Логика. Метод сопутствующих изменений как метод научной индукции (самое важное)

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Логика. Метод сопутствующих изменений как метод научной индукции (самое важное)

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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60. THE METHOD OF ACCOMPANYING CHANGE AS A METHOD OF SCIENTIFIC INDUCTION

The method is used in the analysis of cases in which there is a modification of one of the preceding circumstances, accompanied by a modification of the action under study..

Not all causally related phenomena allow the neutralization or replacement of individual factors that make them up. For example, when investigating the effect of friction on the velocity of a body, it is impossible in principle to exclude friction itself.

The only way to discover causal relationships under such conditions is to record concomitant changes in antecedent and subsequent phenomena in the process of observation. The cause in this case is such an antecedent circumstance, the intensity or degree of change of which coincides with the change in the action under study. If we denote by symbols A, B, C the preceding circumstances, each of which cannot be omitted or replaced; indices 1, 2, n - the degree of change in these circumstances; symbol d - the action of interest to us, then the reasoning by the method of accompanying changes takes the following form:

1) ABC1 calls d1;

2) ABC2 calls d2;

....................................

n) AVSp causes dn.

Apparently C is the cause of d. The application of the method of concomitant changes also implies the fulfillment of a number of conditions.

1. Knowledge of all possible causes of the phenomenon under study is necessary.

2. Of the given circumstances, those that do not satisfy the property of unambiguous causation should be eliminated.

3. Among the preceding ones, the only circumstance is singled out, the change of which accompanies the change of the action.

Concomitant changes can be direct and reverse.

Direct dependency means: the more intense the manifestation of the preceding factor, the more actively the phenomenon under study also manifests itself, and vice versa - with a decrease in intensity, the activity or degree of manifestation of the action decreases accordingly. For example, with an increase in air temperature, mercury expands, and its level in the thermometer rises, with a decrease in temperature, the mercury column falls accordingly.

Inverse relationship expressed in the fact that the intense manifestation of the preceding circumstance slows down the activity or reduces the degree of change in the phenomenon under study. For example, the greater the friction, the lower the speed of the body.

The validity of the conclusion in the conclusion according to the method of accompanying changes is determined by the number of cases considered, the accuracy of knowledge about the antecedent circumstances, as well as the adequacy of the changes in the antecedent circumstance and the phenomenon under study.

The validity of the conclusion also largely depends on the degree of correspondence between the changes in the preceding factor and the action itself. Not any, but only proportionally increasing or decreasing changes are taken into account. Those of them that do not differ in one-to-one regularity often arise under the influence of uncontrolled, random factors and can mislead the researcher.

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The brain combines memories 22.07.2015

About 10 years ago, neuroscientists discovered a strange phenomenon: certain neurons in the human brain only fired in response to a particular image. Those studies were performed on patients with epilepsy, who were injected with electrodes into the cerebral cortex to find out which area is responsible for the disease. At the same time, it was possible to perform scientific experiments (of course, on a voluntary basis).

When a person with an electrode in their head was shown a photo of some celebrity, like actresses Jennifer Aniston or Julia Roberts, or a certain scene from a cartoon, then in response one could see the activity of certain nerve cells, and the "Jennifer Aniston" neuron was silent in the photo of Julia Roberts . Such nerve cells were located in the region of the brain that captures the hippocampus, which, as you know, serves as our main memory center.

Further experiments showed that there are indeed cells in the brain that are responsible for recognizing various objects, human faces, etc. Not one or two, but about a thousand, if not more, have been identified for each object, but they can defend each other from each other. friend is too far away for neuroscientists to notice them all at once.

Moreover, what is important, these cells distinguish important features from minor ones: for example, they react to a famous person regardless of what the celebrity is wearing and what hairstyle she has. However, in some cases, when a familiar object was shown to a person in a new context, such neurons were silent.

At the same time, our memories never consist of separate objects. For example, we can remember our friend in a situation where he came to visit us, or when we met him on the street - it is obvious that there are two different places here, the street and the house, for which their neurons are allocated, and they must somehow then interact with the cells responsible for the image of a person. In general, we remember whole chains of events in which something happens all the time with a variety of objects - this kind of information is called episodic memory.

Itzhak Fried (one of those who discovered such cells) from the University of California, Los Angeles and his colleagues from the University of Leicester tried to find out how the specific neurons described above behave with such a memory. Volunteers in their experiments again served as epileptic patients who had electrodes inserted into the cerebral cortex - they were shown from one hundred to two hundred very different images: among them there were places that the most participants in the experiment liked, and portraits of celebrities, and famous architectural structures, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa , and other elements of the landscape.

In each person (and there were 14 of them), it was possible to record the activity of 600 cells, and among them groups from 2 to 28 could be distinguished, which together responded to at least one image. Then the pictures were changed so that the character and background did not match in terms of neural activity, for example, the actor Clint Eastwood was combined with the Leaning Tower of Pisa - knowing that the neurons responsible for a famous person do not react in any way to a famous architectural structure.

After the participants in the experiment looked at such collages, they had to pass a series of memory tests: for example, they had to assemble a collage they had seen from separate photos - that is, to match a photo of Clint Eastwood with a photo of the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

The goal of the researchers was to understand what would happen to the neurons of a specific response. In an article in Neuron, they write that after the first time, the cells understood that they had “their object” in front of them, just under new conditions, and even responded to its new, modified version with greater activity. "From the first time" means that it was enough to show the combined picture once for special neurons to remember their object in relation to the new environment.

In fact, one would expect the brain to have a way of turning individual objects into a continuous chain of memories. The peculiarity of the new work is that the authors managed to show changes in the work of the higher nervous system at the neuronal level - and the main thing here is that the emergence of a new association, the need to associate a familiar object with new conditions affects the activity of single neurons.

Obviously, by combining the activity of various groups of special neurons, each responsible for its own image, the brain is able to remember a unique event in our life, which did not happen in the past and which will not be repeated in the future.

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