History of psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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History of psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology (Greek psyche - "soul", "butterfly") is not only the doctrine of the soul, as was previously believed. At present, psychology has become a full-fledged science that studies the processes of the emergence and development of the psyche of humans and animals. The very first mention of psychological science appeared more than 2000 years ago, when Aristotle wrote his Treatise on the Soul. But at that time psychology was not considered a separate science, it was only a branch of philosophy.

The term "scientific psychology" was first used in the 2th century. Christian Wolf, who was engaged in the study of personality. As an independent science, psychology was declared only in the second half of the XNUMXth century. This was preceded by a long way of its development and formation.

Aristotle in his Treatise on the Soul considered psychology as the science of the soul. Everything that could not be understood was explained by the fact that a person has a soul.

In the XNUMXth century the natural sciences developed rapidly. In this regard, a new branch of psychological study emerged - human consciousness. Of particular importance was the method of internalization: the person himself observed his behavior and tried to describe the most significant moments.

At the beginning of the XX century. the behavioral psychology of J. Watson appeared, through which human behavior and its reactions to various external stimuli were considered.

The subject of modern psychology is the general patterns of the psyche of humans and animals. At this stage, psychology began to study the inner mental world of a person, conscious and unconscious by him.

From this we can conclude that the subject of psychology has changed at each stage of its study. With the formation of psychology as a separate science, one can see that from the original subject of the "soul" researchers came to the subject of the "psyche". All this happened against the backdrop of the emergence and development of various psychological trends, such as: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, analytical psychology, etc.

According to the German psychologist of the late XIX - early XX centuries. Hermann Ebbinghaus, psychology has a huge backstory and a short history.

Subject of scientific psychology:

1) the psyche of a healthy person in physical and psychological terms;

2) individual facts of the mental side of human life, described qualitatively and quantitatively;

3) psychological laws that describe and explain the phenomena of human life;

4) the mechanism of creation by a person of a subjective image of the objective world.

Tasks of psychology:

1) study of the laws of the psyche and its activities;

2) the study of the development of the psyche at different stages of a person's life (mental processes and states, different in complexity);

3) disclosure of human properties from the position of social and biological.

2. FUNCTIONS OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND ITS BRANCH

The main functions of psychology include the study of the adaptive role of the human and animal psyche in the conditions of modern life; study of the development of cognitive processes at each stage of mental development. As a rule, the following branches of psychology are distinguished.

Social psychology (SP) explores the relationship and relationship of a person with society. This branch connects general psychology with sociology. The subject of the study of SP is, first of all, the personality and its mental characteristics, the way people interact, how they perceive each other. A significant place in social psychology is given to the psychological characteristics of social groups. According to scientists, the personality has not yet been fully studied, so it cannot be said that this industry does not continue to develop at the present time.

Developmental psychology (VP) has been studied since the end of the XNUMXth century. The subject of this branch of study is a healthy individual and his development in ontogeny. Various periods of human development, crises of transition from one age category to another, the dynamics of mental development are being studied. The EaP has set itself a number of tasks, which took a lot of time to complete.

At the moment, there are several sections of the EP: the psychology of infancy, the psychology of early age, the psychology of preschool age, the psychology of the primary school student, adolescent psychology, youth psychology, the psychology of maturity, gerontopsychology (the psychology of the elderly).

Educational psychology studies the patterns of human development in the educational process.

There are 3 sections of pedagogical psychology: the psychology of education, the psychology of education and the psychology of the teacher. Within the framework of these sections, the student's relationship with peers in the context of the educational process, the interaction between the teacher and students, the features of constructing a pedagogical plan of work with students are studied.

Medical psychology (MP) studies the course of mental processes associated with the dynamics of the development of diseases, the features of the relationship between the doctor and the patient, and the qualitative improvement of the treatment process. MP is divided into: neuropsychology, psychopharmacology, psychotherapy, psychoprophylaxis and psychohygiene.

Legal psychology (JP) deals with the study of the course of the mental processes of a person in the conditions of legal relations. Sections of the UP are: criminal, forensic and correctional psychology.

Military psychology studies the mental characteristics of people during combat operations and in the conditions of combat training.

Special psychology (psychology of abnormal development) deals with the study of mental deviations in human development. The main task of the SP is to identify violations in the early stages and find possible optimal ways to correct and diagnose them.

SP is divided into: pathopsychology, oligophrenopsychology, deaf psychology and typhlopsychology.

3. DEVELOPMENT OF ANCIENT PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

The formation of ancient psychology took place in the 16th century. BC e. - IV century n. e. This is the time of formation, flourishing and decline of Greco-Roman civilization. The works of Greek thinkers reflected a revolution in the scientific worldview, that is, the mythological nature of the world was refuted, and it was replaced by a scientific rationalistic view of the world around us - of nature, of human society. But still, the main concept reflecting mental phenomena remains “soul,” although attempts are being made to rationalize this concept. The old faith and legends were losing their meaning, and more rational areas of knowledge were developing at a rapid pace - mathematical, medical, astronomical, geographical. A critical mindset was strengthened, as was the desire for independent and logical justification of opinions. The first philosophical treatises appeared, the authors of which take one or another type of matter as the basis of the world: the indefinite infinite substance “aleuron” (Anaximander), water (Thales), air (Anaximenes), fire (Heraclitus).

The ideas of Heraclitus were based on the inseparable connection of the soul of any person with the cosmos, on the procedural nature of mental states in conjunction with prepsychic states, on the subordination of all mental phenomena to the laws of the human material world. In connection with the loss of political independence by the large commercial and industrial centers of Miletus and Ephesus

Since then, the East of the ancient Greek world ceases to be the basis of philosophical creativity. The new basis is the west. The teachings of Parmenides (at the end of the 490th century BC) and Empedocles (in 430-XNUMX BC) arose. In Agrigenta, located on the island of Sicily, the philosophy of Pythagoras from the island of Samos spreads. Athens in the XNUMXth century BC e. were the center of the most intensive work of philosophical thought. Then the activities of the so-called teachers of wisdom - the sophists - began. Institutions arose that required eloquence, education, the art of refuting, persuading, that is, the ability to effectively influence a person not through external coercion, but through psychological influence on their intellect and feelings. Socrates opposed the sophists, who believed that concepts and values should have a general and unshakable content. Major successes of that time in philosophy and science are associated with the activities of Democritus and Abdera, who created the atomic theory. Two great thinkers, Plato and Aristotle, created works that for many centuries had a profound influence on the philosophical and psychological thought of mankind. Ancient Rome produced such major thinkers as Lucretius (XNUMXst century BC) and Galen (XNUMXnd century AD). Later, when slave uprisings and civil wars began in the Roman Empire, views hostile to materialism (Plato, Neoplatonism) became widespread.

4. VIEWS ON THE NATURE OF THE PSYCHIC

Changes in the understanding of the surrounding world and man that occurred in the VI century. BC e., were decisive in the history of ideas about mental activity.

Animism is a belief in a host of spirits (souls) hidden behind visible things, representing them as special "elements" or "ghosts" that leave the human body with the last breath in his life (for example, according to the philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras. They, being immortal, have the opportunity to wander forever and move into the bodies of animals and plants. A fundamentally new approach was expressed by the doctrine that replaced animism. This is the doctrine of the universal animation of the world, called "hylozoism". The essence of this doctrine is that nature was perceived as one whole, endowed with life.

The hylozoist Heraclitus (end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries BC) represented the cosmos in the form of "eternally living fire", while the soul ("psyche") - in the form of its spark. He included the soul in the general laws of natural existence, developing according to the law (logos), the same as the cosmos, which is the same for all things.

Democritus (460-370 BC) believed that the whole world consists of the smallest particles invisible to the eye, called atoms. He believed that man and all the nature around him are composed of atoms that form the body and soul. The soul, according to Democritus, also consists of small atoms, but more mobile, since they must communicate activity to an inert body. Democritus believed that the soul can be in the head (the rational part), in the chest (the courageous part), in the liver (the lustful part) and the sense organs.

Among the teachings of the school of Hippocrates (460-377 BC) was the doctrine of the four liquids (blood, mucus, black bile and yellow bile). From here - depending on which liquid prevails - he put forward a version of four temperaments:

1) sanguine type, when blood predominates;

2) phlegmatic type (mucus);

3) choleric type (yellow bile);

4) melancholic type (black bile). Alcmaeon from Cretona (VI century BC) believed

that the brain is the organ of the soul. He found that from the hemispheres of the brain “two narrow paths go to the eye sockets.” Alcmaeon argued that there is a direct connection between the senses and the brain. Following Alcmaeon, Hippocrates agreed that the brain is an organ of the psyche, believing that the brain is a kind of large gland. Today it is known that there is a unified neurohumoral regulation of behavior.

Plato (428-348 BC) believed that the soul is the guardian of human morality and that behavior should be prompted and controlled by reason, not feelings. He opposed Democritus and his theories, asserting the possibility of freedom of rational human behavior.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) believed that in the human body the corporeal and spiritual form an inseparable whole. The soul, according to Aristotle, is not an independent entity, but a form, a way of organizing a living body.

5. MATERIAL SUBSTRATE OF MENTAL PHENOMENA

Throughout the history of human thought, the idea of the psyche has changed, these changes are closely related to advances in the knowledge of the organic substratum of the human psyche.

A very long time ago it was concluded that the existence of a living body depends on the influences of external nature, and the state of the soul, in turn, depends on the life of the body. Blood circulation was recognized as the basis of the mental and physical life of the soul and body. From ancient times, the concept of pneuma was born - a special thinnest substance, similar to heated air. In medical circles, pneuma was treated as a fact, not a theory. In our time, there is a concept of a functional system as a lifetime neurodynamic formation, which is a material substratum of higher mental activity and human abilities.

The German physician F. Gall believed that the convolutions of the cerebral hemispheres of a person are responsible for his mental properties. F. Gall laid the foundation for theories that said that the cerebral cortex (and not its ventricles) is the substratum of human mental activity.

The French philosopher and writer D. Diderot believed that the brain is a material substrate in which various mental processes take place. He compared the thinking "I" to a kind of spider that nests in the bark.

of the brain and permeates our entire body with the threads of its web (i.e., nerves), on which there is not a single point that is not affected by these threads. Nerves form a bundle in the brain, which serves as the basis for binding human sensations together. D. Diderot believed that the unity of self-consciousness is provided by memory. Man, according to D. Diderot, is a thinking being - not only a feeling, but also a thinking being. He recognized a person as both a musician and an instrument.

Soviet psychologists A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luriya believed that not individual sections of the cortex or their centers are the material substrate of higher mental functions, but a functional system consisting of cooperative cortical zones.

These functional systems are formed in the process of human life and gradually acquire the character of strong, complex interfunctional relationships.

I. M. Sechenov in his writings, starting from 1863, consistently formed the concept of a materialistic understanding of mental activity. He proposed a reflex theory of human mental activity, believing that the brain is the material substratum of mental processes. His work was continued by I.P. Pavlov. He created the theory of conditioned reflexes and gave rise to studies of the functional physiology of the central nervous system to study the material foundations of mental phenomena.

6. MENTAL PROCESSES

In the ancient world, many opinions arose about the nature and processes of spiritual manifestations.

One of the first ideas had an epistemological meaning; it expressed ways of understanding the world around us. The activity of the senses was determined by the duration of thinking - this is what Heraclitus believed. Even in the pre-Aristotelian period, the doctrine that there are so-called parts of the soul became widespread.

During the existence of the Pythagorean school, a new idea arose about the three parts of the soul: "courageous", "reasonable" and "hungry". This idea was adopted by Plato and Democritus.

Aristotle, on the other hand, adhered to a naturalistic position; he superbly summarized empirical material, and his scheme affirmed a holistic genetic approach to the processes of human life. This was the advantage of the Aristotelian scheme over the Platonic one. Ontological, psychological and epistemological knowledge about the nature of mental phenomena were tightly interconnected in the minds of ancient thinkers, so they divided the qualities of things into primary and secondary. Aristotle believed that ideas are connected according to the laws of association. This concept of Aristotle laid the foundation for one of the most famous psychological theories - associative. Aristotle refuted Plato's concept and attributed the substrate of memory not to the soul, but to the body. He believed that the soul and body cannot exist separately from each other. Aristotle also suggested a distinction between two types of reason: practical and theoretical. Aristotle laid an impassable line between the mental activity of humans and animals and created the doctrine of heterogeneous mind.

The Epicureans and Stoics, in their developments on the cognitive abilities of the soul, made many discoveries, especially in terms of overcoming the difficulties associated with the problem of transition from sensory impressions to thinking that establishes solid truths.

The Epicureans put forward a certain concept that positive evolutionary development is the absence of negative evolutionary development. The Stoics, on the other hand, declare war on any affects, considering them as "corruption of the mind."

The views on various types of mental phenomena that developed in the ancient period determined the strongholds of the subsequent psychological search.

Scientific knowledge about the psyche, the activities of ancient scientists in obtaining this knowledge are of the greatest importance, which determines their special role in the development of civilization.

Philosophical categories are applicable to any manifestations of mental activity, to whatever objects it may be directed.

The most important objects of research into the historical development of science are its researchers themselves. The historical logic of the movement of knowledge is conditioned by the creative quest of the individual.

7. THE DOCTRINE OF THE SOUL

The first teaching about the soul was animism (from Latin anima - "soul"), which included the idea of the soul as a kind of ghost that leaves the human body with its last breath.

The soul, according to Plato, is the cause of changes and all kinds of movement of things, it can "move itself." The soul can control everything in heaven, on the sea and on earth, with the help of its own movements, which Plato called desire, discretion, care. The soul, as he believed, is primary, and material bodies are secondary. Comparing the problem of the spiritual and the material, Plato concludes that the soul is divine. Plato introduces the concept of the demiurge - the builder of the world. The demiurge creates the world out of ideas and nothingness. Ideas act as original models of material things. Ideas are very important for the soul. By mixing ideas and matter, the demiurge creates the world soul.

Aristotle makes certain adjustments to Plato's doctrine of the soul. He considers the soul the beginning of life, highlights the typology of the soul, and also believes that there are plant, animal and rational souls. The lowest soul is the vegetable soul. It is responsible for the functions of growth, nutrition and reproduction, these functions are common to all living beings. In the animal soul, in addition to the listed functions, there is a sensation and the ability to desire, that is, to strive for pleasant things and avoid unpleasant ones. Man is endowed with a rational soul, which only he can possess. The human soul is endowed with the highest of abilities, i.e., the ability to reason and think. But the mind itself, according to Aristotle, does not always depend on the body. Only the mind can comprehend eternal being and be free from matter, being eternal and unchanging. Aristotle calls this higher mind active and creative, distinguishing it from a passive mind that can only perceive. Aristotle tried to resolve the difficulties that Plato had in connection with his doctrine of three souls, which supposed to explain the possibility of the immortal existence of any soul, and he came to the conclusion that only his mind can be immortal in a person, which after death merges with the mind of the universe .

According to the Pythagoreans, the human soul has a divine nature, is immortal, moves into other bodies, including the bodies of plants and animals. The fateful cosmic law of justice of retribution for the deeds of the former earthly life governs the migrations. The Pythagoreans consider the body to be the grave of the soul.

Heraclitus believed that the soul is the divine primary fire, which, according to the laws, turns into its opposite, i.e. into water, which in turn is the beginning of earthly life. The penetration of the divine soul into the body leads to the death of its divinity, while the death of the human body can be equated with the rebirth of the soul (god).

8. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL IDEAS IN ARABIC SCIENCE

The heyday of Arabic-speaking psychology fell on the VIII-XI centuries.

In the XNUMXth century Arab tribes united, as a result of which a state was formed, which had its own ideological stronghold - the religion of Islam. Then the aggressive movement of the Arabs began to take place, which ended with the formation of the caliphate. Its territories were inhabited by peoples with ancient cultural traditions.

In Western Europe, which had disintegrated into closed feudal groups, the achievements of Alexandrian and European science were practically not remembered. But in the Arab East intellectual life was in full swing.

The works and writings of Plato and Aristotle, as well as other ancient thinkers, were translated into Arabic and distributed throughout all Arab countries.

All this stimulated the growth and development primarily of physical, mathematical and medical sciences. Arab scientists complemented the achievements of their ancient predecessors, and their works subsequently contributed to the rise of philosophical, scientific and psychological thought in the West. Among these scientists, the Central Asian physician Avicenna should be highlighted.

Avicenna's medical psychology is of particular interest. He assigned an important place to the role of affective acts in the regulation and development of human behavior. Avicenna created the "Canon of Medical Science" and provided him with "autocratic power in many medical schools of the Middle Ages."

Avicenna studied the relationship between psychological characteristics and the physical development of the human body at different ages, while he attached great importance to the upbringing factor. Avicenna believed that it is through education that a mental impact on the structure of the body is carried out. The physiological psychology of Avicenna made assumptions about the possibility of controlling the processes occurring in the body by influencing his affective life, which, according to the scientist, depended on the influence of other people.

The teachings of the philosopher and physician Ibn Rushd (11th century) about man and his soul had a very great influence on the entire Western European philosophical and psychological culture and thought. Ibn Rushd believed that the individual soul is not immortal, he believed that the soul and mind are not a single whole.

Under the soul, Ibn Rushd meant functions that he considered inseparable from the body (for example, sensuality). They were necessary for the work of the mind, and they are also directly related to the body and disappear with it after death. Reason, according to Ibn Rushd, is divine and penetrates into the human soul from the outside. If the body and the individual soul cease to exist, then the "traces" left by the divine mind in the soul continue to exist as a certain moment of the universal mind inherent in all mankind.

9. PSYCHOLOGICAL IDEAS OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE

In the medieval period in Europe, one of the central positions was occupied by scholasticism. This type of philosophical reasoning ("school philosophy") dominated in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. It boiled down to a rational interpretation of Christian doctrine.

Scholasticism had various currents, the common position for which was commenting on texts. The usual study of any subject and the discussion of real burning problems were replaced by verbal tricks. The Catholic Church at first forbade the study and promotion of the works of Aristotle, but soon took up "mastering", adapting them in accordance with their needs.

This problem was most subtly solved by Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). His teachings were later canonized in the Pope's encyclical (1879) as true Catholic philosophy and psychology. This doctrine was called Thomism. Nowadays, the name of this teaching has been somewhat modernized, now it is called neo-Thomism.

Thomas Aquinas defended his religious and "truth descending from above." He believed that the mind is obliged to serve this truth, as well as the religious feeling itself. At Oxford University in England the concept of dual truth was well received and became the ideological prerequisite for the success of philosophy and the natural sciences.

Thomas Aquinas described mental life and arranged its various forms in the form of a kind of ladder - from the lowest to the highest. In this hierarchy, each phenomenon has its own specific place.

Souls are arranged in steps (human, plant and animal), in each of them abilities and their products are located - sensation, representation, concept.

Nominalism opposed the concept of the Thomist soul.

His energetic preacher was Oxford University professor William of Ockham (1285-1349).

He rejected Thomism, but defended the doctrine of "dual truth." W. Ockham believed that it is necessary to rely on sensory experience, but at the same time, one must be guided by something that denotes classes of objects, or classes of signs or names.

The concept of nominalism contributed to the development of scientific views on the ability of a person to know this world. In subsequent centuries, many other thinkers will also turn to signs.

Thus, in the era of the Middle Ages, new ideas related to the experimental knowledge of the manifestations of the soul became widespread. But already at that time, other ideas began to emerge, based on a deterministic approach. These ideas reached their peak during the Renaissance.

10. ROGER BACON. NOMINALISM

In the Middle Ages, philosophers who shared Plato's point of view were called realists because they believed that universals really existed. Their position has been called realism. Universals were considered invisible and eternal ideas that exist before things, denoting general concepts, the broadest, which can denote a large class of objects. The opposite view was called nominalism. Its main representatives are considered to be William Ockham (end of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries), Johann Buridan (end of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries), Nicholas of Otrekur (XNUMXth century), and others.

Its representatives assumed that universals are only names and can exist not by themselves, but only in the human mind in the form of concepts or terms. They believed that only specific, single, sensually perceived objects exist in reality. Nominalist views appeared and began to spread only in the Renaissance.

Nominalism in its manifestations could be extreme and moderate. Moderate nominalists believed that universals exist after things in the form of their generalized names, i.e., concepts. These concepts are very important, although they do not exist objectively. Moderate nominalism was also called conceptualism. Extreme nominalists, in particular John Roscelinus (1050-1120), believed that general concepts are completely meaningless, that is, if they did not really exist, then there was no need to talk about them.

Robert Grosseteste's student Roger Bacon (1210-1294) was a representative of the opposition movement that formed at Oxford University in England in the second half of the XNUMXth century. He spoke out against Thomism and against scholasticism as such. R. Bacon believed that universals exist only in the individual, which, in turn, does not depend on the thinking principle. He emphasized not only the subjectivity of the general, as the supporters of nominalism believed, but also the objectivity of the individual. He denied the atomistic doctrine, which spoke of the indivisibility of atoms and emptiness, and put forward the idea of a combination of qualitatively different elements that form specific things.

The main work of R. Bacon was the "Great Work", consisting of seven sections and containing the theory of human thinking, as well as views on the relationship between science and theory. Limited in scope, Lesser Labor presented Bacon's previous work in abridged form. The "Third Labor" was a reworking of the two previous ones.

W. Ockham considered sensations as a kind of signs. In the conditions of medieval Europe, the appeal to signs made it possible to look at the concept of the soul from a different angle, that is, to move from subjective "inner experience" to an objective analysis of sign relations.

W. Occam deduced the position that it is necessary to cut off entities or alleged forces where a smaller number of them can be dispensed with, this provision was called Occam's "razor".

11. PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT DURING THE TRANSITION TO THE XNUMXTH CENTURY

The transition to the Renaissance began at a time when feudal culture was changing to a bourgeois one. Ideologists considered the revival of ancient values to be an important feature of this era.

Renaissance thinkers believed that it was necessary to cleanse ancient culture from distortions by its ideologues of the Middle Ages. Literary monuments of antiquity were restored in their original form, this played a very important role in the formation of a new ideological climate.

But the achievements of antiquity were comprehended in a new way. The philosophical pinnacle of these achievements was the teaching of Aristotle, which became one of the most important in the Middle Ages. His adherents were Muslims, Jews, and Christians. The philosophical views of Aristotle were supported by the Catholic Church, as well as those whom it persecuted as heretics. Both of them insisted that it was their understanding of Aristotle's concept that was the only correct interpretation of it.

Disputes over Aristotle's doctrine of the soul also influenced the formation of philosophical and psychological thought during the Renaissance. But the meaning and motivation of these disputes were determined not so much by Aristotelian ideas as by socio-ideological demands in the era of the crisis of feudalism and the beginning of capitalist relations. Aristotle was a symbol of freethinking for two groups - the Alexandrists and the Averroists. The clashes of these groups marked the beginning of a philosophical struggle in Italy, which was the main center of the European Renaissance. The struggle with theology was marked by the emergence of pantheism. The teachings of Ibn Rushd laid the foundation for the emergence of pantheistic ideas in Italy. The environment was represented as a single animate organism, and the human body was a living particle, which was characterized by certain mental properties. This concept served as the beginning of the idea that human behavior is subject to the universal laws of nature, which is a huge mechanism, but not an organic body.

Pietro Pomponazzi rejected Ibn Rushd's amendment to the interpretation of the Aristotelian doctrine of the soul. Bernardino Telesio believed that knowledge is based on the fact that the subtle matter of the soul captures and reproduces external influences.

One of the greatest ideologues of the Renaissance was Leonardo da Vinci. He conducted anatomical and physiological studies that were aimed at determining the structure of the "four universal human states": joy, strife, crying and physical (labor) effort.

His treatise "On Painting" contains provisions that modern psychophysiologists could not reject. Of great importance were the anatomical experiments of the Belgian scientist Andreas Vesalius, who believed that the "animal spirits" located in the ventricles of the brain are the carriers of the mental. He wrote the book "On the structure of the human body."

12. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE AGE OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

The emergence of the beginnings of capitalism in certain cities of the European Mediterranean took place in the 1th-XNUMXth centuries. During this period of time, the process of liberation of the individual from the fetters of feudalism was going on. This was accompanied by a fierce struggle with the ecclesiastical theological vision of the soul. The nature of any teaching was determined by the attitude towards this concept.

The first to fight against theology was pantheism, which led to the transition to explaining the universe from a materialistic point of view. New ideas arose, reflecting the unity of man and nature, directed against hierarchization, dualism and Christian theology. These ideas gave rise to a new form of teaching, which is that the cosmos is compared with a deity, and man with the cosmos.

The pantheistic ideas and teachings of Ibn Rushd were the first to penetrate into Italy. The University of Padua was under the patronage of Venice, which at that time was actively fighting the Roman Church. She actively supported everything that could undermine the ideological stronghold of the Pope. The Neoplatonists, who had an academy in Florence, argued with the Averoists of the University of Padua. But soon the Neoplatonists began to be attacked from the other side. Pietro Pomponazzi's treatise, entitled "On the Immortality of the Soul", laid the foundation for these attacks.

The treatise of P. Pomponazzi contributed to the emergence of a new movement of the Alexandrists, in which anti-clerical motives sounded even more decisively. The Avveroists, and the Alexandrians in general, played a huge role in the emergence of a new ideological atmosphere.

The fragile natural scientific thoughts of the Renaissance could not develop their own generalizing structures. The views of the ideologists coincided with the concept of the thinkers of the ancient world, borrowing their aspirations for empiricism, for sensory knowledge of reality. Bernardino Telesio led the new empiricist-naturalist movement.

B. Telesio became the developer of the theory of affects, which marked the beginning of the subsequent formation of materialistic views.

One of the outstanding scientists of the Renaissance was Leonardo da Vinci, who embodied in his writings a new version of the relationship to reality, characterized by a synthesis of sensory contemplation, theoretical reflection and practical action.

Leonardo da Vinci, using a scalpel, tried to penetrate the essence of human behavior. He explored the structure of the "four general human states": crying, joy, strife, and physical (labor) effort.

Leonardo da Vinci, being a fundamentally new type of researcher, conducted anatomical experiments, trying to study biomechanics, that is, the structure and operation of all motor functions and body systems.

13. EMPIRICAL DIRECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY IN SPAIN

By the beginning of the XVI century. in Spain, an economic upswing began, which was associated with the conquest of new colonies and the emergence of capitalist relations. The changes that took place were reflected in the public consciousness and natural science ideas. One of the first in modern times who opposed empirical knowledge to metaphysical teachings about the origin of the soul was Juan Luis Vives (1492-1540). In his book "On the Soul and Life" (1538), he reflected an innovative idea for his time that the inductive method allows you to acquire knowledge about people that could be used to improve their nature. In 1575 the physician Juan Huarte (1529-1592) wrote a book which he called "An Inquiry into the Abilities of the Sciences". This book became famous all over Europe.

H. Huarte wrote that the Spanish Empire was waiting for an unprecedented increase in power, subject to the correct use of the gifts of people given to them by nature. This work was the first in the history of psychology, which set itself the task of studying the individual abilities of a person for the purpose of professional selection. Therefore, H. Huarte became the initiator of the direction, which was later called differential psychology.

In his research, he set himself four tasks:

1) to study the types of talents available in the human race;

2) to study the signs by which one can find out whether an individual has a corresponding talent;

3) to study the qualities possessed by nature, which makes a person capable of one science, but not capable of another;

4) determine the arts and sciences corresponding to each talent separately. Huarte considered imagination (fantasy), intellect and memory to be the main talents. He analyzed the various sciences and arts, giving them an assessment in terms of which of the above abilities they require. Nature, upbringing, individual and age differences and work play an important role in the formation of a particular ability.

H. Uarte sought to ensure that this professional selection was carried out on a national scale.

Another prominent Spanish thinker of the XVI century. the physician Gomez Pereira (1500-1560) spent 20 years working on a book called "Antoniana Margherita" (1554). The main conclusion of this book was the denial of the existence of a sentient soul in animals. This was the first publication in which animals were presented as "apsychic" beings. The thinker G. Pereira believed that animals do not see, hear or feel anything at all. Their behavior is influenced by signs, not sensory images.

Significant changes also occurred in medicine and anatomy. The concept of Claudius Galen was overthrown shortly after the appearance of the works of A. Vesalius (1514-1564) "On the structure of the human body."

14. THE DOCTRINE OF THE REFLEX

To the famous discoveries of the XVII century. includes the discovery of the reflex nature of behavior.

The term "reflex" appeared in the physics of R. Descartes. This concept meant the end of the mechanistic picture of the world and contained the behavior of living beings. The concept of R. Descartes was formed at a time when the analysis of the body and its functions made a real revolution in anatomical and physiological research. A crushing blow to medieval biology, which believed that "essences" and "forms" are the fundamental factors of phenomena, was dealt by William Harvey's discovery of the mechanism of blood circulation. A similar breakthrough was made by R. Descartes' discovery of the reflex nature of behavior, which can be called the product of the same attitude and the same ideological spirit.

R. Descartes started from the fact that the interaction of organisms with surrounding bodies can be explained by a nervous machine, consisting of the brain as a center and nerve “tubes” spreading out in radii from it. The absence of any precise information about the nature of the nervous process forced R. Descartes to depict it on the model of the circulatory process, the knowledge of which acquired reliable reference points through experimental study. Although R. Descartes does not have the concept of “reflex,” the main outlines of this term are outlined quite clearly.

The emergence of the concept of a reflex is the result of the introduction into psychophysiology of schemes that have been formed under the influence of the views of optics and mechanics. The extension of physical categories to the dynamism of the organism made it possible to comprehend it deterministically, to withdraw it from the motivated influence of the soul as a special entity.

In accordance with the Cartesian model, external objects act on the peripheral endings of the nerve "threads" located inside the neural "tubes". The latter, stretching, open the valves of the openings leading from the brain to the nerves, through the channels of which the "animal spirits" are sent to the proper muscles, which are eventually "inflated". Tracing the path that animal spirits travel along the nerves from receptors to the brain, then to the muscles, R. Descartes created an image of a reflex arc.

Centuries later, the hypothesis that the relationship of muscle reactions with the sensations that provoke them can be modified, transformed, and thereby give the behavior the desired course, will be the basis of David Hartley's materialistic associative psychology.

The German physician and chemist G. E. Shtil (1660-1734) opposed the reflex principle. He argued that there is only a visible identity between life processes and the facts of physics and chemistry, and that not a single organic function is realized mechanically, but everything is verified by the experiencing soul.

15. SENSORY-ASSOCIATIVE PROCESSES

In the XNUMXth century following G. Galileo, for the doctrine of two categories of qualities - primary (objective) and secondary (not inherent in objects as such, but appearing when they act on an organ) - R. Descartes, T. Hobbes, D. Locke actively advocate. It was a prerequisite for the concept of feelings (perceptions), called "causal".

The strength of this concept was the collapse of the dominant doctrine in scholasticism about "spices", "types", "forms" of objects mysteriously perceived by the sense organ. At present, the scholastic interpretation has been replaced by a general relationship of motive and effect controlled by experiment: sensation (perception) is an effect produced by an external object in a physical mechanism.

In accordance with the concept of T. Hobbes, "the so-called sensible qualities are only various movements of matter", and since "movement produces only movement", nothing appears in the body that it affects, except for the movements of qualityless particles. It follows from this that sensation is something that seems to be. It is illusory in its own individual image, but is real as a process in the body that has an external motive.

The difference between primary and secondary qualities, adopted by G. Galileo, R. Descartes and other scientists, has won considerable fame in Europe, thanks to the work of D. Locke "Experience ..".

The interpretation of a large group of perceived qualities as secondary had as its premise a mechanistic view of the relationship of things to the sense organs. Overcoming the mechanistic view of the ratio, believing that in each monad the existence of the entire Universe is displayed with a different level of clarity and adequacy, G. Leibniz tried to find a solution to the issue of primary and secondary qualities other than what prevailed in his time. And again, the starting point for him was the physical and mathematical interpretation of mental activity.

G. Leibniz was the first to apply the idea of isomorphism in a psychological interpretation, which revealed new prospects for deterministic analysis before modern psychology.

The connection of judgments is of two kinds. At times it is ordered by a goal, but at other times it is not held together by any specific intention.

But neither R. Descartes, nor T. Hobbes, nor B. Spinoza - the real creators of the automatic scheme of association - have yet found an appropriate term for it.

Thus, in accordance with the associative theories of the XVII century. it is not the soul that creates associations, but according to the general laws of mechanics, they are formed into a series of physical phenomena, understood as spiritual ones. But the association has not yet acquired the status of a total category, which it was designated in the middle of the XNUMXth century. In the XNUMXth century it was planned that the behavior regulated by it is not compatible with truly rational.

16. THE DOMINATION OF EMPIRISM AND ASSOCIATISM IN PSYCHOLOGY OF THE XNUMXTH CENTURY

XNUMXth century went down in history by the further strengthening and formation of capitalist relations in progressive countries. An industrial revolution took place, turning England into a powerful state. Deep economic transformations led to a political revolution in France.

The feudal foundations in Germany began to loosen. Socio-economic shifts and the inconsistency of the political situation gave rise to ideological forms that opposed theological ideology.

As a result of the struggle against it, a large-scale movement, which acquired the name "enlightenment", increased. It was directed against everything that hindered the growth of science and scientific understanding of the world.

The concept of "natural man", which was formed in the XNUMXth century, was consolidated. Sensationalism and empiricism become directions that appeared as a counterbalance to rationalism and apriorism. It was in this spirit that the psychological idea of the century was formed.

She borrowed the standards for her deterministic models from the methodology of Newtonian mechanics. The association is transformed into a universal category, interpreting all mental activity, by the English physician D. Hartley (1705-1757). D. Hartley was a pioneer in the study of the role of communicative reactions in the organization of volitional control and the formation of metaphysical thinking.

The word "psychology" became well-known in Europe as a result of A. Wolf's publications "Empirical Psychology" and "Rational Psychology".

He, having outlined with great pedantry the various classes of mental phenomena, divided them into hierarchically placed groups. An unusual "anatomical theater of the human soul" appeared: for each group, a corresponding ability was assigned as its motive and foundation. The doctrine of the reflex structure of behavior was enriched with a number of new concepts: the idea of the biological purpose of this structure, its suitability for considering all degrees of mental activity, and the determining influence of feeling.

The physics of I. Newton and the physiology of E. Geller determined the natural-scientific appearance of the XNUMXth century. In the XVIII century. the psychophysical problem becomes psychophysiological, that is, it is limited to the connection of mental processes with nervous ones. The idea that physical functions, influencing mental ones, in turn depend on them, acquired a socio-political meaning, since mental life itself was perceived from the point of view of its social determination. The idea of a person as a point of intersection of two series of determinations interfered with the implementation of the principle of psychophysical monism, for which progressive French philosophers fought in their philosophical theory.

17. PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES

Fragmentation of Germany in the XVIII century. hindered the formation of capitalist relations. This led to the compromise nature of the progressive psychological doctrines for that time, which were determined on German soil. The most famous among them was the "psychology of abilities" of the scientist-encyclopedist A. Wolf (1679-1754).

A. Wolff opposed the philosophy of common sense to the dominant in the intellectual life of Germany, scholasticism and mysticism. He owes considerable merit in the development of German psychological terminology, which replaced the old, Latin. The very word "psychology" became well-known in Europe after the publication of A. Wolf's books "Empirical Psychology" (1732) and "Rational Psychology" (1734).

The first was a description of facts, observations of phenomena. Expedient psychology was given the task of deductively inferring phenomena from the essence and nature of the soul.

The concept of ability was put forward as an explanatory basis. The idea of spontaneous activity of the soul rallied with him. The main power was considered the ability of representation, acting in the form of knowledge and desire. A. Wolf, who considered himself a successor to the ideas of G. W. Leibniz, tried to eliminate mystical tendencies from his monadology. Having outlined various groups of mental phenomena, he classified them according to a hierarchical principle. But together with them he eliminated metaphysics. According to A. Wolf, there is only a single monad - the soul, and the position of parallelism is applicable only to its relationship with a living organism. The psychophysical question was transformed by A. Wolf into a psychophysiological one.

After some time, the Wolffian doctrine was subjected to crushing criticism by S. Herbert. The idea of mental motivation was transferred from G. W. Leibniz through A. Wolf and S. Herbert to W. Wundt.

Another variation of the psychology of abilities was proposed by the Scottish school. The founder of the school, Thomas Reed (1710-1796), followed in his description of the mental activity of the concept of "common sense" of the English bourgeoisie.

According to this concept, any person is born with a reserve of views and truths that allow him to independently recognize the beautiful and the ugly, the positive and the negative. Based on the theory of the instincts of human nature, T. Reid put forward the thesis that any sensory process forces us to recognize the life of an external object. Sensation is an elementary state that lives only in the brain of the knower.

Perception, in contrast to sensation, embraces the concept of an object and a persistent natural certainty that it lives independently of us. Dugalt Stuart (1753-1828) was a follower of T. Reed, who criticized the teachings of D. Hume and D. Berkeley from the standpoint of the current about "common sense".

18. DEVELOPMENT OF THE DOCTRINE OF NEURO-MENTAL FUNCTIONS

A famous physiologist was the Swiss scientist Albrecht Haller (1708-1777). His work "Fundamentals of Physiology" (1757) is regarded as the dividing line between modern physiology and everything that happened before. From under the deterministic influence of the soul, A. Galler deduced not only purely nervous phenomena, but also an essential part of mental ones. Such phenomena are directly involved in the complex motility of walking, blinking, etc.

A. Galler called the mental elements of these complex dynamics "dark perceptions". Despite provisions proving a compromise with theology, the physiological system of A. Haller was the main link in the formation of materialistic views on neuropsychic phenomena. Explaining these phenomena by the nature of the body itself, and not by factors foreign to it, she supplemented the Cartesian model with new elements. The experiment revealed the characteristic properties of the organism, as real as the other attributes of matter. Haller's "living machine" was, in contrast to Cartesian, the bearer of forces and qualities that machines do not have. Thus, the natural-science prerequisites for a significant shift in the maturation of psychological thought were formed - the transition to understanding the psyche as a property of the formed matter. Not mechanics, but biology became the core of the deterministic consideration of consciousness. This determined the formation of judgments about the reflex on new foundations. If R. Descartes and D. Hartley created this concept on the principles of physics, then the Czech physiologist J. Prochazka (1749-1820), who continued the line of A. Haller, acquired a biological basis. The reflex, according to J. Prochazka, is generated not by an arbitrary external stimulus, but only by one that turns into feeling. Feeling - regardless of whether it turns into a function of consciousness or not - has one general meaning and is called the "compass of life." Developing these lines, Prochazka makes not only feeling, but also more complex types of mental activity, dependent on the task of adapting organisms to the circumstances of life.

In the work "Physiology, or the Doctrine of Man" J. Prochazka argued that the opinion about the reflex should explain the functioning of the nervous system as a whole.

The idea of the inseparable connection of the organism with the external environment was first derived from the principles of a mechanistic worldview.

R. Descartes took as a basis the principle of conservation of momentum, and J. Prochazka - the idea of the universal dependence of the organism on nature. But the beginning of this connection and dependence on it is not the law of conservation of momentum, but the law of self-preservation of a living body, which is fulfilled only under the circumstances of the implementation of selective reactions to environmental influences.

19. MATERIALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY IN FRANCE

The flourishing of materialistic thought in France was prepared by the Newtonian picture of nature and the Lockean picture of consciousness. The propagandists of experimental knowledge and sharp critics of dialectics and scholasticism in France were J. Voltaire and E. B. Condillac.

In his Treatise on Sensations (1754), E. B. Condillac defined the task of uniting reflection and sensation. He proposed a scheme for a statue that, at first, has nothing but a pure ability to comprehend feelings. The statue of E. B. Condillac differed from the "animal machine" of R. Descartes in that her body was independent of her mental functions. The sensationalism of E. B. Condillac had a phenomenal character.

The French physician J. O. La Mettrie combined sensationalism with Descartes' teaching about the machine-like behavior of living bodies. He believed that R. Descartes' differentiation of two substances acted as a “stylistic trick” invented to deceive theologians. The soul actually exists, but it cannot be separated from the body. Since the body is a machine, then the person as a whole with all his internal abilities is only a feeling, thinking and pleasure-seeking machine. The word “machine” meant a materially determined system.

By the middle of the 1745th century. neuromuscular physiology argued for the involvement of primitive mental phenomena in the general mechanics of the body, and prepared the inclusion in this mechanics of higher forms of mental activity that arise from simple ones. A student of the “Jansenist school” J. O. La Mettrie becomes an atheist. In XNUMX, he published “The Natural History of the Soul,” in which he argued that the physical identity between humans and animals indicates the unity of their mental activity. The ability to feel was interpreted by J. O. La Mettrie as a function of the physical body. Matter is capable of thinking due to its organization. The idea of the dependence of the psyche on the organization was accepted by all French materialists (T. Robins, D. Diderot) and came to recognize the eternal existence of impressionability.

The theory of "natural man" gave extreme urgency to the question of the relationship between the natural characteristics of the individual and external conditions. J. J. Rousseau believed that a person is naturally kind-hearted, but he was spiritually crippled by modern culture. K. Helvetius defended the position that the intellectual and moral qualities of a person are formed by the conditions of his life. Unlike J. J. Rousseau, he confirmed the irrefutable advantage of culture and social education.

The concept of the diverse degrees of unification of the organs of the “human machine” was formed by P. Kabanis. He believed that consciousness is not a spiritual principle of a substantial or exclusive nature concentrated in the brain, but a function of this physical organ, not inferior in level of reality and physiology to other functions of the body.

20. THE ORIGIN OF THE MATERIALIST TREND IN RUSSIAN PSYCHOLOGY

The economic and cultural rise of Russia after the reforms of Peter I contributed to the development of progressive socio-philosophical and scientific thought.

Russia is nominating one of the well-known natural scientists - M. V. Lomonosov, who advocated a natural-scientific approach to the human psyche. A. N. Radishchev writes a treatise "On Man, His Mortality and Immortality". The treatise included two parts. In the two initial books, the doctrine was formed that all internal phenomena "are truly the properties of a sentient and thinking substance." In other books, arguments were made in favor of the immortality of the soul.

Determining the place of mental phenomena in the universe, A. N. Radishchev took as a basis the principles of materialistic monism and determinism. A. N. Radishchev believed that mental phenomena occur in space, are personified in spatial structures. AN Radishchev thought about the "incalculable materiality of diversity", about the "single ladder", in which many forces and properties are recognized.

The view of actuality, sensation and thinking as levels of an integral material “ladder” spoke of the unification of the views of materialistic monism, put forward in the 17th century, with the principle of evolution, approved in the 18th century. Believing that thinking is the “most intrinsic quality” of a person, A. N. Radishchev criticized K. Helvetius for neglecting the qualitative differences between thinking and feeling. He also disagrees with C. Helvetius in his views on the determination of intellectual abilities. Similarly, D. Diderot A. N. Radishchev argued that the development of an individual’s intellectual qualities depends not only on the influence of the environment, but also on the physical organization. Like D. Diderot, he divided the intellectual development of the people as a whole and the individual. The first is determined by different conditions than the second.

The fact that his disagreement with K. Helvetius in the interpretation of mental abilities coincides with the views of D. Diderot on these issues, A.N. Radishchev could not know, since D. Diderot, in order not to provide weapons to ideological antagonists, did not publish his critical remarks about the books of K. Helvetius "On the Mind" and "On the Man". The coincidences in the opinions of A. N. Radishchev and D. Diderot speak of a single logic in the formation of the materialistic idea. G. V. Plekhanov noticed that A. N. Radishchev was looking for the key to the psychology of people in the circumstances of their social life. At the same time, it was not about the psychology of an individual subject in its dependence on social causes, but about the psychology of large groups of people - social psychology.

From the peculiarities of human nervous activity it follows that he is an "imitative creation." Imitation is done "automatically". Acts based on imitation are of a different type than those governed by reasoning. Imitation was used by many rulers to "manage a large crowd."

21. PROGRESSIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTS IN THE USA

In the second half of the XVIII century. began the struggle of the American colonies against the subordination of England. This determined the main shifts in the ideological life of the country.

1. A strong educational movement rises with its apology for the innate rights of people and the "light of reason".

The philosophical concepts of B. Johnson (1696-1772) and B. T. Edward (1703-1758) that defended religious knowledge are contrasted with teachings of a different kind.

They were distinguished by the understanding of man as a natural being, whose psyche has an earthly genesis and is subject to the uniform laws of the material world. The natural-science aspiration is inherent in the works of B. Franklin, T. Payne, T. Jefferson, B. Rush and others.

2. Views of the American doctor B. Rush. He was an enterprising member of the revolutionary army, one of those who signed the US Declaration of Independence, the initiator of many economic and educational ideas of the young bourgeois state, is considered the "father" of American psychiatry.

The most significant from the point of view of scientific psychology is his work "On the influence of physical causes on the moral ability of man." The deterministic aspiration of the teachings of B. Rush found its expression in his interpretation of thinking and will. He emphasized that the process of thinking occurs with a natural necessity inherent in all other functions, suggesting that whoever doubts this, try to delay the operations of the mind at will. This will do no more than delay the work of the heart or the movement of the planets. As for the will, it is just as impossible without argument as seeing without light or hearing without sound.

On the one hand, B. Rush provided evidence of the primacy of physical causes in relation to internal processes and properties, on the other hand, the opposite effect of mental states on physical ones. In other words, he stood up for psychophysical interaction. Under the inseparable connection of mental and material processes, they meant their influence on each other, and not parallelism. B. Rush, as a doctor, made this idea the starting point for psychotherapy. But despite this, it had political meaning for him. The will of the subject in the liberal mode of manifestation was regarded by him as a factor that favors (with the help of the soul) the material well-being of the organism. Philosophical difficulties involved in the issue of interaction, B. Rasha cared little. It was important for him to reduce the general interpretation of mental phenomena with current socio-political tasks. Psychophysical interaction in the interpretation of B. Rush meant a binary dependence: physical causes affect the moral ability of the soul, and the well-being of the body depends on this. Religious ideas were considered the central factor in the beneficial effects of the soul on physical health.

22. THE ORIGIN OF THE IDEA OF THE CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL LAWS OF THE SPIRITUAL LIFE OF PEOPLE

During the period of rising capitalism, its representatives considered society to be a product of the interests and needs of certain subjects (N. Machiavelli, D. Locke, etc.).

In the 18th century the sprouts of historicism are emerging. The life of society begins to be understood in the form of a natural, but no longer automatic, ahistorical process. Hereditary factors are presented as primary in relation to the activity of the subject. Although they could not be subjected to historical-materialistic consideration, their search was important for the progress of not only sociological, but also psychological thought.

The Italian philosopher D. Vico (1668-1744) in his work "Foundations of a new science about the general nature of things" suggested that any society gradually passes through three epochs: gods, heroes and people. Despite the utopian nature of this picture, the approach to social phenomena from the standpoint of their natural development was innovative. It was believed that this evolution is due to its own internal causes, and not because of a game of chance or the predictions of an idol. In particular, he combined the emergence of metaphysical thinking with the formation of trade and political life.

The views of D. Vico include the idea of a supra-subjective inner strength inherent in the people as a whole and constituting the fundamental principle of culture and history. In place of the worship of an individual, the veneration of the national spirit was put. Arguing the priority of the historically formed internal forces of society in relation to the activity of an individual, D. Vico discovered a different aspect in the matter of determining the mental.

A number of French and German enlighteners of the XVIII century. placed this aspect at the forefront. The French educator C. Montesquieu (1689-1755) came up with the work "On the Spirit of the Laws", which became banned. In it, contrary to the doctrine of divine providence, it was argued that people are governed by laws that depend on the circumstances of the life of society, primarily geographical conditions.

Another well-known French thinker, J. A. Condorcet (1743-1794), in his "Sketch of a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind" (1794), presented historical formation in the form of endless progress, determined both by external nature and by the interaction of people.

In Germany, the educator Johann Herder (1744-1803), defending in his four-volume work "Ideas in the Philosophy of the History of Mankind" the idea that social phenomena change naturally, explained these modifications as necessary steps in the general development of folk life. Spiritual activity, which distinguishes man from animals, is found, according to I. Herder, directly in the language. In his work On the Origin of Language, he sought to form a historical view of linguistic creativity and connect it with the psychology of thinking.

23. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY

At the beginning of the XIX century. gradually began to form new approaches to the psyche. Now it was not so much mechanics as physiology that contributed to the development of psychological knowledge. Having the natural body as its object, physiology modified it into the subject of scientific research. At the main stages, the leading position of physiology was the "anatomical beginning". Functions were studied from the point of view of their subordination to the structure of the organ, its anatomy. Physiology conveyed the metaphysical views of an ancient era in the language of experience.

The English neurologist C. Bell, the French physiologist F. Magendie, the American psychologist G.-S. Hall and the German physiologist F. Müller formed a reflex direction. The successful development of psychophysiology was associated with the use of the method of observing oneself (introspection). The works of Hermann Ludwig Helmholtz "The doctrine of auditory sensations" and "Physiological optics" are the basis of modern physiology of the sense organs.

The idea that mental phenomena depend on some established regularity, which is understandable to scientific research and can be revealed mathematically, was stated in the current called "psychophysics", the founder of which was the German physiologist Gustav Fechner (1801-1887). Another physiologist Max Weber (1795-1879) experimentally proved a mathematically expressable correlation between physical impulses and sensory reactions. The patterns identified by G. Fechner and M. Weber truly described the relationship between mental and physical phenomena.

According to its own experimental texture, the reflex model of R. Descartes became plausible due to the fact that the differences between the tactile (sensory) and motor (motor) nerve pathways leading to the spinal cord were shown. This discovery was demonstrated to doctors and naturalists by I. Prohazka, F. Magendie and C. Bell. It made it possible to interpret the mechanism of nerve communication with the help of the so-called reflex arc, the electrification of one shoulder of which naturally and inevitably activates the other shoulder, causing a muscular reaction. Along with the theoretical (for physiology) and practical (for medicine), this discovery played an important methodological role. With the help of an experimental method, it substantiated the subordination of the body's functions related to its behavior in the environment to a physical substrate, and not to reason (or soul) as a special incorporeal substance.

The Austrian anatomist F. Gall (1758-1829) proposed an original "map of the brain", according to which various abilities are "located" in certain areas of the brain.

24. REFLECTOR LEARNING

Reflexes (from Latin reflexus - "turned back, reflected") are the reactions of the body excited by the central nervous system when the receptors are irritated by agents of the internal or external environment; are found in the emergence or transformation of the functional activity of organs and the whole organism.

The concept of “reflex” was first put forward by the French philosopher R. Descartes. Even in the period of ancient medicine, the differentiation of human motor actions into “voluntary”, causing the participation of consciousness in their implementation, and “involuntary”, realized without the participation of consciousness, was revealed. R. Descartes' teaching about the reflex principle of nervous activity is based on knowledge about the structure of involuntary movements. The entire process of a nervous act, characterized by automatism and involuntariness, consists of exciting the tactile apparatus, carrying out their effects along the peripheral nerves to the brain and from the brain to the muscles.

The most important contribution to the doctrine of the reflex and the reflex apparatus was made by C. Bell and F. Magendie. They found that all tactile (afferent) fibers enter the spinal cord as part of the posterior roots, while efferent (motor) fibers leave the spinal cord as part of the anterior roots. This discovery allowed the English physician and physiologist M. Hall to argue a clear opinion about the reflex arc and widely apply the doctrine of the reflex and the reflex arc in the clinic.

By the second half of the XIX century. knowledge about the common elements in the structures of both reflex (involuntary) and voluntary movements, which are attributed to the results of the mental activity of the brain and opposed to reflex ones, is expanding.

I. M. Sechenov in his work "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863) argued that "all acts of conscious and unconscious life are reflexes according to the mode of origin."

He argued the idea of the universal significance of the reflex principle in the activity of the spinal cord and brain for both involuntary, automatic and voluntary movements associated with the participation of consciousness and mental activity of the brain. The scientific works of Ch. Sherrington, N. E. Vvedensky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, I. S. Beritashvili proved the judgment on the coordination and unification of reflex reactions of certain arcs in the functional activity of organs based on the interaction of excitation and inhibition in reflex centers. The study of the histological organization of the nervous system plays an important role in elucidating the mechanisms of reflex activity.

The Spanish histologist S. Ramon y Cajal scientifically proved that the neuron is a structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

25. TEACHER OF THE SENSORS

The initial true knowledge about the structure and functioning of the sense organs began to emerge already in the Middle Ages (the works of the Arab scientists Alhazen and Avicenna). Algazen experimentally proved that the eye is the most accurate optical device that operates according to the laws of reflection and refraction of light.

Avicenna followed a similar view, comprehending the laws of combining colors with the help of a special spinning disk (work in the same direction was also carried out by the English scientist F. Bacon in the XNUMXth century).

The subsequent development of vision issues was associated with the names of famous physicists I. Kepler, R. Descartes, R. Hooke, I. Newton, M. V. Lomonosov.

They defined a number of theses regarding the optical properties of the eye, the lens and the retina, the mechanisms of accommodation and binocular vision, the role of the eye muscles in the perception of objects, the impact of objective conditions of perception (angle of vision, illumination, etc.) on the nature of the vision of external objects, and the features of color vision. In the XVIII century. many experiments were carried out in the field to establish a blind spot, visual acuity, discrimination thresholds, and the duration of a consistent image.

Views on the problems of color vision were developed in the first theories of color vision (T. Jung, M. V. Lomonosov), by the appearance in the press of the English chemist D. Dalton, who described the defects! of his vision - red-green blindness. In comparison with vision, there was much less scientific knowledge about the structure and functioning of the auditory apparatus and very little about other sense organs - touch, smell, taste sensitivity.

In the field of physiology of vision and hearing, a great contribution was made by I. Müller.

An important place in his study was occupied by issues of binocular vision, light and color adaptations, color combinations, sequential images, convergence and accommodation mechanisms, contrast phenomena, etc.

In the field of hearing, I. Müller concentrated his main attention on the study of the structure and functions of the outer, middle and inner ear. Thus, he found that the perception of high and low tones depends on the various tension of the auditory membrane.

As for feelings, he came to the following conclusion: their quality is determined not by the nature of the external stimulus, but by the properties of the nerves or the sense organs themselves.

The leading role in the progress of knowledge in the field of touch was played by the studies of E. Weber, who in 1834 published the work "On Touch". He revealed that touch is a synthetic and sensitive "organ", which includes temperature, muscle, pain sensitivity, as well as sensations of touch and pressure.

26. STUDY ABOUT THE BRAIN

Already in ancient times, there was a search for a substrate - the carrier of the psyche. The Pythagoreans believed that the soul was located in the brain. Hippocrates considered only the carnal phenomena of the soul to be the heart, and considered the brain to be the organ of the mind. Just like Nemesius, who placed the function of perception in the anterior ventricle of the brain, thinking in the middle, and memory in the posterior, in the Middle Ages Magnus also attributed the mental abilities of the soul to the anterior, and memory to the posterior ventricle of the brain. In modern times, there is a tendency to attribute all mental abilities not to various areas of the brain, but only to one of them. It is known that R. Descartes placed the soul in the pineal gland, and other scientists - in the white matter of the brain or in its corpus callosum. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. F. Gall's phrenological system is particularly famous, according to which each psychological ability corresponds to a specific part of the brain. A so-called “brain map” emerged. F. Gall's mistake was that he sought to automatically impose a system of mental abilities on the morphological structure of the brain. J. Flourens, with the help of a series of experiments, confirmed what was put forward back in the 1th century. A. Haller's hypothesis that the brain is not a collection of independent organs, but a single homogeneous whole that does not have a clearly defined specialization. In 1, P. Brock, based on clinical observations, discovered a speech center in the brain. This discovery was the starting point for Broca that each of the mental functions has a strictly limited place in the brain. To prove this conclusion, a short time after P. Broca’s discovery, “visual memory centers” (A. Bastian, 1861), “writing centers” (Z. Exner, 1869), and “concept centers” ( J. Charcot, 1861), etc. Thanks to the experimental research of A. Fritsch and K. Hitzig in 1887, it was possible to determine the presence of motor centers in the cerebral cortex.

T. Meinert (1867) substantiated that the cortical layer of the brain consists of a large number of cells, each of which is the carrier of its own mental function.

It became possible to cope with such errors only after the works of Russian scientists I. M. Sechenov, V. M. Bekhterev and I. P. Pavlov, who proved that the brain is an organ of the psyche. In the middle of the XX century. underwent brain surgery.

Attention has increased to the question of the functional asymmetry of the human cerebral hemispheres, the insufficiency of morphological data and the need to supplement them, in particular with psychological analysis, were comprehended (R. Sperry, S. Springer, G. Deutsch). Analyzes prove that both hemispheres make an important contribution to the organization of behavior, but each hemisphere implements specialized functions.

27. PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES ABOUT MENTAL ACTIVITY IN THE MIDDLE OF THE XIX CENTURY

In the middle of the XIX century. significant philosophical currents are born on the basis of the experience accumulated by predecessors and existing philosophical theories.

Idealism. Representatives of this trend recognized consciousness, spirit as primary, and being, matter as secondary.

Key messages:

1) the world is the personification of a perfect idea, the world spirit;

2) only human consciousness is truly, and the physical world lives only in it: in sensations, concepts, ideas;

3) denial of the possibility of comprehending the laws of nature, objective truth. Idealism is formed on the opinions of German idealist philosophers of the late XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries. - I. Kant, J. G. Fichte, G. Hegel. They established two main varieties of idealism - individual (subjective) and objective.

Subjective idealism (J. Berkeley) does not recognize the objective life of the external world, recognizing only the reality of feelings and judgments, the concrete personal consciousness of a person.

Objective idealism (G. Hegel) is based on the thesis that at the beginning of everything that exists lie autonomous spirit and idea from matter and consciousness.

Irrationalism and voluntarism are philosophical and idealistic movements that deny the rationality of cognition of natural phenomena by reason, which in the first case was interpreted by the dependence of human consciousness and activity on natural phenomena, and in the second by the dominance of the will over the intellect (F. Nietzsche and others).

Rationalism. Formed on the predominance of the rational principle as an objective measure of comprehension of reality. Thinking abilities are a true reflection of natural patterns in subjective and social activity. This is the view of general expediency, followed by the followers of B. Spinoza, R. Descartes, who in turn contributed to scholasticism and metaphysics.

Materialism. It proceeds from the position that the world is material and objective, regardless of consciousness. The latter is secondary and derived from the material substance - its carrier. Therefore, materialists relied on data from research in the field of natural science. These were the works of I. M. Sechenov and C. Darwin, starting with the provisions of the Russian revolutionary democrats.

Marxist philosophy was formed in the middle of the XNUMXth century. K. Marx and F. Engels. Marxists followed the postulates of the unity of natural and social phenomena.

The classics of Marxism formed the following types of materialistic doctrine: dialectical materialism, philosophical materialism and historical materialism, which include provisions on the laws of evolution of nature and society.

28. POSITIVISM

Positivism (from the Latin positivus - “positive”) is a paradigmatic epistemological-methodological position, according to which positive knowledge can be acquired as a result of purely scientific (not philosophical) knowledge; The program-scientist pathos of positivism consists in the renunciation of philosophy as a cognitive activity, which has integrating and predictive capabilities in the context of the formation of concrete scientific knowledge.

In the first half of the XIX century. systems are being born, designed to neutralize the stubborn tendency of natural scientists to materialistically comprehend the discoveries of natural science. The most significant among them was the philosophy of positivism, which declared the fundamental unknowability of the essence and causes of phenomena, called on scientific thinking to confine itself to only observable facts and their stable dependencies.

The first program of positivism was formulated by O. Comte (1718-1857) in the "Course of Positive Philosophy" in six volumes.

O. Comte created a new classification of sciences, in which there was no psychology at all. Mental phenomena as a subject of positive study were divided into two disciplines - physiology and sociology. O. Comte criticized the individual, introspective method.

O. Comte's idea of the spiritual world will be the object of scientific analysis only when the fruitless soil of introspective study is forgotten. Formulating the true need of psychology to overcome subjectivism, he saw the concrete realization of his idea in observing the operations of consciousness on the realities of social life accessible to objective depiction. Consciousness appears in such interaction. The social organism forms the objective core of the facts of consciousness.

Depicting society as an organism, and the family as its smallest cell, O. Comte transferred a model borrowed from biology to the field of social science. In the 1830s, when his “positive philosophy” was being formed, biology had not yet become evolutionary. Therefore, in order to interpret the evolution of society, he was forced, in search of the driving force of this formation, to go beyond the boundaries of biological correspondences and head towards the main explanatory category of idealism - reason. The mind goes through three stages of development: theological, metaphysical and positive. These stages are natural both for each individual and for humanity as a whole.

Taking the process of communication as a starting point, he analyzed the dynamics of the individual's consciousness as a derivative of the objective forms of his interaction with other people. O. Comte did not see that human relations are formed in the process of labor, but in itself the allocation of communication to the characteristic determinant of the mental was his essential merit.

Later, under the influence of O. Comte, social psychology was created.

29. IRRATIONALISM AND VOLUNTARISM

Irrationalism is an idealistic trend in philosophy that opposes scientific and logical methods of comprehending the laws of the formation of nature and social development with extralogical ("superreasonable") methods.

Unlike rationalism - a trend in the theory of comprehension, formed on the predominance of reason, thinking as a criterion of truth (B. Spinoza, R. Descartes, G. Leibniz, etc.), - irrationalism accepted the patterns of thinking, removal from accepted norms and rules of behavior, the dependence of the conditions of human activity on the impact of natural forces as the causes of certain human manifestations that are not amenable to rational explanation.

The followers of the idealistic philosophical trend (subjective and objective idealism) accepted irrationalism regardless of the consciousness of the existence of matter. Leaning towards religious views, they considered it impossible to expediently comprehend the phenomena of nature.

Voluntarism is an idealistic trend that interprets the importance of the will as a supernatural principle. In idealistic psychology, voluntarism is a theory of the dominance of volitional processes over the mind, where the first is given the leading role in mental life, and the second - the second, dependent value.

Materialistic principles are based on the fact that the will manifests itself in the intentional actions and deeds of a person related to overcoming external or internal obstacles on the way to the intended goals.

The most famous representatives of voluntarism.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) - German idealist philosopher who rejected scientific comprehension and historical progress. Voluntarism and "hyperbolization of the subject" became one of the sources of the emergence of the worldview of fascism in Germany.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) - German philosopher, irrationalist and voluntarist. He was also the ideological predecessor of fascism, preaching the cult of a "strong personality" (superman).

Wilhelm M. Wundt (1832-1920) - German psychologist and idealist philosopher, founder of the scientific trend in the study of psychology. He was the first to introduce experience into physiological and psychological practice, opened an experimental psychological laboratory.

Will in voluntarism is inseparable from its free self-expression. The leading position here is the absolutization of free will, despite certain manifestations of external situations.

As a philosophical trend, voluntarism is alien to the views of its other two central "opponents": fatalism, which does not consider the independence of choice in human behavior and activity, based on the predestination of everything that exists, and Marxist materialism, which did not deny both of these directions.

30. VULGAR MATERIALISM

Vulgar materialism is a philosophical doctrine of the XNUMXth century, created on the basis of simpler materialistic views in comparison with the activity of the human psyche and its ability to reproduce the surrounding reality.

Main Representatives:

1) Karl Vogt (Vogt) (1817-1895) - German naturalist, dealt with problems in the field of biology and geology. The antagonist of the materialistic ideas of K. Marx, who criticized his judgments in the pamphlet "Mr. Vogt" in 860;

2) Ludwig Büchner (1824-1899) - a German physiologist, an adherent of natural science ideas, social Darwinism - a trend in sociology that applies the scientific achievements of Charles Darwin, formed on the transfer of the position of the struggle for existence from the animal and plant worlds to the laws of the historical evolution of society (war , class struggle, nationalism, etc.);

3) Jacob Moleschott (1822-1893) - Dutch philosopher and physiologist. He is an adherent of the natural-scientific way of comprehending the surrounding reality. His views were sharply criticized by representatives of Marxism.

The opposite of the philosophy of vulgar materialism was the formation in the 1840s. K. Marx and F. Engels of metaphysical, philosophical and historical materialistic teachings.

Differences between Marxist materialism and vulgar materialism: a revolutionary rather than a reformist approach to the process of increasing information about the real world. Criticism of dialectical views had an impact on natural phenomena in their interconnections and interactions, as well as on the laws of activity of a person's mental reflection of the environment and social formation as a whole. The starting point was a metaphysical way of comprehending the world in the presence of the need for its revolutionary reorganization.

Key provisions of this method:

1) the presence of a total connection of phenomena in nature and society;

2) infinity of dynamics and transformations in the physical world;

3) "struggle of opposites" as a foundation for evolutionary development;

4) continuous transition of quantitative modifications to qualitative ones.

Without rejecting the views of natural science in information about the world, the materialism of K. Marx (philosophical doctrine) also proceeds from the materiality of the world, taking into account the laws of the dynamics of matter; existence as an objective reality, living outside and autonomous from consciousness; the primacy of matter as a source of consciousness, feelings and judgments.

Consciousness is a reproduction of matter and being as a whole, in contrast to the natural scientific opinions of vulgar materialists, who combine the activity of mental processes in the central nervous system and their effect on the body to a simplified explanation of this from the point of view of only physiology, chemistry, biology, etc.

31. MATERIALISTIC TEACHING OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONARY DEMOCRATS

From the middle of the XIX century. for Russian scientific and social thought, a materialistic awareness of the nature of mental phenomena was typical. Under the influence of the works of Charles Darwin on the genesis of plant and animal organisms, as well as man, a biological aspiration of ideas about the nature of human consciousness was organized.

The representatives of materialistic views at that time were revolutionary democrats: V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, D. I. Pisarev and others. society. This was the basis for determining in the natural sciences the true justification for their central task - the overthrow of the exploitative regime of tsarist Russia and its replacement by a democratic state.

V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848). Critic, publicist and materialist philosopher. He analyzed the psyche only as a consequence of the functioning of the brain. Being a metaphysician, he believed that the world is in a state of constant natural evolutionary development. He developed the basic principles of revolutionary democratic aesthetics and pedagogy. He determined the importance of education and the role of art in the ontogenetic formation of the personality of each person.

A. and Herzen (1812-1870). He was distant from the adherents of the biological nature of the psyche, noting the social nature of human consciousness. Being also a materialist philosopher, he was a representative of dialectical materialism, but he explained it from a liberal position to social manifestations of human relations.

N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889). Representative of Russian Social Democracy. Developed the problems of philosophy, sociology, ethics, aesthetics, pedagogy, etc. Antagonist of philosophical idealism (I. Kant, D. Hume, G. Hegel, and others). The initial provisions of the scientific ideology believed the physical integrity of the world, its infinite cognizability.

The materialism of N. G. Chernyshevsky contained elements of anthropologism, borrowed from the anthropological approach of L. Feuerbach - a philosophical thesis that explains social life with the needs and properties of the individual as a biological creature. This position is based on the analysis of a person in isolation from social activities, which testified to the idealism of the relationship of social phenomena. A materialist in understanding the nature and theory of knowledge, N. G. Chernyshevsky was an idealist in understanding the history of the social formation of society. He gave scientific justification to the positions of aerialistic aesthetics, defended the principles of critical realism, emphasized the importance of education and training for the process of developing the ideology and worldview of the individual.

32. THE DOCTRINE OF PSYCHE AND CONSCIOUSNESS

The psyche is a reproduction of objective reality, found by the subject in behavior and activity. In a broad sense, it is the totality of all mental phenomena. There are various degrees of psyche inherent in all living organisms: from unicellular (simple) to the most highly organized - man.

All mental phenomena are connected with the activity of the brain - the central nervous system. At the beginning of the XX century. two central sciences of the psyche took shape on the basis of the study of empirical data (practical examinations) - the physiology of higher nervous activity and psychophysiology. The relationship between brain activity and behavioral features was considered by I. M. Sechenov. Subsequent studies of the psyche were continued by IP Pavlov, who formed the theory of conditioned reflex learning. Merit in the study of psychophysiology belongs to a number of domestic (P. K. Anokhin) and foreign (K. Hull) scientists.

N. A. Bernshtein empirically argued that no primitive physical movement is performed without the participation of the psyche. The founder of the psychophysiology of learning is the American scientist K. Hull. He analyzed the innate and acquired mechanisms of regulation of adaptation to the environment and the stability of maintaining a harmonious state within the body itself - the functions of homeostasis (physico-biochemical reactions that regulate the stability of the internal environment: blood pressure, pulse rate and respiratory movements, body temperature, etc.).

The psyche (psyche - "soul", "butterfly") in a narrow interpretation is an individual image of the objective world. In other words, each specific person sees the surrounding reality in his own way, depending on the characteristics of his character. In the mental and physiological sense, any kind of flora and fauna has limits in the degree of mental maturation, which is revealed with the help of elementary responses to external stimuli (the phenomenon of irritability) to complex conscious actions or the application of cognitive processes in animals.

Consciousness is a form of reproduction of objective reality in the human psyche, characterized by the fact that elements of socio-historical practice are put forward as an indirect, intermediate factor, allowing the construction of objective (established) pictures of the world. The starting point of socio-historical practice is a jointly implemented activity. In the subjective formation, some components of the activity are gradually mastered by the child in common activity with adults.

Consciousness includes:

1) the ability to isolate oneself as an individual from the surrounding reality and one's own kind;

2) individualization of knowledge for other people;

3) adequate reflection of reality.

33. NATURAL SCIENTIFIC PREREQUISITES FOR THE TRANSFORMATION OF PSYCHOLOGY INTO AN INDEPENDENT SCIENCE

Natural science is a set of sciences about nature (biology, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology, etc.), which determine the comprehension of its laws through human labor and the application of objective natural laws in the interests of social evolutionary development.

The central question of the pre-scientific period of psychology was the question of the connection of the soul as an independent or dependent principle from matter. For the most part, philosophical thoughts about the soul and about the world were not in the scientific sense the subject of study until the end of the XNUMXth century.

The founder of scientific psychology was the German scientist W. Wundt (1832-1920), who opened the world's first experimental psychological laboratory in Leipzig in 1879.

Following the ideas of associationism, he considered the main task of psychology as a discipline to be the study of such parts of consciousness as feelings, positive and negative physical disturbances for a person, as well as the patterns of relationships between these parts. Wundt's theory was called "the theory of the elements of consciousness." By his study, he determined the introduction to the study of the activity of the central nervous system empirically, based on the natural scientific method of predecessors in the study of the functioning of the psyche.

Previous historical research in natural sciences belongs to the work of M. V. Lomonosov as one of the founders of natural science, whose works became universally known only from the middle of the 19th century. The research he conducted in the fields of chemistry, physics, astronomy and other sciences determined the field of formation of psychology as a science not only of humanitarian, but also of natural science content.

The prerequisites for a scientifically reasoned study of psychology were also:

1) the worldview of Russian revolutionary democrats, which influenced the emergence of scientific approaches (I.M. Sechenov, V. Wundt, M.V. Bekhterev, I.P. Pavlov), experimentally studying the activity of the psyche from physiological points of view;

2) initial efforts to interpret the functioning of the brain;

3) pre-scientific theoretical ideologies on the significance of the role of the interaction of chemical elements in the process of the life of the organism with the prevailing regulation of the rational basis;

4) Ch. Darwin's work on the theory of evolution and survival of species, which was developed in the Marxist trend, which supports materialistic, metaphysical views on the relationship between natural laws and subjective forms of mental reflection.

The beginning for the emergence of a scientific direction in the study of the psyche was a materialistic worldview on the nature and role of the brain as its main carrier of knowledge.

34. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SCHOOL OF PHYSIOLOGY

Physiology turns out to be closely connected with biology, since the object of its study is living organisms, it studies the processes of their vital activity. Due to this, it directly correlates with biochemistry and biophysics.

Physiology (from the Greek. fisis and logos - "the science of nature") explores the mechanisms of vital activity of organs and systems of the body, as well as the physical and chemical processes of its manifestations. Scientists combined the study of the physical principles of mental activity with the activity of the central nervous system, which stabilizes the functions of the body as a whole. Indicators of the course of physiological processes in the body cannot be carried out without the physico-chemical nature of electrical capabilities.

Methods for recording bioelectrical energy have emerged, such as electroencephalography (electroencephalogram - EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), topographic mapping of brain electrical activity (TCEAM), and computed tomography.

The method of studying autonomic reactions is the measurement of the galvanic skin response (GSR). In addition, methods have arisen for studying other organs and systems of the body:

1) EEG. The Austrian psychiatrist H. Berger in 1929 determined the probability of fixing the biocurrents of the brain, which led to the formation of a method for fixing the bioelectric energy of the central nervous system;

2) MEG. The American researcher D. Cohen developed the first measurements of the human electromagnetic field in 1968;

3) TKEAM. The method is designed to increase the effectiveness of the EEG. Allows more differentiated study of the functional states of the brain in its immediate areas, that is, everywhere;

4) computed tomography. A combination of x-ray and computational technology that provides more detailed descriptions of the brain;

5) GSR. Even at the end of the XIX century. the Frenchman K. Feret and the physiologist I.R. Tarkhanov simultaneously recorded possible differences between various parts of the skin surface. The measurement of the sensitivity thresholds of the sensory system was organized by the French scientist P. Bouguer and the German psychophysicists E. Weber and G. Fechner and others.

One of the main points of physiological examinations is still the question of determining the physicochemical beginning of the functioning of the nerve cell. And here the study of chemical processes taking place in cellular structures becomes the dominant component. Academician P. K. Anokhin (1898-1974), the founder of the theory of functional systems of the body, determined that the molecules of the forming brain responsible for eating behavior in the adult body act as chemical regulators. Since the mid 1870s. the central trend in the study of the physiology of behavior is the peptide one. Peptides, not chemical mediators, are the beginning of the neurochemical foundation of all kinds of behavior.

35. DARWINISM

In his work "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection" (1871), Charles Darwin specifically studied the question of man's place in the organic world and found that man originated in the process of evolution from lower animal forms. In another book, "The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals" (1872), Charles Darwin, using evolutionary doctrine, argued the idea of the unity of the genesis of expressive movements that accompany a feeling of fear, hostility, surprise, etc. in animals and humans, discovered their adaptive value. The idea of the adaptive meaning of the psyche appeared in psychology. Also expressed by G. Spencer, it laid the foundation for a new approach to the study of the psyche as the main means of adaptation to the environment.

The theory of evolution has greatly influenced psychology. It asserted the idea of evolution, and the laws of development discovered by Charles Darwin in the organic world set before psychology the task of determining the driving forces of mental maturation and, in particular, in relation to man. The question of comparing the psyche of animals and humans also arose. In the works of Charles Darwin, such problems were first established on a scientific basis, and their development laid the foundation for the formation of new trends and approaches in psychology - animal psychology, child psychology and the psychology of the so-called uncultured peoples.

Ch. Darwin concentrated his attention on confirming the relationship between man and animals. He gave comparative anatomical, embryological evidence of the genesis of man from mammals:

1) relatedness of all organ systems;

2) the presence of rudimentary organs;

3) the presence of atavisms as a manifestation from ancestors;

3) formation from a fertilized egg and the similarity of embryonic development.

Affinity between humans and apes:

1) the presence of higher nervous activity (HNA);

2) manifestation of emotions and feelings;

3) the use of tools;

4) relatedness of medical manifestations: diseases, blood types, etc.;

5) genesis from common ancestors.

C. Darwin, in addition to the development of the animal world, developed the theory of plant evolution. Like animals, plants are influenced by hereditary genetic factors throughout their lives. Only adaptable species are preserved, capable of repeated reproduction.

C. Darwin laid the foundations of the evolutionary doctrine of the genesis and inconstancy of the animal and plant world. As a result of experimental observations, he argued the main principle of life: only those species survive that adapt more easily to their environment, modify their hereditary characteristics in accordance with this and are capable of productive reproduction.

36. DOCTRINE OF REFLECTION

Reflection (from Latin reflecsio - "call back") - a concept that denotes the display, as well as the study of cognitive action. In various philosophical systems, it had a diverse content. J. Locke considered reflection to be the key of special knowledge, when observation rushes to internal acts of consciousness, while sensation has external things as its object. For K. Leibniz, reflection is nothing more than an interest in what is happening in us. According to D. Hume, ideas are reflections on impressions acquired from outside.

For G. Hegel, reflection is a mutual image of one in the other, for example, in the essence of the phenomenon. The term "reflect" means "to concentrate consciousness on oneself, to think about one's mental state."

The main components of the reflective ability, peculiar only to man:

1) self-observation - observation focused on oneself;

2) self-esteem - understanding oneself, one's physical and intellectual potentials, goals and motives of behavior, attitude towards people and the surrounding reality;

3) self-consciousness of oneself as a member of society, a team. An important element is self-knowledge. Many scientists compare reflection with self-awareness, but most researchers draw a parallel with self-knowledge.

The leading role in the study of the reflective ability of a person and its components is assigned to S. L. Rubinshtein, K. K. Platonov, I. S. Kon, as well as their followers. Other ancient and modern philosophers and psychologists also made a great contribution to the study of reflection.

Understanding himself as a personal evolution, a person involuntarily comes to understanding the need for self-education and self-control. Some of his qualities for himself and for society are unacceptable. As a result, for a successful life, it is necessary to realize self-development and correction of certain personality traits.

At the beginning of ontogenesis, consciousness is focused on the external world. Such consciousness can already be designated as reflective. According to V.P. Zinchenko, it contains:

1) meaning - a set of subject-verbal meanings and representations studied in the past experience that make up the content of the collective consciousness;

2) meaning - subjective-personal awareness of what is happening: life circumstances and information coming from outside. Each person in the process of upbringing and training independently adopts certain meanings and concepts, therefore, puts his own meaning into the ongoing phenomena of personal and social life.

Reflection - understanding the personal "I". Therefore, its main function is reflexive, which characterizes the essence of consciousness. Since personality traits are revealed through communication and behavior, a person compares his external manifestations by observing the reaction of those present, correcting personal manifestations and self-esteem.

37. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF THE SENSORS

Sense organs are specialized organic structures located on the body and inside the body, designed for the perception of external information, its processing and storage. They contain:

1) receptors - located on its surface. Designed to perceive stimuli of any nature and reorganize them into nerve impulses;

2) nerve pathways - specialized nerve fibers that conduct the excitation acquired from various receptors to certain parts of the brain and back;

3) departments of the central nervous system (CNS) designed to process incoming information (excitation) for the purpose of a feedback response to a stimulus. The sense organs are otherwise called sensory organs, which are part of the general sensory system for perceiving incoming information.

According to I.P. Pavlov, the sensory system is a part of the nervous system, consisting of a receptor apparatus that perceives internal or external stimuli, conducts nerve pathways and parts of the central nervous system, and transforms the information coming through them from receptors.

Conducting nerve pathways can be divided into:

1) afferent - the passage of nervous excitation from receptors to a specific part of the brain;

2) efferent - the passage of a nerve impulse from the central nervous system to the periphery.

The community of afferent and efferent pathways, including the receptors of a particular sense organ and the information-transforming subcortical and cortical sections of the central nervous system, is called the analyzer.

There are five human senses that establish its connection with the surrounding reality. They are divided into contact (in direct contact with the stimulus) and distant, which react to distant stimuli:

1) contact: taste and touch;

2) distant: sight, hearing and smell. The activity of each of the sense organs

is an elementary mental process - sensation. Sensory information from external stimuli enters the central nervous system in two ways:

1) characteristic sensory pathways:

a) vision - through the retina, lateral geniculate body and superior tubercles of the quadrigemina into the primary and secondary visual cortex;

b) hearing - through the nuclei of the cochlea and the quadrigemina, the medial geniculate body into the primary auditory cortex;

c) taste - through the medulla oblongata and thalamus to the somatosensory cortex;

d) smell - through the olfactory bulb and piriform cortex to the hypothalamus and limbic system;

e) touch - passes through the spinal cord, brain stem and thalamus into the somatosensory cortex;

2) non-specific sensory pathways: pain and temperature sensations located in the nuclei of the thalamus and brain stem.

38. STUDY OF THE REACTION TIME

A reaction is an organism's response to an external or internal stimulus. The reaction time is the time interval from the beginning of the action of the stimulus to the occurrence of the body's response to it.

Physiologists Z. Exner and F. Donders were the first to measure time using the mental components of the reaction. Z. Exner measured elementary mental reactions in stages: first auditory, then visual and skin.

He studied the features of measuring a primitive reaction depending on the age of the subjects, on the saturation of stimuli, the effects of fatigue, the effects of alcohol, etc. It was in the works of Z. Exner that the term "reaction time" arose.

While Z. Exner was studying the determination of the time of nervous excitation in various parts of the reflex arc, another physiologist, F. Donders, moved on to measuring the direct mental component of a single reaction. He determined that the duration of the mental component of the reaction does not exceed 1/10 s; to clarify the result, F. Donders introduced terms such as the act of discrimination and the act of choice, which made it possible to calculate the reaction time more accurately.

There are two ways to study reaction times.

1. Measurement of the time of an elementary mental reaction.

A mental reaction is a primitive sensorimotor reaction to a particular stimulus. The reaction time is formed from:

1) latent (hidden) period;

2) delays in the course of mental processes, depending on the personal characteristics of the subjects. The delay limits for a light stimulus are 180-200 ms, for a sound stimulus - 150-180 ms. Required instruments: a meter for clearly following one after another reactions, a design for supplying light and sound signals.

Conducting research. The subject is located directly in front of the device, holding his finger on the button. Instructions are provided: "When a sound or light signal appears, immediately press the button."

2. Research stages:

1) the atmosphere of complete silence and psycho-physiological rest of the subject;

2) abstraction of the subject through the formation of conscious interference in the performance of sensorimotor reactions.

Each stage of the examination includes the performance by the subjects of 10 sensorimotor reactions - to sound and light stimuli with an interval of 3-5 s. The command is given in advance: "Attention!" The reaction time for each stimulus is recorded. After that, the second series of stimuli is provided, but already in the conditions of creating interference - noises and sounds of various nature. Reaction times are also recorded.

39. PROGRAMS FOR BUILDING PSYCHOLOGY AS AN EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE

Each area of scientific knowledge is experimental and manifests itself in two aspects. Historical. It is divided into two main stages:

1) pre-scientific study of patterns in a particular area;

2) scientific study of the objective laws of natural phenomena with the indispensable use of existing accumulated practical experience, proven on the basis of experimental and other data. Methodical.

It is determined by the choice of certain methods of study, indicating the scientific validity of the proposed assumption. From the point of view of the existing theoretical and practical experiment, psychology is:

1) a set of information about the patterns of mental reflection by the body of situations of external reality and adaptation to them;

2) the base of accumulated practical experience based on a large number of experiments and other data;

3) the range of methods used by practice to study mental activity in each of the areas of psychological knowledge. The historical aspect of formation. Pre-scientific psychology was based on philosophical views, based on the individual experience of inner experiences.

The historical period of the New Age in the study of the nature of the soul dates back to the 17th century. At this time, R. Descartes introduced the concept of dualism as substances of body and soul independent from each other. Their relationship can be experimentally studied in the psychophysical and psychophysiological streams in understanding the activity of the brain. Research efforts in such areas were most effectively undertaken in the 19th century. However, advanced views in natural sciences were based on the philosophical teachings of dualism or monism. Monism as a doctrine of the integral substance of nature was developed by B. Spinoza, as well as the law of associations created through experimental research, introduced as a term by D. Locke.

Scientific psychology in terms of experimental research was introduced by W. Wundt in 1879.

Foreign psychological directions:

1) W. Wundt - study of the structure of consciousness (structuralism);

2) W. James - the theory of "stream of consciousness" (functionalism);

3) Z. Freud - the theory of the unconscious as the basis for the treatment of neuroses (psychoanalysis). Followers - A. Adler and K.-G. Jung;

4) J. Watson - natural science approach to the psyche (behaviorism);

5) M. Wertheimer, K. Koffka, W. Koehler - psychology of form (Gestalt psychology);

6) A. Maslow - hierarchy of needs (humanistic psychology);

7) S. Grof - the study of the psyche in alternating states of consciousness. He is an adherent of the natural science direction in the study of mental activity.

40. PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE OF DIRECT EXPERIENCE

Subjective experience is a set of semantic, conceptual relationships perceived by a person.

Factors influencing the subjective experience of a person:

1) objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. From birth, the child acquires new practical experience, interacting with previously unknown things, reacting to certain phenomena of the surrounding world. Later, as it develops, it receives its own experience of objective activity and response in circumstances similar to those of previous experience;

2) characteristics of education and training. There is a difference between the norms and rules of communication and behavior accepted in a certain society and family ones. The child initially follows family semantic and ideological guidelines, creating his own picture of the world, and only then compares what he perceives with existing patterns in society. On the basis of differences and the emergence of self-consciousness, he makes a personal assessment in favor of certain rules of interaction with adults and peers that are essential for him;

3) individuality of perception. Up to 1,5 years, perception as a cognitive process has not yet been developed. Then it develops subjectively in the process of maturation. It is this psychological factor that determines the personal differences in the characteristics of each person.

Psychology as a science of direct, individual human experience plays a special role in comparison with the border sciences - philosophy, physiology, sociology, medicine, pedagogy, etc. First, it is both theoretical and applied science. Secondly, unlike other sciences, it penetrates into all layers of human life.

Natural science. Agnosticism, which recognized the unsolvability of actual problems (E. Dubois-Reymond), as well as conditionalism (Fervory), which rejected the causal interpretation of phenomena, could not interpret individual experience from a materialistic, practical position.

The modern views of psychology on obtaining subjective experience are as follows:

1) the basis for obtaining individual experience in the process of life is: attitudes acquired at the early stages of ontogenesis, features of education, subjective features of the personality (temperament, character, abilities), cognitive area;

2) a set of certain life phenomena in which a person finds himself as a result of ontogenesis and in what ways he resolves them;

3) his self-consciousness and self-esteem, picture of the world, comprehension of his personal view of what is happening;

4) application of previous experience: patterns of behavior, modified attitudes, value orientations, manners, knowledge, skills and abilities, including false memory (belief in non-existent circumstances invented by a person).

41. PSYCHOLOGY AS A STUDY OF INTENTIAL ACTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

An intentional act is the intradirectionality of consciousness and its functions towards a particular object, regardless of whether the object itself is unknowable or true.

The concept of an intentional act was first introduced by the Australian philosopher F. Brentano. He is the founder of psychology as a doctrine of mental phenomena; systematizing them, he identifies three central forms:

1) submissions;

2) judgments;

3) emotions.

In F. Brentano, consciousness was first noted as a specific phenomenon. Before him, in the modern European psychology, consciousness as such did not exist, i.e., it was not singled out as a special object of knowledge. In accordance with this theory, psychology is not the content of consciousness (sensations, perceptions, thoughts), according to W. Wundt, but its actions, mental actions, due to which these contents arise. F. Brentano considered intentionality (direction towards an object) to be a significant sign of a mental phenomenon.

E. Husserl is a follower of F. Brentano. Consciousness, according to E. Husserl, is a single stream of experiences through which an object is perceived.

E. Husserl established phenomenology as a theory of rational experiences. What happens in us when we think? The requirement of presuppositionless knowledge depends on the clarification of this issue. According to E. Husserl, logical experiences are the latent life of thought in us, without understanding which an adequate theory of the comprehension of knowledge is impossible, since to comprehend something without having any idea of how the process of cognition itself takes place means to violate the main rule of the logic of cognition . The theory of knowledge must be preceded by an analysis of consciousness; The theory of logical experiences is growing, so its development exhausts all the tasks of phenomenology.

There is a fundamental difference between consciousness and the object of its aspiration. The object lives "outside" consciousness, and its properties do not come into consciousness from outside; consciousness only "constitutes" it, and in this act itself it deals not with its empirically material nature, but with a semantic structure that it itself organizes.

Any phenomenon is characterized by a personal intentional structure, consisting of a large number of intentionally correlated components. For example, the perception of a cube represents a single connection of various intentions: the cube “appears” from different points of view and perspectives; its visible sides are intentionally compared with invisible but planned sides, so that the observation of this entire flow of “aspects” and the nature of their integration shows the presence of a single and integral knowledge about some stable object in all particular periods of experience.

42. PSYCHOLOGY AS A STUDY OF THE PERFORMANCE OF MENTAL ACTIVITIES

The psyche is a fundamental concept of psychology. The psyche is the inner world of a person, which is born in the process of human interaction with the outside world, in the process of dynamic reproduction of this world.

Mental processes are active causal factors of behavior. A person is influenced by the social environment, therefore his consciousness has its own structure and systemic and semantic organization. Various manifestations of the psyche form an unconscious area.

The psyche is expressed in a person in the following blocks of mental phenomena:

1) mental processes are simple mental phenomena that last from a fraction of a second to tens of minutes or more. Mental is a living, plastic, determined and forming process. Mental processes are always included in more complex types of mental activity;

2) mental states. They are the most long-term in comparison with mental processes (they can last for several hours, days, weeks) and are the most complex in structure and formation. This is a state of cheerfulness or depression, ability to work or fatigue, aggressiveness, inattention, good or bad mood;

3) mental properties of a person - temperament, character, abilities and stable features of mental processes in an individual;

4) mental formations - the consequences of the activity of the human psyche, its formation and self-development. These are acquired knowledge, skills and abilities. Mental processes, states, properties and behavior are an integral unity and mutually transform into each other. Psychological analysis makes it possible to systematize mental activity in terms of functions implemented in the course of a person's relationship with the world and other people. Here we should talk about the functions of indicative, performing, and the functions of information and verification. It is through such functions that mental activity manifests itself as an adaptation for the regulation of all manifestations. Such manifestations can have various levels of activity, determined not only by the consequences of the reorganization of the object, but also by the nature of the modifications of the functioning personality. An analysis is possible in terms of the consequences obtained. This refers to reproductive and creative activities. In each of these types, the ratio of imitation and independence is varied, and objective and subjective novelty and originality are conveyed in different ways in the results.

43. THEORETICAL STRUGGLE IN THE FORMATION OF PSYCHOLOGY AS AN INDEPENDENT SCIENCE

The more successfully empirical activity was carried out in psychology, sharply increasing the field of phenomena mastered by psychology, the more obvious became the inconsistency of its variations about consciousness as a vacuum world of the individual, visible to him alone thanks to experimental introspection under the control of the experimenter's instructions. Considerable successes of the new biology decisively changed positions on all the vital functions of the organism, including the mental ones.

The idea of consciousness as a special closed world, a fenced-off island of the spirit, was destroyed. The area of comprehension of objects inaccessible to introspective analysis (behavior of animals, children, mentally ill) was radically expanded. The collapse of the original ideas about the subject and methods of psychology became more and more indisputable.

Main blocks:

1) mental image;

2) mental action;

2) mental attitude;

3) motive;

4) personality.

Gestalt psychology. Evidence was given that mental images are unities that can only be artificially split into separate components. These unities were called by the German term "gestalt" (from German geschtalt - "form, structure") and under this name entered the scientific dictionary of psychology. The direction, which gave Gestalt the meaning of the main "unit" of consciousness, was established under this name.

Behaviorism (from the English behavior - “behavior”). Mental action and its categorical status began to change greatly. In ancient times, it belonged to the category of internal, spiritual aspirations of the individual. But advances in the use of an objective method to study the connections between the organism and the environment argued that the sphere of the psyche also includes external bodily influence. In accordance with this, the movement that chose this path began to form a behavioral concept.

The area of unconscious aspirations (motives), driving behavior and establishing the originality of complex dynamics and structure, was recognized as conditioning for mental life! personality. The school of psychoanalysis was formed by Z. Freud.

French scientists have concentrated on the analysis of mental relationships between people. In the works of a number of German psychologists, the main theme was the inclusion of the subject in the value system of culture.

Thus, various schools arose, each of which defined one of them as the focus of the entire system of categories - be it an image or an action, a motive or a person. This gave each school a unique profile.

Turning to one of the categories as the main component of the history of the system and giving the remaining categories the function of dependents - all this was one of the reasons for the disintegration of psychology into various, sometimes opposing schools.

44. DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL AND APPLIED FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

The attitude of traditional psychology to applied psychology still remains the same as to semi-precise science. But there is no doubt that the main role in the formation of science at the present period belongs to applied psychology: it shows everything advanced, healthy, it represents the best methodological works. A look at the meaning of what is happening and the potential of true psychology can only be formed from the study of this area.

The center of the history of science has been shifted: what was on the periphery is now the defining pillar. This speaks to three factors:

1) practice. Here (through psychotechnics, psychiatry, child psychology, criminal psychology) psychology for the first time united with highly organized practice - industrial, educational, political, military. This puts psychology before the need to transform its positions so that they stand the test of practice;

2) methodology. Practice as a constructive principle of science requires philosophy, that is, the methodology of science.

L. Binswanger believed that the solution to the question of individual and objectivizing psychology should come not from logic, epistemology or dialectics, but from methodology, that is, the doctrine of the scientific approach;

3) psychology as an integral science.

I. N. Shpilrein believed that psychology had approached the moment when it was unable to isolate psychological functions from physiological ones, and was looking for a single concept.

According to L. S. Vygotsky, the thesis about practice plays a major role in the psychotechnical sciences. It is invariably a comparative, limited, experimental science. The connection with physiological processes is something so important for this science that it is physical psychology.

G. Münsterberg says that empirical psychology appeared in the middle of the XNUMXth century. Even in those schools where dialectic was rejected and facts were studied, research was guided by a different interest. The use of experience was not possible until psychology became a natural science; however, with the introduction of experience, a paradoxical situation emerged, incredible in natural science: such devices as the first machine or the telegraph were led to laboratories, but were not used in practice.

L. S. Vygotsky understood the cause of the crisis of psychology as its driving force, and therefore possessing not only historical interest, but also guiding - methodological - significance, since it not only led to the formation of a crisis, but also continued to determine its further direction and fate.

Psychology, which is called upon by practice to certify the truth of its thinking, which tried not so much to explain the psyche as to comprehend it and master it, determined a fundamentally different attitude of practical disciplines in the entire system of science than ancient psychology.

45. STUDY OF SENSATIONS AND PERCEPTIONS

Sensations - a reflection of the properties of objects of the objective world, which occurs when they directly affect the receptors.

In the reflex concept of I. P. Pavlov and I. M. Sechenov, various studies were carried out, which showed that sensations in their physiological mechanisms are holistic reflexes that combine direct and feedback peripheral and central sections of the analyzer. The variety of sensations reflects the qualitative diversity of the surrounding world. The classification of sensations may be different depending on the grounds. The division by modality has become widespread, where visual, tactile, auditory, etc. sensations are distinguished. The English physiologist C. Sherington distinguished three classes of sensations:

1) extroceptive, they arise when external stimuli are exposed to receptors directly located on the surface of the body;

2) interoceptive, they signal with the help of specialized receptors about the course of metabolic processes inside the body;

3) proprioceptive, they reflect the movement and relative position of the body as a result of the work of receptors that are located in the muscles, tendons and articular bags. Sensations arise in the process of phylogenesis on the basis of elementary irritability as a reaction to stimuli, thereby reflecting the objective relationship between abiotic and biotic environmental factors.

Perception is a holistic reflection of objects, events and situations that arise from the direct impact of stimuli on the surface receptors of the sense organs. Together with the processes of sensation, perception contributes to a direct-sensitive orientation in the surrounding world. A great contribution to the study of perception was made by I. M. Sechenov, investigating the reflex concept of the psyche.

Of great importance are the works of Gestalt psychology, which showed the conditionality of the most significant phenomena of perception (for example, constancy) by unchanged relationships between the components of the perceptual image. The study of the reflex structure of perception marked the beginning of the creation of theoretical models of perception, where efferent, including motor processes, which adjust the work of the perceptual system to the characteristics of the object, are of great importance (A. N. Leontiev). The modern study of perception is carried out by representatives of physiology, cybernetics, psychology and other sciences.

In the ongoing research, methods such as observation and experiment, empirical analysis and modeling are used. Perception is associated with thinking, attention, memory, is directed by motivational factors and has a certain affective-emotional coloring.

46. THE BEGINNING OF THE EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF EMOTIONS

The impetus for the experimental study of feelings was the James-Lange theory of emotions. In accordance with this theory, emotions act as the comprehension of physical organic transformations generated by the perception of circumstances. The value of the James-Lange theory lay in the fact that it opened wide scope for the introduction of physical methods of study. The techniques with which the experimental study of feelings was associated with their physical and organic characteristics are called by a common name - the "method of expression." The method of expression involves instrumental fixation of the diverse motor and vegetative modifications that accompany emotional disturbances.

As objective indicators of feelings, failures in breathing (density, depth, form of breathing, duration of inhalation and exhalation), in blood circulation (pulse rate, blood pressure, vascular volume, blood composition, cardiogram), other vegetative indicators were used: metabolic rate, salivation, sweating, chemical composition of saliva, skin temperature. Of the technical means for fixing breathing, a pneumograph and an apparatus for recording air flow were used. The general result of most of the initial experimental studies (A. Mosso, S. Fere, and others) was the conclusion that with a feeling of pleasure, all physical signs increase, intensify, and with a feeling of displeasure, they decrease and weaken.

Along with the method of formulation, the “method of impression” played a significant role in the study of feelings. Deep methodological development was implemented by G. Fechner. Significant for this method is the method of individual comparison and evaluation of several synchronously or gradually presented stimuli, on the basis of which the individual makes a choice of an external object to be chosen or rejected. G. Fechner's experiments were combined mainly with an aesthetic assessment of diverse geometric configurations (rectangles, triangles, ellipses, etc.). In the future, all these methods were used in the laboratory of W. Wundt. The result of similar studies was the structuring for each of the test subjects of the affective curves of pleasure and displeasure. In addition to the two main methods, they used all kinds of questionnaires, photography and filming to record facial expressions, body positions and other expressive movements that accompany the feelings of the subject.

By the beginning of the XX century. another area of psychology was brought to the experimental base. The educated experimental basis for the development of the issue of feelings allowed psychology, together with other sciences (physiology and neurophysiology, psychophysiology and neuropsychology), during the entire subsequent period, to build other unique methods that made it possible to reveal many secrets and advance knowledge of the nature and structure of emotions.

47. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF ASSOCIATIONS AND MEMORY

The initial research aspirations were undertaken by F. Galton and W. Wundt simultaneously. F. Galton's experiments concerned the determination of the time of associative processes, as well as the meaningful composition of associations. The study of associations has become a prerequisite for the hoof comprehension of memory. G. Ebbinghaus is one of the researchers of associations and memory.

For the study of memory by G. Ebbinghaus, three methods of memorization were identified:

1) the method of deep memorization consisted in the repeated reproduction of large series of syllables until their complete, error-free repetition;

2) the method of economy made it possible to reveal the extent to which each new reproduction has a facilitating effect on the unmistakable repetition of a previously memorized series of syllables.

3) the correction method involves the use of a hint when the subject was interrupted or made an error. The quantitative criteria were the number of reproductions, the total time spent on memorizing a deep series of syllables, the number of errors, corrections or hints. G. Ebbinghaus identified a number of patterns of memory activity. It was found that the complexity of memorization is commensurate with the volume, the number of memorized items is compressed. Reducing the speed of memorization can lead to an increase in the total time required for deep reproduction, i.e., it is more effective to learn the material more quickly. Soon after the experiments of G. Ebbinghaus, the study of memory began to be studied in almost all psychological laboratories in the world. The involvement of methods in new research tasks and their penetration into special branches of psychology led to various restructurings of the initial methods of studying memory. M. Müller and R. Schumann moved the subject and the tester to different rooms, which increased the reliability and accuracy of the experimental data. They introduced a new method of studying memory - the guessing method (M. Müller and F. Pelzener).

E. Meiman is the founder of the experimental study of semantic memory. He observed that thinking plays a significant role in memory processes. The participation of ideas and sensory images in mental functions leads to their significant transformation. E. Mayman defined the goal of creating series for memorization that would be easy to separate them numerically.

He carried out the task of revealing the impact of the meaning of words and connection using first rows of rhyming syllables, then rows of words combined by meaning. Memory displays the material being learned in a rearranged form. Memory is not a photographic representation of previous impressions associated with automatic associations. In memory, a tendency to unification, generalization, behind which there are concepts and thinking, is revealed.

48. DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Differential psychology (from Latin differentia - "difference") is a branch of psychology that studies psychological discrepancies between individuals, between groups of people, as well as the causes and consequences of these discrepancies. A prerequisite for the development of differential psychology (DP) was the introduction of experiments into psychology, as well as genetic and mathematical methods. DP took shape under the direct influence of practice - pedagogical, medical, engineering. Its development was started by F. Galton, who created a number of methods and instruments for studying individual characteristics, including their static analysis.

The term "DP" was introduced by the German psychologist W. Stern in his work "On the Psychology of Individual Differences" (1900).

The first major representatives of the new direction were A. Binet, A. F. Lazursky, J. Cattell and others.

Tests became the main method - at first individual and then group tests were used, which were used to determine mental differences, and with the invention of projective tests - to measure interests, attitudes towards a particular object, emotional reactions.

In the process of processing tests by factor analysis methods, factors are determined that signal the general properties of intelligence or personality.

On this basis, quantitative variations in the psychological properties of different individuals are established. There are two theories that are best known:

1) the theory of two factors by C. Spearman, according to which in any type of activity there is both a common factor for each of them and a specific one, which is necessary individually for this type of activity;

2) multifactorial theories (L. Terson, J. Gilford, etc.).

Previously, decisive importance was attributed to heredity and the maturation of the organism, and the relationship of individual psychological characteristics from the specific lifestyle of the individual, the socio-economic conditions of its development was ignored. Recently, DP has been characterized by the intensive development of new approaches and methods, both experimental and mathematical. Together with the peculiarities of the differences between individuals in the mental plane, differences in creative and organizational abilities, in the general structure of the personality, in the sphere of personality motivation are widely studied. A significant place is given to identifying correlations between psychological properties, on the one hand, and physiological and biochemical properties, on the other. The facts and conclusions obtained by the DP are of great importance for solving many practical problems (for example: selection and training of personnel, diagnostics and forecasting of the development of individual properties, inclinations, abilities of individuals, etc.).

49. CHILD AND PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Child psychology (CP) began to develop at the end of the 19th century. Each age, according to researchers of that time, was characterized by certain changes in personality structure. The subject of the DP was a child from newborn to adolescence. Subsequently, it was found that personality development does not end in adolescence, so DP became the main position in the development of developmental psychology. Development during childhood is considered the most active and powerful. It is at this age that processes develop that affect a person’s future life.

Modern DP is a branch of psychology that monitors the development and gradual change in the mental processes of the child, the formation of his personal characteristics.

A special place in the DP is the study of the child's behavior in the game, primary education and various types of labor activity. As a rule, DP is in close connection with educational psychology. This is explained by the fact that the period of childhood covers a person's life from birth to adolescence. The main goal of the DP is the development of psychodiagnostic methods that determine the level of cognitive development characteristic of a certain age.

Educational psychology (PP) (lit. - "child education") is a psychological branch that studies the development of the child in the process of education and upbringing. PP branches into 3 branches: the psychology of learning, the psychology of education and the psychology of the teacher. PP developed in three stages, each of which brought different innovations to it.

At the first stage (the middle of the 1950th - the end of the 1936th centuries), G. Pestalozzi proposed the psychologization of pedagogy, for which this stage was called general didactic. At the end of this stage, the main works belonged to K. D. Ushinsky, who believed that "if pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first of all recognize him in all respects" (his work "Man as an Object of Education"). From the end of the XNUMXth century and up to XNUMX, PP receives the status of an independent science, and within it the science of children is formed - pedology, which, after a long period of criticism, was banned in XNUMX with the wording "On pedological violations in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education."

The third stage began in the middle of the twentieth century. and is still going on. It is characterized by significant research in the field of PP. In 1954, B. F. Skinner proposed programmed learning, which was subsequently subjected to algorithmization.

In the 1970-1980s. problem-based learning arose, then D. B. Elkonin and V. V. Davydov proposed the theory of developmental learning. At present, the behavior of the child in a group of peers is being carefully studied, and the latest methods of teaching "difficult" children are being developed.

The subject of PP is those facts and mechanisms of human intellectual development that represent him as a subject of educational activity.

50. ZOOPSYCHOLOGY

Zoopsychology (Z.) (from the Greek zoon - "animal", psyche - "soul", logos - "teaching") is a science that studies the psyche of animals, manifestations and patterns of mental reflection at a given level. Zoopsychology studies the development of mental processes at the stage of ontogenesis, the origin and development of the psyche in the process of evolution, as well as the biological prerequisites and the previous history of the emergence of human consciousness. The birth of scientific occurred in the late XNUMXth and early XNUMXth centuries. and is associated with the names of J. L. Buffon and J. B. Lamarck, later C. Darwin studied the mental activity of animals. In Russia, the founders of this trend were V. A. Wagner and K. F. Rulye. They are in the XIX-XX centuries. laid the foundation for the materialistic evolutionary direction in Z. This direction was further developed in the works of zoopsychologists, who opposed anthropomorphic ideas. At the same time, the psyche of animals was studied in dialectical unity with their external motor activity, thanks to which all vital connections with the environment are established.

The primary and leading development of the psyche occurs in the process of ontogenesis and phylogenesis. In the process of ontogenesis, i.e., individual development, the behavior of animals is formed together with the processes of learning. Learning in animals is the acquisition and accumulation of individual experience, as well as the improvement and modification of the instinctive component of mental activity in certain living conditions. The instinctive behavior of animals does not need to be repeated, persists without systematic reinforcement, and is stable. In the process of phylogenesis, the formation of congenital, hereditarily fixed for all representatives of the species components of behavior takes place, which form the basis of life. Z. considers the complication of life, leading to the intensification, improvement and enrichment of the animal's motor activity. A certain study of the mental activity of an animal, the study of their perceptual processes, orienting-exploratory reactions, as well as skills, emotions, memory, intelligence, etc., is carried out on the basis of an objective analysis of the structure of the behavioral reactions of animals and requires a general account of the ecological characteristics of the animal species being studied.

The mental activity of animals differs from human in that it is completely determined by biological factors. This is Z.'s connection with ethology and other biological sciences.

The achievements of modern psychology are especially significant in research conducted to study the mental regulation of the behavior of higher mammals.

51. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL-HISTORICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Social psychology (SP) is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of behavior and activities of people, which is determined by their entry into social groups, including the psychological characteristics of the groups themselves. For a long time, socio-psychological views were studied within the framework of various philosophical teachings. Parts of social psychology took shape within various sciences - in sociology, anthropology, psychology, ethnography, etc. In the second half of the 1908th century. attempts were made to develop an independent socio-psychological branch. The emergence of SP as an independent discipline occurred in XNUMX. At that time, the works of the American sociologist E. Ross and the English psychologist W. MacDougal appeared simultaneously, in the content of which the term "SP" was used. The main problems of modern SP are: general issues of the theory, history and methodology of SP, patterns of interaction and communication between people, various characteristics of large social groups; psychological problems of small social groups, as well as the study of personality. Currently, there is an active development of practical SP, which is focused on solving important problems of social actors in the field of education, economics, politics, etc. Cultural-historical psychology (CIP) is a virtual branch of research and knowledge, which is formally considered a section of cultural psychology, studying the role of culture in the psychological life of society. CIP focuses on the global problem of the role of culture in psychological development at the stage of both phylogenesis and ontogenesis. The CIP made a fruitful attempt to return to the life and cultural context those psychological functions that had been wrested from it by classical experimental psychology. It can be interpreted as a new and natural stage in the development of psychology.

M. Cole dealt with CIP issues and dedicated his book to it. He considered CIA to be the science of the future, but, as experience shows, it is also the science of the past. Moreover, it served as the source of practical psychology, which controlled the behavior and activities of people and arose much earlier than scientific psychology. CIP represents a return of psychology to cultural roots. CIP in the Hegelian interpretation is understood as a search for a path from an abstract concept to a concrete one, and then the reproduction of the concrete in the process of thinking. Within the CIP, an activity approach arose in psychology, thanks to which numerous ideas of the CIP were developed. In the future, contacts are being made that unite CIP and cognitive psychology, which continues the analytical work that began in classical psychology and leads to a holistic understanding of the human psyche.

52. PSYCHO TECHNIQUES

At the turn of the XX century. industrial progress directed the interests of psychology to the problems of production, work activities, determined the emergence of psychotechnics (the concept was introduced by V. Stern).

F. Taylor (1856-1915) came up with a system of intensification of activity for the purposeful unification of production (Taylorism). The scientific unification of production, the design of activity processes required thorough information about the neuropsychic capabilities of workers and the potentials for their effective use. For the structuring of psychotechnics, the achievements of the experimental and the psychology of distinctions were used.

The main directions of psychotechnics:

1) identifying the best length of working time;

2) experienced study of the issue of fatigue;

3) methods of consideration of professions and professional suitability. Gaining fame vocational guidance.

The founder is J. Parson, the author of the book "Choice of Profession".

Career assignments included:

1) help the subject, through tests, acquire as accurate information as possible about his mental properties;

2) get acquainted with the requirements that apply to the psychophysical organization of a person by various professions;

3) by comparing these two groups of information, provide an appropriate assignment.

A significant stage in the development of industrial psychology (psychotechnics) was the book by G. Munsterberg "Psychology of Industrial Productivity". It analyzed the problems of scientific management of enterprises, vocational selection and career guidance, industrial training, adaptation of technology to the psychological potentials of a person, and other factors for increasing the productivity of workers and entrepreneurs' incomes.

G. Münsterberg, like other scientists who formed psychotechnics, at first conducted work in two aspects. For the purpose of diagnostics for professional selection, he, based on the hypothesis that the mental activity of a particular individual is a combination of various functions (memory, attention, general mental abilities, reaction speed, etc.), determined by means of tests the degree of formation of these functions necessary for successful performance this activity. The logic and technique of the psychology of distinctions were used here.

The second trend proceeded from the consideration of the requirements of the profession for neuropsychic functions. In a number of G. Münsterberg's experiments, moments were observed that significantly differed from the established model adopted in "academic" experimental psychology.

The starting point was a task identified through practice. Life circumstances were schematized. The reactions of the subject to symbols in their structural features are also similar to real production operations.

53. SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Functionalism

William James (1842-1910) argued that the inner experience of a person is not a series of elements, but a stream of consciousness, it is distinguished by subjective selectivity (the ability to invariably make a choice). He proposed a concept according to which transformations in the muscular and vascular systems of the body become primary, and the expansive states generated by them become secondary.

Behaviorism

As an object of psychology, he analyzes behavior as a complex of reactions of the organism, determined by its communication with the stimuli of the environment to which it adapts. Founder - D. Watson. The unit of consideration of behavior contained a stimulus accessible to external objective observation, independent of consciousness - reactive connections.

Psychoanalysis

Z. Freud (1856-1939) discovers powerful layers of psychic forces, processes and mechanisms incomprehensible to man. The core dogma - real motives are hidden from consciousness, but actually they dominate behavior.

The personality structure is depicted as follows:

1) id (unconscious part of the subject, in which the unconscious causes of his behavior are accumulated);

2) ego (the conscious part, with the help of which the individual builds his relationship with reality);

3) super-ego (a force that controls an area not realized by a person, not allowing its manifestations to penetrate into conscious life). Central energies that determine human behavior (according to Z. Freud):

1) libido - the energy of gravity possessing a sexual nature;

2) thanatos - a tendency to destruction. Gestalt psychology

Appeared in opposition to behaviorism. At the origins are Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) and Kurt

Koffka (1886-1941).

Gestaltists did not agree with additional elements that systematize the sensory composition of consciousness from the outside, giving it structure, form, gestalt, and put forward the postulate that structure is inherent in this composition itself. Gestalt itself is a kind of activity scheme that, according to characteristic laws, forms a hierarchy of diversity of specific phenomena and phenomena.

Patterns characteristic of Gestalt psychology:

1) the desire of specific elements to form a whole;

2) the elements move in the direction of coordination;

3) a feature of any phenomenon is the desire to take from a vague form a completed scheme with a certain result. The personal world is analyzed in two aspects:

1) as a physiological certainty - the processes taking place in the brain, as a reproduction of stimulus influences;

2) as a psychic exclusive reality.

54. E. B. TITCHENER'S STRUCTURAL SCHOOL

Edward Bradford Titchener, famous during his lifetime as the father of experimental psychology in America, discovered in the USA a fundamentally "new psychology", the experimental psychology of Wilhelm Wundt and others, thus influencing the transition from thought philosophy to psychology in the form in which it lives in the present moment. His most important contribution, without a doubt, is that he gave psychology a scientific status. He formed operational methods and scientific apparatus and insisted on the need for rigorous training of experimental psychologists. He portrayed the object of psychology in the guise of a system of primitive conscious states (sensations, ideas, perceptions), from which all the diversity of inner life is created.

The task of psychology, in his opinion, is not an analysis of the role played by the intellect in behavior, but the disclosure of simple structures of consciousness that cannot be further divided, the elucidation of the laws of integration of these elements, and the discovery of the connection between psychological components and physiological processes. The central method of psychology in this case is analytical introspection, in which the observer participating in the experience is required to depict the elements of consciousness not in terms of external objects, but in terms of feelings. The structural school that arose as a result of the work of E. B. Titchener considers consciousness to be its object, comprehended by dividing into components what is given to the subject in his introspection, in order to then reveal the general laws by which the structure is formed from them.

By introspection, one should understand not ordinary self-observation, but a special ability, formed by special training, to depict the phenomena of consciousness as such, abstracting from external objects represented by this consciousness. E. B. Titchener divided three categories of components: sensation (an elementary process that has quality, intensity, clarity, work), image and feeling. Rejecting the conclusions of the Wurzburg school that true thinking is independent of images, E. B. Titchener put forward a contextual theory of meaning, according to which all knowledge about a subject is based on a complex of sensory elements.

The structural method of E. B. Titchener had an important impact on the formation of the main trends of his time. Functionalism appeared as a reaction to the structuralism of E. B. Titchener (and W. Wundt), who focused their attention on the content of consciousness, but not on its function and excluded adaptation, personal differences, mental formation, zoopsychology and other movements associated with them. Behaviorism began as a protest against E. B. Titchener's exclusive interest in the contents of consciousness. Gestalt psychology, to some extent, also appeared as a reaction to the atomism of E. B. Titchener’s supporters in Germany.

55. WURZBURG SCHOOL

It is a group of scientists led by the German psychologist O. Külpe, who studied at the beginning of the 20th century. at the University of Würzburg (Bavaria) higher psychological processes (thinking, will) through a laboratory experiment in combination with a modified method of introspection (“experimental introspection”, in which the person undergoing the test carefully observed the dynamics of the sensations he experienced at each stage of following instructions) . The German psychologists K. Marbe, N. A. Bühler, the English psychologist G. Watt, the Belgian psychologist A. Michotte and others belonged to the Würzburg School (WS). The WS introduced the performance of tasks of an intellectual nature into experimental psychology as a new object of analysis.

It was revealed that thinking is a mental process, the laws of which are not reducible either to the laws of logic or to the laws of the emergence of associations.

The originality of thought processes was explained by the fact that associations are selected in comparison with the tendencies created by the subject’s task. The organizing role was assigned to the attitude that precedes the search for a solution, which some representatives of the VS considered an “attitude of consciousness,” while others considered it an unconscious act (since it is hidden from introspection).

In contrast to the perceptions generally accepted at that time, VS came to the conclusion that consciousness contains non-sensory components (mental actions and meanings and meanings independent of sensory images). Therefore, the specificity of the concept of VS is usually considered in that it included in psychology the concept of ugly thinking. The process of thinking was studied by her as a change of operations, which sometimes acquire affective intensity.

The work of the psychologists of the Higher School raised a number of important problems that relate to the qualitative differences between thinking and other cognitive processes, revealed the limitations of the associative concept, its inability to logically explain the selectivity and direction of acts of consciousness. But at the same time, thinking without any images ("pure" thinking) was unjustifiably opposed to its other forms, and the dependence of mental activity on speech and practical activity was ignored.

The idealistic methodology of the VS, which reflected the influence of the German philosophers F. Brentano and E. Husserl, prevented the discovery of the real causes of mental processes.

The data obtained by VS aroused criticism from representatives of other schools of experimental psychology, who also used the method of introspection (W. Wundt, E. B. Titchener, G. E. Muller), which led to a crisis in the introspective direction as a whole.

56. FUNCTIONALISM IN AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY

Functionalism analyzes perception from the perspective of a perceptual process. The image of perception is realized as a function of the perceptual system.

The ideas of functionalism were developed in the theory of unconscious inferences by G. Helmholtz. His position: initial sensory data is not enough to perceive detailed objects.

Firstly, they are polysemantic in nature (the visual flow is not strictly related to the retinal principle of the stimulus and depends both on the position of the eye in space and on the position of the second; the projection of the planes of an object allows for a variety of three-dimensional interpretations).

Secondly, they are superfluous, that is, not every feeling can become a component of the image of an object.

W. James stood at the origins of functionalism in America. Functionalism is one of the main trends in American psychology. The Columbian and Chicago schools belong to the functional current. The Columbian School was founded by R. Woodworth. His main works are "Dynamic Psychology" (1918) and "Dynamics of Behavior" (1958).

Representatives of the Chicago school: D. Anjim, G. Kerr. The Chicago School used methods of introspection; objective observation, analysis of labor products (language, art). The Chicago School was a scientific and educational school, it trained future scientists.

Functionalism tried to analyze all mental manifestations from the point of view of their adaptive character. This required to determine their attitude to the circumstances of the environment, on the one hand, and to the needs of the organism, on the other.

Functionalism analyzes the question of the influence of its aspiration on the solution of complex situations vital for a person from the point of view of its biologically adaptive meaning. Functionalism originated from the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. The problem is not to know what consciousness is made of, but to comprehend its function and role in the survival of the subject. Since that time, psychology has sought to understand how these new modes of adaptation are established. Such is the approach to the study and ways of acquiring skills, and in general the process of learning.

In contrast to structural psychology (W. Wundt, E. B. Titchener), functionalism requires an analysis of consciousness in terms of its function in behavior as a weapon with which the organism adapts to society.

Mental functions are analyzed in connection with the organism and its needs, on the one hand, and with the environment to which behavior is directed, on the other. Functionalism emphasizes the need to consider the organism in terms of mind and body, physical and mental aspects, but cannot overcome the introspective understanding of consciousness. The practical orientation of functionalism contributed to the formation of pedagogical, medical, and engineering psychology.

57. BEHAVIORISM

The founder of behaviorism (from the English behavior - "behavior") is John Watson (1878-1958), who published the article "Psychology from the point of view of a behaviorist." In his opinion, it is not consciousness that is worthy of research, but behavior. J. Watson, in contrast to scientists who consider the method of introspection to be the main one in behavior, proposed to study external manifestations that are visible without special devices.

J. Watson proposed to register visible manifestations in human behavior, which are born consciously by external influences. According to the formula "Sh" R "(stimulus-response), the subject's responses can be genetic (hereditary) and acquired. By hereditary, we meant reflexes, physiological reactions and simple emotions; acquired are the habits of the individual, his behavior, the degree of development of cognitive processes The research mechanism proceeds according to the following scheme: under the influence of an absolute stimulus, a hereditary reaction appears, which is directly related to new conditioned stimuli.

J. Watson conducted an experiment: a sharp sound (or other external influence) acted as an unconditioned stimulus, which caused fear in a small child, combined with a conditioned stimulus in the form of a rabbit. After some time, it was noticed that even simply showing a rabbit to a child caused him to feel a sense of fear.

Behaviorism arose on the basis of two directions: positivism and pragmatism, according to which research should be based only on objective facts, knowledge about a person should be sufficiently complete.

By the end of the 1920s - the beginning of the 1930s. Neo-behaviorism emerged as a branch of behaviorism. It was due to the fact that between the stimulus and the response there are so-called intermediate variables.

Behaviorists did their first research on animals. And only when it was possible to speak with confidence about sufficiently deep knowledge in the field of behavioral reactions, the subject of the study was a person.

According to scientists, human behavior could be shaped under the influence of obviously prepared external stimuli. But behaviorists did not take into account the fact that human behavior and all activities are determined by certain motives and goals. Behaviorism arose on the basis of the research of E. Thorndike, the works of I. P. Pavlov and V. M. Bekhterev.

The subject of behaviorism is human behavior with all its innate and acquired components.

J. Watson identified 4 types of reactions that occur in humans: external acquired and external hereditary, internal acquired and internal hereditary. Behavioral teaching turned out to be far from ideal, since it placed too great demands on rigor and objectivity.

58. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

Gestalt psychology (from German gestalt - "image, form") is a direction in Western psychology that arose in Germany in the first third of the XNUMXth century, putting forward a program for studying the psyche from the point of view of integral structures (gestalts), primary in relation to their components. Gestalt psychology (G.) opposed the principle of division of consciousness into separate elements and the construction of complex mental phenomena according to the foundations of the laws of association or creative synthesis, put forward by structural psychology (W. Wundt, E. B. Titchener, and others). The idea that the internal, systemic organization of the whole provides the properties and functions of its constituent parts was originally applied to the experimental study of perception (mainly visual). With this, you can study a number of important components of perception: constancy, structure, dependence of the image of an object ("figure") on its immediate environment ("background"), etc.

In the analysis of intellectual behavior, the role of the sensory image in the compilation of motor reactions was traced. The construction of this image was interpreted as a special mental act of comprehension, a quick grasp of relationships in the perceived field. G. opposed these provisions to behaviorism, which explained the behavior of an organism in a problem situation by enumeration of "blind" motor samples that accidentally led to a successful solution. When studying the processes of human thinking, the main emphasis was placed on the transformation ("reorganization", new "centering") of cognitive structures, due to which these processes acquire a productive character, which distinguishes them from formal logical manipulations, algorithms, etc. Although the ideas of G ... and the results obtained by her contributed to the development of knowledge about psychological processes (primarily the category of mental image), and also led to the establishment of a systematic approach, her idealistic methodology (going back to femenology) prevented the scientific, causal analysis of these processes. Mental "gestalts" and their transformations were interpreted as properties of individual consciousness, the dependence of which on the objective world and the activity of the central nervous system was represented by the type of isomorphism (structural similarity), which is a variant of psychophysical parallelism. The main representatives are the German psychologists M. Wertheimer, K. Koffka. General scientific positions close to it belonged to K. Levin and his school, who extended the principle of consistency and the idea of the priority of the whole in changing mental formations to the motivation of human behavior.

Other representatives: K. Goldstein - a supporter of "holism" (integrity) in pathopsychology, F. Haider, who introduced the concept of gestalt into social psychology in order to interpret interpersonal perception, etc.

59. PSYCHOLOGY IN RUSSIA IN THE POST-SOVIET PERIOD

During the Soviet era, psychology was formed mainly as a traditional science.

The paradigmatic transformations that occurred in psychology at the turn of the 1980s and 1990s oriented it toward social practice as their immediate result. Psychology is expected to be able to offer vectors for social practice and to discover what is inaccessible to other areas of knowledge. In recent years, the number of institutions offering applied psychology has increased sharply. Many journals are published that highlight the results of practice-oriented studies.

The psychology of activity is being vigorously formed in all areas (engineering, military, space, ergonomics - V. P. Zinchenko, E. A. Klimov, B. F. Lomov, V. M. Munipov, etc.).

Legal psychology develops in the works of M. M. Kochetov, A. R. Ratinov.

The development of questions of political psychology was new for psychology in Russia, but this trend is becoming increasingly famous and is being studied by G. M. Andreeva, G. G. Diligensky, I. G. Dubov, P. N. Shikhirev.

With the transformation of the economic worldview in the country, certain areas of psychology have lost their relevance from the point of view of “profitability”. In a situation of imitation of Western practicality, individual trends cannot stand the test of practice, and their formation is greatly slowed down by this phenomenon. One of these “outsiders” is zoopsychology, studied by V. M. Borovsky, V. A. Wagner, I. P. Pavlova, G. Z. Raginsky.

There are intensified searches that ensure the correction of pathologies of speech, thinking and consciousness by referring to the potentials of psychology. The psychologist carries out the necessary diagnostics of the patient's mental state, providing scientifically proven prevention of disorders of subjective formation in people at risk.

Neuropsychology and psychoneurology acquire their place and their problems, ratifying their own authority in the field of medicine. The so-called neurolinguistic programming and Ericksonian hypnosis as methods of working with the subject in counseling sessions acquired immediate development. Widespread in the West, these movements are quite young in Russia. Such types of activities with the population as training groups, face-to-face personal consultations, remote consultation (by telephone and by correspondence), and psychological development seminars have been widely studied.

The range of problems with which people seek psychological help is increasing: issues of interpersonal relationships, sexual anomalies, problems of subjective growth, child-parent conflicts, phobias, deviant behavior.

The need for competent psychological assistance stimulates the formation of medical psychology.

60. DEEP PSYCHOLOGY

Depth psychology is the general name for a wide variety of concepts in psychiatry and psychology. These concepts are based on the position of the leading role of irrational, unconscious, instinctive, affective-emotional, intuitive processes, as well as impulses, aspirations, motives in mental life, human activity and influencing the formation of his personal characteristics. Depth psychology is a branch of Western psychology. The most famous areas of depth psychology are: individual psychology

A. Adler, Freudianism, analytical conception of C. G. Jung, existential analysis of L. Binswanger, "hormic" conception of B. McDougall, neofredism.

Z. Freud formulated the main concepts in depth psychology, such as fixation, regression, repression, etc. A. Adler defined the desire for self-affirmation as one of the main motives. Subsequently, the system developed by A. Adler became the source of "cultural-sociological" tendencies in depth psychology. On the other hand, C. G. Jung expanded the idea of the functions and structure of the unconscious, including the collective unconscious. The ideas of depth psychology have had a significant impact on various branches of psychology, as well as medicine. She influenced the development of a branch of medicine that considers the influence of psychological factors on somatic diseases. Pathological states of the psyche are not defined as diseases, but as psychological difficulties, psychological conflicts that have taken a pronounced open form. Rejecting the introspective view, which identified the psyche with its "appearance", openness to the consciousness of the subject, depth psychology has taken a position that is incompatible with the scientific determinant approach.

The main, motivating causes of a person's actions are studied as originally embedded in his psychological dynamic apparatus, which is unconscious in its essence. L. S. Vygotsky, proceeding from Marxist theory, contrasted both “superficial” psychology, which studies various phenomena of consciousness by an introspective method, i.e., the method of self-observation, and “peak” depth psychology, which studies the dependence of a system of psychological functions (including will and affects) from historically changing forms of culture.

When evaluating depth psychology as a complex and heterogeneous complex, it becomes necessary to distinguish between the methods of therapy proposed by it, various established new facts from the section of the psychology of the unconscious, and the existing philosophical and theoretical interpretations, which often have a mechanistic or irrationalist character.

61. FRENCH SCHOOL OF SOCIOLOGY

The main representatives of the French sociological school: C. Saint-Simon, O. Comte, E. Durkheim. The central components of the teachings of C. Saint-Simon were the following provisions:

1) the history of human society goes through three stages, which correspond to diverse ways of thinking: polytheism and slavery, theism and feudalism, positivism and industrialization;

2) using the methods of scientific positivism, one can discover the laws of social modification and social organization;

3) the unification of modern society and management should be in the hands of researchers and industrialists, since officials, lawyers and representatives of religious denominations are unproductive and parasitic in their origin;

4) the crisis of modern society can be resolved with the help of a new faith, formed on positivism and under the control of sociologists.

O. Comte is a philosopher who proposed the concept of "sociology". From the point of view of O. Comte, sociology, acting as the apogee of sciences, should be formed as an analysis implemented from the point of view of social dynamics and social statics. O. Comte studied the active role of social institutions in the regulation of public order.

E. Durkheim considered the study of social phenomena, and not individuals, to be the sphere of sociology. He believed that society has its own realities, not combined with the influences and motives of subjects, and that individuals develop and are limited by the environment.

In 1895, his Method of Sociology was published. E. Durkheim presented in this work that the law is a social phenomenon, embodied in formal encrypted rules, and that it does not depend in its life on specific individuals or any action for its implementation.

He wrote that elementary religions personified the idea of society, and sacred objects became so because they symbolized unity. Religious culture included collective values that contained the integrity of society and its originality. Cult rituals advocated the strengthening of social values and maintaining the unity of subjects.

E. Durkheim studied the universal functions of cult systems in connection with the integrity of society as such. He believed that the features of social organization served as schemes for such fundamental categories of the human idea as number, time and space. On political issues, he was concerned about the danger to society that comes from people who do not feel that social norms are important to them. He believed that the appeal of socialism to the working class was due to a protest against the disintegration of conservative social ties and values, and not a desire to destroy personal property as such.

62. DESCRIPTIVE PSYCHOLOGY

During the crisis of a new approach to the study of the inner world of the subject, the German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), a representative of the "philosophy of life", criticized traditional philosophical schools with claims to a new worldview created in life itself, this only reality studied with the help of creative instincts and brilliant intuition. The main psychological treatise is Descriptive Psychology (1894).

According to W. Dilthey, all sciences about the spirit should be based on psychology. The natural-science affiliation of psychology, especially during its formation as an autonomous science, takes on a negative connotation in V. Dilthey. The positions of psychology, which V. Dilthey calls explanatory, were criticized, its assumptions in the image of elements - atoms and their associations, etc., which cannot be argued. The comprehensiveness of human nature was not its object - explanatory psychology cannot interpret the true life of the soul because it deals with meager phenomena and interprets them erroneously. The natural sciences had at their disposal facts that were transmitted from the outside, with the help of sensations, as single phenomena. In psychology, facts are brought forward from within as a kind of living connection of inner life, as something primordial.

The antithesis of understanding and explanation is the main methodological principle of descriptive psychology. This opposition was a kind of critique of naturalization in psychological study, which is inherent in natural science-oriented psychology. Understanding as a method of comprehending psychology is fundamentally different from introspection. Comprehension is not identical with expedient knowledge in terms: descriptive psychology must reveal the impossibility of elevating disturbances as an abstract category into concepts. The objects of descriptive psychology are a cultured person and the fullness of a ready-made inner life. It must be described, comprehended and analyzed in all its unity.

The principles of W. Dilthey were developed in the spiritual and scientific psychology of Eduard Springer (1882-1963). Its tasks were to study the relationship of the personal spiritual structure of the personality to the structure of the objective spirit and to discover the types of semantic aspirations, which were called "forms of life".

From the general statement of V. Dilthey about the interaction of the structure of inner life with culture and about value as determined by the expansive attitude of the personality, E. Springer proceeds to the systematization of values and produces it according to a more objective than emotional attitude, as was the case with V. Dilthey, the beginning.

E. Springer identifies six types of objective values: abstract, economic, aesthetic, social, political, religious.

63. FREUDISM

Freudianism is a direction named after the Austrian psychologist Z. Freud, which explains the development and structure of the personality by irrational, mental principles opposite to consciousness and applies the technique of psychotherapy based on these ideas. Formed as a concept of explaining and treating neuroses, Freudianism (F.) later elevated its provisions to the category of a general doctrine of man, society and culture, gaining great influence. The core of F. defines the idea of an eternal hidden war between the unconscious mental capabilities hidden in the depths of the individual and the need to survive in a social environment hostile to this individual. A veto from the latter, inflicting mental trauma, suppresses the energy of unconscious desires, which breaks through in detours in the form of neurotic symptoms, as well as dreams, erroneous actions (slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue), forgetting the unpleasant, etc.

Three components are distinguished in the structure of personality: id ("it"), ego ("I") and super-ego ("super-I").

The id is the focus of blind instincts, either sexual or aggressive, which strive for immediate gratification, regardless of how the subject relates to external reality. It contributes to the adaptation to the real environment of the ego, which reads information about the surrounding reality and the state of the body, remembers it and regulates the response of the individual in the interests of his self-preservation. The super-ego uses moral standards, prohibitions and encouragement, which are acquired by the personality mostly unconsciously in the process of upbringing, most often from parents. Arising as a result of the mechanism of identification of a child with an adult, it can manifest itself in the form of conscience and can cause feelings of fear and guilt. Since the demands placed on the ego by the id, the superego, and external reality (to which the individual has to adapt) are incompatible, the person is inevitably in a situation of conflict. This leads to unbearable tension, from which the individual escapes with the help of "protective mechanisms" - repression, sublimation, rationalization, regression. An important role in the formation of F.'s motivation is assigned to childhood, which allegedly unambiguously determines the roles of the character and attitudes of an adult personality. The task of psychotherapy is considered in identifying traumatic experiences and freeing a person from them through catharsis, awareness of repressed drives, understanding the causes that led to neurotic symptoms. For this, the analysis of dreams, the method of "free associations", etc. are used. F. introduced a number of important problems into psychology - unconscious motivation, the ratio of normal and pathological manifestations of the psyche, its defense mechanisms, the influence of the sexual factor, the role of childhood traumas on the behavior of an adult, etc. .

64. EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM

Initially, behaviorism was concerned with the study of the direct relationship between stimulus and response, which is necessary for the individual to more quickly adapt to the world around him. Behaviorism arose on the basis of two directions: positivism and pragmatism, according to which research should be based only on objective facts, knowledge about a person should be sufficiently complete.

By the end of 1920 - beginning of the 1930s. such a direction of behaviorism as neobehaviorism appeared. He introduced the concept that there are so-called intermediate variables between stimulus and response. Behaviorists conducted their first studies on animals. And only when it was possible to speak with confidence about sufficiently deep knowledge in the field of behavioral reactions, the subject of the study was a person. According to scientists, human behavior can be shaped under the influence of pre-prepared external stimuli. But behaviorists did not take into account the fact that human behavior and all activities are determined by certain motives and goals. Therefore, this gives reason to believe that behaviorism is imperfect in theoretical and methodological terms. It can also be assumed that it did not meet the original plans of the researchers. Most behavioral scientists who continued the study of human behavioral reactions, not without reason, pointed out to their followers what consequences could arise as a result of influencing a person with the help of certain stimuli.

In addition to J. Watson, C. L. Hull was engaged in the study of human behavior; he singled out operationalism from behaviorism.

For a long time he tried on the "stimulus-response" formula for various studies in order to test it. Behaviorism arose on the basis of the studies of E. Thorndike, the works of I. P. Pavlov and V. M. Bekhterev.

The subject of behaviorism is human behavior with all its innate and acquired components. J. Watson identified 4 types of reactions that occur in humans: external acquired and external hereditary, internal acquired and internal hereditary.

True, in the course of further research, instinctive and emotional reactions were identified. According to J. Watson, special attention should be paid to the assimilation of new skills and learning. According to this, the skill is acquired through trial and error, so it is almost impossible to control this process.

J. Watson compared human behavior with the behavior of animals, therefore, in his studies, man was considered only as a reacting creature. Behavioral teaching turned out to be far from ideal, since it placed too great demands on rigor and objectivity.

65. NEO-FREUDISM

Neo-Freudianism (N.), or neo-psychoanalysis (lit. - "new understanding of the soul"), is seen as a continuation of Freud's psychoanalysis, but this direction has significantly rebuilt the structure of analysis. In contrast to Freudianism, which put in the first place the biological prerequisites for the emergence of neurosis, N. focuses on sociocultural factors. The main role in human behavior is given to unconscious urges. According to neo-Freudians, the human psyche is socially determined, so the neurotic and normal state of a person depends on his environment. The emergence of N. refers to 1920-1930.

The main researchers of N.: K. Horney, G. Sullivan, E. Fromm, W. Reich, E. Erickson.

Karen Horney (1885-1952) put forward the theory of "cultural-philosophical psychopathology". According to this theory, neurosis was explained by the anxiety that arises when a child interacts with people around him. K. Horney considered innate instincts to be dominant, because in the process of life a person develops and changes internally and externally. In her opinion, there is a certain line between normal development and pathological development, which determines whether a person can be cured or not. A person suffering from neurosis withdraws from his "I" in favor of the ideal "I" that seems to him, he believes that this ideal can provide him with social security. The unconscious feeling of anxiety (according to K. Horney - root anxiety) is based on a feeling of loneliness and helplessness. K. Horney identified two types of anxiety - psychological and physiological. Physiological anxiety is a newborn's fear that parents may not give him the attention he needs. Psychological anxiety is the fear that the ideal and real images of one's own "I" will not unite, only if they are combined, a personality harmonious in all respects is formed.

G. Sullivan (1892-1949) created the theory of "interpersonal psychiatry", according to which in the first place for a person are relations with society, laying the foundation for the development of personality.

E. Fromm (1900-1980), the founder of "humanistic psychoanalysis", put in the first place the achievement by the individual of psychological freedom, which is "encroached upon" by society. A person who does not have the opportunity to gain such freedom refuses true values, agreeing to imaginary ones (most often - the possession of something). The direction of E. Fromm was in many ways ahead of Freudianism and subsequently received a separate, independent development.

W. Reich (1897-1957) believed that behavior is determined by "orgone energy" (the universal energy of love), when blocked, a person becomes aggressive and withdrawn. He, like Z. Freud, advocated a sexual explanation of behavior.

66. FIELD THEORY KURT LEVIN

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) - associate professor at the University of Berlin who emigrated in the 1930s. in the USA and since 1945 headed the group dynamics research center at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Like many scientists of that time, K. Lewin turned to physics in search of a “new mode of thinking”, in an attempt to make psychology a more precise science.

The "field" theory of K. Levin is not a separate psychological theory, but a system of ideas that can be applied in all branches of psychology.

The concept of "field" includes both external factors! (environment) and internal (personality). Any activity takes place in the field and is determined by its conditions.

Basic theses of field theory.

1. The logic of human behavior must be sought in the situation under study. Moreover, the situation should be considered as it is perceived by the acting subject himself.

2. The explanation should be based on psychology, first of all, it is necessary to take into account and analyze the factors perceived by the subject, both those that really exist and those that are presented only in experiences.

3. The behavior of the subject is due to the action of certain forces.

4. Similar behavior is not always due to similar reasons.

5. First of all, the factors that exist in the present time influence the behavior. Past and expected moments should be considered second.

6. To simplify the processing of psychological situations, they can be represented in algebraic form.

K. Levin proposed the following formula for recording psychological situations:

V = f(P, U),

where V - behavior;

P - personal factors!; U - environment.

K. Levin applied his field theory to a variety of psychological problems, including the behavior of mentally handicapped individuals, the behavior of small groups, problems associated with the difference in mentalities, infant and child behavior.

Science, according to K. Levin, goes through three stages:

1) speculative - several major theories are being created that claim to be a complete description of the area under study;

2) descriptive - much attention is paid to facts, theories are formed "from practice";

3) constructive - theories are formed that allow explaining any phenomenon. K. Levin expounded his views in the books Dynamic Theory of Personality and Principles of Topological Psychology.

67. THE TEACHING OF J. PIAGET ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget studied intelligence from the point of view of a structural-genetic approach. Jean Piaget created the most profound doctrine of intelligence. He built his research at the intersection of several psychological directions: behaviorism (reaction was replaced by operation), Gestalt psychology and the teachings of P. Janet (from whom the principle of interiorization was borrowed). The intellectual development of a child, according to J. Piaget, was based on the development of his speech and thinking. From this it was concluded that up to a certain age, a child’s reasoning is egocentric, while an adult thinks socially. J. Piaget was the first to suggest studying not what a child thinks about, but how he thinks. The intellect of a healthy, full-fledged person cannot be destroyed; simply a transition to a higher level of development contributes to the emergence of new ways of assimilation and processing of information. According to J. Piaget, more mature intelligence has a complicated development pattern.

J. Piaget put forward the version that the egocentrism inherent in the child is overcome in the process of his socialization. Based on this, we can talk about the internalization of external actions, i.e., thinking through one's actions. He singled out 4 main stages of the development of intelligence.

I. Sensorimotor stage (from birth to 1,5-2 years).

II. Preoperative stage (from 2 to 7 years).

III. Stage of concrete operations (from 7 to 11-12 years).

IV. Stage of formal operations (from the age of 12 until the end of life).

Each stage has its own characteristics and features.

Stage I - information comes through the senses ("to the touch").

Stage II differs in that as the child grows older, the child begins to speak, the main symbol is now the word, each object has its own sign (color, shape), and childish egocentrism appears.

Stage III - logical thinking appears, the ability to classify and generalize appears.

Stage IV is characterized by some past experience on which a person relies, decision-making becomes logical, the formation of abstract thinking.

J. Piaget considered the intellect to be a living biological structure, thanks to which a person is able to perceive certain knowledge at each stage of his development, this is a kind of process of adaptation to the outside world. Human development largely depends on its activity. J. Piaget was the first of the scientists to abandon the quantitative measurement of intelligence. He compared the structure of the intellect to a four-level barrel, which can only be filled up to the second level (knowledge and skills). You can constantly fill this barrel, but in this case, knowledge will overflow, and skills will remain. He believed that a senseless "build-up" of intelligence could lead to the opposite process.

68. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Cognitive psychology (CP) (from the Latin cognition - “knowledge, cognition”) is a branch of psychology directed against behaviorism. KP advocated the inclusion of the role of mental processes in the analysis of behavioral responses. One of the founders of the Communist Party was A. Newell. But the most significant works on CP belong to W. Neisser, D. Brodbenthui, etc. CP was taken as a basis in the works of neobehaviorists (E. Tolman, D. Miller, K. Pribram, etc.), who included cognitive and motivational components in the structure behavior. It followed from this that a person’s behavior directly depends on the level of his cognitive abilities. If we take into account the connection between CP and the behavioristic direction, we can see that the “stimulus-response” formula includes not only external stimuli, but also internal ones (ideas, desires, human self-awareness). W. Neisser believed that cognition is nothing more than the process of changing incoming information for the convenience of its preservation, accumulation and subsequent use.

In the literal sense, KP is the psychology of knowing the soul and human behavior. Some scientists argue that CP can be considered as an addition to humanistic psychology, these directions arose almost at the same time - in the late 1950s and early 1960s. At the first stages of its development, the CP studied the process of information processing from its hitting the receptors to receiving a response. At these stages, short-term and long-term memory were considered. In the course of further research, it was found that knowledge, as well as other cognitive processes, plays one of the first roles in the "theater" of human behavior.

In the works of some scientists, a person was considered as a system for which the search and processing of information is of the greatest importance - something close to a computer is obtained. On the basis of what the so-called "first cognitive revolution" arose - comparing the course of various processes in humans with similar processes in a computer.

The "second cognitive revolution" arose at a time when scientists were no longer satisfied with the results they were getting. This served as the birth of a qualitatively new direction in the CP, which brought to the fore the idea that a person, performing a certain task, uses symbolic systems, in particular, language.

The disadvantage of the CP is that within its framework there is not a single theory that explains the cognitive processes and their course, there is no reliance on the cultural development of a person. Only the mechanisms of the processes are considered.

KP is quite a promising direction, which attracts many researchers of our time.

69. HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

Humanistic psychology (HP) (from Latin humanus - "human") is a trend that studies the semantic structures of a person. Like cognitive psychology, HP was the opposite of behaviorism and psychoanalysis, in relation to these areas it was considered a "third force", which becomes the so-called life psychology. GP emerged in the early 1960s. thanks to the American psychologist A. Maslow, who formulated the basic principles of the direction. The HP proved that the results of animal research cannot be transferred to understanding human personality.

Also known are the studies of such luminaries of psychology as: G. Allport, S. Buhler, K. Rogers, G. A. Murray and others. Numerous personality studies of the late 1930s served as prerequisites for the emergence of HP. and the post-World War II period.

The main principle of HP is that a person is born kind and positive, and all negative manifestations are formed only on the basis of his environment. In fact, the world around a person contributes to the emergence of aggressiveness, anger and anger in him. The main subject of study of the GP is a specific holistic personality with all its components (activity, self-improvement, etc.) and possible problems. Human activity should always be motivated by the desire for justice and truth - it is these values that form personal potential. The GP considers the individual, first of all, as an active subject of activity, who himself has the right to choose the way of behavior. Knowledge of GP is of great importance for educators who want to achieve the best result in the learning process. To a lesser extent, the GP was engaged in the development of theoretical methods, researchers were more interested in the issues of their application in practice.

One of the most striking developments in this area can be called "client-centered therapy" by C. Rogers. In his work, he proposed the theory of a functioning creative personality. Later on, based on this therapeutic approach, other group therapy methods were developed. In GP, the theory and practice of therapy are inextricably linked, which determines the successful work of scientists in this field of psychological science.

But it is impossible not to notice the fact that the methods of HP are opposed to the methods of scientific psychology: the clinical and biographical method of HP against the experimental method and statistical study of scientific psychology.

GP has made a great contribution to the development of the psychotherapeutic direction and the theory of personality, its counseling. Thanks to the developments of humanist researchers, a developing personality was included in psychology, whose behavior was considered from all sides of scientific knowledge.

70. PSYCHOLOGICAL INSTALLATION

It determines the readiness for psychological activity and can be different, it is a dependent concept: on the individual and the period of time, spiritual motivation, expectations, beliefs, inclinations, which affects not only the specific attitude to various objects, facts, events, opinions, but also before only on the form in which these phenomena are presented, i.e., their realization in the world of perceptions.

A psychological attitude is a certain state, which, not being the content of consciousness, meanwhile has a significant impact on its work. In this case, the present state of affairs could be defined as follows: representations and thoughts, emotions and feelings, acts of volitional decisions are the content of conscious mental life, and when these mental manifestations begin to act, they are necessarily accompanied by consciousness. To be aware means to think and imagine, to experience certain emotions and to perform volitional acts. For the installation to occur, two conditions must be present: the subject's actual need and the situation leading to its satisfaction. If both of these conditions are present, then the subject has an attitude towards activity. A certain state of consciousness and the content corresponding to it is formed only on the basis of a given attitude. Thus, it is necessary to accurately distinguish, on the one hand, a specific attitude, and on the other, the specific content of consciousness. The attitude is nothing determined from this content, and, consequently, it is impossible to characterize it in terms of the phenomena of consciousness.

Distinguish between internal attitudes, which are conditioned by needs, focus of attention, as well as attitudes caused by certain external events: objective and subjective attitudes. In an intermediate position are attitudes that have arisen as a result of past experience that has a connection with this subject and have been preserved for a long period of time (enmity, friendship, trust, respect, etc.).

The psychological attitude is such a relationship between the contemplative person and objects in which certain reactions occur not only upon repeated exposure, but also in the case when they are expected to occur, which can be indicated by various omen signals. When studying a psychological attitude, it is advisable to monitor a large period of time.

To do this, it is necessary to fix it to a certain extent, which is achieved by repeated exposure to stimuli. Such experiences are called fixing or adjusting, and the attitude that arose as a result of these experiences is called a fixed psychological attitude.

71. THEORY OF PLANNED FORMATION OF MENTAL ACTIONS

The theory of planned formation of mental actions was developed by P. Ya. Galperin (1902-1988) and his followers. It contains general rules for the formation of knowledge and skills, as well as programs for their application in education.

According to P. Ya. Galperin, orientation is the most important of the components of an action, since a correctly oriented person will most likely perform the action correctly the first time.

First of all, the action was studied as an elementary unit of activity, in connection with which the concept of "orienting basis of action" (OOD) was emphasized.

The structure of the OOD includes:

1) knowledge about the conditions for the successful implementation of the action;

2) knowledge about the structure, purpose, duration of action, etc.

Different OOD leads to different conditions for the formation of knowledge and skills.

1. Incomplete OOD - the student has an idea about the action itself and the goal, but does not know what are the conditions for its success. The action is formed on the basis of trial and error, contains many unnecessary elements. This is typical of unorganized learning.

2. Partially complete OOD - the student has an idea about the action, the purpose and the correctness of its implementation. However, knowledge is purely practical, not included in the general system of knowledge of the subject.

3. Complete OOD - the student receives a complete picture of the action, understands its logic, is able to independently transfer it to other areas.

According to this theory, for the formation of a new knowledge or skill, the following conditions must be met:

1) the motivation of the subject increases;

2) knowledge is fixed correctly in an external form (for example, in the form of visual aids);

3) explains the logic of knowledge, its place in the system of other knowledge;

4) memorization is achieved.

P. Ya. Galperin singled out 6 parameters of action, the first four are primary, and the last two are secondary, formed as a result of a combination of the first:

1) the level of performance of the action: material, verbal, mental;

2) measure of generalization;

3) completeness of actually performed operations;

4) measure of development;

5) reasonableness of action;

6) consciousness of action.

P. Ya. Galperin singled out three groups of actions.

1. Actions to be learned.

2. Actions that are necessary in the learning process.

3. Modeling and coding.

Training, according to P. Ya. Galperin, consists of five stages:

1) creation of the OOD;

2) materialized action;

3) speaking out loud;

4) speaking to yourself;

5) automation of action.

72. CURRENT STATUS AND DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGY

The development of modern foreign psychology (especially considering the previous temporal stages of development) began around the second half of the XNUMXth century. This period is considered to be a crisis, as many directions appeared that refuted or were based on criticism of each other's main theses. Many currents of psychology that arose earlier were relegated to the background. But this is precisely what contributed to the fact that new, more advanced ones arose. The most popular works in the field of intelligence research.

One of the brightest directions of this stage can be called psychogenetics, which began its existence in 1865 thanks to the research of F. Galton. Currently, this science is going through the fourth stage of its development.

As a rule, psychogenetics is considered an interdisciplinary field of knowledge that determines the role and interaction of heredity and environmental factors in the formation of individual psychological and psychophysiological differences.

The very first research in this area was devoted to the study of inherited traits, such as talent and ability. Hence the task of psychogenetics was formulated: to find out the factor influencing the formation of a particular trait in an individual.

As science developed, research methods were developed: genealogical, the method of twins and the method of adopted children. Almost 80% of the work of psychogeneticists is devoted to the study of the inheritance of intelligence, for which the method of adopted children is most often used (a vivid example is the famous 15-year project of Texas researchers). This science also explores temperament, and it was found that at an older age, twins have the greatest similarity in temperament.

No less interesting is the teaching of J. Piaget on the development of the intellect. J. Piaget based his teaching on the explanation of the child's perception and thinking.

Piaget did not use other people's methods, he created a method of clinical conversation based on obtaining certain answers to questions asked of children that reveal individual differences between children.

J. Piaget singled out the stages of the development of the intellect, the correspondence to which determines the normal development of the personality. Each of these stages should take place within a certain, specific age. Indispensable in the development of the child, J. Piaget considered egocentrism - the intellectual position of the child, through which the latter must pass. But then again, all of the above could change depending on the environment in which the child is brought up, whether his achievements in the field of knowledge are encouraged. Only with the harmonious interaction of the child and the environment, according to J. Piaget, does the normal development of the intellect occur.

Author: Anokhina Z.V.

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