National economy. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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National economy. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

Structure of the national economy: concept, essence and types
Structure of the national economy
Theories of structural reforms of the national economy
Infrastructure of the economy: types and significance for the national economy
Sectoral structure of the national economy
Theory of "Intersectoral balance"
Ownership structure in the national economy
Structural changes in the economy of modern Russia
Aggregate economic potential: concept and essence
Types of the aggregate economic potential of the national economy
Economic resources: their types
Properties of economic resources limited complementarity
National wealth is part of the total economic potential of the national economy
National wealth of Russia
Russia's place in the system of using the planet's potentials
Types of economic systems, concept, essence
Characteristics of economic systems
Economic entities, their relationship
Reasons for Russia's transition to a market economy
Factors in the Formation of the Russian Market Economy Model
Mechanisms of the national economic system
Place and role of corporations in the national economic system: integrated economic structures
Public goods: concept, essence
Classification of public goods
Types of public goods
The specifics of the consumption of public goods
Public choice in the national economy
Conditions for the effective provision of public goods in the national economy
The concept of economic growth and development of the national economy
Factors affecting the development of the national economy
Key indicators for assessing economic growth and development of the national economy: GDP, GNP
The labor market in the national economy
Features of employment and unemployment in the transition economy
Economy of the region, types of regionalization
Regional reproduction system
The concept of the development of regions "Strategies for the socio-economic development of the regions of the Russian Federation"
Interregional socio-economic processes
Budget support for regional and municipal development
Theoretical foundations of budgetary regulation of the economy
Target programs for managing the development of regions
The state in the Russian economy
The functions of the state in the national economy
The concept of state regulation of the economy
Mechanisms of state regulation of the economy
State regulation of the national economy in Russia
The concept of national economic security
The concept of national security of the Russian Federation
Internal and external threats to national economic security
External threats to national security
Federal, regional and local institutions for ensuring national economic security
National markets: concept, types, principles of organization
Functions of the nationwide market
Unregulated markets
Regulated Markets
Monopoly and competition in the Russian economy
Antitrust policy

1. Structure of the national economy: concept, essence and types

The essence of the national economy consists in the fact that it is an established system of national and social reproduction of the state, in which industries, types and forms of social labor are interconnected, which have developed as a result of a long historical evolutionary development of a particular country. The peculiarities of the national economy are influenced by historical, cultural traditions, the geographical position of the state, its role in the international division of labor, etc.

VV Leontiev defines the national economy as a system capable of self-regulation, consisting of various types of activities.

A number of related sciences and academic disciplines are devoted to the study of the national economy:

1) economics of industry;

2) economics of construction;

3) agricultural economics;

4) economic theory.

Structural analysis of the national economy, according to its founder R. Bar, it allows for a more complete and comprehensive analysis of economic processes. He comes from the fact that the structure is a way of ordering various units in the economy and the formation of organic interaction between them. There are two types of structure of the national economy:

1) economic structures that determine the functioning of the economic units of the national economy. The study of the nature of the relationship between them is of interest, since they determine the essence of the national economy;

2) non-economic structures that determine the functioning of non-economic units - culture, education, etc. Their analysis is of interest only to the extent that these units and the relationship between them affect the functioning of the national economy. F. Peru believes that the structure of the national economy differs in proportions and relationships between its constituent parts. Proportion is the value of the analyzed unit of the national economy in relation to others. Relationships are relatively stable links between units of the national economy, capable of change and preservation.

R. Tinbergeng considers it important to conduct a structural analysis of the economy, as it allows you to determine its essence and make a forecast of the future state and development, while proceeding from the following features of the structural analysis of the national economy:

1) it allows you to more fully explain the processes taking place in the national economy;

2) it makes it possible, on the basis of data obtained as a result of structural analysis, to develop a more effective and efficient national economic policy that will be more flexible, adapted and relevant.

2. Structure of the national economy

Structure of the national economy - this is a set of historically established stable, capable of reproducing functional relationships between various units of the national economy.

There are the following types of structure of the national economy:

1) household, implying consideration of the structure of the national economy as a relationship between households. The allocation of this type of structures is due to the fact that households are a powerful economic entity that produces a significant part of the national wealth, affecting the nature of other relationships;

2) social structure based on the division of the national economy into certain sectors that are organically interconnected. The division is made according to various criteria, for example, groups of the population, enterprises, types of work. Usually there are public and private sectors of the economy;

3) sectoral structure, which involves the allocation of sectors of the economy and the definition of the nature and essence of the relationship between them. A branch of the national economy is a unit of the national economy that performs similar functional tasks in the process of social production. This type of structuring the national economy is of great importance, as it allows to implement high-quality forecasting of economic development;

4) territorial structure, involving the analysis of the geographical distribution of productive forces within the national economy - the division of the national economy into different economic regions;

5) the infrastructure of the national economy, based on the definition of the type and nature of interaction between the spheres of the economy;

6) the structure of foreign trade, which involves an analysis of the nature of the ratios of various commodity groups, their imports and exports.

The structure of a certain national economy is constantly changing and transforming. This is greatly influenced by scientific and technological progress, which changes the nature of production, contributes to the emergence of new industries and sectors of the economy. The change in the nature of social production, the emergence of new industries, has an impact on the nature of the relationships in the national economy. Therefore, the structure of the national economy is constantly changing, which makes it necessary to carry out constant structural monitoring, to measure the real structure with its future development.

The structure of a particular national economy is formed under the influence of many factors - geographical, cultural, social, psychological, etc. It is specific to each particular country and cannot be artificially introduced. On the part of the state, only an indirect influence on it can be exercised.

3. Theories of structural reforms of the national economy

The need for structural reforms is usually associated with the decline of the national economy, a protracted economic crisis. In a situation where the functioning of the national economy does not meet the requirements of a decent standard of living, under pressure from the population, the country's government is forced to take a number of extreme measures to change the state of the national economy - structural reforms.

Carrying out structural reforms of the national economy is always included in the field of activity of the state apparatus.

In order for structural reforms to be more effective, they are usually formalized in the form of programs - designed for long-term implementation, interconnected measures. Programs can be different in their content, goals, objectives, design methods and reflect specific features of the national economy.

Reform of the pension system is one of the most effective mechanisms for structural reform of the national economy. Here the task is to move to a system of non-state pension funds that can implement more efficient management of the financial resources entrusted to them. But the complete withdrawal of the state does not contribute to the establishment of economic stability - it must retain the right to regulate the activities of non-state funds. Reforming the pension system is the most difficult, but nevertheless a necessary part of structural reforms, as it allows mobilizing the necessary volumes of financial resources for the development of the national economy.

The reform of the banking sector is due to the fact that it implements significant economic functions - it provides cash flow for the purposes of economic development. Its main role is to create money. This is the task of the central bank. The specifics of a particular banking system depends on the real conditions and needs of the national economy.

The main problem of the banking sector was the general and systemic non-repayment of loans associated with the general economic downturn, a decrease in the activity of business entities, a decrease in household incomes and the general standard of living.

Another feature is the decline in public confidence in the banking system, as the population switched to the use of non-bank forms of savings and began to take a negative approach to the possibilities of investing money in the national economy.

The results of the implementation of structural reform programs show their effectiveness and efficiency. The emerging economic stabilization allows us to conclude that countries with a transitional type of economy will be able to achieve sustainable economic growth in the long term.

4. Infrastructure of the economy: types and significance for the national economy

There is an ambiguous definition of infrastructure. Firstly, it refers to the totality of the service system, the main task of which is to ensure the operation of production and the provision of various services to the population. Secondly, infrastructure is understood as a set of units whose activities are aimed at ensuring the normal functioning of the national economy.

Infrastructure as an independent area of the national economy has gone through the following stages of development:

1) the separation of agriculture and handicrafts led to the growth of cities and the specialization of labor;

2) the separation of agriculture, crafts and trade led to the formation of a specific area of the national economy - trade, as a result of which the role of infrastructure has increased significantly.

The following main types of infrastructure in the national economy are distinguished.

1. Manufacturing infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the main purpose of which is to ensure the normal functioning of the production process. For example, cargo transportation, tonnage shipping, etc. The essence of the production infrastructure is twofold. First, it is aimed at maintaining the normal functioning of the process of material production. Secondly, it ensures the normal life of the person himself, the reproduction of labor resources in the national economy.

2. social infrastructure - this is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is associated with ensuring the normal life of the population and man. Its role in the modern national economy is constantly increasing, and the main task is to ensure the life of the population at an ever higher quality level. The impact of social infrastructure on the national economy lies in the fact that it allows for the reproduction of labor resources - the main resource of the economy.

3. Market infrastructure - this is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is aimed at ensuring the normal operation of the market and its development. It is represented by a combination of various organizations and institutions that ensure the activities of various sectors of the economy.

The market infrastructure consists of the following elements:

1) trade organizations;

2) stock trading;

3) banking system;

4) non-banking institutions;

5) transport system.

5. Sectoral structure of the national economy

Sectoral structure of the national economy

consists in grouping economic entities into groups that are homogeneous in composition, connected by homogeneous functional characteristics - branches of the national economy.

The sectoral structure of the national economy goes through the following stages of its development:

1) the first is associated with the active development and the predominance of primary sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, mining;

2) the second is associated with the development and dominance of secondary industries - production, construction;

3) the third is associated with the development and predominance of tertiary industries - the service sector.

These stages of development of the sectoral structure of the national economy succeeded each other, but for each individual country they had their own specific features.

Dynamic changes in the sectoral structure occur cyclically over a period of 10 to 20 years. They are characterized by the following features:

1) increasing the value and volume of the service industry - the intellectual, information sphere;

2) a decrease in the volume of the extractive industry compared to others;

3) the growth of industrial production against the background of the agricultural sector of the economy.

Scientific and technological progress has a great influence on the nature of the sectoral structure of the national economy. It leads to the fact that some industries disappear or stagnate, while others, such as nuclear energy, are actively developing. A distinctive feature is the emergence of related sectors of the economy - petrochemical, rocket and space, etc.

Change in industry structure goes in the following main directions:

1) a fundamental change in production technologies;

2) the dominance of the manufacturing industry in comparison with the extractive industry;

3) development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the national economy;

4) a shift in the center of gravity towards non-productive industries.

The modern sectoral structure of the national economy of Russia is characterized by the predominance of the fuel and energy complex (FEC). It is one of the most capital-intensive industries, in connection with which there is an outflow of capital from other industries. The orientation of the fuel and energy complex to the international market makes Russia dependent on global price fluctuations. As a result, more than half of the country's GDP is formed from the sale of resources. The predominance of the extractive industries of the economy has a negative impact on the overall pace of development of the national economy. The dominance of the fuel and energy complex hinders the development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the economy.

6. Theory of "Intersectoral balance"

Theory of "Intersectoral balance" was developed in the USA by V. V. Leontiev as an effective tool in the analysis and forecasting of structural relationships in the economy. It proceeds from the possibility of achieving a general macroeconomic equilibrium, for which a model of this state has been developed, including the structural relationship of all stages of the production process - production, distribution or exchange and final consumption. The essence of this method lies in the dual definition of the sector of the economy - as a consumer and as a producer. To determine the degree and nature of the relationship between supply and demand for a good, a system of technological coefficients is used - an indicator that reflects the volume of average production costs of a particular industry, necessary for the production of a unit of good.

In this model, an input-output balance scheme is used for analysis, consisting of four main quadrants, reflecting certain stages of the production process:

1) volumes of consumption for the needs of production - the first quadrant;

2) grouping the product depending on how it is used - the second quadrant;

3) the inclusion of the value added of the goods, for example, remuneration of employees, taxes and other - the third quadrant;

4) the structure of the distribution of national income - the fourth quadrant.

The theory of "intersectoral balance" allows: 1) to analyze and forecast the development of the main sectors of the national economy at various levels - regional, intrasectoral, interproduct;

2) to make an objective and relevant forecasting of the pace and nature of the development of the national economy;

3) to determine the characteristics of the main macroeconomic indicators, under which the state of equilibrium of the national economy will come. As a result of the impact on them, approach the equilibrium state;

4) calculate the full and direct costs of producing a certain unit of the good;

5) determine the resource intensity of the entire national economy and its individual sectors;

6) to determine the directions for increasing the efficiency and rationalization of the international and regional division of labor.

The grounds for attributing units of the national economy to a particular industry can be different - the similarity of the technological and production process, the homogeneity of the required raw materials, the nature of the products.

7. Ownership structure in the national economy

Ownership structure is of great importance for the national economy, as it determines the nature and essence of the processes occurring in it - production, consumption, distribution.

Allocate the following property content:

1) economic entity property is built on the relationship between the subject - the owner and the object - the property. As a rule, property is property on which the production process depends - economic resources, factors of production;

2) legal entity property implies generally accepted at the legislative level the rules of property regulation.

The Civil Code of the Russian Federation distinguishes the following types of property entities (owners):

1) bodies of state and municipal administration.

2) legal entity;

3) a citizen is a natural person.

The Civil Code of the Russian Federation distinguishes the following types of property objects (property):

1) intellectual property;

2) movable property;

3) real estate.

The structure of ownership in the national economy reflects the nature of the existing relationships between objects and subjects of ownership. It is specific to each specific country and is formed under the influence of a combination of historical, cultural, and psychological factors.

The modern ownership structure of Russia is characterized by:

1) the predominance of shadow property relations. The state seeks to regulate at the legislative level the relations of ownership, disposal and use of property. In the case of the shadow economy, these relations are not regulated by the state, but proceed outside the legal field (this is a set of unregulated and unaccounted for at the legislative level of economic relations);

2) denationalization process, i.e. privatization of property. The experience of developed countries shows that active economic growth can only be realized in a situation where business entities have a direct interest in the results of their work. In order to increase the economic interest of economic entities, the process of privatization was launched - the transfer of property rights to individuals and legal entities, which previously belonged to the state. This process was chaotic in Russia and contributed little to economic growth;

3) underdevelopment of small business. In developed countries, the economy is based on small enterprises with private ownership of the means of production. In Russia, due to the lack of the necessary conditions for this, it practically does not develop.

8. Structural changes in the economy of modern Russia

At the end of the twentieth century. a radical structural reform of the national economy was developed and implemented. As a result, the established socialist system of economic activity of the ball was replaced by a market one.

The objective reasons for the beginning of the reform were the emerging in the 1960s. and worsened in the early 1980s. a protracted economic crisis, as a result of which economic growth almost completely stopped, a state of stagnation set in, and the standard of living of the population significantly decreased. The program of reforms of the national economy of the early 1990s. included:

1) structural reforms;

2) privatization;

3) macroeconomic regulation.

Much attention was focused on budgetary and tax policy. With the help of purely monetarist methods, the state restrained the rate of inflation and at the same time implemented measures to support production.

One of the structural shifts that emerged in 1995 is still developing more and more at the present time, it consists in reducing the volume of the manufacturing industry - the industry of deep processing of resources. At the same time, the share of industries with a low degree of resource processing, such as the mining industry, that is, those oriented not to the domestic, but to the foreign market, is increasing.

In the agrarian sector of the economy, the existing state monopoly on the use and ownership of land was abolished. It was assumed that granting the right to own land to private individuals would have a positive impact on agricultural production. But a diametrically opposite situation has developed - a decrease in production volumes in this sector as a result of non-competitiveness. As a result, there has been a developing and today a steady trend towards a decrease in the volume of agricultural production.

The result of the reforms was their success only in some areas and a general failure in the framework of the national economy. This was confirmed by the financial crisis of 1998. A sharp increase in inflation rates in 2000 led to the almost complete liquidation of the emerging middle class.

The existing national economy today is based on the residual phenomena of the planned economy in conjunction with the wild elements of the market economy, for the most part of a criminal nature. The sharp decline in the standard of living of the population led to a number of social upheavals. The domestic economy faces solving the problems of the shadow economy and the implementation of technologies for general sustainable development.

9. Aggregate economic potential: concept and essence

Aggregate economic potential of the national economy - this is the total ability of sectors of the national economy to produce certain benefits that differ in qualitative and quantitative characteristics over a specific time period.

The main components of the total economic potential are:

1) human resources, namely their quantity and quality;

2) the volume and structure of the industrial potential of the industry;

3) the volume and structure of the potential of agriculture;

4) length, quality and structure of the country's transport system;

5) scientific and technical potential of the country;

6) the degree of development of the non-productive sphere of the economy;

7) the quantity, quality and degree of rationality of the use of minerals.

The total economic potential directly depends on the total productive forces and wealth of the national economy. It directly reflects the position of the national economy in the system of the world economy.

The economic potential depends on the total production capabilities of all sectors of the national economy. The degree of completeness of its use distinguishes the degree of development of the national economy, since the determination of the total economic potential is carried out by correlating the volume and structure of the actual production of goods and the degree of use of production capacities - production potential.

The volume of economic potential indicates the level of economic independence of the national economy, its position in the world economy and the quality of life of the population. The main constituent element of the total economic potential is human resources, namely their professional and qualification structure. For the most part, the level of industrial development is of decisive importance for it.

The total economic potential should be analyzed from the following two positions:

1) from the standpoint of the resources available in the national economy that can be used;

2) from the standpoint of the ability to carry out specific economic activities for the production of goods with the help of the resources available in the national economy.

Economic resources cannot be equated with economic potential, since for the purposes of economic growth it is necessary to combine economic resources and their efficient use. This is due to the fact that the real volume of production of goods directly depends on the use of a combination of resources - natural, investment, scientific, technical and human.

10. Types of the total economic potential of the national economy

Cumulative economic potential is the basis of the national economy, on which its normal functioning, as well as the pace and scale of economic growth, directly depend. According to its characteristics, it is heterogeneous and exists in several main forms.

The main types of the total economic potential of the national economy are as follows.

1. Natural resource potential is the total set of natural resources that are currently used or can be attracted for economic activity.

According to one of the classifications, traditional resources (mineral, water, biological) and non-traditional (wind, sun) are distinguished. They are also divided into renewable (biological resources, water power and solar energy) and non-renewable (mineral resources, soil, water). Of great importance is such a resource as the territory, the place of residence of the population and the location of production facilities.

The resource natural potential consists of such types of economic resources as:

1) agricultural;

2) non-production;

3) industrial.

In their composition, target and non-target resources are distinguished. Single-purpose resources are resources that can be used exclusively for business activities. These include, for example, mineral resources. Their distinctive feature is their exclusive belonging to economic activity. Non-targeted resources are resources that can be used both for economic activity and for the benefit of the population - ensuring normal living conditions. These include, for example, water and forest resources, which can be used both for economic activity and for recreation of the population.

2. Human Potential is one of the main types of aggregate economic potential and is distinguished by specific and qualitative characteristics. The required population size is distinguished by certain qualitative indicators (qualification and professional structure) and is a necessary resource, without which not only the development of the national economy, but also its normal functioning is impossible. Accordingly, the greater the degree of provision with human potential, the greater the potential ability of the national economy to grow.

3. Production potential - this is the real ability of economic entities to produce public goods at an ever higher quantitative and qualitative level.

The crisis state of the national economy has affected the sharp decline in production potential. At the same time, it is influenced by the same factors that are characteristic of the production potential of the world economy, namely, scientific and technological progress. High rates of automation and mechanization of the production process are observed, which significantly changes the structure of the production potential.

Its distinctive feature is the creation of fundamentally new sectors of the economy as a result of innovative scientific and technological developments.

11. Economic resources: their types.

Of great importance in the national economy are economic resources that determine the nature of its functioning, the pace, structure and may-headquarters of development. They are the basis for economic growth. In fact, this is a kind of goods that can be used to produce other goods.

Economic resources - is a type of resources necessary for the production of goods - goods and services.

There are the following types of economic resources:

1) entrepreneurial potential. This is the ability of the population to organize the production of goods in various forms;

2) knowledge. These are specific scientific and technical developments that allow organizing the production and consumption of goods at a higher level than the previous one;

3) Natural resources. These are specific minerals, for example, land, subsoil, as well as the climatic and geographical position of the country;

4) human resources. This is a specific number of the country's population, distinguished by certain qualitative indicators - education, culture, professionalism. Collectively, human resources are the most important economic resource, since without it it is impossible to imagine the normal functioning of the national economy;

5) financial resources. It is the capital represented by the specific monetary resources available in the national economy.

Natural resources are quite diverse in their composition and include land, energy, water, biological, forest, mineral, recreational, climatic resources. Their use is interconnected (for example, for the use of land resources, equipment is needed, and for its operation, mineral resources are needed - fuel). Natural resources are divided into:

1) explored. They are already being mined;

2) reliable. Their existence is reliably known, but for various reasons their extraction is not carried out;

3) forecast. These are minerals that hypothetically should exist, but this is not known for certain.

According to experts, at the current rate of mining, their reserves will be exhausted in about 500 years. At the same time, the need for them in the economies is constantly increasing by an average of 10% annually. To improve the efficiency of the use of this resource, the development and implementation of resource-saving technologies is constantly underway.

Human resources in our country are limited. Despite the high level of unemployment, there is a shortage of human resources that differ in certain qualitative characteristics - professional and qualification level. There is an acute shortage of employees of certain qualifications and professions, which significantly slows down the development of the national economy.

12. Properties of economic resources

The main property of economic resources is their limitation with the boundlessness of the need for them for the production of goods - goods and services. From this property follows the natural need for the effective use of economic resources to meet the needs of the population as fully as possible. In this case, it is necessary to constantly make decisions about the appropriate distribution of resources, that is, about their application in such a way as to get the maximum result from this.

Another property of economic resources is their complementarity. For example, knowledge is used to rationalize the use of natural resources - an economic resource that, based on scientific and technological developments, makes complementarity more efficient and optimal. In turn, knowledge forms the basis of human resources and consists in specific knowledge, skills, and professional skills of employees.

Mobility economic resources is their ability to move between industries, regions, countries. With regard to each economic resource, the degree of mobility will be different and will depend on a variety of both objective and subjective factors. For example, an economic resource - land - will have minimal mobility, since it is impossible to change its geographical position. The greatest mobility is characterized by human resources that are able to move between national economies.

An important property of economic resources is their interchangeability, which consists in the ability to replace one economic resource with another.

For example, in order to increase production efficiency, one can use both entrepreneurial potential - to change production technology, and knowledge - to train employees so that they can more effectively perform their job duties. The ability to replace economic resources is limited and cannot be produced completely and totally. For example, capital cannot completely replace human resources. The initial replacement of resources can bring a positive result, but in the future, economic activity becomes significantly more complicated, and its efficiency may be reduced.

The main task of an economic entity is to constantly increase the degree of efficiency and rationality of the use of economic resources, for which their properties are involved - interchangeability, complementarity, mobility.

Within the framework of the national economy, the circulation of economic resources takes place in their respective markets (for example, the capital market, the labor market). Within these markets, there is also a certain segmentation (for example, the labor market consists of a segment of managers, economists, engineers).

13. National wealth is part of the total economic potential of the national economy

The main constituent element of the total economic potential of the national economy is national wealth. Its volume largely determines the scale and rate of economic growth, which makes it relevant to evaluate it as one of the indicators of the functioning of the national economy.

national wealth - this is the total volume of economic resources and material values necessary for the normal production of goods - goods and services.

National wealth consists of the following main elements:

1) non-reproductive element. This is a set of resources that cannot be reproduced and are exhaustible, such as minerals, monuments of culture and art;

2) reproductive element. This is a set of resources, the volume of which can be increased in the course of economic activity, for example, non-productive and productive assets;

3) intangible element. These are resources that do not have a material manifestation, for example, the intellectual potential of the country, the quality of life of the population, scientific and technical potential;

4) volume of property obligations before other countries.

The volume of national wealth allows: 1) to determine the volume of goods - goods and services that are in the national economy at a certain time interval;

2) determine the total cost of natural resource potential, since the rate of economic growth directly depends on it;

3) to carry out a comprehensive accounting of the intangible resources of the national economy.

When assessing the real volume of national wealth, only those of its components are taken into account, the value of which can be reliably determined - based on specific economic practice. Therefore, a total assessment of the real volume of national wealth is not common in the economic practice of the countries of the world, since this is associated with significant costs.

In the domestic practice of economic analysis, the assessment of national wealth at the state level was not carried out. Related data are presented only in terms of estimates of non-financial and production assets, household property. Due to the lack of a generally accepted methodology for assessing national wealth, the elements of the national wealth of Russia were not calculated by the State Committee on Statistics.

In practice, elements of the System of National Accounts (SNA) are used to calculate national wealth. This allows you to determine its approximate volume, but it does not require serious material and financial costs. For this, such a component of the SNA as a set of institutional units by sector is used.

14. National wealth of Russia

In Russia, the structure of national wealth is: 90% is fixed capital, and the remaining 10% is distributed between household property and working capital. The total amount of national wealth is estimated at 60 trillion dollars, more than 30 trillion dollars is natural resources. N. P. Fedorenko believes that in the period 1895-2000. the physical volume of Russia's national wealth increased 32 times.

The growth of national wealth was extremely uneven, under the influence of various both objective and subjective reasons. The rate of its increase was in direct proportion to the world economic crises and emerging internal political problems.

The destruction of the USSR and the formation of the Russian Federation due to ineffective economic reforms led to a decrease in the volume of national wealth in 1991-1999.

The stabilization of the volume of national wealth occurred only in 2000, this was due to the approval of V.V. Putin as President of the Russian Federation. The policy pursued by M. E. Fradkov in relation to national wealth is connected with work on priority national projects, such as health care, education, agriculture, etc.

As practice shows, under no state regime that existed in Russia, an effective system for using and increasing national wealth was formed. The achieved indicators of its use mostly consist of the natural resource potential. This is a simple exploitation of resources. In this component of national wealth, Russia is many times superior to other countries of the world and is constantly increasing this gap.

The pronounced unipolar structure of the world economy leads to the fact that Russia significantly loses the degree of control over its national wealth. It is increasingly becoming the subject of redistribution between economically developed countries, as a result of which there is a real threat of turning the country into a "raw material appendage" - a concept that implies the orientation of the economy exclusively to the extraction and export of raw materials.

Orientation towards the extraction and sale of raw materials is a distinctive feature of the economy of modern Russia. As practice shows, this kind of orientation leads to a dead-end development of the economy and makes it excessively dependent on the world economic situation.

A distinctive feature of the use of the natural resource component of the national wealth of Russia is that it rightfully belongs to the entire population of the country, but, in fact, only a small part of the population owns it. As a result, the population has been removed from most of the national wealth, it is directed only to the enrichment of a small group of oligarchs, and not to the development of the national economy and human potential.

Quite objectively, there is a need to develop new mechanisms for the effective use of the country's natural resource potential to ensure the infrastructural transformation of the national economy and bring it to the position of sustainable growth and development. There is a real need to change the functioning of the national economy from a raw-material orientation to an innovative one. Stimulating the development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the economy will increase the efficiency and rationality of the use of national wealth and increase the participation of human potential in it.

15. The place of Russia in the system of using the potentials of the planet

The increase in the degree of integration of the national economy of Russia into world economic relations raises the question of its real participation in the use of the potentials of the world economy.

It is impossible to unequivocally determine the place of Russia, since the total economic potential of the world economy seems to be a difficult object for analysis. Its definition is connected with the following main provisions.

1. The leading importance of Russia is evidenced by the high rates of GDP growth, in which it surpasses many countries, for example, Italy, Japan.

Russia is one of the leading countries in power generation, production of mineral fertilizers, iron and steel smelting, ferrous metal rolling, oil and gas production.

2. This is the low competitiveness of the national economy, and, accordingly, a small share in the use of the economic potential of the world economy. The export structure has not been transformed. For several decades, fuel and energy resources and crude oil have accounted for a large share in it. The share of industrial equipment is also minimal - less than 7%. The position of Russia as the largest supplier of raw materials has not changed significantly, and therefore the high volume of exports is not an indicator of the state of the national economy.

The indicator of the development and use of human capital is significantly lower than in many developed countries, and in some indicators is much lower than it was in the USSR.

A small share of Russia in the system of using the potentials of the world economy is explained by:

1) poor development of the institutional investment structure - underdevelopment of the banking and financial infrastructure;

2) the lack of a stable, well-developed and objective legal framework - the underdevelopment of the legal field;

3) the inefficiency of public administration with a great influence of the state on economic processes.

The low degree of elaboration of the privatization process led to the fact that it contributed to the concentration of a significant part of the national wealth in a small number of the population (oligarchs), and ultimately led to a serious socio-economic differentiation of the population. The high degree of criminalization of production has reduced its investment attractiveness in the global capital market.

All these reasons have become an objective basis for determining Russia's place in the world economy, an obstacle in its taking a leading position in the use of the economic potential of the world economy. As a result, the national economy could not become an active subject of the world economy.

16. Types of economic systems, concept, essence

The economic system is a set of economic processes taking place in it, the dominant forms of ownership and methods of its organization. The economic system has a direct impact on the features of the economic activity of economic entities.

Economic system The national economy consists of the following main elements:

1) socio-economic, determining the specifics of relations between economic entities regarding ownership, the procedure for ownership and distribution of basic economic resources and the results of economic activity of economic entities;

2) forms of organization of activities business entities;

3) forms and methodology of state regulation;

4) economic ties between business entities.

In the world economy, there are various economic systems of national economies. Their formation and functioning are determined by the specific historical, cultural, climatic and natural conditions of the countries.

Main Models economic systems of the national economy are: 1) american, proceeding from the encouragement and development of entrepreneurial activity. In its structure, there is a clear disproportion between the richest and poorest part of the population. The income level equation is not set as the main goal of the state, but the stake is placed on the personal economic activity of economic entities;

2) Japanese based on the large difference between the growth of labor productivity and the level of wages. This makes it possible to make goods produced in the national economy competitive in the world market due to low prices. It is possible only with the specific cultural, religious and psychological characteristics of the population, which are available, for example, in Japan;

3) swedish, proceeding from an active social policy pursued by the state, the purpose of which is to reduce the difference in the standard of living of the population. For this, a tax system is used that allows for the efficient redistribution of resources within the economy.

4) german, based on the achievement of sustainable economic development through the combination of all forms of economic activity. The state pursues an active social policy, and the emphasis is on the development of small business.

Russia is in an intermediate state, which does not allow it to be attributed to any type of economic system. The simultaneous combination of elements of all types makes its economy transitional, which is in its infancy.

17. Characteristics of economic systems

There are the following types of economic systems of the national economy.

1. The system of a market economy with free competition existed from the XNUMXth to the beginning of the XNUMXth centuries. Its functioning had specific features depending on the characteristics of the countries in which it was used.

The system of market economy with free competition is based on the following provisions:

1) on the recognition of the right of private ownership of capital - a financial resource;

2) on the absence of a regulatory impact on the economy by the state;

3) focus on the ability of the free market to self-regulate;

4) on a large number of independent producers and consumers.

2. The system of the modern market economy today is dominant due to its high efficiency and effectiveness. In it, the value of a good is determined by balancing the supply and demand for it. The volume of consumption is inversely proportional to the price of the good, and lowering the price allows a significant increase in the consumption of the good.

The rational use of the resources of economic entities became possible as a result of using tools to take into account the dynamics of economic sectors and strategic planning. The state assumed responsibility for the redistribution of resources for the development of priority sectors of the economy through budget allocations.

3. The system of traditional non-market economy exists in economically backward countries and is based on the use of backward production technologies, the dominance of manual labor. Its distinctive feature is the simultaneous existence of various forms of economic activity. In some countries, a natural-communal way of life has been preserved, involving communal or collective economic activity, with a predominance of small-scale production. It exists in the form of a large number of small peasant craft farms.

4. The system of administrative-command economy existed in the USSR until the end of the XNUMXth century; today it is used only by some countries, for example, Cuba.

It is based on the direct management of all economic entities, carried out from a single center. The state assumes the functions of total control over the production and distribution of goods, which excludes the possibility of free economic relations between economic entities. The lack of economic motivation for the activities of economic entities is due to the fact that only managerial and administrative methods are used to manage the economy.

18. Business entities, their relationship

In the national economy, there are the following main types of economic entities:

1) households. These are economic entities that carry out activities related to housekeeping - often this is consumption. They concentrate in their property a significant part of economic resources and factors of production. Their economic activity is aimed at providing economic resources and factors of production, such as labor, capital, land, to other economic entities;

2) enterprises (organizations). These are economic entities whose activities are aimed primarily at the production of goods and investment in this process. In the national economy, there is a large species diversity within this economic entity. The purpose of the activities of enterprises is solely to profit from their activities;

3) non-profit organizations. These are business entities whose activities are not aimed at making a profit, but at the implementation of specific, socially significant functions. The shift in the purpose of their economic activity from making a profit to meeting the needs of society makes them significant for the functioning of the national economy;

4) state. It is the most important subject of economic activity, which essentially determines the nature of the functioning of the national economy. Despite the fact that its activities are more aimed at the implementation of administrative and sanctioning functions, it has a great influence on the nature of a large number of ongoing economic processes.

Economic entities in the course of their activities cannot exist independently. To achieve their goals, they need to constantly interact. This interaction is specific to each individual business entity and directly depends on the characteristics of the external environment. A common economic interest of households is to increase the marginal utility of goods while minimizing the costs required to acquire them. This can be done, for example, by prioritizing needs and consuming only on the basis of their available resources.

The actions of enterprises are also ambiguous: they can be aimed either at extracting and increasing profits, or at increasing economic power, their market share, and production volumes. The state in its economic activities implements the interests of the entire population, actively influences the pace and scale of economic growth and the increase in national wealth.

19. Reasons for Russia's transition to a market economy

Russia after a long period of existence of the administrative-command type of the national economy system at the end of the twentieth century. began the transition to a market model of the national economy. This was due to the objective need to bring the national economy out of a protracted crisis.

Since the existing system could not ensure active economic growth, it was decided to change it. As a result, not only the national economy has changed, but also the political, state, and social systems.

The collapse of the USSR led to significant geopolitical changes, the destruction of existing economic ties led to a deep crisis not only in the Russian economy, but also in the economies of the countries that were part of the USSR.

Objective reasons for Russia's transition to a market economy model were:

1) total state regulation of the economy. The official absence of market relations existed simultaneously with the developed shadow economy;

2) the existence of a non-market economy for a long period of time, which led to a weakening of the economic activity of the population, as well as a focus on decision-making by the state, that is, an unreasonable exaggeration of the total social function of the state;

3) the bias of the sectoral structure of the national economy towards the dominant position of the military-industrial complex (MIC). At the same time, the importance of light industry, as well as industries that directly ensure the quality of life of the population, was reduced;

4) the lack of competitiveness of goods produced in the sphere of the national economy at the level of the world economy. The combination of all these factors led to the formation of a protracted economic, social and political crisis. A common goal was defined - the transition of the Russian economy to the state of an effective market system with the preservation of the social functions of the state.

Market economy model should be based on:

1) an efficient state apparatus capable of ensuring active economic growth, with the recognition and protection of the right of private property;

2) an active system of minimum social guarantees to the population from the state;

3) competitive national economy;

4) creating conditions for the formation and existence of the institution of private property;

5) formation and maintenance of a competitive environment within the national economy, as the main way of active economic growth.

20. Factors of formation of the Russian model of market economy

The formation of the Russian market economy model took place under the influence of the following main factors that had a significant impact on its nature:

1) geopolitical. The national economy was formed as an intermediate type between the Eastern and Western economies. Therefore, it is characterized by the absence of a civil society independent of the state, a mixture of political, economic power and property rights, the predominance of collectivism over personal initiative, the dominant role of the state as an active subject of economic life, the underdevelopment of the institution of private property;

2) historical. The state, as it was throughout the history of Russia, retained a significant part of the economic power, a large public sector in the priority sectors of the economy;

3) legal. In Russia, no effective legal mechanism was formed to regulate the interaction of economic entities, which led to the emergence of conflict situations between them;

4) economic monopoly. The existing powerful monopolistic structures in the priority sectors of the economy prevent the formation of a competitive environment based on a large number of manufacturers;

5) orientation towards the use of the country's natural resource potential. Natural resources have become a source of quick enrichment and profits that are not related to real economic activity. As a result, the economy increased the amount of financial resources that were not provided with real economic potential - a natural result of an increase in inflation rates;

6) uneven development of the main sectors of the economy. This factor had a significant impact on the specifics of the Russian market economy model and caused an imbalance in the sectors of the economy;

7) uneven economic development of regions. For various reasons, the economic development of regions in Russia is uneven;

8) combination of economic, political and criminal power. This feature has been observed in Russia throughout its existence. The criminalization of the national economy and economic activity, the resolution of conflicts between economic entities not by legal, but by forceful methods - all these are the distinctive features of Russia;

9) the mentality of Russian citizens, which has become a determining factor in the formation of a market model of the economy. Significant social transformations associated with the transitional economy have led to a decrease in the business activity of the population.

21. Mechanisms of the national economic system

The functioning of the national economy is basically built on the interaction of the processes taking place in it. They are necessary to ensure the normal functioning and development of the national economy.

The basic mechanisms of the national economy are:

1) Pricingis one of the basic mechanisms for the functioning of relative prices in the national economy and consists in the formation of prices for various types of goods. It determines the behavior of the producer of goods, for example, in the formation of production volumes. The dynamics of prices affects the technology of production of goods, as well as the nature of its consumption;

2) interaction of supply and demand is one of the main mechanisms of the national economy. Aggregate demand - a certain need for goods that are distinguished by clear qualitative and quantitative characteristics that can be purchased by the consumer. The aggregate supply is a certain set of goods that differ in qualitative and quantitative characteristics, which can be offered to the consumer for purchase. The interaction of supply and demand affects the pricing mechanism and tends to establish an equilibrium price, resulting in a state of equilibrium between consumption and production volumes. One of the regularities of the interaction between supply and demand is that a decrease in price, with the stability of other factors, leads to a corresponding increase in the volume of demand. The opposite effect is that an increase in price, other things being equal, leads to a decrease in the volume of demand;

3) competition is the most important mechanism to ensure the normal functioning and continuous development of the national economy. It affects the satisfaction of the needs of the population for goods that differ in the necessary qualitative and quantitative characteristics. An increase in the price of a good, caused by an increase in demand for it, and the formation of economic profit as a result of this, is an incentive for the producer to increase his production volumes. But only competition contributes to an increase in production volumes simultaneously with an increase in the quality of the produced good and a decrease in its price;

4) state regulation is of decisive importance for the normal functioning of the national economy, as it regulates economic processes and directs the development of the entire economy. This is done through legislation (regulation) and a range of market-based instruments such as taxation and government spending.

22. Place and role of corporations in the national economic system: integrated economic structures

The essential transformation of the national economy of Russia under the influence of globalization, increased competition in the world economy, integration and internationalization of economic activity has led to the emergence and strengthening of such new forms of economic activity as corporations. These are economic entities that occupy a dominant position in a particular market. These are large production complexes, the scope of which is connected not only with production, but also with financial activities. Recognition of the importance of large corporations in the functioning of the national economy led to the creation of appropriate legislation regulating their activities (laws "On Joint Stock Companies", "On Financial and Industrial Groups").

World experience shows that the national economy can be competitive in world markets only through large corporations. In this case, they acquire the character of transnational (TNC). The activity of such corporations is not limited to only one country, but extends to several national economies.

One type of corporation is financial and industrial groups (FIG). This is a form of economic activity, when under the leadership of one main company, various companies are united, legally and economically independent from each other and operating in various sectors of the economy.

The parent company assumes the functions of their financial control and coordination of activities. The purpose of the activities of such associations is to increase the stability of the companies that are part of it, strengthen competitive positions, improve performance and take a monopoly position in certain markets.

Corporation is a legal entity and exists independently of its owner, and the transfer of part of the rights to its ownership through the issuance of shares leaves it a holistic entity. Large corporations are most often national, depending on the dominant share of capital, but also actively attract foreign investment.

The peculiarity of the formation of domestic financial and industrial groups is that they were created on the basis of Soviet ministries or central departments. As a result, it was possible to concentrate significant economic resources and preserve the accumulated experience of economic activity.

The development of the domestic economy is in the direction of reducing financial and industrial groups to several powerful universal transnational corporations, by analogy with foreign ones. In terms of dynamics, they should concentrate more than half of their production capacities. Only in this case can we count on the fact that the domestic economy will become a competitive exporter of not only raw materials, but also manufactured goods.

23. Public goods: concept, essence

Public goods occupy a significant place in the national economy. Their adequate interpretation, management of their production, distribution and consumption are the key to the effective functioning and development of the national economy.

In a generalized sense good - This is a certain set of means that can satisfy the needs of both a particular person and the population as a whole.

In the national economy, there is an extensive species composition of goods. Depending on their species, their essential characteristics are determined.

public goods - a set of goods and services that are provided to the population on a gratuitous basis, at the expense of the state's financial resources.

Public goods include, for example, roads, health care, education, services provided by state and municipal governments, and bridges.

The production and distribution of public goods is one of the main functions of the state, its primary tasks. Today, the normal functioning of the national economy cannot be imagined without such generally accepted benefits as a free healthcare system, education, external and internal security of the state, social security and insurance. The work of civil defense services and the elimination of emergency situations are also public goods. The significance of public goods lies in the fact that they are needed not by a part, but by the entire population.

Regarding the mechanism of production and distribution of public goods, the laws of the national economy are powerless - they are not able to work effectively in this area of the market. Therefore, objectively, this task is assumed by the state - the state apparatus.

Public goods have the following specific features:

1) lack of competition in the consumption of public goods, due to the fact that the use of the good by one person does not in any way reduce the value and significance;

2) the indivisibility of the good, due to the fact that the individual cannot independently determine the characteristics of the good, the volume of its production;

3) the non-market nature of the value of the good, due to the fact that the laws of the free market and competition do not apply to it. The production of public goods cannot be regulated by the laws of the market, and therefore this function is assumed by the state, artificially determining the nature of the production and distribution of public goods;

4) the total and non-excludable nature of the good, due to the fact that its consumption cannot be limited to a certain group of the population, or that this is not appropriate.

24. Classification of public goods

According to the nature of consumption, the following main types of goods are distinguished:

1) public, characterized in that they are in free consumption by all members of society and cannot be used individually;

2) individual, characterized in that they can be used by only one member of society and are aimed at satisfying only his needs.

Public goods include proper public, and collective benefits.

A collective good differs from a public good in that it can only be used by all members of society to a limited extent.

According to the distribution scale Within the framework of the national economy, the following types of goods are distinguished:

1) public public goods.

These are the benefits that matter and extend to the territory of the entire state;

2) local public goods. These are benefits that only a part of the population of the country has access to. Usually these boundaries are drawn in accordance with the regional affiliation of the population.

Depending on availability distinguish the following types of public goods:

1) excluded public goods. These are goods, the use of which can be limited to a certain circle of the population;

2) non-excludable public goods. These are benefits, the use of which cannot be limited only to certain circles of the population.

Since the number of people consuming public goods is large, and charging for its provision is difficult, in this case the only effective producer of goods can be the state. The state can participate in the production of public goods in various ways:

1) indirectly. In this case, the state entrusts private sector enterprises for a certain rate of remuneration with the production of public goods;

2) directly. This form of production of public goods is based on the fact that the state directly and independently produces goods. This is effective only in some cases when a high degree of concentration of production capacities is necessary for the production of goods, for example, the army, the police.

In the national economy, these two forms of state participation in the production of public goods exist simultaneously. The criterion for choosing a specific form is economic feasibility - minimizing the costs of producing a certain good while maximizing the result.

25. Types of public goods

The main feature of public goods is the boundary within which they are consumed. The specificity of production, distribution and consumption of goods depends on this.

Based on the territorial boundaries within which the consumption of goods is carried out, the following public goods are distinguished:

1) international public goods. These are the benefits to which it has access and which are consumed by the entire population, regardless of the territorial boundaries of the state. Such benefits include, for example, scientific and technical research and development, activities aimed at improving the environmental situation, the international monetary system. The production and distribution of public goods at the international level is quite difficult, since this requires a significant concentration of resources not only of one state, but of the entire world economy. Only in this case can any tangible efficiency and effectiveness be achieved. Various intergovernmental associations, commissions, etc. are used as effective instruments for the production of public goods at the international level. A big step in this direction was made with the creation of the EEC. As a result, a large number of benefits have been transformed from national to pan-European. Naturally, this required a significant change in the characteristic functions, a large number of institutions and mechanisms;

2) national public goods. These are goods that are produced, distributed and consumed within a particular national economy. The scale of their distribution is clearly limited to the territory of a certain state and cannot go beyond them, for example, to the international level. These include, for example, the army, navy, and the activities of federal government bodies. Their specific feature is that they are necessary for the entire national economy, for which it is advisable to produce them at the national level;

3) local public goods. These are goods that are produced, distributed and consumed not at the level of the entire state, but at the local level. The production of these goods is necessary when a certain region has needs that are different from the national needs. Such benefits include, for example, garbage collection, concerts, theaters, city parks.

26. The specifics of the consumption of public goods

All three levels of production, distribution and consumption of public goods are of great importance for the normal functioning of the national economy. In the process of its functioning, all of them actively interact with each other.

Due to the minimization of the size or the complete absence of costs associated with an increase in the number of consumers of public goods, in most cases it is not advisable to form a specialized system of payment for them. In this situation, the most optimal financing of their production at the expense of public funds.

They cannot be transferred for exclusive use to a certain person, since they have the property of indivisibility - it is impossible to separate them without a significant loss of their properties. For the most part, the principle of exclusion cannot be extended to them, there is no effective method for eliminating a group of individuals from using the prevailing number of public goods. The effect of them is already in their production, and not in the sale to the final consumer.

By taking over the production of public goods, the state thereby solves the most important problem of their consumption - integrativity. It consists in the fact that the costs necessary to charge for the use of most goods exceed the costs of their production. At the same time, financial resources are necessary for the production of goods. The state, through the tax system, can effectively charge for the use of goods.

One of the most important features of the consumption of public goods is the difficulty of effective control over the provision of the population with them, as well as the quantitative volumes of its production.

The end consumer of public goods for the most part does not have a practical choice regarding the use or non-use. There is also a widespread practice in which he is forced to consume a good, despite the fact that it does not meet his needs or is of poor quality.

One of the most important problems in the consumption of public goods is the unwillingness of the population to pay for them. This is a significant obstacle to improving the quality of public goods, and therefore the real demand for the good is underestimated. This is due to the fact that with a large number of consumers of a public good, the share of an individual in its use is insignificant, and therefore he seeks to evade the costs necessary for the production of goods. With a decrease in the number of people using the good, it is possible to effectively calculate the share of each person's participation in the use of the good and put on him the corresponding burden for its production.

Another feature of the consumption of public goods is the equation. Regardless of the contribution of each particular person to the production of the public good, he receives an equal amount with everyone else.

27. Public choice in the national economy

Public Choice Theory occupies an important place in economic theory. It is based on the assumption that the individual in the process of his activity is guided by the need to obtain the maximum result from it. As an independent direction in the study of economic science, it took shape in 1950, but acquired its modern significance in the works D Buchanan "The Limits of Freedom" further developed and continued M Olson, R Tollison, D Muller, U Neskanen.

Public choice theory, in fact, is aimed at exploring the possibilities of using economic theory to analyze political processes.

This theory proceeds from the fact that the state as an active participant in economic life is not effective. Problematic points of its functioning, called the failures of the state, are constantly observed.

The central place in the theory of public choice is occupied by the problem of public goods. Their distinctive feature is that the use of public goods by one individual does not exclude a similar possibility for another. In this case, a problem arises - the unwillingness of some members of society to pay for the production of goods. In a situation where it is possible to limit the consumption of a good by a certain group of people, it is possible to charge as much as possible for this. With a significant increase in users of goods, these opportunities decrease proportionally. Therefore, an agreement between the population on the production, consumption and distribution of public goods is possible only in a relatively small community.

There are also certain restrictions on the operation of the theory of public choice. They lie in the fact that negotiations are a natural and effective way to resolve contradictions between economic entities, as a result of which consensus can be reached.

One of the reasons for the creation of the state, supporters of the theory of public choice call the need for efficient distribution and redistribution of public goods.

Central to this theory is the decision-making process, which should reflect the interests of the majority of the population.

The theory of social choice proceeds from the possibility of identifying individual needs and integrating them.

Based on the theory of public choice production, distribution and consumption of public goods should be based on:

1) covering the widest possible range of preferences of the final recipient of public goods;

2) independence from other insignificant factors;

3) unanimity;

4) the absence of a dictatorship.

28. Conditions for the effective provision of public goods in the national economy

In economic theory, to determine the state of the national economy, which can be recognized as effective, the assessment methodology developed by V. Pareto is used. It lies in the fact that the ideal situation is a situation in which it is impossible to increase the quantity and quality of satisfaction of the needs of one member of society for the good without worsening the same indicator for another.

An invariable condition for the effectiveness of the provision of goods is the effectiveness of production, which is influenced by a wide range of both purely economic and non-economic factors. The efficiency of reproduction of a public good (product) includes the efficiency of its distribution, circulation, consumption and production, as well as individual production phases and stages, their technological characteristics.

Of great importance in modern conditions is the effectiveness of international economic relations. They determine how well the population is provided with goods, the degree of satisfaction with them.

An indispensable condition for effective provision of benefits is transition to an open system of functioning of the national economy and the formation of a single world economy. This direction has received great development today under the influence of globalization and integration.

Another condition for effective provision of benefits is consolidation of efforts at the international level to minimize the impact of production and economic activity on the environment.

The most important condition for improving the efficiency of the provision of benefits is increase in production efficiency, which is inevitably connected with economic growth and development and occurs in parallel with it.

At the present stage, the effectiveness of providing benefits in the national economy is usually assessed by such indicators as:

1) the effectiveness and productivity of social labor;

2) return on assets;

3) the volume of national income;

4) the degree of activity of growth and development of the national economy;

5) resource intensity of production of basic goods. Inevitably, the degree of effectiveness of ensuring

public goods is linked to the existing ownership structure in the national economy. If it is concentrated in the hands of a small number of the population, then the existing system cannot be considered effective.

The effectiveness of the provision of benefits in the national economy is a complex problem that depends on many factors. The state at the level of the national economy must implement an effective policy for regulating this process, aimed at the interests of the population.

29. The concept of economic growth and development of the national economy

The following definition of economic growth is generally accepted.

Economic growth - this is a real increase in the volume and scale of material and non-material benefits created over a clearly defined period of time, a qualitative strengthening of the economic potential of the national economy and its position in the world economy.

Economic growth is inherently associated with a quantitative increase in the volume of goods produced within the national economy.

Economic growth is assessed using a quantitative and qualitative group of indicators and criteria. Quantitative indicators of economic growth evaluate the degree of change in the volume of social or national product over a certain time period. The qualitative group, however, involves an analysis of the ability of the national economy to meet the needs of the population in material and non-material benefits.

Economic growth is the central goal not only of the economic system, but of the whole society. It is aimed at a qualitative and quantitative improvement in the standard of living of the population, which cannot be achieved, including without a high degree of security of the national economy.

Economic security includes a set of factors and conditions that ensure the real independence of the economy from external factors that cannot be controlled by the state. As a result, its sustainability and stability are formed with the development of high parameters of economic growth.

The main indicator of economic growth is its balance and sustainability. This is the ability of the national economy to move to a qualitatively new level of its functioning with minimal losses in the standard of living of the population, production volumes.

To characterize economic growth, such a new concept as the quality of economic growth is also used. This is an interdependent increase in the rate of economic growth and the degree of social orientation of the national economy.

Economic growth is linked to economic indicators such as aggregate economic demand and supply. These indicators are quite often not in balance with each other - either demand exceeds supply, or vice versa.

Economic growth and development - two categories related to both economic and non-economic factors. The study of these indicators has an objective necessity, since on their basis it is possible to assess the real state of the national economy, develop an objective and effective national economic policy, and make the regulatory and coordinating economic functions of the state more effective.

30. Factors affecting the development of the national economy

Factors of economic growth - these are processes and phenomena that have an objective and subjective impact on the ability of a real increase in the volume and scale of production of goods.

Allocate subjective и objective factors of economic growth. Those factors that have a direct and decisive influence on the rate of economic growth are considered objective. Subjective factors are those that have an indirect and indirect impact on the rate and scale of economic growth.

The objective factors of economic growth are:

1) an increase in the volume and qualitative composition of fixed capital;

2) change in production technologies;

3) increase in the volume of resources involved in economic activity;

4) growth of entrepreneurial activity of the population;

5) increase in the quantity and quality of labor resources;

6) activation of the demand of the population, allowing to increase production volumes for its fuller satisfaction.

The subjective factors of economic growth are:

1) the expansion of the credit system, allowing the population to acquire goods in the quantity necessary for them, which stimulates production;

2) reducing the monopolization of production and sales markets, stimulating entrepreneurial activity;

3) a decrease in the cost of production resources, stimulating an increase in production volumes and influencing a decrease in the price of consumer goods, which leads to an increase in demand;

4) reduction of the tax rate, which favorably affects the overall economic activity.

At the present stage of economic development, the following factors have a great influence on economic growth:

1) natural resources that directly affect economic growth. Their importance is steadily increasing, since their reserves are limited and exhausted;

2) an increase in the population, the volume of labor resources;

3) increasing the degree of concentration of capital within the national economy, which allows expanding the scale and volume of production, investing in new scientific and technical developments, human resources;

4) the scientific and technological revolution, which is a fundamental factor in economic growth, as it is associated with the exit of the economy to a qualitatively different stage of its development.

Within the framework of the national economy, the influence of economic growth factors is intricately interconnected. The main task of the state is to make the most of the existing economic factors, redirect them in the right direction in order to orient economic growth towards the realization of the interests of the entire population.

31. Key indicators for assessing economic growth and development of the national economy: GDP, GNP

The problems of economic growth are central to the national economy. The quality of life of the population ultimately depends on it. To develop it in an up-to-date and effective form, it should be based on objective indicators of the state of the economy, its dynamics, and also take into account the effect of the measures taken.

GNP reflects the total value of the volume of goods produced in the national economy over a certain time period, usually a year.

The GNP indicator reflects such features as:

1) liquidation of a repeated account;

2) the use of financial expression of the results of the activity of the national economy instead of natural expression;

3) the introduction of the GNP indicator, which characterizes the cost of not only goods produced, but also services in the national economy.

The methodology for calculating GNP as a result of adding expenses is based on the division of expenses into certain groups - usually there are four of them:

1) consumption;

2) investments;

3) state expenses;

4) net export.

Methodology for calculating GNP by income includes the addition of the following elements, in financial terms:

1) depreciation;

2) indirect taxes;

3) income from rent;

4) interest;

5) profits of economic entities; 6) income of owners.

As a result of adding all the listed elements, the identity of the system of national accounts is obtained.

Since 1990, as the main indicator of the functioning of the national economy in Russia, such an indicator has been used as gross domestic product (GDP). It is determined annually by the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation.

GDP is the total value of all goods produced in the national economy, regardless of the nationality of the owner of the economic entity. This indicator is complementary to GNP and characterizes the performance of economic activity throughout the national economy.

With an objective calculation, the indicator of GDP and GNP cannot differ by more than 1%, otherwise errors were made in their calculations, or some indicators are deliberately distorted.

GDP and GNP are used to determine the state of the national economy. With their help, it is possible to determine the economic potential of the country, as well as the pace and main indicators of growth and development of the national economy.

32. Labor market in the national economy

The functioning of the labor market is based on the fact that the population, in order to lead a normal life, is forced to sell their labor for remuneration, which is presented in the form of wages. Here, labor is a specific commodity - a certain set of intellectual, spiritual, physical abilities of a person, which, in general, represent an individual labor potential. On the other hand, another part of the population agrees to pay for the work of hired workers. In the labor market, they are employers.

Labor market represents the interaction of demand (employers) and supply (employees). As a result, they enter into economic relations with each other. The labor market also implies the existence and functioning of certain mechanisms and structures, which together constitute the essence of the labor market.

The main indicator of the labor market is wages, which is determined, among other things, on the basis of the total cost of goods necessary to ensure the normal functioning of a person. This point is the starting point below which no wages can be set. The final level of wages is determined under the influence of many factors, the main of which include supply and demand in the labor market.

The features of the functioning of the labor market are influenced by:

1) the dynamics of wages;

2) the state of the national economy;

3) the dynamics of income that is not formed under

the influence of the labor market; 4) dynamics of leisure preferences of the population;

6) change in the psychological perception of certain professions;

7) dynamics of the demographic situation.

Thus, the labor market is a fundamental element of the national economy. The functioning of the national economy depends on its dynamics and condition. In the course of its functioning, it is influenced by many factors.

33. Features of employment and unemployment in the transition economy

Employment - this is a person's activity, in the process of which he enters into certain socio-economic relations, which allows him to receive a certain income directed to the realization of his needs.

The increase in employment of the population is the main direction of the state economic policy, as it allows to increase the volume of the produced social product, which, in turn, has a positive impact on the quality of life.

The opposite of employment is unemployment rate. This is the most characteristic phenomenon for a transitional economy, which fully applies to Russia. In fact, unemployment has an ambiguous impact on the Russian economy.

The positive impact of unemployment lies in the fact that it is a side effect of the transformation of the national economy. In its absence, social reproduction would be hampered, for which additional resources are needed. It also increases the degree of efficiency in the use of labor resources employed in the economy.

The transformation of the national economy had a great impact on the functioning of the labor market. The transition from a planned to a market economy, the deterioration of the socio-economic situation had a negative impact on the state of labor resources.

The transition to market mechanisms for regulating the labor market has also brought a major positive development - the importance of a person in labor relations has changed. He began to take a more active position, transformed into a full-fledged subject of economic activity, which has a great influence on the functioning of the national economy.

A feature of the structure of employment in Russia is that the state is increasingly removed from the regulation of the labor market. The existing system of employment services cannot provide effective employment. In this situation, the population can only rely on independent employment, without the help of the state. Illegal labor activity has become widespread, either in the form of organizing unregistered enterprises, or employment on a temporary basis, without an employment contract.

The population resorts to unstable forms of labor activity, the main thing is to earn income. At the same time, it is in the transitional economy that people have an increasing need for a permanent and sustainable work activity, which allows them to receive a stable income.

The main task of Russia's transitional economy is to create a really working national economy. In this connection, the importance of the labor market is increasing - it should become a source of transformation and sustainable functioning. To achieve this state, the active position of the state in relation to the regulation of the labor market, namely, employment of the population, is of great importance.

34. Economy of the region, types of regionalization

In the structure of the national economy of Russia, due to its federal state structure, there is a specific structural unit - the region; it is an economic system limited by the boundaries of the subject of the Russian Federation with interconnected economic processes occurring in it.

Initially, the term "region" denoted a territory separated by certain characteristic features. For example, Siberian, Southern region. Today, the region is understood as the subjects of the Russian Federation that are part of the Russian Federation - relatively separate administrative units and their corresponding socio-economic economic systems. In this case, the regional economy is a part of the national economy, repeating it in terms of its main functional characteristics. The allocation of smaller units within the national economy - the economy of regions - allows you to develop and implement a more effective economic policy, since each region has its own specific features. Accordingly, the subject of the regional economy includes the regional specifics of the functioning of the national economy, including the investment process, human resources, quality of life, and economic activity.

In order to develop national economic policy, there are the following types of regionalization:

1) macro-regionalization, proceeding from the division of the national economy into certain zones for the purpose of long-term planning of the structure of the distribution of productive potential. In accordance with this, the eastern and western economic zones are distinguished. The western zone is characterized by the dominance of production in the engineering industry and science-intensive sectors of the economy. The Eastern zone is focused on the resource and energy industries. The main criterion for this kind of division is the commonality of the prevailing specialization of economic activity, natural and resource potential. Each of them is an enlarged economic region, an integral economic system;

2) meso-regionalization, proceeding from the division of regions in accordance with the existing administrative structure - the subjects that are part of the Federation. They are functionally independent economic systems. There is also a smaller mesoregionalization - the allocation of economic systems of subdistricts that have a common specialization and close economic ties;

3) micro-regionalization, based on the allocation of the level of local self-government and the corresponding rural, urban administrative regions, the total number of which is 4 thousand people. They represent the primary level of the national economy as an integral system.

35. Regional reproduction system

Regional reproduction system consists of the following processes:

1) reproduction of a regional product, characterized by the indicator "gross regional product" (GRP);

2) accumulation and concentration of capital;

3) use and reproduction of economic resources;

4) movement of material flows;

5) the movement of financial flows.

The main feature of the regional economy is its economic integrity - the potential ability of the regional economy to function independently of the national economy.

The basis of the region's economy is its production complex - an economic system aimed at ensuring the functional state of the production potential necessary for the independent and sustainable development of the region's economy.

The following indicators testify to the degree of industrial complexity of the region's economy:

1) the volume of products produced within the region;

2) the volume of products of an intersectoral nature;

3) the nature of the use of the economic potential of the region.

Each region is characterized by a specific sectoral structure - a set of sectors of the economic complex, interconnected. It is the basis of the region's economy, which determines the nature and specifics of its functioning.

The composition of the national economic policy also includes regional economic policy - a part of the economic policy of the state, reflecting its regional aspects. Its main direction is the formation of a system of effective reproduction and use of the economic potential of the region's economy to achieve a state of sustainable development of the national economy.

The priority importance of the formation and implementation of regional economic policy is explained by the fact that the national economy is heterogeneous in its natural, geographical, social, demographic and economic structure, and therefore, when forming a national economic policy, it is necessary to take into account these regional features as fully as possible.

Main goals regional economic policy are:

1) activation of the socio-economic development of the regions;

2) formation of an effective system for using the economic potential of the regions;

3) formation of a single economic space of the national economy;

4) raising the standard of living of the population.

36. The concept of the development of regions "Strategies for the socio-economic development of the regions of the Russian Federation"

Management of economic development is a direct task of the Ministry of Regional Development of the Russian Federation. This government body adopted the concept of "Strategy for the socio-economic development of the regions of the Russian Federation", which is the only legal document that officially regulates the issues of economic development of the regions.

The objectives of the federal regional policy in accordance with the concept are:

1) creation of conditions for the development of the competitive ability of regions. In this regard, it is planned to create conditions for effective integration within the Russian Federation into the world economy. Distribution of production potential in such a way that it creates the conditions for competitiveness. It is planned to substantially intensify the pace of creating infrastructure for the economic growth of the regions. The urgent need to promote the development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the economy is affirmed;

2) integration of the economies of the regions with each other to create a single economic space of the national economy. At the same time, the emphasis is on maintaining the functional independence of the regions. It is supposed to actively contribute to the elimination of obstacles, both economic and administrative, in the movement of goods and services, capital, and human resources. The basis for the development of regions is the creation of conditions for small businesses;

3) creation of conditions for the development of human resources, and the emphasis is on qualification and spatial mobility. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to stabilize the demographic situation - the establishment of such a regime for the reproduction of human resources in which the birth rate exceeds the death rate. Improving the qualitative characteristics is associated with the creation of training of personnel with the necessary qualifications and professionalism to meet the needs of production. The necessity of forming migration processes in the interests of the economic development of the regions is put forward;

4) promoting the stabilization and improvement of the environmental situation in the regions as the basis for sustainable economic growth. For this, it is necessary to develop and implement such production technologies that minimize the harm caused to the environment;

5) creation of conditions for the introduction of new technologies of public administration in the regions. As a basis for the implementation of this goal, it is planned to reform the regional government bodies in the direction of increasing the efficiency of their functioning. To finance the implementation of the concept, funds from the federal budget, the budgets of the constituent entities of the Federation, funds from municipalities and extrabudgetary sources are attracted.

37. Interregional socio-economic processes

The functional state of the region's economic space consists of socio-economic interaction between different regions. It is characterized by two types of interactions - intraregional and interregional.

The interregional type of interaction includes a set of links between a region and economic units that are not part of it. The degree of its development and scale determine the openness of the region for interaction. The intra-regional type of interactions is associated with the interaction of economic units that are part of one region. It is partly included in the interregional type and to some extent forms its basis. The presence of all these types of interaction determines the region's economy as a socio-economically integral one.

The economy of the region is an open economic system. The increase in the degree of its openness is associated with the activation of the processes of globalization, integration and communication. There is an increase in the dependence of the region's economy on interregional relations. Interregional ties have a great impact on the nature of ongoing economic processes, and their total volume is comparable in some respects to the scale of production and consumption.

As a result of ongoing economic reforms, the following negative trends in interregional economic relations have emerged:

1) weakening of interregional ties;

2) a decrease in the number of interregional ties.

According to the degree of dependence of regions, the following groups are distinguished:

1) independent;

2) sustainable;

3) dependent.

The current state of the national economy puts the regions in front of the need to choose one of the strategies for their behavior in relation to interregional relations. This kind of choice is due to the existing functional differences between regions.

In relation to interregional socio-economic relations, the region can adopt one of the following strategies:

1) closed, i.e., the formation of the region's economy as a closed economic system;

2) open, i.e., increasing the degree of openness of the economic system of the region to external relations both with other regions and with world markets.

The main interregional socio-economic processes are:

1) globalization and integration;

2) regional division of labor;

3) specialization of regions;

4) formation of integrated economic units;

5) allocation of free economic zones. The nature of the flow and the composition of interregional socio-economic processes are diverse, but they form the basis of the national economy.

38. Budget support for regional and municipal development

The most common type of economic methods of state regulation is budgetary, including tax tools.

The regulation of the regional economy using the budget process takes place in the following main areas:

1) taxation;

2) direct expenditures of the state budget;

3) direct regulation of economic processes. Each region has its own budget, the purpose of which is to implement the function of public administration at the regional level. The main direction of using the regional budget is to ensure sustainable growth of the region's economy.

The regional budget is an integral system of attracting and spending financial resources aimed at financially supporting the main functions of the state at the regional level. Regional budget expenditures are divided into two main types - expenditures of a current operational nature and expenditures for capital needs of the development budget.

Relations of the regional budget exist in the following forms:

1) relations related to the conceptual foundations of the regional budget structure and budget system;

2) relations associated with the delimitation of revenue and expenditure parts at various levels of the budget process;

3) relations connected with the formation and execution of the regional budget.

The expenditure side of the region's budget is an effective tool for mobilizing the free resources of the region, stimulating and expanding reproduction, and forming the social sphere.

The volume of the regional budget is directly dependent on the efficiency and effectiveness of economic activity, which makes up the bulk of its revenue: the larger the volume of production, the greater the amount of tax revenues to the budget. Own revenues of the regional budget are not the only source for its formation. For this, extrabudgetary funds are also attracted - the financial resources of the budgets of other levels, for example, the federal one. As a result, the financial balance of the region is developed, which includes a set of sources for the formation of the regional budget.

One of the main problems of the regional budget process is its balance - the state of equality between both revenues and expenditures of the regional budget. In the case when expenditures exceed revenues, a budget deficit arises; if it exists, priority is given to current budget expenditures. To maintain the state of stability of the regional budget, a marginal deficit rate is established - a mechanism for a commensurate reduction in budget expenditures with a decrease in its revenues.

39. Theoretical foundations of budgetary regulation of the economy

The development of the theoretical foundations of budgetary regulation of economic growth was carried out by such economists as D. Keynes, A. Hansen, P. Samuelson, W. Heller, D. Peckman, D. Hicks, A. Lerner, R. Musgrave, G. Eckley. They formulated a theoretical position, consisting in the fundamental impossibility to ensure sustainable economic growth with the help of exclusively market mechanisms due to the high degree of uncertainty of the economic system, the uneven distribution of national wealth. The regulation of economic growth with the help of the regional budget occurs in three directions - the rate of interest, consumption, and the rate of profit.

One of the tools of budgetary regulation is the reduction of government spending, and this tool is based on the relationship between inflation rates and government spending. Decreasing budget expenditures helps to reduce the rate of inflation. At the same time, an increase in spending on social needs significantly reduces the rate of economic growth.

Despite the great importance of budgetary provision of regional economic growth, the existing budget system in Russia, in fact, does not meet the needs of the strategy for the development of the national economy in a strategic sense. There is an unjustifiably high degree of concentration of tax and budgetary powers at the federal level - in the center. At the same time, local and regional budgets have an excessive amount of social and economic obligations, the implementation of which is not secured by appropriate financial receipts.

The current system of budgetary federalism, namely, the unjustifiably overestimated dependence of regional budgets on the decisions of the center in terms of establishing a system of standards for splitting federal taxes, has a negative impact on the economic growth rates of the region. Due to the obvious limitations of the existing tax powers of regional and local authorities, a system of informal sources of income is being formed, which negatively affects the overall economic situation in the region.

There is a clear problem of contradiction between the decentralization of budgetary resources. It is exacerbated by the low transparency of regional budgets for control by the population. One of the obstacles to improving the efficiency of the budget process is the uncertainty of the budgetary status of municipalities.

Inefficient organization of regional budgets leads to a decrease in the efficiency of the use of public financial resources, the volume and quality of public services, the transformation of the public sector of the regional economy, the creation of obstacles to the formation of a competitive national economy, a decrease in the investment attractiveness of many regions, an increase in disproportions in the national economy, and the growth of socio-economic tension.

40. Targeted programs for managing the development of regions

One of the main ways to bring the region out of the crisis and increase the rate of economic growth are federal targeted programs (FTP). This is due to the fact that the market economy is not always conducive to the mobilization of financial resources necessary for regional economic growth - this is undertaken by federal targeted programs.

The methodology of program targeted management of the development of regions is widely used in economically developed countries, where it has shown its effectiveness and efficiency. The basis of this method is the formation of goals that correspond to the resources necessary for their implementation within a specific program. A separate program is a set of interrelated activities aimed at the implementation of one or more goals. As a result, maximum efficiency in planning and managing regional economic development is achieved. The basis of this method is the program - a set of activities necessary to achieve a specific goal.

Federal target programs are developed by the Government of the Russian Federation, and then approved as a federal law by the State Duma of the Russian Federation. There are also a number of problematic aspects in this process, for example, the mechanism for choosing problems to be solved by FTPs is not well developed, and most often there is a formal nature of working out the need to use financial resources. As a result, there is a general inefficiency of the program-target method. FTPs aimed at increasing the rates of economic growth of the regions are divided into the following main types:

1) aimed at enhancing social and economic development;

2) aimed at creating conditions for the reproduction of basic economic resources.

The development, implementation and monitoring of the effectiveness of FTPs are based on the following principles:

1) interconnections of FTPs;

2) building up efforts;

3) saving resources;

4) "environmental impact";

5) infrastructural.

The program-target method is widely used today to enhance the economic growth of regions, both in the form of sectoral federal target programs (aimed at only one or a few industries), and complex ones related to all areas of the regional economy. At the same time, at the level of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, there is a widespread misinterpretation of the program-targeted method of managing the regional economy. They are considered solely as a means of attracting budgetary funds, and not as a tool for enhancing economic growth and mobilizing the region's own economic resources. Often, state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation designate as FTP part of the actions of local authorities, which fundamentally contradicts the program-target method.

41. State in the Russian economy

Since the beginning of the twentieth century. with the formation of the USSR, the state took the position of a total regulator of the economy, which significantly affected the mentality of Russian citizens. Since 1990, Russia has taken a course towards reducing the share of state influence on the economy.

At the present stage of Russia's development, there is a kind of return to the previously existing practice of total state regulation, in connection with which the share and importance of private business in the national economy is steadily declining.

The increase in the role of the state, which began to grow in 2004, is accompanied by a simultaneous suspension of privatization processes. G. O. Gref and A. L. Kudrin at the official level raised the question of the need to increase the degree of state influence on the economy. The logical continuation was the actual transfer of such oil companies as Sibneft and Gazprom to state control, which is ambiguously assessed by experts. On the one hand, this is a positive phenomenon, since it allows the state to concentrate the extraction and sale of minerals, which, according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, are a national treasure. On the other hand, world practice shows that the state cannot provide effective management, which is aggravated by the crisis of the state apparatus itself.

The proposal of the President of the Russian Federation on the transition to three-year budget planning is the main prerequisite for the formation of a planned economy.

According to many experts, such long-term budget planning is impossible in Russia due to the instability of the economic situation.

The government's policy of complete nationalization of such strategic areas as nuclear energy, the defense industry, and railways is fully justified. But under the existing conditions of total state control of the market, the development of private property in other sectors becomes impossible, since there is no concentration of capital in them.

The importance of the state in the Russian economy is quite large, not only in the direction of creating conditions for the functioning of economic entities and a system of minimum social guarantees, but also in the form of direct state intervention. There is a widespread association of state and business structures, which leads to the monopolization of the market by the state. At the same time, the increase in the importance of the state in the national economy is accompanied by a decrease in the degree of efficiency of the functioning of the state apparatus. The state, trying to take a position of active regulation, is not capable, for objective reasons, of ensuring rational management of the national economy in the interests of sustainable economic growth and overcoming a protracted economic crisis. This is due to the presence of such problems of the state apparatus as bureaucratization, bribery, corruption, etc.

42. The functions of the state in the national economy

In the course of its activities in market conditions, the state performs certain functions, a specific set of which is specific to each country and depends on specific cultural, economic and social conditions. Over time, they change along with the development of the national economy. Accordingly, intervention in the economy cannot be chaotic, but must be functional - to perform certain functions.

classic features, implemented by the state in the national economy, are:

1) formation and maintenance of the legal framework regulating the activities of economic entities;

2) formation of conditions for sustainable growth of the national economy, which is the most important prerequisite for the functioning of the state;

3) artificial distribution and redistribution of resources - national wealth;

4) creation of a system of minimum social guarantees, so that each citizen has a minimum of resources sufficient to meet their needs.

These classical functions of the state are transformed depending on various conditions. So, for a transitional type of economy, they differ significantly from classical functions. The functions of the state in the national economy of Russia, due to the presence of a transitional type of economy, differ significantly from those that are implemented by other economically developed states. One of their main features is that the change in the previously existing mode of functioning of the national economy took place in the direction of the destruction of old institutions, and not the priority creation of new ones.

In a transitional economy, the state implements the following functions:

1) creates conditions for the effective functioning of the national economy;

2) redistributes resources;

3) regulates the activities of economic entities by creating and changing the existing legal framework;

4) stabilize the situation;

5) creates conditions for economic growth. Since in the transition economy there is an increasing

43. The concept of state regulation of the economy

In the process of functioning and development of the national economy, a number of both purely economic and social, political and administrative problems naturally arise that cannot be solved only by market mechanisms, the ability of the free market to self-regulate.

Therefore, there is a reasonable need for state regulation of the economy, for example, in the field of production of public goods that is unprofitable for the market. The need for state regulation of the national economy is also caused by a number of sectoral and general economic crises, mass unemployment, violations in monetary circulation, and the need to regulate inflation. The opportunity to carry out state regulation of the economy arises only when a certain level of economic development is reached, the concentration of production potential.

At the present stage, it is an integral part of the complex process of reproduction of the national economy. Forms, goals, methods and mechanisms of state regulation directly depend on the state of the national economy, its specifics and characteristics.

State regulation of the economy is one of the fundamental forms of state participation in the national economy, which includes the impact on the key stages of the process of distribution of income and resources, the rate of economic growth, the standard of living of the population, for which the state institutions use executive, legislative and control methods.

Approaches to state regulation of the national economy were different at each stage of human development.

In the XVI-XVIII centuries. the dominant position was occupied by mercantilism - an approach based on the recognition of the urgent need for state regulation to ensure the development of the national economy. In the XNUMXth century in connection with the development of the economy, economic entities considered it as a significant obstacle in their activities, therefore, a policy was adopted to reduce state intervention in the economy. It was replaced by the Keynesian approach, based on the need to combine government regulation and the principles of the free market.

State regulation of the national economy is a complex process due to the complexity and ambiguity of its object. It consists of interrelated specific goals, objectives, methods and mechanisms, which constitute the institution of state regulation of the economy.

44. Mechanisms of state regulation of the economy

The main mechanisms of state regulation of the economy are:

1) direct mechanisms of state regulation are the most common because of their effectiveness. Their main form is the economic activity of the state, represented by the public sector of the economy, which is quite large in economically developed countries. Within its framework, the state can, for example, independently provide loans, take equity participation in companies, and be the direct owner of an economic entity. Thus, it not only makes a profit, but also creates jobs, reducing the unemployment rate. Typically, the state takes control of those industries that require significant investment, such as nuclear energy, air and maritime transport. Direct state regulation can also be implemented in the form of direct investment in priority sectors, with the help of subventions, subsidies and subsidies. It is usually aimed at regulating economic activity, which significantly distorts the operation of market mechanisms, which does not always lead to favorable consequences. It also includes the costs of creating and maintaining the functional state of social infrastructure - healthcare, education, science, etc.

2) indirect mechanisms of state regulation - these are such methods of state influence on the economy that allow you to achieve your goals without direct state intervention and are based on the basic laws of the functioning of the national economy. Usually they are aimed at maintaining a normal level of employment, stimulating an increase in the export of goods, creating stable pricing in the interests of the population, sustainable economic growth rates, redistributing resources, and stimulating the investment process. The main way to achieve the goals set is fiscal and monetary policy. Fiscal policy is carried out through the state budget by changing its revenue and expenditure parts. The monetary system is built on the regulation and regulation of money circulation.

The tax system is included in the list of the main indirect mechanisms of state regulation of the economy. With its help, the budget is formed - its revenue side. Changes in tax rates make it possible to effectively regulate the pace and scale of economic growth. One of the types of action of the tax mechanism is the accelerated depreciation write-off of fixed capital. It allows you to stimulate the pace and scale of accumulation of volumes of infrastructure changes. Modification of the rate and order of depreciation change changes the rate of capital investment in the development of production. This mechanism is effective for improving the overall economic situation, transforming the infrastructure of the national economy and stimulating the pace of scientific and technological progress.

45. State regulation of the national economy in Russia

State regulation of the national economy in Russia has a certain specificity. The ill-conceived state economic policy in the process of privatization, reorganization of the banking system, price liberalization and other actions were aimed at creating a free market, but led not to the expected positive results, but to negative ones. The adopted economic policy contributed to the emergence of a small class of owners (oligarchs) and the transfer of property under the control of criminal structures. According to experts, there was no appropriate economic base for pricing liberalization - market infrastructure, competition. The result of this was a sharp increase in inflation rates and the formation of a pricing system not based on competition, but with the unilateral establishment of sellers. Therefore, the most important function of pricing - the regulation of production - did not work for a long time.

According to experts, the economic policy implemented by Russia recently cannot be recognized as objective and effective. The main financial resources were directed not to economic growth, but to the maintenance of the state apparatus. At present, no unified state policy has been adopted to use large volumes of budget revenue generated by high world prices for resources. The declared goals of state regulation of the economy, formalized in the form of national projects, in practice do not bring significant structural changes to the national economy and the developed system of strategic development directions.

Despite the directions of state regulation outlined in 2007 (increase in spending on defense, healthcare and education, formation of an investment fund and a development bank, development of the oil and gas industry, restructuring and significant state investments in the automotive industry - AvtoVAZ and aircraft industry), the lack of unity and strategic orientation of the state regulation minimizes the economic effect of the measures taken. Favorable conditions (high prices for resources) are not used to stimulate high rates and sustainable economic growth. Funds received from the sale of resources are not directed to investments in the national economy, but are accumulated in the stabilization fund. Despite the fact that they could be an effective mechanism for activating the growth of the national economy.

In general, the need for state regulation of the national economy of Russia is logically conditioned. Under the influence of the globalization of the world economy, the strengthening of the influence of transnational companies, only this mode can ensure the normal functioning of the economy. At the same time, state regulation does not meet the requirements of efficiency and effectiveness and is not able to fully cope with the functions assigned to it.

46. The concept of national economic security

The need for security - the elimination of undesirable effects leading to cardinal deformations - is one of the basic needs of both the individual and the whole society. In modern conditions, the need for security has become aggravated, since if it is not observed, a number of negative phenomena arise not only for the individual, but also for the whole society - the state.

There are the following approaches to the definition of national security:

1) expansion. The approach is based on the fact that the possession of economic, political and military power allows individuals or the state to use it to forcibly establish the dictates of their will;

2) parity. The approach is based on the fact that national security is an economic, political and military power that allows an individual or a state to maintain its independence, including in decision-making;

3) humanism. The approach is based on the fact that national security consists in establishing such a regime, which, of course, recognizes the right of both the individual and the state to self-determination, independence in decision-making.

National security for a long period of time had an exclusively external orientation - the protection of the independence of the state from external interference. The current stage of human development has brought the understanding of national security to a fundamentally different level. Scientific and technological progress has significantly changed the methods and the very essence of military aggression.

The main component of national security is national economic security, the importance of which in modern conditions is increasingly growing under the influence of globalization and integration of the world economy.

National economic security - this is the mode of functioning of the national economy, which allows you to maintain acceptable living conditions for the population - the quality, standard of living and the provision of economic resources in the amount necessary to ensure sustainable economic growth.

National economic security based on the following basic principles:

1) independence of the national economy;

2) stability of the national economy;

3) sustainable growth rates of the national economy. Economic security is based on the independence, stability and growth of the national economy, which is a prerequisite for its normal functioning.

47. The concept of national security of the Russian Federation

The concept of national security of the Russian Federation is a system of basic provisions aimed at ensuring the security of the individual, society and the state in the Russian Federation from external and internal threats in all spheres of life. This legal act determines that the national security of the Russian Federation is understood as the security of its multinational people as the bearer of sovereignty and the only source of power in the Russian Federation.

The following tasks are set for national economic security:

1) forecasting the emergence of internal and external threats;

2) development and implementation of the necessary measures to reduce the degree of influence of internal and external threats;

3) protection of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Russian Federation;

4) development and implementation of economic policy aimed at enhancing economic growth;

5) creation of conditions for scientific and technological independence;

6) ensuring the security of a person and a citizen, his rights and freedoms;

7) increasing the efficiency of the state apparatus;

8) maintaining the balance of interethnic relations;

9) creation of conditions for compliance with the law;

10) formation of mutually beneficial relations with other states;

11) containment of the military potential of the country;

12) improvement of the environmental situation;

13) integration of the national economy into the world economy;

14) formation of a single economic space with the CIS countries;

15) protecting the interests of domestic producers on world markets;

16) formation of the regime of financial and credit independence of Russia;

17) strengthening state regulation of foreign companies conducting economic activities in the country;

18) formation of an effective legal framework for the activities of economic entities;

19) withdrawal of the national economy from the crisis. The basis of national security is national interests - a set of interrelated and balanced interests of the state, society and the individual.

48. Internal and external threats to national economic security

In the process of creating and maintaining national economic security, key causes arise that can violate it, threats.

The main internal threats to national economic security are:

1) strengthening the degree of differentiation of living standards and incomes of the population. The formation of a small group of the wealthy population (oligarchs) and a large part of the poor population creates a situation of social tension in society, which can ultimately lead to serious socio-economic shocks;

2) deformation of the sectoral structure of the national economy. The orientation of the economy towards the extraction of minerals creates serious structural shifts;

3) strengthening the uneven economic development of the regions. A sharp difference in the level of socio-economic development of the regions destroys the existing ties between them and hinders inter-regional integration;

4) criminalization of Russian society. In society, the tendencies to receive unearned income through direct robbery and seizure of property have sharply increased, which negatively affects the overall stability and stability of the national economy. Of great importance is the total penetration of criminal structures into the state apparatus and industry and the emerging trend of merging between them;

5) a sharp decline in the scientific and technical potential of Russia. The basis of economic growth - the scientific and technological potential - has been practically lost over the past decade, due to a reduction in investment in priority scientific and technical research and development, the mass exodus of leading scientists from the country, the destruction of science-intensive industries, and the strengthening of scientific and technical dependence;

7) strengthening the isolation and desire for independence of the subjects of the Federation. Russia has significant territories that function within the framework of a federal structure;

8) increased interethnic and interethnic tension, which creates real conditions for the emergence of internal conflicts on ethnic grounds;

9) widespread violation of the single legal space, leading to legal nihilism and non-compliance with the law;

10) decline in the physical health of the population, leading to degradation due to the crisis of the health care system;

11) the demographic crisis associated with a steady trend of the prevalence of general mortality of the population over the birth rate.

Taken together, internal threats to national security are closely intertwined and interrelated.

49. External threats to national security

The main external threats to national security are:

1) a decrease in the role of Russia in the world economy due to the targeted actions of individual states and interstate associations, such as the UN, the OSCE;

2) reduction of economic and political influence on the processes taking place in the world economy;

3) strengthening the scope and influence of international military and political associations, including NATO;

4) emerging trends towards the deployment of military forces of foreign states near the borders of Russia;

5) ubiquitous distribution of weapons of mass destruction in the world;

6) the weakening of the processes of integration and the establishment of economic ties between Russia and the CIS countries;

7) creation of conditions for the formation and emergence of military armed conflicts near the state borders of Russia and the CIS countries;

8) territorial expansion in relation to Russia, for example, from Japan and China;

9) international terrorism;

10) weakening of Russia's position in the field of information and telecommunications. This is manifested in the reduction of Russia's influence on international information flows and the development by a number of states of information expansion technologies that can be applied to Russia;

11) revitalization on the territory of Russia of the activities of foreign organizations engaged in intelligence and collection of strategic information;

12) a sharp decrease in the military and defense potential of the country, which does not allow it, if necessary, to repel a military attack, which is associated with a systemic crisis in the country's defense complex.

Ensuring national security at a sufficient level makes it necessary to constantly monitor external and internal threats, and therefore their list is constantly changing depending on specific political, social, legal and economic conditions.

Adopted in 1997 and amended in 2000, the National Security Concept of the Russian Federation is not a simple declaration. It is an effective legal document that regulates the priority area of the state's activity - national security. Only starting from 2003, it began to be implemented after the necessary potential had been accumulated. The introduction of a system for appointing senior officials of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation minimized the threat to the territorial integrity of Russia. The recent ban on the activities of foundations with foreign capital in Russia has reduced the degree of its political and economic dependence.

50. Federal, regional and local institutions for ensuring national economic security

The concept of national security of the Russian Federation defines certain state and regional institutions that ensure the implementation of national economic security. This includes:

1) President of the Russian Federation. He exercises general management of the institutions that ensure national security, having special powers for this, including determining actions to ensure national security, reorganizes and abolishes national security bodies, determines the main directions for ensuring national security;

2) the intelligence and counterintelligence system, which is of great importance for national security, since it has an effective tool for objectively identifying threats, their causes and ways to eliminate them;

3) the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation. Within the framework of its constitutional rights and obligations, it forms the legal framework for the process of ensuring national security and makes proposals on its main directions;

4) Government of the Russian Federation. Guided by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, instructions and recommendations of the President of the Russian Federation, it carries out general coordination of the activities of national security bodies, forms, in the prescribed manner, the articles of the federal budget necessary to maintain the functional state of the national security system;

5) Security Council of the Russian Federation. His direct duties include the allocation of threats to national security, their sources and directions for elimination;

6) federal executive authorities. Their duties include ensuring the implementation of the legislation of the Russian Federation, decisions of the President of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Russian Federation in the field of national security;

7) executive authorities of the subjects of the Russian Federation. In the course of their activities, they interact on issues of ensuring national security with federal executive bodies in the field of implementing federal legislation, decisions of the President of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Russian Federation;

8) local governments. Together with state authorities, the constituent entities of the Russian Federation take measures to attract citizens, public associations and organizations to assist in solving national security problems in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, submit proposals to federal executive authorities on improving the system for ensuring the national security of the Russian Federation.

51. National markets: concept, types, principles of organization

The basis of a free nationwide market is the right of economic entities to carry out economic activities in accordance with their interests and in accordance with the law. The functioning of the national market is built on the interaction of consumers and producers, the result of which is pricing. It also includes various industrial, financial and commercial and information structures.

nationwide market is an economic structure that ensures effective interaction between consumers and producers.

The decisive influence on the nature of the functioning of the market has a total number of consumers and producers - the interaction of supply and demand. It is expressed in the key concept of the market - "competition". This is a specific type of interaction between consumers among themselves, the result of which is the determination of the total amount of goods and its price.

The national market is characterized by the following characteristic features:

1) the exchange procedure is based on the basic economic laws;

2) the process of interaction between consumers and producers finds its expression in supply and demand;

3) is a means of effective interaction between consumers and producers.

According to the criterion of appeal, the following are distinguished types of markets in the structure of the nationwide:

1) product market;

2) financial market;

3) service market;

4) labor market.

The main parameters of the functioning of the market include:

1) marketability (a set of goods presented on the market);

2) territorial boundaries of the market functioning. The main quantitative characteristics of the market are:

1) the number of manufacturers on the market;

2) the number of consumers in the market;

3) distribution of positions between manufacturers;

4) the degree of market concentration, i.e. the volume of transactions carried out on it for the purchase and sale of goods.

The main quantitative characteristics of the market are:

1) the possibility of entering the market of new manufacturers;

2) the number of barriers to entry of new manufacturers into the market;

3) the level of competition in the market;

4) the degree of exposure to external factors;

5) the presence and degree of interaction with other markets, such as international ones.

The interaction of a set of qualitative and quantitative characteristics determines the type of market.

52. Functions of the national market

The market performs the following functions:

1) regulation. This is manifested in the fact that the manufacturer offers to the market only those goods that are necessary for the consumer. Pricing is one of the most important regulatory mechanisms that regulates the supply of goods;

2) motivation. Producers who offer goods at the lowest price and of high quality receive a corresponding reward in the form of profit for this. Conversely, a producer that operates inefficiently receives an incentive to improve its performance in the form of losses;

3) distribution. The market creates the necessary conditions for distributing profits in accordance with the contribution of each of the economic entities;

4) Control. It manifests itself in the form of competition - it does not allow unjustified overpricing and lowering the quality of goods through the consumer's freedom of choice: the consumer buys only the good that meets his expectations in terms of price and quality.

Depending on specific conditions, each of the national markets can exist as:

1) polypoly. This is a perfectly competitive market. A large number of producers and consumers of the same type of good allows you to quickly respond to price changes;

2) monopoly. This is a market in which there is only one producer of a certain good and many consumers;

3) monopolistic competition. This is a market in which several large producers of a homogeneous good operate; four) oligopoly. This is a market in which several producers of a commodity of a homogeneous composition accept an agreement on the development of a unified pricing policy and supply volumes. The structure of the national market is heterogeneous, it includes a large number of smaller markets. They usually specialize in the circulation of a certain economic resource or good. The interaction of these markets of the national economy is the essence of the national market, determines its dynamics and pace of development.

The structure of the national market includes the following markets:

1) the market of economic resources, which includes the process of circulation of resources necessary for the production of goods;

2) the financial market, which includes the circulation of a specific commodity - capital, the price for which is determined by the percentage for the use of money;

3) labor market. It is based on free relations between the worker and the employer, and labor becomes the subject of purchase and sale;

4) the market of consumer goods, which is a process of interaction between the producer and the consumer regarding the good - the result of economic activity.

53. Unregulated markets.

State regulation of the market

Unregulated markets - this is a state of the market when the processes occurring within its framework are not subject to management, but proceed in accordance with the natural mechanisms of market self-regulation.

This state of the market provides a mode of efficient allocation of resources. Natural market mechanisms direct limited resources to the production of goods that are most needed by the population. Constant improvement of production technologies contributes to an effective combination of supply and demand - their balancing.

The basis of the free market is economic freedom, but the market directs it in the interests of the whole society. The market is able to coordinate the activities of a large number of individuals without the use of means of violent coercion. Freedom of economic activity is one of the main reasons for the high efficiency of the unregulated market - the level of his well-being depends only on personal abilities, actions of a person, which stimulates him to increase the efficiency of his economic activity.

The disadvantage of an unregulated market is the gradual decrease in competition, which is the engine of the effective functioning of the market.

In the process of market development, the manufacturer inevitably seeks to minimize the impact of competition on its activities and ultimately monopolize the market. At the same time, scientific and technical developments require the concentration of capital, which is possible only when the economic resources of several economic entities are combined, as a result of which there are several producers on the market who have sufficient resources to conduct scientific and technical developments and who are able to provide the consumer with better benefits.

Another disadvantage of an unregulated market is the increased tendency towards an uneven distribution of resources - national wealth among the population. The free market system encourages the concentration of capital in a small number of more economically capable people.

The unregulated market system is not always able to adequately respond to consumer signals and produce all the benefits they need. The producer decides on the efficiency of producing a certain good only on the basis of the correlation of his own costs and profits, but does not evaluate the costs for the whole society.

Another dysfunction of the market is manifested in its inability to produce public goods. Based on personal gain, economic activity does not consider as a priority the production of public goods that are necessary for the whole society, but their financing cannot be made by an individual consumer, but only by a group or the entire population.

Along with the negative features of the unregulated market, its advantage in ensuring the efficient allocation of resources is also significant.

54. Regulated Markets

Regulated Markets - this is a state of the market when the processes occurring within its framework are fully or partially subject to external management and regulation.

The external source of regulation is the state or its authorized bodies. The method for regulation is state regulation of the market - a system of methods of legal, administrative and economic regulation of the market, carried out by state-authorized bodies.

The inability in some situations of the market to self-regulation causes an objective need for state regulation (for example, in the field of production of public goods, regulation of employment, financial and credit sphere). The explanation for the need for external regulation of the market is mainly due to the fact that many market crises can only be resolved with government intervention.

The volume, scope and effectiveness of regulation are directly related to the level of development of the market. At the moment, state regulation is included in the process of reproduction of the national economy.

Depending on the specific situation on the market, the tasks of state regulation are also being transformed. Usually these include creating conditions for sustainable economic growth, reducing unemployment, initiating a structural transformation of the market, creating a system to protect the national producer and stimulating the export of goods.

The objects of state regulation of the market are specific problems that have arisen or may arise in the course of the functioning of the market, causing significant damage to the standard of living of the population and economic growth.

The main points of state regulation of the market are:

1) economic cycles;

2) market structure;

3) circulation and accumulation of capital;

4) regulation of the level of employment;

5) monetary sphere of the market;

6) pricing;

7) competition;

8) distribution and redistribution of incomes of the population and national wealth;

9) ecology;

10) foreign economic relations.

In the economic practice of any country it is impossible to meet an exclusively regulated or unregulated market. As experience shows, only a reasonable combination of elements of the free market and government regulation can stimulate sustainable economic growth and the stability of the national economy.

55. Monopoly and competition in the Russian economy

The state, as one of the leading market actors, seeks to legally regulate competition. At the same time, the development and consistent implementation of relevant measures against the monopolization of the national market is a necessary condition for overcoming the economic crisis.

One of the main activities of the state is assigned to this problem - antimonopoly regulation. This is a set of normatively fixed rules of conduct for all economic entities and mechanisms to prevent market monopolization, aimed at discriminating consumers and hindering fair competition and the development of the national economy.

In a market environment, competition performs the following functions:

1) regulation;

2) motivation;

3) distribution;

4) control.

Competition is an effective mechanism for improving the quality and quantity of goods and services with a commensurate decrease in its cost.

Government competition policy generally aims to:

1) intensification of scientific and technological progress;

2) maintaining competition in the regulatory and legal field;

3) creation of conditions for effective and efficient competition.

A monopoly is a market model in which there is one producer and many buyers of a good. In this mode, there is no competition or is minimized. The characteristic features of a monopoly are:

1) the only producer of a certain type of good;

2) the uniqueness of the good presented by the monopolist; it cannot be replaced by another good;

3) one producer controlling the price, the quantity of a certain good;

4) the difficulty or impossibility of entering the market for new producers of a certain good.

The market inevitably tends towards monopolization, since producers need to establish control over the market in order to function effectively.

Unfair competition in the national economy of Russia manifests itself in the form of:

1) bribery;

2) blackmail;

3) providing deliberately false information to the consumer;

4) concealment of information about economic activity from state inspection structures;

5) deliberate concealment of defects for the consumer;

6) industrial espionage;

7) counterfeit products of competitors.

56. Antitrust policy

The state antimonopoly policy is aimed at creating conditions for fair competition and preventing market monopolization. It performs the most important functions in the development of the national economy, as it creates conditions for increasing the competitiveness of the domestic manufacturer and the economy as a whole.

The need to create a competitive environment - freedom of economic activity, movement of goods, services and financial resources - is enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation (clause 1, article 8).

The problematic of the practical implementation of antimonopoly policy is due to the fact that it mainly uses economic mechanisms that are not sufficiently developed in Russia. Accordingly, the effectiveness of antimonopoly policy is determined primarily by the development of the national market and the objectivity of the state economic policy.

The fundamentals of antimonopoly policy are enshrined in the Federal Law "On Competition and Limitation of Monopolistic Activities in Commodity Markets" adopted in 1991. The relatively established system of antimonopoly regulation was reformed after the 1998 crisis, when its shortcomings became apparent. Within its framework, in 1999, the Federal Law "On Competition and Restriction of Monopolistic Activities in Commodity Markets" was substantially revised, and the State Committee for Antimonopoly Policy and Support for New Economic Structures was transformed into the RF Ministry for Antimonopoly Policy and Entrepreneurship Support.

Since that time, active regulation of competition in various areas of the national economy has begun (for example, the Federal Law "On the Protection of Competition in the Financial Services Market").

Since 2004, a fundamental change in the state antimonopoly policy has taken place, when, simultaneously with the general reform of the state apparatus, the RF Ministry for Antimonopoly Policy and Entrepreneurship Support was reorganized into the Federal Antimonopoly Service. The main activity of the new structure was determined to create conditions for the development of competition and the development of a unified state policy to support competition. Despite this, in general, the state antimonopoly policy has retained its inactive nature - there is simply a fixation of cases of violation of competition.

An effective and up-to-date normatively fixed state antimonopoly policy is a necessary condition for the active development of the national economy and its structural transformations. There is a transition of the problem of competition from a purely economic category to a political one, which indicates the need to maintain it at the proper level throughout society.

Author: Koshelev A.N.

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