditions under which this activity should be implemented (organizational forms of education);

3) means of carrying out this activity (targeted teacher training and the presence of TCO).

In teaching technology, the most difficult is the question of describing the personal qualities of students. At all stages of the pedagogical process, the chosen concept of personality structure can be used, but the qualities themselves must be interpreted in the so-called diagnostic concepts. The method of diagnostic description of the experience of a personality and its intellectual qualities is represented by a certain set of parameters and related criterion-oriented tests to control the degree of achievement by students of diagnostically set learning goals. The above set includes parameters that characterize the content of training and the quality of its assimilation.

On the basis of diagnostic goal setting, educational standards are developed, that is, in fact, the content of training, educational programs and textbooks, as well as didactic processes are built that guarantee the achievement of set goals.

The choice of teaching technology is determined by the characteristics of the didactic task and is subject to all the rules for making optimal decisions.

To select the method of activity in learning technology, the concepts operation algorithm and control algorithm.

Building functioning algorithm (rules of students' cognitive activity) is based on the psychological theory of knowledge assimilation adopted by the teaching technology. To build a controlled didactic process, a scheme of the functioning algorithm has been developed. It covers several stages of learning:

1) orientation (formation of ideas about the goals and objectives of mastering the subject; understanding the chosen sequence of the content of the subject and the corresponding methods of study);

2) execution (study of individual topics of the course, interdisciplinary connections, etc.);

3) control and correction.

Control algorithm - a system of rules for tracking, monitoring and correcting the cognitive activity of students to achieve the goal. To achieve a specific learning goal, a specific control algorithm is applied.

When choosing a way to manage the didactic process, the question of the optimal TSS for the respective purposes is also decided.

LECTURE No. 64. Technologies for teaching innovative teachers

The search for ways to improve the quality of higher pedagogical education, ways to integrate the current system into the world pedagogical experience has led the pedagogical school to the need to move to a multi-level education system. Its difference from the current one lies primarily in the restoration of the human-forming and cultural-creative functions of pedagogical education, which implies the priority of educational programs over professional ones, the rejection of traditional subject-centrism, the definition of the cultural core of knowledge, and the creation of conditions for the creative self-realization of the individual.

A holistic approach to solving these and other problems that arise during the transition to a multilevel system involves the development of a new philosophy of teacher education. This philosophy is presumably based on a holistic image of a person - a graduate of a general education institution, involved in culture and capable of at least his own life in a culture-like way. Consequently, it leads to the creation of new learning technologies.

It is much more important to form in a person an adequate attitude towards himself as a social and biological individuality, towards life as the highest value.

In this regard, a basic minimum should be developed, which refers to the external and internal general cultural prerequisites necessary for a healthy non-antagonistic existence of a person and his environment, the conditions for their harmonious development.

Interesting approaches that most of all correspond to the possibilities of updating educational activities in our country are presented in the concepts of E. V. Bondarevskaya, O. S. Gazman, N. M. Talanchuk. However, this is just an example. The list of innovative teachers is far from limited to these names.

Many interesting ideas are contained in the original system-social concept of school education (author - N. M. Talanchuk). The concept is based on a system-role approach to personality formation. From here, the tasks of education in an integrated form are reduced to preparing the younger generation to fulfill family, vocational, civil, geosocial and intersocial and self-regulatory roles.

Role system includes:

1) in the sphere of the family - filial-daughter, matrimonial, paternal, paternal-maternal; puts forward the tasks of education and self-education - the formation of a marital, pedagogical culture, the formation of a sense of duty and responsibility to parents;

2) in the team - vocational, economic, organizational and managerial, communicative and other tasks of education - the formation of professional knowledge, skills, economic, communicative culture and organizational skills;

3) in the sphere of society - patriotic, national-international, political, legal, moral and environmental; the tasks of education are the formation of the main components of these cultures;

4) in the sphere "peace" - geosocial and intersocial;

5) in the sphere "I am the sphere" - the subject of material and spiritual needs, teaching, self-education, creativity, psycho-regulatory; the tasks of education are expressed in the formation of healthy needs, the ability of self-education and self-education, the development of creative abilities, the ability to set life goals, self-regulation.

LECTURE No. 65. The essence of knowledge acquisition control and its functions

One of the most important parts of the learning process is the control of knowledge acquisition. It shows how fully and deeply the knowledge is learned both in the lesson and in the system of lessons, and also makes adjustments to the organization of the learning process. The system of accounting and checking the knowledge of students is the most important condition for the effective organization of the learning process. Accounting for knowledge, skills and abilities performs a number of functions that contribute to the improvement of the learning process.

The learning process is a controlled system. In order to successfully manage the cognitive activity of students, the teacher must systematically receive information about the nature of the students' assimilation of knowledge and practical skills associated with the assimilation of specific knowledge and practical skills associated with the assimilation of a particular topic of the subject. Thanks to this information, he draws conclusions about the possibility of moving to the next step of learning, determines the choice of forms and methods of teaching that correspond to the quality of knowledge and their skills. The control of assimilation of knowledge also has a serious educational value. This is achieved if the teacher raises questions that require the manifestation of cognitive independence - explanations, evidence, establishing systemic relationships. Accounting here plays not only a controlling role, but gives students something new, enriches their memory and thinking. Thanks to accounting, opportunities are created for improving many qualities of the student's personality (discipline, responsibility for the task assigned, habits of systematic work, etc.).

In pedagogy, a system of principles for taking into account the knowledge, skills and abilities of students has been developed. The most important of them are the following.

1. Accounting versatility. It means that the nature of the assimilation of knowledge of the entire complex of content components included in the structure of the topics studied is taken into account:

1) theoretical material;

2) systems of concrete facts;

3) mastering the skills and abilities to use them in a variety of learning situations;

4) the degree of consciousness of the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, their transition into the student's convictions.

2. Individualization of accounting. With successful management of the learning process, the teacher must systematically raise the knowledge, skills and abilities of learning to qualitatively new levels, taking into account the abilities of each student.

3. Accounting objectivity. Evaluation of the student's progress should reflect with maximum accuracy the level of assimilation of the information received by the student.

4. Accounting differentiation. The five- and ten-point system for assessing knowledge, skills and abilities adopted in the modern school makes it possible (although not fully) to differentiate the levels of assimilation of the studied information by students and to manage the educational process.

5. Publicity of accounting. When evaluating the result of accounting, the teacher must necessarily inform not only individual students, but also the class as a whole, what are the advantages and disadvantages of the knowledge, skills and abilities of the students being tested. In this case, their managerial, teaching and educational value increases.

6. Validity of accounting. Accounting must be built in such a way that it contributes to the mobilization of students for new successes, ensures the achievement of new positive results.

LECTURE No. 66. Pedagogical diagnostics

Pedagogical diagnostics - a set of monitoring and evaluation techniques aimed at solving the problems of optimizing the educational process, differentiating students, as well as improving educational programs and methods of pedagogical influence (i.e., verification and evaluation).

Pedagogical diagnostics is an integral component of pedagogical activity, the implementation of the processes of education and upbringing requires the evaluation, analysis and accounting of the results of these processes. Assimilation by students of educational material directly depends on the current level of their cognitive and personal development, and is also determined by the degree of formation of mental activity of students. Learning outcomes also depend on the qualifications of the teacher, so the method of pedagogical diagnostics "checks" not only students, but also teachers.

The stage of development of pedagogical diagnostics until the middle of the nineteenth century. can be characterized as prescientific. This is due to the fact that the methods of pedagogical diagnostics were empirically developed in the course of pedagogical practice and for a long time were quite subjective and unsystematized.

During this time, methods of pedagogical assessment have taken shape, based on testing the knowledge of students in oral and written form.

Traditional methods:

1) surveys;

2) control work;

3) exams.

They required students to reproduce previously learned material or solve certain problems in accordance with previously taught patterns. At the same time, the activity of students had a reproductive character.

In the second half of the XIX century. the development of pedagogical diagnostics was carried out in parallel with the creation of methods of psychodiagnostics, and these processes intersected mutually. Pedagogical diagnostics was perceived as a secondary direction, developing in line with psychodiagnostics and having a subordinate character. This opinion is widespread to this day, but it is disputed by many scientists who insist that pedagogical diagnostics is a relatively independent area with its own specifics, special tasks and methods.

The main methods of pedagogical diagnostics are tests and control tasks used primarily to assess the level of mastery of educational material by students. The central place among them belongs to success tests (achievement tests). Along with standardized success tests, pedagogical practice uses similar control tasks developed by individual teachers for specific pedagogical purposes. The diagnostic value of such tasks is limited, they are composed rather arbitrarily and have not been tested on large samples of test-takers. Psychological tests serve as an auxiliary method of pedagogical diagnostics. They help to identify the types of people studying in the same team, on the basis of which the most appropriate teaching method is revealed. This is important in order to understand the reasons for the failure of each student individually and try to correct them not in an "edifying" way (the relationship between a mentor and a "novice"), but in a pedagogical, methodological and psychological way.

LECTURE No. 67. Control methods

The main types of testing and assessment of knowledge among them are:

1) current testing and assessment of knowledge, carried out in the course of everyday training sessions;

2) a quarter test and assessment of knowledge, which is carried out at the end of each academic quarter;

3) annual assessment of knowledge, i.e. assessment of student performance for the year;

4) graduation and transfer exams.

Oral control carried out with the help of an individual, frontal, compacted survey. In many subjects, oral questioning is combined with oral and written exercises.

In addition, the oral survey is divided into the following forms:

1) individual;

2) combined;

3) compacted;

4) frontal.

There are requirements for an oral survey:

1) the survey should be interesting to the whole class;

2) questions asked to the student should attract the attention of the whole class;

3) you should not drag out the survey too much, otherwise it may become uninteresting and take a long time;

4) additional questions are best asked in a logical sequence.

Written control occurs with the help of tests, essays, presentations, dictations, tests, etc.

With a written survey, greater objectivity, greater independence of students, greater coverage of students is achieved. A written survey allows you to test the knowledge of the entire class at the same time in a short time.

But the written survey also has its downsides. First of all, this is the lack of direct contact between the student and the teacher, which does not allow observing the student's thinking process.

Practical test is carried out in all subjects related to practical skills, but its role is especially great in accounting for academic performance in subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle, in drawing, labor, physical education, and drawing. Thanks to practical testing, the ability of students to apply knowledge in work and in life is revealed. A practical test is a task that requires experience, labor operations, measurements.

Checking students' homework. To check and evaluate the progress of students, checking their homework is of great importance. It allows the teacher to find out the attitude of students to educational work, the quality of assimilation of the studied material, the presence of gaps in knowledge, as well as the degree of independence in doing homework.

The system for testing students' knowledge is used programmed control, which is also called the alternative method or the method of choice. Students are asked questions, each of which is given 3-4 possible answers, but only one of them is correct. The student's task is to choose the correct answer.

The positive side of the method of programmed control is the simultaneous testing of knowledge of all students using a computer or on paper.

However, this method also has its shortcomings. The main one is that it can be used to check only certain aspects of the assimilation of the studied material. However, this method does not allow revealing the entire completeness and volume of knowledge.

this implies output: in the system of educational work, all the methods of testing and evaluating knowledge discussed above should be applied in order to ensure the necessary systematicity and depth of quality control of students' progress.

LECTURE No. 68. Forms of control

Forms of control depend on the specifics of the organizational form of work. Forms of control are thought out by the teacher in relation to any topic or the entire course, or selectively. It is necessary to take into account the time factor established for the "concrete" knowledge test. In this regard, choose the appropriate form of control. The level of preparedness of students is also taken into account, how the material is learned (by all students or only by strong ones, etc.). There are five main forms of control:

1) front form. The students give brief answers to questions compiled by the teacher on a relatively small amount of material. This form of control takes the form of a lively conversation. It cannot be used to deeply identify the level of knowledge of students. The purpose of the frontal form of the survey is to trace the process of assimilation of the material and how ready the students are for the perception of a new topic. The effectiveness of the frontal form of the survey depends on how correctly the questions are formulated. With this type of control, questions should not contain hints, should be extremely clear and simple in form. It is recommended that you include several questions that require not just a logical understanding of the material, but also its comparison with other topics, and, perhaps, subjects;

2) group form. Control is exercised only for part of the class. The question is posed to a certain group of students, but other students can also take part in its resolution. An assignment for a selected group of students can be of two types.

The task to be performed in the class. At the beginning of the lesson, the teacher sets a certain task for a selected group of students (usually no more than 6 people), which they must complete in the allotted time. It is also important to prepare an assignment for the rest of the class, otherwise only a few people will work at the lesson.

The task to be performed in the class. In this case, the task should contain more complex questions, creative tasks, etc. The task of the rest of the class becomes more difficult: they need to perceive more difficult material and evaluate their comrades;

3) individual control. It is used for a thorough acquaintance of the teacher with the knowledge, skills and abilities of individual students, who are usually called to the board for an answer. Most often, this form of knowledge control is applied to "strong" students, since it is easier for them to cope not only with the task, but also with excitement. However, this does not exclude the possibility of calling a “lagging behind” student to the board. In this case, the performance of the task should be constantly monitored by the teacher and the whole class;

4) combined form. This is a combination of individual control with frontal and group control. It is most often used after the passage of any voluminous topic, when it is necessary to interview the maximum number of students. At the same time, each student is given a task of varying degrees of complexity (depending on the progress of the students);

5) self-control. It ensures the functioning of internal feedback in the learning process. This form of control is based on psychological criteria. Its effectiveness largely depends on the professional training of the teacher.

LECTURE No. 69. Types of control

In modern pedagogical practice, the following types of knowledge control:

1) current;

2) thematic;

3) periodic;

4) final.

current control The study of students' work allows the teacher to get an idea of how students behave in the classroom, how they perceive and comprehend the material being studied, what are their learning inclinations, interests and abilities. Accumulated observations allow a more objective approach to testing and evaluating students' knowledge, timely taking the necessary measures to prevent poor progress.

Current control is operational and diverse in terms of the methods by which it is carried out. Current control ensures the timely assimilation and consolidation of educational material at each stage of training, so it is carried out after each studied section of knowledge. The current control of knowledge includes the teacher's observation of the next educational work of students and checking the quality of knowledge, skills and abilities that students have mastered at a certain stage of learning. This type of control has a teaching character, it is designed to prevent the forgetting of knowledge, skills and abilities, to regulate the educational work of teachers and students, in time to help identify gaps in the knowledge of students and the teacher's work and eliminate them.

Thematic control carried out in the event that it is necessary to repeat and take into account the results of the topic as a whole. This type of knowledge accounting is characterized by repetitive-generalizing thematic lessons. Consolidation of knowledge is carried out throughout the entire period of studying the material, but in this case it has a final meaning: students cover the topic as a whole, systematize assimilation, establish new connections between knowledge, trace the development of concepts, phenomena, ideas. Control functions in such lessons should not be considered predominant, however, for some topics, in conclusion, it is advisable to conduct a final check and assessment of knowledge.

Periodic control - this is an accounting of students' knowledge, carried out for a certain period of the academic year (for quarters and for half a year). With the correct current accounting, quarterly scores can be displayed without special verification. A special test of students' knowledge is necessary when the level of preparation of some part of the students by the time the final score is taken is questionable by the teacher. Consequently, periodic accounting is reduced mainly to the derivation of final scores for a quarter, half a year, and sometimes includes a special test of the knowledge of individual students for the study period.

Final control knowledge is carried out during the final repetition at the end of the academic year. The tasks of the final repetition are similar to the tasks of repetitive-generalizing lessons based on the results of studying the topics and sections of the program - to help students see the structure of the course as a whole. The main goal of the final control is to establish the level of the student's preparation, his ability to continue learning and mastering knowledge. At the end of each academic year, tests are carried out in all the main subjects of the school curriculum. The final stage of the final control is the final exams, which are currently held in grades 9 and 11.

LECTURE No. 70. Test control

Test control is a new method for checking learning outcomes. Its first samples appeared at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. and became popular in many countries. Test control has received the greatest popularity in the USA, where many higher educational institutions can be entered only after passing the tests. In Russia, this type of knowledge control has appeared recently. Currently, an experiment is being carried out in our country to introduce unified state examination (USE), which is presented in test form. Based on the results of such an exam, students of secondary schools can take final exams, as well as enter any university in the country where the test results are considered valid.

Per se test is a set of standard tasks for a specific material, which establishes the degree of mastering it by students.

There are several test options. In school practice, this type of test is most often used, the task of which requires an answer to a question. The answer is chosen from several proposed options, which are usually from 3 to 6.

There are four types of tests.

1. Tests that help test students' ability to solve new problems based on the material studied.

2. Tests that allow you to perform mental operations based on previously acquired knowledge.

3. Tests that test knowledge of the information that needs to be remembered and reproduced.

4. Tests that allow the student to give a critical assessment of what has been learned, on the basis of which the inspector determines the student's knowledge.

Several methods have been developed for processing test results, but the most common is the one in which each answer is assigned a certain score. Two approaches are applied to the processing of test results: norm-oriented and criterion-oriented.

In the first approach, the test results are compared with the average result for any group.

The essence of the second approach is that individual results are compared with a pre-prepared criterion. Much attention is paid to the development of such criteria, since it requires an analysis of the educational material and determines what and to what extent students should know after completing a certain course.

When writing tests, you must adhere to the following requirements:

1) the test must be objective, i.e. its results depend only on the knowledge of the student;

2) the test must be valid, i.e., it must test only those knowledge, skills and abilities that the test developer wants to test;

3) the test must be reliable, i.e. it must show the same results under different conditions.

Teachers can develop tests themselves for conducting intermediate knowledge control, but when conducting tests that replace tests or exams, the teacher receives ready-made assignments in advance.

If the teacher writes the test himself, then he must adhere to the following rules:

1) test tasks should not require a lot of time to complete them;

2) test tasks should be presented in a concise and logical form;

3) the meaning of the test tasks must be unambiguous so that the student can correctly interpret the content;

4) tests should allow to obtain a quantitative assessment of the results of their implementation.

LECTURE No. 71. Rating control

Rating - this is an individual numerical indicator for evaluating the educational achievements of a student, entered into the classification list (rating list) and serving to determine the results of his knowledge assimilation. Conducting rating control helps to determine the student's rating in any subject. According to the results of training and control, the rating helps to understand at what level of knowledge the student is.

As a rule, rating control is arranged after passing the entire course of the subject, since it is difficult to establish a student's rating for one lesson or one topic passed. Often the rating method of knowledge control is used together with block-modular training.

The student rating is measured by the number of points. Therefore, in order to get a large number of points, students go to additional classes, and they can also rewrite tests they have already done, even if they have already received a high mark.

The main features of the rating system:

1. All types of educational activities are evaluated in points. The highest score for each academic work is set in advance. Usually, students can get the highest score on the final exam.

2. Types of educational activities and their number in the academic year is established in advance.

3. Points are distributed in such a way that the student understands that he can get the maximum number of them only by performing all types of educational activities.

4. Sometimes there are also learning activities that students can earn extra points for.

5. As a rule, the class rating is carried out after a certain amount of time.

6. Teachers regularly keep records of the points received, and the results are communicated to students.

7. The results of the rating are entered into a special table, which is posted for viewing. The highest score for a given calendar date and the average score for the class are entered in the same table. So students, teachers and parents can find out about the rating of this student.

8. The student's rating is known by comparing his results with the results of other students, and thus draw conclusions about his progress.

The Rating System has its advantages and disadvantages. Among the advantages are the following:

1) with a rating system for monitoring knowledge, the student approaches learning more responsibly, he develops self-discipline and self-esteem;

2) the rating system allows the student to compare his achievements with the previous ones, i.e. he does not so much compare himself with other students as with himself in the past;

3) the rating method stimulates the uniform educational work of schoolchildren;

4) the lack of current grades allows students not to be afraid of deuces, which improves the psychological climate in the classroom and increases the activity of students.

The disadvantages of rating control are as follows:

1) teachers themselves set and distribute points, so their number may vary;

2) the rating system is not entirely objective, since the teacher can give more points to the student he likes more;

3) many students are poorly oriented in the rating system, therefore they cannot evaluate their achievements themselves.

LECTURE No. 72. Grades and marks in the educational process

Appreciation call the process of comparing knowledge, skills and abilities with those standards that are presented in the curriculum. mark is a quantitative measure of evaluation, expressed in points.

Practically in all schools of our country it is accepted 5 point marking system. But there are others, such as 0-12-point. They are most often used abroad. It must be said that in the modern domestic school there are also 4-point и 3-point marking systems, since often ones and deuces are not set.

The assessment has its own functions:

1) with the help of assessment, the teacher expresses his opinion about the knowledge of the student;

2) assessment informs the student about his successes and failures;

3) assessments guide the student about the level of his knowledge.

There are several ways to rate:

1) normativewhen the student's knowledge is assessed based on the requirements of the education standard and program requirements;

2) personal, in which the student's answer is compared with his actions and answers in the past;

3) comparativewhen the teacher compares the actions of one student with the actions of another.

Modern didactics puts forward such requirements for assessments, in which it is best to use the personal assessment method, since it allows you to track the individual results of each student.

When grading, the teacher must adhere to the following rules.

1. Knowledge control should cover all important elements of knowledge, skills and abilities of students.

2. When grading, the teacher must proceed from the personal and normative method of assessment.

3. When grading, the teacher must explain why he evaluates the student's knowledge in this way.

4. When grading, the teacher should use a variety of control methods.

5. It is necessary to give students the opportunity to correct the mark several times.

6. In addition to teacher control, when grading, student self-control and self-assessment should be present.

The modern grading system has its negative features.

1. For many students, assessment becomes the ultimate goal of their learning activities, which ultimately overshadows the true motives of learning and cognitive activity. Therefore, students study only for the sake of getting a good grade, and not for the sake of gaining new knowledge.

2. At the lesson, only a part of the students is subjected to knowledge control and assessment, so it can be difficult for the teacher to establish how the students actually learned the material they have learned.

3. At school, teacher evaluation becomes the main thing, and less attention is paid to self-control and self-esteem, or not at all.

4. Often a student's assessment becomes an assessment of the teacher's work. If the student got a high score for their answer, then the teacher was so good that he was able to explain the material well, and vice versa. This approach prevents many teachers from objectively evaluating student responses.

Plays a big role verbal assessment of the teacher, especially if it concerns the formation of student self-esteem. The teacher should not compare students' progress, as this can damage interpersonal relationships in the classroom. Therefore, it is better to compare the level of knowledge of the student with his past merits.

LECTURE #73

Evaluation - this is the process of comparing knowledge, skills and abilities with the standards provided for by the curriculum. mark is a quantitative measure of evaluation, expressed in points.

The main disadvantages of graded learning:

1) the teacher should not compare the progress of students, as this can spoil interpersonal relationships in the classroom;

2) teachers often make mistakes when grading, which can cause conflicts. The most common of them is the transfer of a personal relationship to the student to the assessment of his knowledge.

In some schools, as an experiment, they began to introduce gradeless learning. Key features this system:

1) in the course of training, not only generally accepted knowledge, skills and abilities are evaluated, but also the creative abilities of students, their activity and independence in the classroom;

2) the personal qualities of the child should not be assessed: his features of memory, thinking, attention, perception;

3) the grade "excellent" is replaced by the system of the highest achievements of the student in the class. This system creates an atmosphere of competition in the classroom, which encourages children to improve their features. However, such a grading system must be introduced carefully because some children may feel disadvantaged;

4) it is important to exclude the possibility of comparing children with each other. Each child should have their own "individual list" of achievements. In it, assessment tools can be any conditional graphs, tables that would allow fixing the levels of a child's educational achievements in various parameters. At the same time, the forms of assessment should be such that it is difficult to compare (translate) with ordinary marks;

5) the teacher's assessment should be correlated with the student's self-assessment. If these scores do not match, then the teacher and student should discuss the differences and agree on a joint assessment that satisfies both sides.

One of the most important means of assessing students' knowledge is "List of Individual Achievements. Each student should have it separately and record achievements in each subject. At the same time, it is unacceptable to advertise the achievements of students by displaying the so-called "progress screen" in the classroom.

On the way to the transition to this system of education, there are some difficulties:

1) it is necessary to agree on the evaluation policy of the school with the parents of students and their requirements regarding the conduct of the control procedure within the school;

2) the consent of all employees of the educational institution is required.

Although gradeless learning encounters various obstacles in the way of its development, many well-known teachers still advocate it. Sh. A. Amonashvili claims the following:

1) ungraded learning allows you to increase the rating of knowledge in the eyes of students, as it forms a full-fledged educational activity of students based on cognitive interest;

2) the lack of comparison of students' achievements in the system of ungraded education allows children to feel freer and more relaxed. They are not afraid to make mistakes, for they (mistakes) will not be exposed.

Sh. A. Amonashvili proposed to replace the usual marks with a flexible, multilateral verbal assessment of the work of students through praise, encouragement, and support.

LECTURE No. 74. Forms of organizing cognitive activity in the lesson

The form of organization of learning activities of students in the classroom is important for a more effective lesson. There are three forms of organization:

1) individual work;

2) front work;

3) group form of work.

Individual work for students in the lesson implies a separate independent work of the student, selected in accordance with the level of his preparation. It could be the following:

1) work on cards;

2) work with the map;

3) work at the blackboard;

4) filling in tables;

5) writing abstracts, reports;

6) work with textbooks, etc.

This form of organization of students' activities can be applied at any stage of the lesson, for example, it is advisable to use it:

1) to consolidate the acquired knowledge;

2) to summarize and repeat the material covered;

3) when independently studying new material, etc.

However, individual work has a serious drawback: contributing to the education of students' independence, it somewhat limits their communication with each other, the desire to transfer their knowledge to classmates.

Frontal the work of students in the lesson implies a common, simultaneous work with the whole class. It could be the following:

1) conversation;

2) discussion;

3) comparison;

4) dictation, etc.

This form of work allows:

1) establish a trusting relationship with the class, as the student participates in the work of the class of students through his story, explanation or conversation;

2) to intensify the activity and cognitive interests of students.

The frontal form of organization of learning requires the teacher to have a great ability to organize the work of the entire class, patiently listen to all students, tactfully correct their answers, etc.

This form of study also has a number of disadvantages. It does not take into account the individual characteristics of students, as a result of which students with a lower level of preparation learn the material worse, and strong students do not have the opportunity to improve their abilities.

group form class work includes:

1) dividing the class into groups that receive either the same or a differentiated task and perform it together;

2) the quantitative composition of the groups depends primarily on the size of the class (approximately from three to six people);

3) at the same time, the members of the group must be chosen by the teacher in such a way that each group contains students of different levels of training. This increases the possible assistance to weak students.

In group work, the most timid students who cannot answer in front of the whole class get the opportunity to realize their abilities. The group form has its drawbacks:

1) the teacher must have a high level of pedagogical skill in order to organize group learning;

2) there are difficulties in completing groups, since there are not always enough strong students in the class who can be group leaders.

It should be noted that it is not recommended to apply each of the three forms of organization of educational activity of students separately. Only combination of these forms - group, frontal and individual - brings the expected positive results. This combination is determined by the teacher depending on the educational tasks to be solved in the lesson, on the subject, the specifics of the content, its volume, etc.

LECTURE No. 75. The main forms of organizing extracurricular work

In extracurricular educational work, different forms of organization of students are used. Depending on the degree of suitability of certain forms for solving educational problems, they can be divided as follows:

1) general forms, universal, which acquire one or another direction depending on the purpose and content;

2) special forms, reflecting the specifics of only one of any areas of educational work and its tasks.

There is a form of work where students are relatively inactive, their main activities:

1) hearing;

2) perception;

3) reflection;

4) comprehension.

The forms of work with inactive students include:

1) lectures;

2) reports;

3) meetings;

4) excursions;

5) visiting theaters, concerts, exhibitions.

Other forms of work require the active participation and activity of the schoolchildren themselves at various stages of preparing events and their implementation. These forms include:

1) mugs;

2) olympiads;

3) competitions;

4) quizzes;

5) theme evenings;

6) evenings of rest;

7) exhibitions and museums;

8) disputes or discussions;

9) magazines.

Circle work organized by the teacher in his particular subject. It creates opportunities for closer communication and communication between schoolchildren of different classes who meet in a favorable emotional environment created on the basis of common interests and spiritual needs.

Themed evenings and matinees have primarily a cognitive orientation, are dedicated to any one special topic.

Evenings of rest - these are festive evenings, which usually include amateur performances, attractions.

Contests are held in the field of sports, and in the field of amateur art, and in individual academic subjects, they bring the spirit of competition into the life of the school and have the following varieties:

1) reviews;

2) tournaments;

3) festivals;

4) quizzes;

5) competition.

Subject Olympiads are also carried out on a competitive basis in any subject and are a means of developing interest in knowledge. They are held throughout the school, district or city.

Tourist work - this is the organization and participation in tourism sections, archaeological circles, including hiking trips of various target directions and duration, expeditions.

local history work provides for the creation of circles involved in working with museums, the constant replenishment of expositions, and the organization of thematic exhibitions.

Debate or discussion. The condition for their success is the choice of a really interesting topic or problem for discussion. The value of the dispute is in the free exchange of opinions, the expression of one's own thoughts and judgments.

Great help in all types of extracurricular activities is provided by the school library, which arranges thematic exhibitions of books, helps in the selection of the necessary literature.

К extracurricular institutionsthat help organize extracurricular activities include:

1) children's clubs;

2) sections;

3) centers of additional education;

4) palaces of children's creativity;

5) stations of young naturalists;

6) tourist stations;

7) sports schools, music schools.

In these institutions, students are instilled with a taste and interest in research, observation, creative activity, and sports achievements.

LECTURE No. 76. Methods and forms of education

Methods of education - these are ways of influencing the educator (teacher) on the minds of students, their will and feelings in order to form certain beliefs and skills in them. There is a classification of upbringing methods, which, however, is very conditional. The reason for this lies in the fact that each of the methods is often not used separately, but the so-called complex impact on students using several methods at the same time is used. Let's single out basic methods of education.

Methods that contribute to the formation of beliefs. They are used if the student needs to communicate new information, explain something, or influence his consciousness in a special way. The leading role in this group of methods is played by the methods of verbal persuasion. The application of these methods in practice leads to the emergence of special forms of education.

Frontal conversation on an educational topic (ethical conversation).

Such conversations are usually conducted by the class teacher. The goals and topics of ethical conversation are determined in accordance with the age characteristics of students and their level of education. One of the types of ethical conversation is educational work to convince the student of the wrongness of the committed act. The essence of misconduct is revealed on the basis of analogy and comparison with other similar misconduct, the assessment of which does not raise doubts among students.

Individual conversation with individual students. This is the most difficult form of education. The main condition for such a conversation is the absence of a psychological barrier between the student and the teacher. Only in this case, an individual conversation will positively affect the educational process.

Conducting disputes and discussions with the most pressing problematic issues. This form of education involves the active participation of the student himself: the preparation of reports on individual issues, participation in the discussion, expressing his point of view.

Methods that contribute to the development of skills and habits of correct behavior. These methods have their own forms of education:

1) holding educational exercises. An exercise (in education) is the creation by the teacher of such a situation in which the student shows his skills of correct behavior. For example, when students greet the teacher, they always get up, this is the usual, obligatory norm of greeting. Thus, students learn to respect the teacher;

2) order. In this way, in practice, one can test those moral and ethical principles that the student was supposed to learn in the course of verbal persuasion;

3) switching - a form of education aimed at weaning students from bad habits and switching them to some other type of activity.

Methods of stimulating the activity of students. We list the main forms of work with students in the framework of these methods:

1) promotion. They have educational value only if they are used rationally. The most common forms of encouragement are praise, an award with a book, a "diploma", a commendable letter, a medal, etc.;

2) punishment. In order for it to be effective, the punishment must be perceived as fair and tinny.

LECTURE No. 77. Problems of education at school

At the level of ordinary educational activities, the teacher is self-sufficient, as he is guided not by scientific, but by traditional, professional experience. Self-sufficiency in this case means the absence of the need for doubts, criticism and rethinking of educational material. She brings the teacher to the activity, which is "closed education" - ready-made examples of educational activities and orderly actions with them.

Features of "closed education":

1) does not require any scientific organization from the teacher (it is enough to take the scenario of the event and distribute those responsible for its implementation;

2) the value of the student's understanding of the meaning of information that becomes the content of consciousness is not taken into account;

3) for the student, the value of the teacher's work is reduced, which automatically becomes a transmitter of educational information aimed at teaching qualities, rules of conduct or training their implementation.

The main features of the use of traditional methods of education:

1) exhortation;

2) shame;

3) persuasion;

4) threats;

5) punishment.

All signs of closed parenting:

1) linearity;

2) completeness;

3) objectivity;

4) isolation;

5) maximum completeness of the description;

6) absolute accuracy;

7) stability;

8) universality of the bases of transmitted knowledge about culture;

9) predictability of the results of applying knowledge.

Important problems and tasks of modern pedagogy are:

1) the teacher's understanding of the meaning "open education. Its openness is understood only as accessibility, access to an ever-growing amount of information. The phenomenon of openness is much broader, which is associated with the emergence of new social concepts, in particular "open society". Such a society has not yet been created, but its models act as the conditions closest to the humanistic ideal for the survival and successful existence of mankind in the XNUMXst century;

2) creation of a functioning model of education corresponding to the humanistic ideal.

Main directions "open parenting":

1) the process of "open education" - a purposeful process, aimed at the formation of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed person in modern conditions;

2) the goal in education should be realized in such a way that it would turn into a goal that is close and understandable to the pupil;

3) it is necessary to complicate and deepen educational tasks as a person grows and develops;

4) the process of education should be multifactorial (with active participation in the education of individual educators, the entire school as a whole and the whole society, all its educational institutions);

5) the process of education should be complex, since the personality of a person is formed as a whole and the development of certain traits and qualities in him does not take place in turn, but immediately, in a complex;

6) the formation of new views that characterize the stage of acceptance, development and transformation of learned norms into personal property.

LECTURE No. 78. Moral education

The highest level of a person's moral development is the orientation of the personality, which reflects the most typical features and qualities, methods of action and forms of behavior.

Behavior should always be based on:

1) knowledge about what is right and what is wrong, i.e. a person must have certain ideas and concepts about moral standards;

2) a certain emotionally colored assessment of these norms, that is, the need to follow them, moral consciousness must be developed as a regulator of all actions and deeds of a person.

moral ideal - a personal idea of a person, in which the best moral traits and qualities are embodied - is the most important component of moral consciousness.

Knowledge of morality in a significant part it is acquired spontaneously - from the surrounding reality when perceiving the real relationships of others.

Moral assessment underlies the formation of attitudes towards the choice of a particular mode of action.

Understanding and assimilation of moral norms is the beginning of work on the formation of certain qualities in a student. The formation of a child's morality is actively promoted by:

1) education of patriotism;

2) education of humanism;

3) education of respect for nature.

Education of patriotism. Patriotism - love for one's fatherland - is the leading moral quality, which should be considered as a manifestation of the ideological and political consciousness of a person. This is the social and moral principle of people's attitude towards their country.

There are several areas of patriotic education:

1) fostering love for one's own land, the place where a person was born and raised, allowing students to acquire knowledge about the essence of the country's social system, understand the reasons for the events taking place in the country, know its political and state institutions, laws;

2) explanation and use of state symbols: coat of arms, flag, anthem;

3) education of love and thrift in relation to nature;

4) study of the history of literature and geography of the native land;

5) development of interest in national culture, historically established national customs and traditions.

Education of humanism. Humanity is:

1) a moral quality addressed to others, that is, it characterizes a person’s special worldview, realized in his direct relationships with other people;

2) worldview, or rather, the perception of another person, including respect for him as another equal member of society, friendliness and goodwill, attention to his needs and readiness to help;

3) tolerance and generosity, involving the ability to understand the weaknesses or difficulties of another person, to forgive random misconduct.

Education of respect for nature. The relationship of man to nature is also an area of social relations. Nature is our habitat, source of knowledge, area of work, place of rest. Raising a person's right attitude to nature is caring for the preservation of nature, careful use of its resources, teaching students to take care of natural resources from an early age.

LECTURE No. 79. Labor education

Under labor organization its ordering, giving it regularity is understood. The organization of child labor must take into account the age and individual characteristics of children and the patterns of their development, including aesthetic and physical.

The teacher is required to be an example, study the strengths and weaknesses of his students, organize activities, etc.

The psychological aspect The activity of the teacher in education by means of labor consists in the impact of personal example, in the management of the impact of the environment on the individual, as well as the management of his labor activity. The teacher coordinates the content and forms of work with pedagogical goals, directs labor activity in such a way that it requires students to display certain qualities, evaluates the effectiveness of educational influences. The role of the teacher is also to help the student to increase his authority among his peers.

In labor training, many students achieve more significant results than in general education subjects. In this regard, the child has a need for recognition. If he seeks to increase his authority, then his activity increases in other activities. And one of the main tasks of the teacher is to form and direct this activity.

The solution of many problems of labor education of the younger generation essentially depends on a correct understanding of the functions, goals and psychological content of child labor.

The work of a student has its own specifics. First of all, the work of students differs from the work of adults in that for the sake of which it is organized. Child labor is organized primarily for educational purposes.

Work in society, as a rule, is collective in nature, so each participant is required to be able to interact. Consequently, schoolchildren should be included in social production. To prepare a child for work means to form his psychological readiness to work.

Psychological readiness for work means the level of development of the individual, which is sufficient for the successful development of any kind of productive work.

The formation of a student's psychological readiness for work occurs in such activities as:

1) game;

2) teaching;

3) household and productive work;

4) technical creativity.

Since this type of activity is not identical to either the educational activity or the labor activity of adults, it is conditionally distinguished as educational and labor activity.

There are main areas of labor education:

1) polytechnic education - mastering the scientific foundations and principles of all industries;

2) productive labor - the inclusion of students in such activities, the result of which will be a certain product;

3) socially useful work - work of social significance;

4) self service - consists in maintaining cleanliness in the classroom, school, school territory, etc.;

5) housework is the nature of domestic work (maintaining cleanliness and order at home). Its purpose is to show the student the need to help his family members, neighbors, and also teach him to serve himself;

6) professional work - obtaining special professional education and work in this specialty.

LECTURE No. 80. Mental education

Under mental education It implies the purposeful activity of educators to develop the mental strength and thinking of students.

Under mental development one can understand the process of development of mental forces and thinking, which occurs as a result of the entire sum of possible life influences and influences.

The definition of mental education and development includes the concepts of "thinking" and "mental forces".

Thinking is a mediated and generalized knowledge of objects and phenomena of objective reality by a person in their essential connections and relationships, is a product of the activity of the brain.

There are different types of thinking:

1) logical;

2) abstract;

3) generalized;

4) theoretical;

5) technical;

6) reproductive;

7) creative.

Logical thinking characterized by:

1) mastering the techniques of logical processing of knowledge, i.e., establishing generalized links between new knowledge and previously studied material, bringing them into a certain ordered system;

2) the ability to define concepts;

3) mastering the methods of reasoning, proof, refutation, drawing conclusions, making assumptions (hypotheses, forecasts).

Abstract thinking - the ability of a person to be distracted from non-essential, secondary, signs, to single out general and essential, and on this basis to form abstract concepts.

Generalized thinking It is characterized by the ability to find general principles or methods of action that apply to a certain group of phenomena.

theoretical thinking characterized by:

1) the ability to assimilate knowledge of a high level of generalization;

2) understanding of the scientific foundations and principles of development of certain areas of knowledge.

technical thinking involves understanding the scientific foundations and general principles of production processes, the psychological readiness of a person to work with technology.

reproductive thinking associated with the actualization of acquired knowledge for solving problems of a known type or performing actions in familiar conditions.

Creative thinking - independent decision of a person of new, previously unknown tasks, which is carried out both based on knowledge already known to him, and with the involvement of new data, methods and means necessary for their solution.

Under mental powers a certain degree of development of the mind is understood, which makes a person capable of accumulating knowledge, performing basic mental operations, and mastering certain intellectual skills.

mental tasks upbringing:

1) the accumulation of a fund of knowledge as a condition for mental activity;

2) mastering the basic mental operations;

3) the formation of intellectual skills that characterize intellectual activity;

4) the formation of a dialectical-materialistic worldview.

An important role in achieving a high level of mastery of the knowledge fund is played by:

1) personal purposefulness of a person;

2) the goals put forward by him, the motives that prompt him to cognitive activity;

3) general educational skills;

4) development of long-term intellectual activity.

Mental development and the ability to think involves mastering the basic mental operations:

1) analysis;

2) synthesis;

3) comparison;

4) classification.

LECTURE No. 81. The essence of education and its place in the integral structure of the educational process

Education - this is a meaningful and purposeful cultivation of a person in accordance with the specifics of the goals, groups and organizations in which it is carried out. The basis of education - social action, which M. Weber defined as a directed problem solving, consciously focused on the response behavior of partners and involving a subjective understanding of the possible behaviors of people with whom a person interacts. The hallmark of education is that it discrete process (discontinuous) - that is, limited by place and time.

The concept of "education" is ambiguous, it is considered as a social phenomenon, activity, process, value, system, impact, interaction, etc.

Education, carried out by the system of educational institutions, in a narrow pedagogical sense, is understood as educational work aimed at forming in children a system of certain qualities, views, and beliefs; in an even narrower sense, it is the solution of specific educational tasks.

The most common explicit upbringing functions:

1) the systematic creation of conditions for the relatively purposeful development of members of society and the satisfaction of a number of needs by them;

2) preparation of the "human capital" necessary for the development of society, sufficiently adequate to the social culture;

3) ensuring the stability of public life through the transmission of culture;

4) regulation of the actions of members of society within the framework of social relations, taking into account the interests of gender, age and socio-professional groups.

By content, researchers divide education into:

1) mental;

2) labor;

3) physical;

4) moral;

5) aesthetic;

6) legal;

7) sexual;

8) economic;

9) ecological.

On an institutional basis, we can distinguish:

1) family education;

2) religious education;

3) social education;

4) dissocial education.

Education is a multifactorial process, that is, it is influenced not only by educational institutions, but also by the family, society and all its educational institutions. Therefore, the principle of an integrated approach is applied to education - the unification of all educational forces.

In the educational process, the actions of the educator (teacher, educator) are purposeful.

The results and effectiveness of education in the conditions of modern society by the readiness and readiness of members of society for conscious activity and independent creative activity, which allows them to set and solve problems that have no analogues in the experience of past generations. The most important result of education is the readiness and ability of a person to self-change (self-construction, self-education).

In the educational process, the verification of the results of education is carried out in various ways:

1) analysis of answers to directly posed questions;

2) value judgments (on the example of any situation from life or from a book);

3) essays on a free topic ("My ideal", "What is morality?", etc.);

4) disputes and discussions on a topic chosen by the educator;

5) personal conversation between the teacher and the student.

LECTURE No. 82. Physical education

Physical education - one of the oldest forms of purposeful educational process.

In the process of studying at school in the course of physical education, it is envisaged solution of the following tasks:

1) education in students of high moral, strong-willed and physical qualities, readiness for highly productive work;

2) maintaining and strengthening the health of schoolchildren, promoting the correct formation and comprehensive development of the body, maintaining high performance throughout the entire period of study;

3) comprehensive physical training of students;

4) educating schoolchildren to be convinced of the need to regularly engage in physical culture and sports.

The leading form of physical education at school is a lesson.

Depending on the purpose of the lesson and the set of exercises being worked out, lessons can be conducted in different ways.

However, there is the most common the scheme of the lesson of physical culture at school:

1) the lesson begins with a set of introductory exercises that allow students to psychologically prepare for the lesson;

2) then come combat exercises, walking, running. They provide a general warm-up of the main muscle groups;

3) preparatory exercises aimed at developing that part of the muscles that will be involved in learning a new set of exercises;

4) learning and practicing a special set of exercises that are part of the partial task of the lesson;

5) the lesson ends with a group of calm exercises designed to bring the body into balance.

Physical education is of great importance for the entire learning process. Studies by psychologists have shown that the reason for the failure of 85% of students is ill health or physical disabilities. Memory, perseverance and attentiveness largely depend on general health and physical strength. Consequently, the strengthening of physical health contributes to an increase in the intensity of mental labor.

Physical education makes it easier for a person to perform labor operations, as it accustoms him to greater accuracy and direction of movements, the proportionality of their strength with the goal, etc.

Physical education is connected with aesthetic. The inspiration of artists is often caused by the beauty of a healthy body, grace and dexterity of movements. Students need to know this.

Physical education should be aimed at ensuring that a person actively takes care of his health. The task of the teacher is to instill a love for sports, for physical education, for daily gymnastics and prove the need for this throughout life.

Physical education is important not only at certain hours and days of the week, allotted by the school curriculum. Mass health-improving, physical culture and sports events are aimed at the wide involvement of schoolchildren in regular physical education and sports, at strengthening health, improving the physical and sports preparedness of students. They are organized in their free time from studies, on weekends and holidays, in health-improving and sports camps, during camp gatherings, etc. However, you should not make attending sections mandatory, on the contrary, it will “scare away” students.

LECTURE No. 83. Public education

public education - is the education of a person's ability to live in society.

Public education already existed in antiquity. Sparta was characterized by a high degree of humiliation of human weaknesses and human lives, which, of course, at first glance seems terrible, but this is just a necessary need of the society in which the ancient Spartans lived, they did not need cripples, they needed physically healthy fellow citizens. Although, by modern standards, the system is still extremely cruel. Sparta is an outstanding phenomenon of social education, and a phenomenon both in a bad (to a lesser extent) and in a good (to a greater extent) sense of the word.

In Athens, although education was of a public nature as a whole, it was aristocratic, so it achieved only certain goals. However, there was public education, and the fact that there was a clear division into "aristocrats" and slaves is a historical sign. In Athens, an education system developed with a rejection of labor, he was unworthy of a free Athenian.

However, this was erroneous, already at that time practice shows that the material is better absorbed in direct contact with the object of study or on examples for direct practice. It is already us who are used to thinking abstractly, having a very decent knowledge base (by the standards of that time), it is easy to perceive the subject of learning by ear, although, say, small children, even in our time, are not immediately able to mentally perceive information, that is, without examples. Some time later, this contempt for work was adopted by the ancient Romans, although not immediately.

At first, the Romans had the concept of "citizen" not only with its direct meaning, but also with the concept of "good farmer" and "good family man", that is, there was a love for work, which was subsequently reduced to zero. And this laziness was quenched by a truly multi-million army of slaves.

The ancient era played a significant role in the development of public education and public education, but nothing more than formalized public education and became the logical conclusion of the era of antiquity, which, although divided into parts, is not in the history of education.

Today, the role of public education is determined primarily by the fact that a person must not only be educated, but also adapted to the world around him and people.

The training of any specialist should become thorough, he should not be one-sidedly specialized according to Western ideology, but a comprehensively developed and extremely highly erudite personality. It is the personality individual in society, not separately from it. At the same time with a high degree of integration into society, to bring the greatest benefit to society. After all, a person does not belong to himself, he belongs to the society that brought him up, and first of all, he should bring benefit not to himself, but to this very society. And, most importantly, do not forget about yourself. This is what children need to be taught in school. The task of the teacher: not to insist on his point of view on society, but to offer a variable program for understanding the system of society. This is the basis of the meaning of educating fellow citizens in society.

LECTURE No. 84. Aesthetic education

Aesthetic education - this is education by means of beauty in art, nature and all the surrounding reality.

The main tasks of aesthetic education:

1) development of aesthetic perception, the ability to perceive beauty in the surrounding nature, in art. Such development is manifested in students in the awakening of aesthetic feelings, in the ability to respond to beauty. Faced with the beautiful, a person can admire and admire it, resent and grieve, experience a feeling of love and hatred, a feeling of likeness and disgust, a feeling of joy, etc. The task of the teacher is to form in students the ability to be sensitive to nature and art. In order to understand, you need to know, for students to acquire the ability to perceive, the beautiful must be aesthetic education. This applies primarily to such types of art as painting, sculpture, music, literature;

2) education of aesthetic taste, the ability to appreciate the beautiful. Aesthetic taste is difficult to form, each person has his own aesthetic ideal. In aesthetics, beautiful is what is able to evoke favorable feelings and emotions, to deliver aesthetic pleasure. The aesthetic taste of each individual may not coincide with the aesthetic taste and ideal of another. How should a teacher behave when a student proves that "hard rock" music gives the student aesthetic pleasure? Is it possible to reject this point of view unconditionally? No. This is what it consists the role of the teacher: not so much to form certain, well-established, traditional ideas about beauty, but to teach how to correlate the aesthetic tastes of different people in different historical periods and the aesthetic tastes of modernity with their personal ones;

3) education of an aesthetic attitude to reality, which includes the active actions of a person to protect and protect the beautiful. This task is not only a problem of aesthetic education, but also moral. Students should know the basic principles of aesthetic behavior. The teacher should not only visualize the objects of art, but also invite students to try to create such "masterpieces" themselves. This will help students learn to appreciate art and those who help its development.

Aesthetic education in education carried out as in the process of teaching a series general education disciplines (literature, geography, history, history, biology), and with the help of aesthetic disciplines (music, visual arts).

Music lessons are given from 1 to 7 classes inclusive. The main task of these lessons is to familiarize students with music, develop musical taste, and form an active creative attitude towards it. It is important that students not only sing during the lessons, but also receive interesting and useful information about the most famous classical composers, as well as modern composers.

The course visual arts introduced from 1st to 6th grade. Here, students not only gain knowledge "about the beautiful", but also actively participate in the creation of their own small paintings.

LECTURE No. 85. Self-education

self-education - conscious activity aimed at the full realization of a person as a person.

Self-education is associated with clearly conscious goals, ideals, a certain level of self-awareness, critical thinking, the ability and readiness for self-determination, self-expression, self-disclosure, self-improvement. Self-education is inextricably linked with education, reinforcing and developing the process of personality formation.

Components of self-education:

1) introspection of personal development - reflection on the individual qualities of one's personality, contributes to deliberate actions and deeds, helps to establish cause-and-effect relationships;

2) self-report - increases responsibility for one's actions, promotes the exchange of experience in self-education;

3) self control - helps to identify the qualities of character and evaluate their capabilities;

4) self-esteem - helps to correctly and objectively evaluate oneself, to characterize and evaluate the individual qualities of a person.

Types of self-education:

1) intellectual;

2) aesthetic;

3) physical;

4) psychological.

Intellectual self-education. The goal of the teacher's intellectual self-education is to learn how to present his knowledge in such a way as to captivate, make him feel the life in his subject. The main intellectual activity of a school teacher is communication with students.

The decisive factors for intellectual education are:

1) well-developed oral speech;

2) written speech;

3) deep professional knowledge of the most diverse nature, including a high level of general education.

Ethical self-education. The goal of aesthetic education is to pay more attention to communication skills. The set of skills required for this is difficult to define and depends on the type of character, upbringing, and thinking.

Decisive factors of ethical self-education:

1) the ability to establish and maintain contact with the interlocutor;

2) the ability to attract and hold the attention of the interlocutor;

3) fostering respect for other people, for their feelings and emotions.

Physical self-education. The goal of physical self-education is to increase physical activity, improve the physical condition of the body. The physical load in the teacher's activity is very small, he is often subject to stress, illness and ailments.

Decisive factors of physical education:

1) the presence of a special psychological component that allows you to relieve stress, relieve fatigue;

2) raising the general tone;

3) the ability to handle one's own body;

4) maintaining a normal sports form.

Recommended physical activity:

1) running;

2) swimming;

3) tourism;

4) health-improving sports systems.

Psychological self-education. The purpose of psychological education is to prepare teachers for the specifics of their professional activities.

Children are very sensitive to the psychological state of the teacher, therefore, outbursts of rage, discontent, and aggression are unacceptable. This can be achieved only in the presence of a stable, balanced nervous system.

Decisive factors of psychological self-education:

1) the ability to concentrate for a long time;

2) the ability to relieve psychological stress;

3) the desire to understand the state of students;

4) proper communication with parents and colleagues.

LECTURE No. 86. Collective education

Collectivism is defined as the principle of social life and activity of people, the opposite individualism.

The concept of a team can be reduced to the following features:

1) bringing people together on the basis of some common tasks;

2) known constancy of contact;

3) a well-known organization.

Such signs of the collective are determined by philosophy.

The term "team" translated from Latin as "prefabricated".

The Russian explanatory dictionary explains this term as follows: "this is a group of people united by common causes."

One of the principles of pedagogy is the principle of educating the individual in a team.

For a close-knit, formed team is characterized by:

1) unity and purpose;

2) general responsibility;

3) healthy public opinion;

4) positive traditions;

5) an atmosphere of trust;

6) high demands;

7) the ability to criticize;

8) the ability to correctly perceive criticism.

Common features of the collective as an association of people. Mandatory for such an association is the commonality of the goal, which is realized (achieved) in the process of joint activity. The goal that the team faces must be socially significant and valuable for society, that is, not resist it. To achieve this goal, the activities of the team must be properly organized. In the process of this activity, certain relationships are formed between the members of the team related to the performance of the activity.

most accurate criterion a full-fledged team is the free position of each of its members, mutual respect for interests and needs.

Such relationships develop in the case when communication, participation in achieving common goals in the team generates not only exactingness, but also respect and care for each other.

Team principles:

1) the presence of general collective goals;

2) constant movement towards new perspectives;

3) connection with other collectives, with the life of society;

4) direct impact on all major aspects of students' lives;

5) unity of management and self-government;

6) the leading role of elders;

7) use of the game;

8) creation and accumulation of traditions;

9) cheerful tone;

10) aesthetic expressiveness.

Collective - this is a fusion of different personalities, but these personalities have common goals, experience in joint activities, they have norms and rules that regulate the activities of the team.

In the practice of education, they differ primary и common collectives. The main forms of primary teams at school:

1 class;

2) extra-curricular circles;

3) sports teams;

4) amateur art groups, etc.

Feature primary teams - personal contact in it of all its members, constant business and friendly communication between them.

Cool team - the most important form of the primary team. It can grow and develop with active and close ties with other teams, firstly, and with the general school team, secondly. If the collective is closed within the framework of the class, its interests do not go beyond the limits of its class, then this collective cannot be considered as a full-fledged one.

Sometimes class teams oppose themselves to other classes and the general school team. There is a "group egoism".

LECTURE No. 87. The team as an object and subject of education

Collective (from the Latin "colligo" - "I unite") - the unification of people on the basis of the existence of a connecting relationship between them. In this sense, the following types of relations can be distinguished in each human association:

1) business - based on joint activities to solve social problems;

2) personal - based on personal attachments, likes and dislikes.

The main features of the team are:

1) the existence of a strong and efficient business relationship;

2) the presence of dependencies between members of the team.

Educational team - an association of students functioning with the help of healthy social relations, high organization of self-government and interpersonal relations, striving for common success, etc.

There are three stages in the development of the team:

1) the first stage is characterized by the presence of a rallying agent - the teacher's requirements for students;

2) the second stage is characterized by the development of this requirement, the creation of a group of students who consciously want to maintain discipline;

3) the third stage is characterized by the achievement of a certain result, while the work of the educator becomes more accurate and organized.

Functions of the educational team:

1) stimulating - the team acts as a stimulus for the activity of all members in increasing the purposefulness of their lives;

2) organizational - the team becomes the subject of education and management of its activities;

3) moral - the team contributes to the formation of correct relationships, a culture of student behavior.

At school, all students are united in single school team. The organization and effective functioning of the school-wide student team is of great pedagogical importance.

The community team includes:

1) primary teams (classes);

2) temporary groups (various circles, amateur art groups);

3) formal groups (bodies of student self-government, student committee);

4) informal teams (informal leader).

The most important means of educating the student team:

1) academic work;

2) extracurricular activities;

3) labor activity;

4) social activities;

5) cultural and mass activities of students.

To create and educate a student team, the following principles must be observed:

1) education of the student asset - will create a system in which pedagogical requirements are supported by all students;

2) the correct presentation of pedagogical requirements - will allow organizing successful educational work with schoolchildren, laying the foundation for further development and education of the team;

3) the organization of promising educational, labor, artistic, aesthetic and sports and recreational activities - has a great influence on the development and personal formation of all members of the team;

4) the formation of a healthy public opinion - in the presence of healthy relations between students, any impact on the team is educational for each student and for the entire team as a whole;

5) the creation and maintenance of positive collective traditions - allows you to increase the content of collective life, expands the boundaries of students' activities, strengthens the cohesion of the team.

LECTURE No. 88. Distance learning

Distance learning - this is training, during which there is no direct personal contact between the teacher and the student.

Distance learning allows residents of regions where there are no other opportunities to receive high-quality higher education to study. This form of education can be used for advanced training, retraining of specialists, for training the disabled: the blind, the deaf and those suffering from diseases of the musculoskeletal system.

Distance learning in the form distance learning originated in the early twentieth century. Since the mid 70s. XNUMXth century in many countries educational institutions of a new type began to appear: "distance", "virtual" university, "electronic" college, etc.

The main types of university distance education structures include:

1) units of distance education in traditional universities;

2) a consortium of universities - a special organization that unites and coordinates the activities of several universities;

3) national open universities - assume freedom of enrollment in the number of students, drawing up an individual curriculum, freedom of place, time and pace of learning;

4) virtual universities - electronic open universities that use various forms of education: virtual lectures, virtual tools for designing, simulating a designed device, etc.

Organizational models of distance learning:

1) external education - designed for pupils and students who, for some reason, cannot attend traditional educational institutions;

2) education on the basis of one university - is a whole system of correspondence or distance learning based on new information technologies;

3) cooperation of several educational institutions - allows any citizen of the Commonwealth countries, without leaving their country, to receive any education on the basis of colleges and universities operating in the Commonwealth countries;

4) autonomous learning systems - are learning through TV or radio programs, as well as additional printed manuals;

5) integrated distance learning based on multimedia programs - focused on teaching an adult audience, those people who, for some reason, could not complete their school education.

There are three categories of distance learning tools:

1) non-interactive (printed materials, audio, video educational materials);

2) computer learning tools (electronic educational publications, computer testing and knowledge control, multimedia tools);

3) video conferencing (means of telecommunication via audio channels, video channels and computer networks).

Technological models used in distance learning:

1) singular media - use of any one means of training and information transmission channel (training through correspondence, educational radio or television programs);

2) multimedia - use of various teaching aids (audio and video recordings, printed teaching aids, computer programs on various media);

3) hypermedia - the use of new information technologies with the leading importance of computer telecommunications (e-mail, teleconferences).

LECTURE No. 89. Functions and main activities of the class teacher

Classroom teacher - authorized team of teachers teaching in this class, the main educator of students.

The class teacher does the following: Features:

1) gets to know the families of students in order to know what influence is on them at home, and in order to help them in a timely manner if this influence is unfavorable;

2) acquaints parents with the requirements of the school for students in terms of daily routine, preparation of lessons, involvement of students in homework, etc.;

3) seeks to ensure the unity of the requirements of the school and the family;

4) regularly arranges lectures for parents on certain issues, which talk about the means and methods by which the family can help the school in solving the problems of education, moral, labor, aesthetic education, and strengthening the health of children;

5) supplement lectures and reports with individual conversations with parents of students, during which he gives advice to parents on cultivating specific qualities in their children, points out traits of their character that require closer attention;

6) knowing about financial difficulties in individual families, the class teacher may, through the parent committee of the school, ask for financial assistance from the funds allocated for these purposes by the state;

7) involve the parent community to help the school (the work of the school and class parent committees);

8) involve parents in the management of school circles, in organizing and conducting excursions and collective extra-curricular activities, as well as in introducing students to various professions.

The main organizational forms the work of the class teacher with the parents of students are:

1) visiting the families of students and conducting conversations at home;

2) inviting parents to the school for individual interviews;

3) regular convening of class meetings;

4) holding open parental days, when the class teacher talks with parents who have come to the school to receive pedagogical advice;

5) work with the parent asset (holding meetings of the class parent committee, distribution of assignments between parents, etc.).

It should be noted that both visiting families of students and inviting parents to school is practiced not only in cases of bad behavior or poor student performance.

Special difficulties for a novice class teacher represents parent-teacher meetings:

1) when conducting them, pedagogical and methodological errors are allowed:

a) the meeting begins directly with an analysis of the progress and behavior of individual students;

b) the problems of the emotional state of the class are not addressed (excessive excitability, depression, general dissatisfaction with teachers, etc.)

c) no mention is made of "average students", only poor or successful students are discussed.

2) due tact is not always observed in relation to the parents of delinquent students. Often, after such meetings, the parents of difficult students, who were scolded by the class teacher in front of everyone, stop attending meetings altogether.

Correct actions of the class teacher:

1) starting a conversation with parents, it is necessary to familiarize them with the general tasks, difficulties and features of the educational work of individual students, or in groups, highlighting both those students who deserve encouragement and those who cause anxiety and fear of teachers;

2) it is necessary to talk about the positive that is in every child. This approach helps to encourage parents to have a more frank conversation and work together with the school to overcome negative aspects in the child's behavior;

3) it is useful to invite all teachers working in this class to such meetings.

LECTURE No. 90

Family is the initial structural unit of society, laying the foundations of the individual. It is connected by blood and family relations and unites spouses, children and parents, including several generations at the same time.

Concepts of family pedagogy, i.e. scientific theories and main directions, include:

1) the formation of universal human values and such qualities as honesty and honor, dignity and nobility, love for people and diligence;

2) respect for the personality of the child in the family, responsibility for him.

The goals of family education are:

1) the formation of such qualities and personality traits that will help to adequately overcome the difficulties and obstacles encountered on the path of life;

2) the development of intelligence and creative abilities, cognitive forces and primary work experience, moral and aesthetic principles, emotional culture and physical health of children - all this depends on the family, on parents and is the main goal of education.

For effective family education, it is necessary to form in the parents themselves a pedagogically expedient focus on constant and mutually beneficial communication with their own children.

Importance of raising children in a family:

1) the family creates for the child the model of life in which he is included;

2) the influence of parents on their own children should ensure their physical perfection and moral purity;

3) often family circumstances and conditions in which children were born and grew up leave an imprint on their whole life and even predetermine their fate.

In modern conditions, children need education:

1) reasonable practicality;

2) business calculation;

3) honest enterprise.

First of all, parents should master all this.

Pedagogically expedient parental love - this is love for a child in the name of his future, in contrast to love in the name of satisfying his own momentary parental feelings. Blind, unreasonable parental love leads to negative consequences:

1) shifts the system of moral values in the minds of children, gives rise to consumerism;

2) forms in children a disregard for work, dulls the feeling of gratitude and disinterested love for parents and other relatives.

Parents for children are a vital ideal. In the family, the efforts of all participants in the educational process are coordinated:

1) schools;

2) teachers;

3) friends.

Depending on the number of children, modern families are divided into:

1) large families;

2) small children;

3) one-child;

4) childless.

According to their composition, they can be:

1) single-generation (only spouses);

2) two-generation (parents and children);

3) intergenerational, in which children, their parents and parents of parents live together.

If there is only one parent (mother or father) in the family, the family is called incomplete. A variation of an incomplete family is an illegitimate family, where a woman gives birth to a child without registering a marriage.

In pedagogy, there is a classification of families not only by composition, but also by the nature of the relationship in them. Yu. P. Azarov divides families into three types:

1) ideal;

2) average;

3) negative, or scandalously irritable.

M. I. Buyanov, using the research of sociologists, calls the following types of families:

1) harmonious;

2) decaying;

3) broken up;

4) incomplete.

On D. Freeman The main functions of the family include:

1) ensuring human survival;

2) raising children;

3) ensuring security;

4) creation and maintenance of factors and prerequisites (social, emotional, economic, etc.) for the full individual development of a person;

5) ensuring social control of the general behavior of people in society within the framework of accepted norms of behavior.

The secondary functions of the family include:

1) transfer to the next generations of traditions, values of society, nationality;

2) search and maintenance of one's own "I";

3) meeting the needs of motherhood and fatherhood;

4) self-realization in the next generation;

5) the formation of versatile activities of family members.

The importance of the family in the educational process is of great importance, since it is the family that is able to satisfy almost all human needs in the development and preservation of the individual.

Each era is characterized by appropriate models (styles) of raising a child. The choice of the style of education largely depends on the requirements of society for the personality of a person. Parenting style is the most significant types of parent-child relationships that are used as direct methods of pedagogical education (verbal and non-verbal communication are taken into account).

There are the following styles of family education: adversarial, conniving, reasonable, precautionary, harmonious, sympathetic, controlling.

The formation of styles of family education of a child occurs as a result of the action of various factors (objective or subjective). The following factors influence the choice of parenting style:

1) public opinion;

2) the level of morality of the family;

3) the degree of trust in scientific and pedagogical literature;

4) temperament of parents and close relatives;

5) family traditions;

6) interpersonal relationships of parents.

In the process of upbringing within the framework of the family, the child has the opportunity to develop normally: to learn the rules of communication with the outside world in a timely manner, to learn to recognize positive and negative norms of behavior, to form personal ideals. The absence of family education does not allow the child to correctly form his own life criteria, to choose an independent line of behavior. In incomplete families, a one-sided perception of the world and social, interpersonal relations is most often formed. The family as a subject of pedagogical education bears a great responsibility for the education of future full-fledged members of society.

The child adopts the behavior and worldview of his parents (caregivers), but only versatile communication makes the process of education complete.

Authors: Petrova O.O., Dolganova O.V., Sharokhina E.V.

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