Логика. Гипотеза, ее структура и условия научной состоятельности (самое важное)

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Логика. Гипотеза, ее структура и условия научной состоятельности (самое важное)

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67. HYPOTHESIS, ITS STRUCTURE AND CONDITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC CONSISTENCY

Hypothesis - this is a natural form of knowledge development, which is an informed assumption put forward in order to clarify the properties and causes of the phenomena under study. A hypothesis is a decisive link in the cognitive chain that ensures the formation of new knowledge.

The hypothesis includes the following elements:

1) initial data, or grounds;

2) assumption;

3) logical processing of initial data and transition to an assumption;

4) testing a hypothesis, turning an assumption into reliable knowledge or refuting it.

Principles for constructing a hypothesis

The principle of objectivity of research, which can be interpreted in two ways: psychological (the absence of bias, when the researcher is guided by the interests of establishing the truth, and not by his own subjective inclinations, preferences and desires) and logical and methodological (comprehensiveness of research in order to establish the truth).

First, when putting forward a hypothesis or version, all the initial empirical material should be taken into account.

Secondly, comprehensiveness requires the construction of all possible versions under specific conditions. This requirement is dictated by the use of the method of "multiple hypotheses" known in science. Since the primary material in any empirical study, as a rule, is incomplete, it thereby gives an idea only of individual links, individual dependencies between phenomena. In order to reveal the entire chain of relationships, it is necessary to build a number of versions that explain the unknown circumstances of the crime in different ways.

To build the most plausible version, ignoring the others, is to approach the matter one-sidedly. This threatens that the investigator is captured by the facts, and if in some cases the passion for one version only delays the investigation in time, then in others it can lead to a miscarriage of justice.

Conditions for the validity of the hypothesis

A hypothesis in science, like a version in a forensic study, is considered valid if it satisfies the following logical and methodological requirements.

The hypothesis must be consistent. This means that assumption H should not contradict the original empirical basis, and also should not contain internal contradictions.

The hypothesis must be fundamentally testable, and if we talk about the judicial version, it must be subject to verification by facts. The fundamental untestability of the hypothesis dooms it to eternal problematicness and makes it impossible to turn into reliable knowledge.

A hypothesis is considered valid if it is empirically and theoretically substantiated. The probability of a hypothesis depends on the degree of its validity and is determined using quantitative or qualitative evaluation standards.

The cognitive, or heuristic, value of a hypothesis is determined by its informativeness, which is expressed in the predictive and explanatory power of the hypothesis.

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Electricity from mushrooms and wooden floor 01.04.2021

Wood consists of fibers of cellulose and hemicellulose polymers in a lignin matrix. Cellulose in the composition of wood can be amorphous and crystalline. The presence of the latter makes wood a piezoelectric material - a material in which electric charges arise under the action of deformation. When cellulose crystallites are compressed, the centers of gravity of positive and negative charges diverge in space, and charges arise on the surface of the crystallite to maintain electrostatic equilibrium. The piezoelectric properties of wood have been known since the fifties, but no one has made commercial materials and devices for generating electricity from it - due to the low piezoelectric modulus and the deformability of wood, this was considered unprofitable.

Swiss scientists led by Ingo Burgert from ETH Zurich managed to enhance the piezoelectric properties of wood. Burgert and his colleagues have long been able to change the properties of wood and obtain various functional materials on its basis. For example, last year they turned balsa wood into a luminous material by dissolving lignin and replacing it with a solution of luminescent quantum dots. To make wood a good piezoelectric, you also need to dissolve the lignin, then the wood will become looser, and it will be easier to deform it. In order to carry out the dissolution gently, without damaging the cellulose framework, Burgert and his colleagues proposed an unexpected solution - they treated the wood with mushrooms from the basidiomycete department.

The scientists again took the light wood of the balsa tree (Ochroma pyramidale) with a density of 94,8 kilograms per cubic meter as the basis for the material. Three types of fungi were used to dissolve lignin: Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Ganoderma adspersum, and Ganoderma applanatum. The wood was cut into thin plates, dried at a temperature of 100 degrees during the day, a freshly prepared mushroom culture was applied to the surface and left in a humid atmosphere for a period of 4 to 12 weeks.

To control how much lignin the fungi had time to absorb, wood samples were thoroughly cleaned and dried again for a day, and then weighed. The fastest loss of lignin was provided by the fungi Ganoderma applanatum. The optimal processing time Burgert and his colleagues considered eight weeks (corresponding to a weight loss of 45 percent mainly due to lignin) - with longer processing, the wood became too loose and significantly lost strength. Fourier IR spectroscopy confirmed that the fungi preferentially absorbed lignin, and a slight loss of hemicellulose was also observed. But the cellulose frame of wood remained practically unchanged after treatment - this was clearly visible not only in the IR spectra, but also in the images of scanning electron microscopy.

Lignin-free wood had better compressibility. As a result, the displacement of the centers of gravity of the charge in cellulose crystallites occurred with a greater amplitude, and the piezoelectric effect also increased. A cube of treated wood measuring 15 x 15 x 13,2 millimeters generated a voltage of 0,87 volts and a current of 13,3 nanoamps. This is fifty-five times more than unmodified wood under the same conditions. By connecting nine such cubes in series, the authors obtained electricity sufficient to power a light emitting diode.

From the new material, the authors propose to make a floor covering that will produce electricity under the weight of human steps. Such a coating could be placed in the homes of the elderly and powered by sensors that are activated if a person falls. There are more exotic ideas for using piezoelectric wood floors in dance and aerobics rooms. Note that so far Burgert and his colleagues have obtained a piezoelectric material only from balsa wood - light and with a large number of pores. In the future, they are going to adapt the method for denser and heavier types of wood.

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