Culturology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Culturology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. BASIC MEANINGS OF THE CONCEPT "CULTURE"

The original Latin use of the word "culture" comes from the words colo, colere - "to cultivate, cultivate the land, engage in agriculture." But already Cicero a wider application of this term began to occur - the cultivation of the human mind, the improvement of man.

In the current understanding, the word "culture" became known in Europe only from the XNUMXth century, from the Enlightenment.

It was then that it was realized that the qualities found in a person cannot be reduced only to the natural or to the Divine principle: there is also something that is determined by a person’s own activity.

Thus, the world of culture was opened - a world created by man himself from beginning to end, and thus man's dependence on himself, his own activity, and the ability to transform the surrounding reality was also discovered.

To date, scientists have more than 500 definitions of culture.

Such an abundance of definitions is caused by the extreme complexity of the very phenomenon of culture. Each of the authors, being unable to cover the object as a whole, fixes his attention on some separate, essential aspects of it.

Some associate culture with traditions, consider it as a social heritage of society, others emphasize the normative nature of culture and interpret it as a set of rules that determine the way of life. Still others understand culture as the sum of all activities, customs, and beliefs.

The modern classification of definitions of the concept “culture” allows us to identify the main approaches.

1. Descriptive approach. Culture is presented as the result of all human activity.

2. Evaluative (axiological) approach, in which the degree of culture is determined by correlation with some value standard.

3. Activity approach. Culture is considered as a specific mode of activity.

The term "culture" is also used in a broad and narrow sense.

In a broad sense, culture includes all generally accepted, established forms of life in society - customs, norms, institutions.

In a narrow sense, the boundaries of culture coincide with the boundaries of the sphere of spiritual creativity, art, morality, and intellectual activity.

But all definitions of culture are practically united in one thing - it is everything created by man, the world created by man. In its reality, culture is a complex of human achievements.

2. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES, STRUCTURE OF CULTUROLOGY

Culturology - the field of science, which was formed on the basis of social-scientific and humanitarian knowledge. A significant role in substantiating this science and fixing its name as cultural studies belongs to the English anthropologist Leslie Alvin White. He dedicated his work “The Science of Culture” (1949) to the substantiation of cultural studies.

In his opinion, culture should be considered as a specific order of phenomena, organized according to its own principles and developing according to its own laws.

One of the main goals of culturology is to identify patterns of cultural development that differ from the laws of nature and the material life of a person and determine the specifics of culture as an inherently valuable sphere of being.

Among the main tasks of cultural studies are the following:

1) a deep, complete and holistic explanation of culture, its essence, content, features and functions;

2) the study of the genesis of culture, as well as individual phenomena and processes in culture;

3) determining the place and role of man in cultural processes;

4) development of a categorical apparatus, methods and means of studying culture;

5) interaction with other sciences studying culture;

6) study of the development of various cultures, highlighting the links between elements of culture;

7) study of the typology of cultures and their underlying norms, values and symbols (cultural codes);

8) study of the problems of socio-cultural dynamics.

Cultural studies actively interacts with other sciences. It is a complex of anthropological, humanitarian and sociological knowledge.

In cultural studies, the theory of culture (philosophy of culture), the history of culture, the history of cultural studies, the sociology of culture, cultural anthropology, and applied cultural studies stand out. Each of them has its own object of study, interacts with a certain range of sciences, differs in the language of description, the specifics of analysis, methods and practical significance for solving specific problems.

Comparative (comparative) studies are of great importance for the development of cultural studies. Understanding other cultures not only normalizes intercultural communication, but also helps to better understand their own cultural values.

Currently, against the background of these basic cultural trends, other special studies are being developed (hermeneutics of culture, cultural ecology, etc.). The system of cultural knowledge is in development.

3. STRUCTURE OF CULTURE

The division of culture into material and spiritual is generally accepted (but this division is conditional).

Material culture includes the world of things, objects created by human labor. Intangible, or spiritual, culture is formed by norms, rules, laws, values, rituals, symbols, myths, knowledge, ideas, customs, traditions, language. Unlike objects of material culture, they exist in the minds of people - they are realized in communication and reflect the level of human development.

Some types of culture cannot be definitely attributed to either the material or the spiritual realm, they are considered a "vertical section" of culture. They seem to permeate all its levels.

These are the following types of culture:

1) economic;

2) political;

3) aesthetic;

4) ecological culture.

Culture is also considered from the standpoint of the implementation of values. There are positive and negative values, specific - eternal, internal - external, etc. Based on the last pair of criteria, culture is divided into subjective (the development of an individual’s abilities) and objective (the process of people changing their habitat).

Objective culture, in turn, consists of many components. The most important components of objective culture are cultural universals and cultural order. Universals (the most general concepts of culture), scientists have about 100 (among them the calendar, number, name, family, rituals, etc.). Universals are inherent in all cultures, regardless of time, place and social structure of society.

cultural order - this is a set of worldview attitudes, ideas, rules, norms that govern the relationship between cultural elements (these are written language, oral speech, scientific theories, genres of art).

Objective culture is also subdivided according to the nature of its localization in geographical and social spaces into a cultural area (a geographical area that may not coincide with state boundaries), a dominant culture (values that guide most members of society), a subculture (national, professional, age), counterculture (a culture that is in conflict with generally accepted values).

From the point of view of the creative subject, culture is divided into individual (the culture of the individual), group (one or another social community) and universal (or world).

Culture is divided into progressive and reactionary (according to the content and degree of influence on a person). Progressive culture is associated with the concept of humanism.

Culture is also considered from the standpoint of statics and dynamics. The first describes culture at rest, the second - in motion.

4. FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE

The term "function" (from lat. functio - "execution") is translated as "duty", "circle of activity".

The defining function of culture is humanistic, or educational, spiritual and moral. Its essence reflects the concept of "culture of the soul". From this main, system-forming function, other functional modifications of culture diverge: adaptive, regulatory, cognitive.

adaptive function culture is represented by complementary functions: adaptation (adaptation), socialization (inclusion of a person in public life) and harmonization (reconciliation of rational and irrational principles in a person). The main cultural task solved within the framework of this function is to transform a person from a biological being into a social one and stabilize him in this capacity.

Regulatory function can be represented by three complementary functions: axiological, normative, semiotic.

In this series, the most important is axiological (value) function. Culture is, first of all, a normative system, and as such it forms in a person certain value orientations (the most significant personal preferences). The measure of their assessment is their moral content.

If value orientations acquire only a pragmatic character, this can threaten both the individual and society. But culture is not only a set of norms, it is also a set of sign systems (speech, language of formulas, art, etc.).

Semiotic (sign) function presupposes a person's knowledge of special language systems.

Cognitive function includes epistemological, communicative and translational functions.

Gnoseological (cognitive) function culture is determined by its ability to concentrate the experience of many generations of people and, through its prism, to give people a holistic idea of themselves. At the same time - by way of feedback - the culture itself, its level of development, serve as an indicator that allows us to judge the transformative activity of a person (nature and himself).

Communicative function allows people to interact with each other. But for positive communication, it is important to achieve a certain level of mutual understanding, the formation of which depends on the possession of a common system of meanings and specific languages.

The function of translation, the transfer of social experience from generation to generation, also referred to as informative, or a function of historical continuity. In this function, culture acts as the "memory" of mankind.

5. LEVELS OF THE REGULATORY FUNCTION OF CULTURE

The regulatory function of culture manifests itself in a system of norms and requirements that are binding on all members of society in order to maintain its integrity and ensure the harmony of intergroup interests.

The regulatory function of culture is carried out at a number of levels. The highest of these are the norms of morality (rules of conduct that have been established in society in accordance with moral ideas about good and evil, justice and injustice, duty, honor, dignity, etc.).

Moral standards - these are unwritten requirements that function in society in the form of principles, concepts, ideas, assessments. Moral norms are not the product of some specialized institutional activity. Their implementation is ensured not by coercion, but by moral persuasion (conscience) or by means of public opinion through the approval or condemnation of certain actions.

The next level at which the regulatory function of culture is carried out is rules of law. In contrast to moral norms, legal norms are institutional, that is, directly related to the structural organizations of society, and are based on its most important social institutions. Legal norms are established and sanctioned by the state. As institutionalized regulators of people's behavior, they are enshrined in strictly defined documentary forms (regulations, laws) that have legal force. Ensuring legal norms often requires the use of government coercive measures.

An integral part of culture, where its regulatory function is manifested, are customs. Norms of custom were historically the first social norms.

Norms of custom - these are rules of conduct that, as a result of long-term application, become a habit of people and thus regulate their behavior. Customs are very stable and conservative. Customs are nationally colored, retain their originality.

Traditions are closely connected with customs (historically formed elements of social and cultural heritage, passed down from generation to generation). Along with customs, traditions provide continuity in social development.

Customs and traditions are manifested in rites and rituals (this is a set of stereotypical symbolic actions that embody certain ideas, ideas, values and evoke certain feelings).

Ceremonies and rituals have been and are being performed in many events of life that are especially significant for the individual and society.

The next everyday level of culture is etiquette standards, communication culture.

6. LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS OF CULTURE

In culture, there are various sign systems, or languages of culture: natural language, written texts, folklore, traditions, household items, rituals, etiquette, various types of art.

language of culture - a set of all sign methods of verbal and non-verbal communication, with the help of which culturally significant information is transmitted.

Language is the most universal sign system. The main means of cognition and communication are natural languages. Along with them, there are artificial languages (the language of science, road signs, conventional signals) and secondary languages (myth, religion, art).

cultural experience humanity is also expressed in texts. The problems of decoding textual information are studied within the framework of semiotics (the science of sign systems) and hermeneutics (the science that deals with the interpretation, interpretation of texts).

cultural text is an expression of the deep semantic field of culture. But the meaning is most often not rigidly determined by a word or a sign, but can be given to a phenomenon depending on the cultural context, the time of pronunciation or writing, and subjective experience.

In natural languages and languages of culture, it is possible to deepen the levels of meaning: there is a direct, indirect, figurative, hidden meaning, etc.

The most superficial level of meaning is the so-called common sense, which is generally accepted, expressed verbally (verbally) at the level of consciousness. The deepest level of meaning is that unmanifested content that connects a person with the world of values, laws, patterns of behavior of a given culture.

Cultural semantics deals with the study of cultural objects from the point of view of the meaning they express. Cultural objects are considered in cultural semantics as a means of transmitting culturally significant information - the meaning behind some object, which acts as a sign (a substitute for this information) and understanding (comprehension of information transmitted using a sign).

Understanding is the most important aspect of the functioning of the language of culture. During communication (exchange of signs), there is inevitably a certain inadequacy of understanding, a moment of interpretation that distorts the original meaning.

Culture also expresses itself through the world of symbols - signs that have no objective meaning, but through which the meaning of the object itself is revealed. With the help of symbols, information is transmitted by means that exceed the capabilities of language (these means are coats of arms, emblems, color symbols, gestures, etc.). Symbols in religion and art are of particular importance. Each type of art has its own figurative and symbolic language (there is the language of music, dance, painting, cinema, theater, etc.).

7. VALUES OF CULTURE

Values occupy an important place in the content of culture. In the XNUMXth century a special philosophical discipline about values arose - axiology.

Its development was greatly facilitated G. Lotz, W. Windelband, G. Rickert.

There are different approaches to understanding values. Usually, scientists proceed from the following ideas.

Value - this is a characteristic of a person's attitude to an object fixed in the mind of a person.

Value for a person are objects that give him positive emotions: pleasure, joy, pleasure. Therefore, he desires them and longs for them. Material objects, processes or spiritual phenomena (knowledge, ideas, ideas) can have value.

But value itself is not an object, but a special kind of meaning that a person sees in an object or phenomenon.

Value meaning exists in a person’s consciousness, but it is, as it were, objectified and takes the form of a special spiritual formation - value as a certain essence contained in an object.

If an object becomes desirable, satisfying the needs, needs of the individual, it acquires value.

Consequently, not the object itself, but the attitude of a person towards it leads to the emergence of value. However, in practice, value is called not only the ability of an object to satisfy needs, but also this object itself.

Value in cultural studies is not identical to the economic understanding of it as value (monetary expression of value). Values cannot always be expressed in monetary terms. It is impossible to express inspiration, remembrance, the joy of creativity and other manifestations of the human soul in a commodity-money form.

Value must be distinguished from utility. A valuable thing may be useless, and a useful thing may have no value.

In axiology, various options for classifying values are accepted. There are classifications in which values are arranged in a hierarchical sequence - from lower (sensual) to higher (sacred). Most often, values are divided into spiritual, social, economic, and material.

On the basis of the value ideas that prevail in culture, a system of value orientations of the individual is formed. Each individual organizes them in his own way.

Family happiness, material well-being, love, a successful career, decency, etc. can serve as value orientations.

In a person of high culture, spiritual values become decisive.

Values are often incompatible with each other. Therefore, a person is practically doomed to the torment of choosing alternative values.

8. CULTURAL NORMS

Cultural norms are an important means of regulating people's behavior.

State-established norms are the official expression of cultural norms.

But legal norms do not exhaust the whole variety of norms operating in society.

cultural norms arise already at the earliest stages of human evolution. With the help of sign systems of culture, they are passed on from generation to generation and turn into “habits” of society - customs, traditions.

Different cultures have different degrees of normativity.

Regulatory “inadequacy” can lead to negative phenomena - an increase in crime, a decline in morality, and disorganization of social relations. But normative “redundancy” can also become an obstacle to social progress.

Cultural norms unify people's behavior, ensure uniformity and consistency of their collective actions. Following cultural norms is a necessary condition for organizing the joint life of people, maintaining public order.

Cultural norms often represent procedural rules, methods, programs of activities aimed at obtaining the desired result (production and technical standards, secrets of professional skills, methods of activity).

Cultural norms are usually divided into general cultural, group и role-playing.

to common cultural norms These include rules of behavior in public places - on the street, in public transport, a store, a theater; rules of common courtesy; civil rights and obligations, etc.

Group norms can be both patterns of behavior characteristic of a certain class, social stratum or social group, and special rules that individual groups, communities or organizations establish for themselves (the norms of the first group are the rules of secular etiquette, noble honor, military regulations, etc.; norms of the second type - norms of behavior in a club, company, etc.).

Role norms determine the nature of the behavior of a person in a certain social position (the role of a leader, buyer, parent, etc.).

Society exercises social control over people's behavior, stimulating normative and suppressing deviant (deviant) behavior.

The main mechanisms of social control are public opinion and administrative management.

The control over observance of norms and their protection from violations are indispensable conditions for the existence of culture. Society is interested in this because the observance of sociocultural norms ensures the safety of human interaction, while deviations from the norms are fraught with unpredictable consequences.

9. DIVERSITY OF APPROACHES TO DETERMINING THE ESSENCE OF CULTURE

In determining the essence of culture, the foreground is philosophical approach. It forms the most universal interpretation of the phenomenon of culture. Culture is understood by philosophy as the highest human instinct, compensating for the unsatisfied real needs of people through the creation of symbolic space - the world of culture.

Philosophy sees in culture the meaning-bearing and meaning-transmitting aspects of human practice and its results, the symbolic dimension of real events.

The concretization of the philosophical vision of culture can be a view of it from the standpoint of aesthetics, ethics and morality.

Aesthetic approach to culture (according to F. Schiller) suggests that the path to the highest values (freedom, goodness, justice) runs through the beauty created in the field of art. From the standpoint of aesthetics, culture is seen as the realization of beauty and the filling of harmony with all types of human activity.

Culture from the standpoint of morality and ethics (according to I. Kant, A. Schweitzer) It appears as a voluntary fulfillment by a person of his moral duties to everything that exists in the world, and before the person himself sets the task of harmonizing his physical and moral essence.

Philosophy assigns culture the place of an ideal link between the eternal and the transient. This understanding finds common ground with the religious outlook on it. The range of religious views on culture is quite wide. The main place in it is given to the understanding of culture as a condition for salvation, as an active love for God, people, and the world.

Among proper cultural approaches to the definition of the essence of culture is usually stand out:

1) axiological approach, which defines culture as a set of material and spiritual values accumulated by humanity;

2) psychological approach, characterizing culture as a set of behavioral stereotypes and motivations that ensure social communication;

3) ethnographic approach, representing culture as the sum of knowledge, customs and beliefs of a particular ethnic group;

4) historical approach, which considers culture as a system of specific historical types of social development;

5) sociological approach, allowing you to study culture as part of a social system, social relations, a certain social institution. The sociology of culture studies the roles that culture plays in society (educational, value-orienting, communicative, etc.). But within the framework of the sociological approach, culture is considered primarily as a way of ordering (regulating) social relations.

10. CULTUROGENESIS

In modern science, there are many different interpretations of the genesis of culture (the process of the birth of culture): there are tool-labor, evolutionary, psychoanalytic, symbolic, socio-cultural, game, religious and other concepts.

Within the framework of the tool-labor concept (by F. Engels) the emergence of culture is associated with the formation of a person's ability to work and his ability to create tools. The labor concept of the genesis of culture claims that the creation of artificial tools gave rise to the emergence of speech, language, consciousness, thinking and culture itself.

Evolutionist concept (by E. Taylor, J. Fraser, G. Spencer, L. G. Morgan etc.) proceeds from the fact that culture originates from the progressive development of living matter from the simplest forms to more complex ones.

Symbolic concept (by E. Kassirer) explains the emergence of culture by the fact that man, at a certain stage of his evolution, lost his instincts and was forced to exist in his likeness. This led to the gradual development of a certain system of guidelines - symbols that ensured man's adaptation to the world.

Game theory (by J. Huizinge etc.) proceeds from the recognition that the source of culture is in the natural ability of a person to play activities. The game is also inherent in animals, but only in humans it has become a meaningful form of life.

A person who plays, according to J. Huizinga, expresses the same essential function as a person who creates.

Since ancient times, the game has filled life and thus encouraged the growth of forms of archaic culture. The cult developed into a sacred game, the game was music and dance.

Law emerged from the customs of the social game. These observations led J. Huizinga to the conclusion that culture began precisely in the game.

Psychoanalytic concept (by Z. (to Freud) approaches the disclosure of the genesis of culture through the study of the phenomenon of primitive culture.

Great importance in this concept is attached to the system of prohibitions - taboos. Man acquired features that were not inherent in the animal world.

Religious concept connects the beginning of culture with the emergence of faith in God. One of the central themes in Christianity is the theme of the separation of man from God.

Culture was called upon to fill the gap between God and people, it was culture that brought high meanings to life.

At the heart of the Christian understanding of culture lies the desire for self-improvement by getting rid of sinfulness.

Faith in God gave a person the strength to overcome himself, to fill his life with moral meanings.

11. MAIN CULTURAL SCHOOLS AND DIRECTIONS

The scientific, systematic nature of ideas about culture began to acquire in modern times, in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries.

German scientists were the first on the path of systematizing ideas about the diversity of culture. Johann Gottfried Herder и Johann Forster, who can simultaneously be called philosophers of culture and anthropology. Their works posed questions characteristic of modern cultural knowledge. In the well-known book by I. G. Herder, “Ideas for the Philosophy of Human History,” an understanding of culture was formulated that formed the basis of the European cultural tradition. J. G. Herder argued that cultures have the ability to develop from themselves. This constitutes the law of progress in history. Therefore, in any event he tried to identify a tendency towards a higher goal. He understood the law of progress in nature as an ascending series of living beings; in history he saw it in the aspiration of human society towards humanity.

The first theoretical concept that appeared as a result of studying the life of peoples, their cultures, was the evolutionist (according to E. Taylor, J. Fraser, G. Spencer, C. Letourneau, L. G. Morgan and etc.).

The ideas of linearity, the unity of the human race and uniformity, stages, progress in the development of culture from simple to complex have become fundamental to the studies of evolutionists.

The evolutionist paradigm in the study of culture has contributed a lot to the understanding of human nature, the functions of culture, and the patterns of its development.

In the XNUMXth century in the wake of research on the problems of various cultures, the philosophy of culture becomes an independent field of scientific reflection, and its subject is man and the symbolic, artificial world created by him.

An important direction in the development of cultural ideas has become a sociological direction (according to O. Comte, E. Durkheim, M. Weber, G. Simmel etc.), which explores the relationship between the elements of culture and the social structure, showing how cultural values are embodied in social reality.

The sociology of culture, especially its analytical direction, was developed C. Cooley, W. Thomas, D. Mead.

In the XNUMXth century as an independent direction in the sciences of culture, a psychological direction stands out, actively exploring various forms of manifestation of the spirit of culture (myths, fairy tales, morality, life, mores). A new approach in cultural studies was laid by the psychoanalytic direction (according to Z. Freud, M. Mead, B. Benedict, C. G. Jung etc.), which made it possible to more thoroughly understand not only logic, but also the sensual aspects and foundations of cultural phenomena.

12. TRADITIONS AND INNOVATIONS IN CULTURE

Traditions (from Latin traditio - "transfer of values from generation to generation") form the foundation of the cultural life of human society.

Traditions cover the objects of heritage, the processes of transmission of this heritage from generation to generation, as well as the procedures and methods of inheritance.

Traditions can be certain social norms and rules, values, ideas, customs, rituals, individual items. Traditions are present in any manifestation of social life, but their significance is not the same. In some areas (religion) they are of a fundamental nature, in others their presence may be minimal.

Traditions are the "collective memory" of society and culture. They provide continuity in the development of people. The process of socialization and inculturation is largely based on traditions. It is through traditions that individuals connect to group memory, mastering the experience of the past, better orient themselves in the present.

But each new generation of people does not mechanically master traditions; at each new stage of evolution, people carry out their own interpretation of traditions, their choice, endow them with a specific meaning. Some elements of cultural heritage are accepted, others are rejected, recognized as harmful and false. Therefore, traditions can be both positive and negative. The positive pole is determined by the totality of what is taken over from the heritage of the ancestors, reproduced, and implemented in the life of subsequent generations. Negative traditions include those objects and values of the past that are recognized as superfluous and require eradication.

It often happens that tradition turns from a role model into a coercive mechanism. This can turn into a tragedy for an individual and even entire social strata (for example, a conflict between fathers and children).

The opposite of tradition is innovations - mechanisms for the formation of new cultural models of various levels, which create preconditions for socio-cultural changes.

The ability to develop, update is the most important property of culture.

Change can be gradual (reformist) or abrupt (revolutionary).

When the sum of the positive consequences of changes exceeds the negative ones, then one speaks of the progress of culture.

Otherwise they say about regression.

For the progressive development of culture, both traditions and innovations are equally necessary. Absoluteization of one of the parties leads to negative processes.

The success of cultural evolution depends on the extent to which it is possible to coordinate and implement both positions.

13. CULTURE AND RELIGION

For thousands of years, religion has been and remains an important factor in the cultural life of people. Without faith, pouring out in the form of a certain religion, not a single people existed.

For a long time, religion was the only worldview system within which culture was aware of itself. The meanings and values of human existence, its ethical, moral and aesthetic components were perceived primarily in a religious context. Religion answered the ultimate questions, ascending to the absolute forms of existence and worldview.

The exit of religious knowledge to the Absolute acts through ethical ideas about the world, about what should, about the norms of social interactions, relations between man and nature, ideas about ideals, as well as about the negative absolute characteristics of these principles.

Religion answers the most important questions of human life, the answers to which have not yet been found in other worldview traditions (science first of all).

The inner human need to realize the meaning of life attracts many to religion. Religion allows a person to compensate for the sphere of unrealized possibilities in reality.

In religion, as it were, the removal of eternal social contradictions takes place: real oppression is overcome by "freedom in the spirit", social

inequality turns into equality of sinfulness before God, disunity is replaced by "brotherhood in Christ", human impotence is compensated by the omnipotence of God, the mortal turns out to be immortal, the world of evil and injustice is replaced by the kingdom of God ("kingdom of heaven").

In prayer and repentance, a person overcomes the state of dissatisfaction, finds relief, calmness, and a surge of strength.

Nowadays, the consolidating possibilities of religion, its humanistic potential are recognized as the most significant.

Religion is most closely in contact in the cultural world with the sphere of art and especially morality.

It was these spheres that participated in the formation of a still little explored quality, human spirituality.

Many theologians directly identify religion with morality. The universal foundations of morality, without which no culture can exist, one way or another, in one way or another, are found in almost all world religions (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism). The famous commandments “Thou shalt not kill,” “Thou shalt not steal,” and others are found in all developed religious systems.

Religion, which has accumulated the moral experience of a huge number of previous generations of people, is still an important factor in the regulation of behavior.

14. DYNAMICS OF CULTURE

The most important properties of culture - its mobility and ability to change and develop. Changes of culture in time and space describe the dynamics of culture.

Conceptual development of the problem of sociocultural development is grouped around the following areas: ideas of linear evolution, cyclicality (circular, wave) of the civilization process, synergetic approach.

evolutionary theory (by E. Taylor, C. Spencer, L. Morgan etc.) considers the dynamics of culture as a linear type of successive changes from simple to complex.

Allocation cyclicity in the dynamics of sociocultural systems (according to O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, P. Sorokin, N. Ya. Danilevsky, A. Schlesinger, E. Toffler etc.) made it possible to study the problems of the growth or decline of cultures in more detail, to predict general trends in social development.

A new vision of the world of cultural change has opened synergy (by G. Haken, I. R. Prigogine). This is a complex scientific direction that incorporates the achievements of nonequilibrium thermodynamics, control theory, theory of complex systems and information. Synergetics has radically changed the understanding of the relationship between order and chaos. Within its framework, the state of chaos began to be presented as a transition from one level of order to another. In synergetics, much attention is paid to the phenomenon of nonlinearity, which is characterized by a variety of processes and types of development trajectories. In synergetics, development is carried out through instability, the new appears as unpredictable, but exists in the spectrum of possible states, the present is not only determined by the past, but is formed from the future.

Self-organization processes arise in complex nonlinear systems.

The synergetic vision made it possible to explain many phenomena of culture as a complex system, to predict a number of its essential properties and directions of development.

The enumeration of only some approaches to the study of sociocultural dynamics nevertheless allows us to see that the dynamic process is multifactorial and complex.

Usually, classifying the types of variability, the following processes are distinguished in cultural studies.

cultural genesis - the process of reproduction of forms of culture, flowing constantly.

Inheritance of traditions - transmission from generation to generation.

cultural diffusion - the process of spatial, temporal distribution of cultural samples from one society to another during their cultural contact.

Transformation of cultural forms - their modernization, development, degradation, crisis, etc.

Reintegration - changing the meanings and symbolic characteristics of cultural phenomena.

15. OBJECT, SUBJECT AND METHODS OF CULTURE

The definition of the object and subject of cultural studies is concentrated around the concept of culture. Culturology, which is in the field of tension between social-scientific and humanitarian approaches, has as an object of study the whole world of artificial orders (things, technologies of activity, forms of social organization, knowledge, concepts, symbols, languages of communication, etc.).

The subject area of cultural studies is also wide. It consists of the ontology of culture (the variety of perspectives of knowledge); epistemology of culture (foundations of cultural knowledge, its structure and methodology); culture morphology; cultural semantics (ideas about symbols, signs, languages of culture); anthropology of culture (ideas about the personal parameters of culture); sociology of culture; social and historical dynamics of culture; applied aspects of cultural studies.

Culturology applies various methods of studying culture. Among the most traditional are diachronic method, which allows one to study cultural processes and phenomena in the chronological sequence of their appearance and course. This method is combined with other methods, in particular with synchronous.

Synchronous method consists in the cumulative analysis of two or more cultures over a certain time of their development. This method allows not only to present cultural phenomena, but also to compare, analyze, evaluate them.

More opportunities in this sense are comparative-historical (comparative) method. Its essence is that it allows one to compare many phenomena of a cultural complex from a historical perspective and to penetrate into their essence.

In cultural studies, it is also widely used structural-functional method. Its essence lies in decomposing the cultural object being studied into its component parts and identifying the internal connection and conditionality between them.

But within the framework of this level of analysis, descriptions of culture still remain as if separated, not connected with each other.

The tasks associated with a greater generalizing ability to see its deep meanings behind specific cultural phenomena made it possible to resolve system method knowledge of culture.

In cultural studies, it is also widely used empirical method. Within its framework, traditional field anthropological methods - description, classification, observation, interview.

In recent years, more and more use methods of mathematical modeling sociocultural reality. But when using them, the problem of irreducibility of large-scale and complexly structured cultural information to exact mathematical formulas remains.

16. CREATIVITY AS AN INDIVIDUAL HUMAN WORLD

The most specific expression of the existence of a human personality in the activity aspect of its existence is the creative principle. To create means to act freely. Unlike other living beings, a person does not blindly obey natural or social forces, but acts within the framework of his understanding of their essence.

The creative (creative, generative) function of culture is embedded in the idea of human creative possibilities. Turning to the work of outstanding representatives of science, art, philosophy, one cannot but see that their titanic efforts led to the transition from one cultural tradition to another. Creativity expands the subject field of culture. An adequate way to realize the creative potential of a person is culture, the meaning-bearing and meaning-transmitting aspect of human practice and its results.

Only humans are creative. Nature does not have such a property, it does not consciously create anything, but spontaneously develops.

Creation - the prerogative of man. It aims, first of all, to improve the person himself through the development of abilities for productive activity. In his desire to “get to the very essence of everything,” man increases the total volume of creations and culture. Creativity is always a person going beyond his capabilities. But here it is extremely important to have a sense of proportion in order to become an example of the culture of your time.

From the point of view of the creative role of activity in social development, it is divided into reproductive, aimed at obtaining an already known result, and productive (creative), associated with the development of new goals and corresponding means.

Culture as a creative activity of people is determined by their ability to know and is always aimed at achieving specific goals and ideals. Therefore, it is customary to consider culture as the implementation of values as guidelines, criteria for creativity.

The role of culture as a way of realizing the creative potential of a person is diverse. Culture invites the individual to create, but it also imposes restrictions on it.

These restrictions apply to both society and nature. Cultural taboos protect society from destructive and destructive actions.

Cultural restrictions are also necessary in the processes of controlling the forces of nature. Ignoring such restrictions has led modern civilization to an ecological crisis. Culture as a way to realize the creative potential of a person cannot but include an understanding of the value of nature as a habitat for people, the basis of the cultural development of society.

17. THE PRINCIPLE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Principle of cultural relativism (from lat. relativus - "relative") affirms the relative isolation of cultures, the diversity of their development paths, value systems and cultural and historical types.

Cultural relativism is manifested in emphasizing the differences between the cultures of different peoples, differences in the worldview, thinking, worldview of peoples. All cultures are seen as equal in importance, but qualitatively different.

Cultural relativism proclaims culture as defining identity. In accordance with this provision, any culture can only be understood in its own context and only when it is considered in its entirety.

From the standpoint of cultural relativism, social interaction between representatives of different cultures is difficult, since members of one cultural tradition cannot understand the motives and values of representatives of other cultures. The same values may have different meanings in different cultures.

The conclusion that cultural processes and phenomena cannot be fully understood if they are considered in isolation from the cultural system as a whole is correct. Each cultural element must be related to the characteristics of the culture of which it is a part. The value of any cultural element can be considered in the context of a particular culture.

One of the founders of the school of cultural relativism is an American scientist Melville Herskowitz. He summarized his views in the works “Acculturation”, “Man and His Creations”, “Cultural Anthropology”.

Melville Herskovitz represented the general cultural-historical process as the sum of multidirectional developing cultures. In the most general terms, he understood culture as a human-made habitat, considering each individual culture as a unique, unique model determined by a permanent tradition, which manifests itself in the specific value systems inherent in each people, often incomparable with the systems of other peoples.

Culture ensures the integrity and vitality of society. Melville Herskovitz understood the history of mankind as the sum of independently developing cultures and civilizations.

But the emphasis only on the originality of culture narrows the possibilities of knowing this culture in comparison with other cultures. A consequence of cultural relativism can be cultural isolationism.

For a long time it was inherent in the policy of the Japanese and Chinese emperors, the former leaders of the USSR (Iron Curtain policy).

Cultural relativism has a negative meaning for the process of interaction and development of cultures.

18. RELATIONSHIP OF PHILOSOPHY AND CULTURE

Questions of understanding culture as a whole occupy one of the most important places among philosophical problems.

The traditions of philosophical understanding of culture were laid down in the era of antiquity. During further development in the Middle Ages. In modern times, culture (enlightenment, education, upbringing, civilization) remained the key to philosophical understanding.

In the XNUMXth century Philosophy of culture becomes an independent field of philosophical reflection, which made it possible to raise ideas about culture to a high generalizing level, to concentrate everything essential related to knowledge about culture. During the XIX-XX centuries. within its framework, a number of original schools and trends developed that developed the problems of culture, spiritual life, and symbolism.

Philosophical analysis not only studies culture, but also gives its own understanding of culture. Philosophical understanding of culture often turns out to be original, opens up new perspectives and possibilities for understanding the cultural reality of a person. Only from a philosophical point of view is the comprehension of culture occurs in integrity, in all the variety of ways of its being. Philosophy allows you to see the most fundamental foundations of culture.

Philosophy poses a number of problems for culture that are extremely significant in the social world. Such, for example, are ontological problems: questions about the meaning of culture in the perspective of human existence, about the conditions for its existence, about the structure of culture, the reasons for its changes and their general vector of development. In relation to a person, the philosophy of culture raises the question of what is the specificity of his cultural activity. The philosophy of culture also explores fundamental problems, the relationship between culture and nature, culture and creativity.

It should also be emphasized that philosophical interpretations of culture do not imply uniformity.

We can say that there are as many philosophies of culture as there are philosophies, philosophical principles that can take on the function of understanding the phenomena of culture. Since the time when culture became the subject of philosophical reflections, more than one philosophy of culture has arisen.

In many ways, it is the angle of view that is reflected in a particular definition of culture that is the starting point of a particular culture of philosophical concept. Every more or less developed philosophy includes culture as an integral part of its content.

Moreover, the course of development of philosophical thought in recent times is such that culture has become a necessary element of any modern philosophy, sometimes constituting the core of its problems.

19. RELATIONSHIP OF CULTURE AND HISTORY

Culture is closely connected with history. The intersection of these phenomena is inevitable.

Firstly, the historical approach (the study of society in specific forms and conditions of its existence for a certain time) extends to the sphere of human cultural activity, which cannot be considered outside the general historical picture of society. In turn, many fundamental conclusions of history are impossible without taking into account the processes occurring in the sphere of culture.

Secondly, the cultural development of a person makes him an increasingly significant factor in the historical process, ensuring that history is filled with humanistic content and meaning.

Already at the dawn of the formation of historical knowledge, in the field of observations and reflections of researchers, there were as "historical facts" all aspects of the life of the societies and peoples observed and described by them, including cultural ones proper. The description of mores, customs, deeds, deeds prevailed.

Gradually, historical knowledge evolved from descriptive and observational practice to explanatory history. Scientific explanation was based on the establishment of causal relationships between events and facts, on the transition of knowledge from the fixation of phenomena to the elucidation of their inner nature, i.e., knowledge of the essence of historical actions.

A significant role in this process was played by science, which was called the philosophy of history. Its origin dates back to the XNUMXth century. and is associated with the names of prominent thinkers J. Vico, I. G. Herder etc. The history of philosophy seeks to comprehend and explain the meaning of history, including the history of culture in its material and spiritual expression. An example is the problem of mentality. It is in the history of spiritual culture that this concept is filled with concrete content. The mental foundations (systems of values, ideas, worldviews) of different cultures and eras determine the specifics of the cultural and historical behavior of people, influence the formation of their entire way of life.

A special direction of research, concentrating on the problems of the historical dynamics of culture, the origin of cultural phenomena, is taking shape in the depths of cultural studies. This direction is called historical culturology, which explores not only the dynamics of functioning and changes in the life of various communities. She is primarily interested in the content and meanings embodied in the results of their activities, which are formed in real historical space and time and reflect the social experience of the existence of communities.

States the facts, describes the events and achievements of culture history of culture.

20. HISTORICAL STAGES OF CULTURAL INTEGRITY

There are several types of classification of the historical dynamics of culture.

Quite common is the division of history into stone, copper, bronze and iron ages.

Stone Age - the oldest in the development of human culture, during which people learned to make tools from stone and make fire. This rather long stage of human evolution is usually divided into the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), when, in fact, Homo sapiens appeared; the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), when the spear, bow and arrows were invented; New Stone Age (Neolithic), when man moved from appropriating the fruits of the earth to their cultivation - agriculture and cattle breeding. In the Stone Age, the first rudiments of art appeared, as well as primitive religious cults (totemism, fetishism, animism and magic).

The division of history into the ancient ages, the Middle Ages, the New and the Newest time is traditional.

For a long time in domestic science dominated formational periodization of history.

The type of culture within its framework coincided with the type of socio-economic formation. In accordance with this, primitive, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and communist types of culture were distinguished in the history of mankind.

Within the framework of this approach, the formational typology was supplemented by the class typology of cultures, according to which each class of antagonistic formations created its own type of culture. With this approach, the analysis of any cultural phenomenon began with its assignment to one of the classes, to one or another system of values.

The history of culture in this version appears as a struggle between two trends, two types of cultures - progressive, expressing the interests of the working class, and conservative, protecting the interests of the exploiting class.

Quite common today is civilizational approach to periodization of history. Within its framework, various cultural and historical types of life activity of certain communities are separate civilizations, irreducible to others and irreducible from others.

Each original type of culture evolves from an ethnographic state to a state state and from it to civilization. The founders of this typology are considered to be N. Ya. Danilevsky и O. Spengler. However, this typology has become more widespread in the works A. Toynbee и P. Sorokina.

In the second half of the XX century. the concept of typology of cultures became popular K. Jaspers, based on the idea of "axial time". This concept moves back from a cyclical interpretation of history to the idea of a linear history, with a beginning and an end, meaning and purpose.

21. DEFINITION OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF CULTURE

In the process of studying culture, interest in culture as a social phenomenon gradually developed, which was due to the need to understand its place in the formation of an individual and society as a whole.

The growing interest in the social aspects of culture led to the emergence of a sociological school in cultural studies, which united those researchers of culture who sought the origins and explanation of it in the social nature of man and in the social organization of people.

Prominent representatives of the sociological school, trying to find the principles that unite society and culture, were O. Comte, E. Durkheim, M. Weber, A. Weber, T. Parsons, P. Sorokin and more

The subject of the sociology of culture is the question of the impact of sociality on culture. Culture is closely linked to society. It is a product of human social life and is impossible outside of it.

Representatives of the sociological school are interested in the social roots and content of cultural phenomena, the impact on culture of the dynamics of social organisms. The study of culture in the context of certain social systems and social processes is also an important task for the sociology of culture. The latter are considered as a significant factor in cultural changes affecting the content of culture.

But the sociological approach has its limits. If the cultural processes of life are considered only as a consequence of social patterns and are completely absorbed by social relations, then this leads to a sociological simplification of the complex phenomenon of culture.

In the sociology of culture, there are three levels of knowledge.

First level characterizes the most general trends in the development of culture.

Second focuses on the levels of culture of various social groups, types of cultural activities, the perception of cultural values, their development by man.

Third level based on sociological information obtained from empirical research.

Sociology of culture relies on many special sociological theories that significantly complement the ideas about cultural processes.

Interdisciplinary connections are established with the sociology of art, the sociology of morality, the sociology of religion, the sociology of science, the sociology of law, ethnosociology, the sociology of age and social groups, the sociology of crime and deviant behavior, the sociology of leisure, the sociology of the city, and other branches of sociological knowledge.

But a higher level of generalization of cultural knowledge is provided by the sociology of culture.

22. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

The scientific direction that arose in the XNUMXth century, studying a person as a subject of culture, was called cultural anthropology.

By this time, the Eurocentric view as a determining factor in the cultural development of mankind was overcome, new cultural worlds were discovered that Europeans had never known or had long been known from ancient myths, legends, folklore.

The cultural world has broken up into many different cultures. The study of new cultural phenomena required their description, systematization and comparative analysis. In essence, it was the study of man in the aspect of expressing his complex nature and inner world in the facts of cultural activity. Description of rituals, customs, diverse religious cults, everyday life, folklore; the study of social structures, family organization and other began to prevail over speculative constructions.

An anthropological approach arose in the study of culture, on the basis of which a number of particular human sciences appeared (ethnology, ethnography, linguistics, paleoanthropology, cultural ecology, structural anthropology, social anthropology, etc.).

The first significant scientific trend in cultural anthropology was classical evolutionism (according to E. Taylor, G. Spencer, F. Frazier, L. Morgan etc.), who made a great contribution to the study of the evolutionary development of culture and society.

Diffusionism has become significant in cultural anthropology (according to F. Ratzel, L. Frobenius, W. Rivers etc.), the subject of interest of which was the problem of the specifics of the spread of culture, the movement of certain cultural elements from one people to another.

Supporters of diffusionism attached particular importance to the migration of culture, which occurs as a result of trade contacts between countries, the migration of peoples, and colonization.

Of great importance in the study of the essence of cultural life was functionalism (according to B. Malinovsky, A. Radcliffe-Brown and others), in which culture began to be considered as a system in which each of its parts perform certain functions.

In the XX century. structural anthropology is developing (according to K. Lévi-Strauss), in which culture is considered as a system of stable structures, expressed by various symbolic means and securing stable mental and other characteristics of social life.

Cultural anthropology refers to the study of sustainable cultures (primarily traditional ones).

This allows you to clearly establish their boundaries, to codify functional relationships.

But the analysis of stable structures fails to take into account the dynamics of cultural evolution.

23. NATURE AND CULTURE

Culture is usually called second nature. This leads to a conflict between two principles - culture and nature.

But culture, being second nature, does not lose its material existence. The absence of materiality would make the very existence of the spiritual state problematic.

Man came out of nature, and therefore nature determines many aspects of human life. Man finds everything necessary to satisfy the needs of physical existence in nature. Using the resources of nature, a person reveals his own natural potential.

Culture is born from the interaction of man and nature. All cultural objects have a natural, material basis. In this regard, although culture opposes nature as a cultivated nature, at the same time it forms a unity with it, since it is based on a natural component, and nature itself acts as a prerequisite and condition for the existence of culture. Culture transforms what is given by nature.

As a result of human activity, nature changes and is completed, and human life becomes more convenient and comfortable. But mastering nature also includes mastering the inner nature of man himself, which is associated with the emergence of certain norms and prohibitions regulating human life, the birth of spiritual culture - morality, religion, art.

At present, the material and spiritual aspects of culture are not absolutized. Much attention is paid to the study of the holistic process of transformation of one form of being into another, the relationship of these parties.

Relations in system "nature - culture" may be different. In relation to nature, a person can show humility, worship it, deify it. But a pragmatic attitude towards nature - its conquest and subordination to man - has become more widespread.

The active development of this approach has led modern civilization to an ecological crisis that has threatened the very existence of not only nature, but also humanity.

This alarming situation requires a significant revision of the logic of the development of modern civilization.

Radical transformations in the culture of nature led to the fact that a person, according to a famous scientist A. Peccei, proved culturally unable to keep up with the times and fully adapt to the changes that he himself brought to this world. Many problems of natural-cultural interaction can be solved not outside the human being, but from within him. Therefore, many researchers see a way out of the critical situation in improving the nature of man himself, moving towards human ecological self-sufficiency.

24. CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Understanding society and its relationship with culture is best achieved from a systematic analysis of being.

Human society - this is a real and concrete environment for the functioning and development of culture.

Society and culture actively interact with each other. Society makes certain demands on culture, culture, in turn, affects the life of society and the direction of its development.

For a long time, the relationship between society and culture was built in such a way that society was the dominant side. The nature of culture directly depended on the social system that governed it (imperatively, repressively, or liberally, but no less decisively).

Many researchers believe that culture arose primarily under the influence of social needs.

It is society that creates opportunities for the use of cultural values, contributes to the processes of reproduction of culture. Outside of social forms of life, these features in the development of culture would be impossible.

In the XNUMXth century the balance of power between the two sides of the sociocultural sphere has changed radically: now social relations began to depend on the state of material and spiritual culture. The determining factor in the fate of humanity today is not the structure of society, but the degree of development of culture: having reached a certain level, it entailed a radical reorganization of society, the entire system of social management, and opened a new path to the establishment of positive social interactions - dialogue.

Its goal is not only the exchange of social information between representatives of different societies and cultures, but also the achievement of their unity.

In the interaction of society and culture, there is not only a close connection, there are also differences. Society and culture differ in ways of influencing a person and adapting a person to them.

Society is a system of relations and ways of objectively influencing a person. The inner life of man is not filled with social demands.

Forms of social regulation are accepted as certain rules necessary for existence in society. But in order to meet social requirements, cultural prerequisites are necessary, which depend on the degree of development of the cultural world of a person.

In the interaction of society and culture, the following situation is also possible: society can be less dynamic and open than culture. Society can then reject the values offered by culture. The opposite situation is also possible, when social changes can outpace cultural development. But the most optimally balanced change in society and culture.

25. CULTURE AND PERSONALITY

Culture and personality are interconnected. On the one hand, culture forms one or another type of personality, on the other hand, personality recreates, changes, and discovers new things in culture.

Personality is the driving force and creator of culture, as well as the main goal of its formation.

When considering the question of the relationship between culture and man, one should distinguish between the concepts of "man", "individual", "personality".

The concept of "man" denotes the general properties of the human race, and “personality” - a single representative of this race, an individual. But at the same time, the concept of “personality” is not synonymous with the concept of “individual”. Not every individual is a person: a person is born as an individual, becomes a person (or does not become) due to certain objective and subjective conditions.

The concept of "individual" characterizes the distinctive features of each particular person, the concept of "personality" denotes the spiritual image of the individual, formed by culture in the specific social environment of his life (in interaction with his innate anatomical, physiological and psychological qualities).

Therefore, when considering the problem of interaction between culture and personality, of particular interest is not only the process of identifying the role of a person as a creator of culture and the role of culture as a creator of a person, but also the study of personality qualities that culture forms in it - intellect, spirituality, freedom, creativity.

Culture in these areas most clearly reveals the content of the individual.

Regulators of personal aspirations and actions of the individual are cultural values.

Following value patterns testifies to a certain cultural stability of society. A person, turning to cultural values, enriches the spiritual world of his personality.

The value system that influences the formation of personality regulates the desires and aspirations of a person, his actions and actions, determines the principles of his social choice. Thus, the individual is at the center of culture, at the intersection of the mechanisms of reproduction, storage and renewal of the cultural world.

The personality itself, as a value, essentially provides the general spiritual principle of culture. Being a product of personality, culture, in turn, humanizes social life and smoothes out animal instincts in people.

Culture allows a person to become an intellectual, spiritual, moral, creative person.

Culture forms the inner world of a person, reveals the content of his personality.

The destruction of culture negatively affects the personality of a person, leads him to degradation.

26. SOCIALIZATION AND INCULTURATION

The influence of culture on personality occurs in the processes enculturation и socialization,

through which a person acquires the knowledge and skills necessary for life in society and in a particular culture.

Under socialization understand the process of assimilation by an individual of social roles and norms. At the same time, a person is formed as a person, socially and culturally adequate to society. In the course of socialization, the individual enters the social and cultural environment, the assimilation of the values of society by him, allowing him to successfully function as a member of society.

Unlike socialization, the concept enculturation means teaching a person the traditions and norms of behavior in a particular culture.

This occurs in the process of mutual exchange between a person and his culture, in which, on the one hand, culture determines the basic personality traits, on the other, the person himself influences his culture.

Enculturation includes the formation of fundamental human skills (types of communication with other people, forms of control of social behavior and emotions, ways to meet needs, evaluative attitude to various phenomena of the surrounding world, etc.).

The result of enculturation is the similarity of a person with other members of a given culture and his difference from representatives of other cultures. By its nature, the process of enculturation is more complex than the process of socialization.

The content of the inculturation process is personal development, social communication, and the acquisition of basic life support skills.

The main mechanisms of enculturation are imitation (repetition by people of habitual behavioral skills observed in the behavior of other people) and identification (during which children learn the behavior of their parents). In addition to these positive mechanisms of enculturation, there are also negative mechanisms - shame and guilt.

The main agents of socialization and enculturation are family, peer group, educational institutions, mass media, various political and public organizations.

At different stages of life, these factors act differently.

In early childhood, the family plays a leading role in the formation of a person. Other factors come into play as well.

The processes of socialization and inculturation are long-term, they operate throughout a person's life. As a result of socialization and inculturation, a person acquires the ability to independently master the socio-cultural reality, accumulates his own life experience, and begins to play various social roles.

27. TRADITIONAL AND MODERN CULTURES

Traditional culture (or type of society) is a culture that focuses in its development not on change, but on maintaining the established cultural order.

A distinctive feature of traditional culture is the unswerving adherence to patterns of behavior adopted from previous generations - customs, rites, rituals, traditions.

These samples are acquired from childhood from the elders (this is connected with the obligatory respect for the elders in traditional culture), who act as the guardians of the accumulated life experience.

Traditional culture is characterized by a high level of normativity, which covers all aspects of people's lives. Public opinion has enormous power in these cultures. The possibilities for the manifestation of individual principles in traditional culture are minimal.

Attempts of creativity aimed at updating the traditional norms of life and activities in traditional culture are not approved. This type of culture is focused on the preservation of originality, cultural identity, so traditional societies can remain practically unchanged for centuries.

Traditional culture is pre-industrial, usually unwritten, and its main occupation is agriculture. Traditional culture organically interacts with nature and is one with it.

Often, along with the term "traditional culture" the concept of "primitive culture" is used. However, it is wrong to identify traditional culture with a primitive beginning. According to K. Lévi-Strauss, a person of a traditional society in his spiritual and physical characteristics is not inferior to representatives of modern culture. His intellectual resources are equally rich and varied.

Traditional societies still exist in South America, Africa, and Australia. In the rural areas of developed countries, there is also a tendency to preserve the traditional way of life.

Therefore, even within the same country there can coexist two types of culture - modern and traditional.

In modern society the basic values are innovation, knowledge, education. The modern type of culture is characterized by fairly rapid changes occurring in the process of continuous modernization.

The authority of the older generation in modern culture is not as high as in traditional culture, so the conflict of generations (fathers and children) is clearly expressed in it.

Modern culture is unified and industrial. Such a culture exists primarily in urban reality. This culture is in disharmony with nature, and this process is deepening, which creates a threat to the existence of humanity.

28. CONCEPTS "TYPE", "TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES"

In order to understand the diversity of cultures that have existed and exist today as part of world culture, their orderly description (classification) is necessary.

The classification of cultural objects according to essential features is called typology. It is based on the concept of type as a unit of division of the studied reality, an ideal model of historically developing cultural objects.

Culture type - this is a scientific abstraction, which is obtained as a result of emphasizing, amplifying, logically linking cultural phenomena that occur in different eras in different cultures. This theoretical abstraction makes it possible to study many cultural phenomena on a quantitative and qualitative basis.

However, each real culture is unique; it is possible to attribute it to one type or another only with certain simplifications and reservations. Specific cultures can only approximately correspond to one or another type. They may deviate somewhat from his typical traits and include traits of other types.

Characteristics that are characteristic of cultures of one type and distinguish them from cultures of another type can be distinguished in different ways. Taking one or another of them as a criterion, scientists build various typologies.

Typology of culture - a method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the division of socio-cultural systems and objects and their grouping using a generalized model or type (the result of a typological description and comparison).

The typology of culture solves the problems of orderly description and explanation of a heterogeneous set of cultural objects. In the course of typology, the type of culture is comprehensively comprehended, its status is determined, the cultural context is analyzed, and the most common qualitative features are identified.

Modern cultural knowledge is represented by various typologies of culture. They serve as criteria for various reasons.

There are variants of culture typologies based on geographical (localization in space), chronological principles (localization in time), ethno-national, demographic specificity, features of religion, language, economy, sphere of society or type of activity, etc.

There are typological theories in which the culturally determined behavior of an individual is considered as the structural basis of a particular type of culture.

Each typology has its own strengths and weaknesses, has a certain methodological significance.

All typologies are rather conditional, since they do not exhaust the whole variety of cultural phenomena.

29. ETHNIC AND NATIONAL CULTURE

The concepts of ethnic and national culture are sometimes identified. But these cultures are different.

An ethnic group is any national community (national minority, tribe, nationality). Ethnic groups have always existed, and nations arose only in modern times in the course of the state structuring of the life of many peoples.

Ethnic culture is always localized in geographic space and is homogeneous in its political, economic and social structure.

ethnic culture covers mainly the sphere of everyday life, everyday culture. Ethnic culture includes tools, mores, customs, norms, values, buildings, clothing, food, vehicles, housing, knowledge, beliefs, types of folk art.

Specialists distinguish two layers in ethnic culture: the early (lower) one, formed by elements inherited from the past, and the late (upper) one, consisting of new formations, modern cultural phenomena.

The bottom layer includes the most stable elements, fixed by centuries-old traditions, therefore it is believed that they form the framework of ethnic culture.

Ethnic culture indicates, first of all, the socio-cultural characteristics of people. National culture implies a territorial, economic and linguistic association of people with a complex social structure and political organization.

The structure of national culture more ethnic. National culture includes, along with traditional, everyday, professional and everyday, also specialized areas of culture.

Since the nation encompasses society, and society is stratified, the concept of national culture embraces the subcultures of all large groups that an ethnic culture may not have.

Most modern national cultures are polyethnic.

But national culture is not reduced to a mechanical sum of ethnic cultures. She has her own specific couples, which arose when representatives of all ethnic groups realized their national identity. Awareness by large social groups of their commitment to the territory of their settlement, the national literary language, national traditions and symbols (for example, the anthem, the flag of the state) is the content of the national culture.

Unlike ethnic culture, which links people genetically, national culture unites people who live in large areas and are not necessarily related by blood relations. National culture is formed on the foundation of written culture.

30. REGIONAL CULTURE

A characteristic feature of regional cultures is that each of them exists in a certain geographical area. The scale of the area of regional culture can be very different. Regional cultures of a smaller scale may be included in regional cultures of a larger scale.

Regional cultures, as a rule, are a conglomeration of various cultures created by several peoples inhabiting the region. The presence of similar natural living conditions in this area and territorial ties ensure the kinship between the cultures of the peoples living next to each other. The area of regional culture can narrow or expand.

The largest regions of the Earth, in which cultures that differ significantly from each other historically, are West and East, North and South. But this division is extremely arbitrary, since within the framework of these mega-regions, cultures are heterogeneous. For example, in the East there is a huge variety of regional cultures (the Arab East, India, China, etc.).

The West is most often presented as a series of changing eras: classical Hellenic culture; Hellenistic-Roman culture; Romano-Germanic culture of the Christian Middle Ages, new European culture.

For a long time, the difference between Eastern and Western cultures was seen in the fact that the East simply lagged behind the West in its cultural development. At present, this view is being overcome. It is becoming recognized that the development of culture in different regions proceeds simultaneously, but in different ways.

It is also difficult to clearly define the boundaries between North and South. For example, the South, which refers to the socio-cultural world of the peoples of the subtropical zone, primarily the African continent, is also heterogeneous.

In African states that emerged on the site of former colonies, it is becoming increasingly common negritude - the direction of social thought, asserting the special role of Negro culture in the development of mankind.

Negro culture within the framework of this trend seems to be the antipode of the culture of the white peoples of the North. The influence of African culture has enriched the arts of the North, especially music and dance. African culture was one of the sources of expressionism and cubism in painting.

Regionally, there may be Romance, Turkic, Latin American and other cultures.

These cultures are also quite arbitrary, and the degree of closeness between them may be different.

Regional community - a category less defined and not as homogeneous as, for example, national culture.

31. DOMINANT CULTURE, SUBCULTURE AND COUNTERCULTURE

Each society has some combination of basic elements of culture, symbols, beliefs, values, patterns of behavior that are accepted and shared by all members of society.

This set is usually called the dominant (basic, main) culture. Its content is made up of universal symbols, values and patterns of behavior.

Part of a common culture, a system of values, traditions, customs inherent in a particular social group, is called a subculture.

The existence of subcultures due to the fact that no society (as well as no culture) can be absolutely homogeneous.

The formation of subcultures occurs according to ethnographic, confessional, professional, functional characteristics, on the basis of age or social specifics. Subcultures are identical or close to the base culture, they differ from it only in some elements or features of culture. But subcultures tend to maintain a certain autonomy from other cultural strata and groups.

Because of this, they are distinguished by some locality and a certain isolation, while maintaining loyalty to the main values of the main culture. Subcultures do not set themselves the goal of remaking the dominant culture, but adapt to it in their own way.

But elements often appear in society that are in opposition to the dominant cultural patterns or completely deny them.

Such sociocultural attitudes, which not only differ from the dominant culture, but also oppose it, are in conflict with the dominant values, are denoted by the concept "counterculture". This term appeared in scientific literature in the second half of the 20th century. It was introduced by the American sociologist T. Rozzak, who tried to combine various spiritual phenomena directed against the dominant culture into a relatively holistic phenomenon.

Bohemia, the hippie movement, and the criminal subculture are examples of counterculture.

At a certain stage, the countercultures were early Christianity in the Roman Empire, the views of various religious sects in the Middle Ages, secular culture in the Renaissance, etc.

The emergence of a counterculture is a fairly common phenomenon. The counterculture, despite being hostile to it from the dominant culture, nevertheless affects it. Its value orientations dissolve in the bosom of the dominant culture, which begins to change under their influence. Thus, countercultures have a powerful creative charge that contributes to the dynamics of culture.

32. YOUTH CULTURE

One of the subcultures is youth culture.

This culture is formed on the basis of specific social and psychological traits, the presence of which is determined both by the age characteristics of young people and by their socioeconomic status.

Young people form their own specific style of behavior, expressed in clothes, a certain language of communication, etc.

Youth culture is one of the consequences of the process of socialization. Its socio-psychological origins are in the desire of young people for self-affirmation, self-expression and self-realization.

In Western literature, the origins of youth culture are often considered in the light of the theory of generational conflict, fathers and children.

Youth culture is usually created by the youth themselves. Young people are also its carriers. In terms of its level, youth culture is often not very high. Youth culture, to one degree or another, opposes itself to official, mass culture and, to some extent, high culture.

But youth culture often goes beyond what is created by the youth themselves, and includes a culture specifically created for young people, including mass culture.

A significant part of the modern cultural industry is focused on meeting the needs and tastes of young people. This is especially true for leisure and entertainment, fashion, the production of clothing, shoes, jewelry, cosmetics, etc.

The main types and forms of youth culture conditioned by the world of feelings and emotions. The central place in it is occupied by music, it has the strongest emotional impact.

At various times, such genres as jazz, reggae, disco, rap, rock and pop music have gained particular popularity.

Elements of youth culture slang (jargon), clothing, overall appearance, manners of behavior, ways of entertainment, etc. also appear. All elements of youth culture carry a symbolic meaning, they mean the commonality and unity of the bearers of culture and emphasize its isolation from the general culture and isolation from it .

Youth culture is heterogeneous, it covers various groups of young people - students, creative, working, rural, various kinds of outcasts, etc.

Youth culture breaks down into many groups and movements. At different times, leading positions in youth culture were occupied by hippies, punks, rockers, etc.

At certain historical stages, youth culture can take the form of a counter-culture that is in opposition to the dominant culture.

She was widely known in the West in the second half of the XNUMXth century. counterculture of student social groups (hippies).

33. CLASS CULTURE

Class culture can serve as a characteristic manifestation of a subculture distinguished on the basis of belonging to a class social group. The class principle is a manifestation of the group subdivision of culture.

Classes are perceived as stable socio-economic groups of society, belonging to which dictates to individuals a certain culture of behavior.

Class analysis method has a long history and is an important achievement of scientific sociology, especially valuable in the study of social processes of the industrial era. This concept has been accepted as fundamental in Marxist sociology.

The consistent implementation of the class approach is realized through the relationship of domination and subordination, as a result of which the culture of the ruling and working classes is highlighted.

In this scheme, functional subcultures, which are really associated with the specific interests and lifestyles of various classes, are distinguished into independent and special variants of culture, which leads to a rupture of culture as a whole.

When distinguishing two class cultures, a difficult task arises to distinguish one or another class line from the directions, currents and creativity of thinkers, cultural figures of a particular era. The history of culture at the same time

is interpreted as an antagonistic struggle between two tendencies and two lines. The progressive line is considered to be revolutionary-democratic (associated with upholding the interests of the working strata) as the only correct and significant one, other class directions of culture are assessed as reactionary.

The division of culture into progressive and reactionary crossed out entire trends and layers of culture from history.

Absolutization of only one side of cultural reality leads to one-dimensionality and uniformity.

Class two-valued logic dooms to constant confrontation, and not to the dialogue of cultures. The explanatory power of such an approach, both in relation to different historical periods and in relation to culture, is limited.

The class approach has the right to exist, and as long as classes exist, it is inevitable. But class values are not the only ones in the cultural system of any society.

Along with class differences, there are other types of differences: between the city and the countryside, the center and the periphery, developed and undeveloped regions, etc.

The confrontation of cultures is inevitable, but in culture it appears not as a principled and irreconcilable, but as an interaction of different trends in cultural and historical development.

class culture only a subculture, part of a larger system.

34. ORDINARY AND SPECIALIZED CULTURE

everyday culture connected with the daily practical life of people. The basic knowledge of everyday culture is acquired in the process of socialization, general education and everyday social contacts. This type of culture is focused on the direct provision of human life.

Ordinary culture does not receive institutional consolidation, it covers a small world of man, the sphere of interpersonal communication. But at the level of everyday culture, a new life experience is built on.

Specialized culture arises in the process of historical development, as a result of the division of labor, when specialized professions began to be distinguished in various spheres of human life, for which special education was necessary. Within a specialized culture, people manifest themselves as bearers of social roles, as agents of secondary socialization. The specialized culture is institutionalized. Its components are science, art, philosophy, law, religion, etc.

It should be noted that any field of activity has its own ordinary and specialized level, which coexist within the framework of a single whole.

Usually there are several blocks in culture, represented by both ordinary and specialized culture.

In the field of economic culture, economics, trade, finance, etc. are at a specialized level, and household and garden farming are at the ordinary level.

Political culture at a specialized level is represented by state policy, ideology, management work, and at an ordinary level - interpersonal relationships between people.

The specialized level of legal culture is represented by law, jurisprudence, the system of protecting public order and regulating legal relations, the ordinary level - by morality, morality, and public opinion.

The functional block that makes up the culture of cognition is also presented at various levels. Thus, the specialized level of philosophical culture is represented by the philosophical systems of certain scientists, the everyday level - by common sense and folk wisdom.

Specialized scientific culture - this is professional science, everyday science - rational everyday knowledge about the world.

Specialized religious culture - these are religious teachings, rituals and ceremonies, everyday - the beliefs of people.

More private cultures have the same levels. For example, physical education has both a professional level - sports, and ordinary physical education.

35. ELITE CULTURE

The allocation of the elite part of the culture comes from the concept of elitism (according to R. Michels, G. Mosque, V. Pareto etc.), according to which a necessary component of any social structure is the ruling minority - the elite (from the French elite - “the best”).

It has a monopoly on making decisions about the content and distribution of values in society.

Elite theory denies equality, proceeds from the fact that in any society, social structure there are necessarily leading and driven forces.

With the complication of the conditions for managing society, the role of elites only increases.

In the interests of the elites, an elitist or high culture is also created, designed to serve the needs of the ruling minority.

Created by professional artists to order, as a rule, it is based on high examples of classics in all types of art and is ahead of the level accessible to the perception of ordinary people.

It includes fine arts, classical music, literature, etc.

A typical manifestation of elite culture is the theory and practice of pure art, or art for art's sake.

Elite culture appreciates a special author's vision of reality. The elite culture is also distinguished by creativity. She is not afraid to create new cultural and aesthetic forms.

Elite culture difficult for an untrained person to understand. It is designed for highly educated people. Its circle of consumers includes critics, literary scholars, regulars of museums and exhibitions, theatergoers, artists, writers, and musicians.

Elite culture, associated with the most capable part of society, ensures social progress and the development of culture. But elite groups are often arrogant about the social environment, which consists of ordinary people, and distance themselves from them. As a rule, for this, within the framework of an elite culture, a special lifestyle is formed, which, in terms of comfort and isolation, significantly exceeds the standards available to ordinary people.

For all its sophistication and refinement, the elite culture is not free from the vices that seem to be the result of the defeat of its values.

Its autonomy has acquired a self-sufficient meaning, damaged the internal cultural unity.

But recently the boundaries between the elite and other forms of culture have begun to blur. Thanks to modern information and technical capabilities, works of elite culture become available to a wider segment of the population. Many artistic techniques and ideas of elite art, having ceased to be innovative, replenish the baggage of culture as a whole.

36. MASS CULTURE

mass culture called a set of consumer elements of culture, produced in large volumes in an industrial way. It is a culture of everyday life, presented to the majority of society through a variety of channels, including the media and communications.

The formation of mass culture is associated with the formation of an industrial society. The prerequisites for this were the gradual increase in the status of urbanized life and the expansion of democratic institutions - the wider entry of ordinary people into active civil life.

The spread of universal literacy played a huge role in its formation. New technical means: printing, cinema, gramophone, television, the modern Internet - have significantly increased the possibilities of disseminating mass culture.

Through the mechanisms of mass culture, a modern person receives almost all the information necessary for life - about the necessary style of behavior, lifestyle, career, relationships between people, etc. Food, clothing, housing, household appliances, household items, education - all this also affected by the sphere of influence of mass culture.

Mass culture becomes a means of stimulating consumption (any product becomes valuable if it becomes a subject of mass demand), for which advertising is actively used, on which huge amounts of money are spent.

Works of popular culture are based on universal psychological (psychophysiological) characteristics and perception mechanisms that do not require special training of the audience. Mass culture is aimed primarily not at contemplative, but at emotional perception. This one-sidedness has led to a number of negative aspects of mass culture. For a long time, evaluating mass culture, critics spoke of its baseness, the vulgarity of its products, created for the needs of an undemanding and undeveloped public. The orientation of mass culture towards consumption, and not towards creativity, is also causing a negative reaction today.

But mass culture also has many positive aspects. Its main achievement is the spread of universal literacy of the population, the availability of cultural values to most people. The general level of modern mass culture is increasing all the time, and its general moral level is also expected to rise.

Mass culture is now a way of existence of modern culture. Mass culture sets new forms of inculturation and socialization, a new system of control and manipulation of people's consciousness, their interests and needs.

37. INTEGRATION, ASSIMILATION, ACCULTURATION AND TRANSCULTURATION

Integration, assimilation, acculturation

form a semantic field that encompasses a wide range of diverse phenomena that arise during the interaction of both individuals and entire social groups with a foreign cultural environment.

Integration denotes the state of the internal integrity of a particular cultural entity, as well as the consistency between its various elements.

Integration is often understood as such processes, the result of which should be such mutual coordination of various subjects of culture.

Integration is not always painless; it can be difficult to ensure the interaction of representatives of different cultures.

Nowadays, various forms of integration are distinguished (integration around any religious, political, scientific idea, historical tradition, etc.).

When considering various options for intercultural interaction, the term is also used "assimilation".

It is understood as a process as a result of which members of one ethnocultural entity lose their originally existing culture and adopt the culture of another entity with which they are in direct contact. The term “assimilation” is often used to refer to the special policy of a dominant ethnocultural group towards ethnic and cultural minorities, aimed at the systematic suppression of their culture.

Assimilation is often associated with violent and discriminatory measures against minorities. This causes negative political associations.

Under the term "acculturation" is understood as a set of phenomena arising from the fact that groups of individuals with different cultures come into contact in which changes occur in the culture of one of the groups or both. Voluntary borrowing of cultures, their flow from one to another creates an opportunity for establishing stable intercultural communication relations. Forcibly planting a dominant culture in a foreign cultural environment may, in a different situation, lead to the rejection of imposed values.

Since the second half of the XX century. the term "acculturation" began to be widely used in studies on the interaction and mutual influence of non-Western cultures (Spanishization, Sinicization, etc.).

Less developed but widely used is the concept transculturation. The essence of this process is that a certain ethnocultural community moves to another habitat where there is no foreign cultural environment (the original culture of the USA and Canada can be considered the result of the transculturation process).

38. MARGINAL PERSONALITY

marginal personality is a person who lives and participates in the cultural life and traditions of two different peoples. He can never completely break with his past and traditions and cannot be accepted into the new society in which he tries to find his place. He is a person at the border of two cultures and two societies, the values of which can be different.

A marginal person is a product of population migration, those various processes as a result of which a person of a certain culture is forced to master new cultural values, social roles, and a way of life.

Mixed marriages lead to marginalization. The resulting offspring are bicultural by birth. People born in mixed marriages either inherit both cultural traditions, or face the choice of defining traditions.

The loss of a certain cultural and social identity of people as a result of social changes leads to marginality.

Any reorganizations that change the social status, the roles of people, give rise to tension, mental disorders. The loss of former opportunities, the familiar environment increases the anger of a person, gives rise to a feeling of envy towards the more affluent segments of the population.

The process of modernization leads to marginalization, which can also dramatically change the specific social and cultural fields to which this or that individual is connected. Modernization can drastically change the mechanisms of socialization and the set of cultural values, which can also cause a culture shock. Contact with another reality can also lead to problems, its misunderstanding.

But marginality also has positive aspects.

Often it serves as a stimulant for the development of the creative abilities of the individual, helps to enrich her inner world. Combining elements of different cultures can lead to enrichment of the individual.

The cultural outlook of a person is expanding - he learns about the existence of other cultural values, other religions and political views, learns tolerance for norms of behavior and habits that often contradict his own.

It should be emphasized that few outcasts manage to overcome their psychologically split state. They are not always successful, not everyone manages to master a new profession at the same level of professional skill as the previous one.

Most of the marginals remain in a transitional state.

In conditions of intensive interaction of cultures, knowledge about another culture is required, the ability to adapt to a different cultural environment.

39. THE PROBLEM OF "EAST - WEST" IN CULTURE

The division of culture into Western and Eastern has a centuries-old tradition. In cultural studies, this division takes into account not only the geographical and territorial location, but primarily the characteristics of methods and ways of understanding the world, value orientations, basic ideological attitudes, socio-economic and political structures.

The concept of "western culture" European and American cultures are invested. The countries of Central, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, North Africa represent the culture of the East.

For a long time, the cultures of the West and East seemed polar to each other.

Many researchers note different types of worldviews that prevail in these regions.

Eastern worldview is built on the self-isolation of a person from the outside world and his departure into the inner, spiritual life; Western, on the contrary, aims a person at the knowledge of the external world and active influence on it. The East is characterized by the passive subordination of man to the natural principle, which is actively sacralized here.

For the West, the transformative power of man is more preferable. Eastern culture values silence, immersion in oneself. Western culture is more talkative, it most of all appreciates the ability to convince.

Oriental art is more sublime and elegant, less realistic and utilitarian. It has more understatement, mystery, symbolism.

In the East, in contrast to Western individualism, attachment to the idea of community, unity of people remains.

The ethical attitudes of the East remain faithful to conservatism and asceticism, while Western ethics are more aimed at activity, liberality, eudaimonism and utilitarianism. Eastern culture is more prone to normative excess, while Western culture is more prone to normative insufficiency.

The basis of Eastern culture is tradition. Strict behavioral regulations and ceremonial social contacts are still held in high esteem here. For the West, however, it is characteristic to overcome any kind of rituality due to the acceleration of the pace of life.

The dynamics of Western life contrasts sharply with the inertia of Eastern society.

Such a polarity of cultures in the "West-East" scheme led to the point of view, according to which the interaction between the West and the East is practically impossible.

But at present, a different view has developed in science, according to which the interaction between Western and Eastern cultures is not only possible, but also necessary and useful for the cultural progress of mankind. This interaction will not eliminate the fundamental differences between these cultures, but will mutually enrich them.

40. ECONOMIC CULTURE

One of the important branches of culture is economic culture, which includes the culture of production (including the culture of work), the culture of distribution, the culture of exchange, the culture of consumption, and the culture of management.

An important area of economic culture is the culture of management, which is largely determined by the culture of decision-making, organization of control over their execution, leadership style.

In control theory, it is now actively used and concept of organizational culture. It includes a set of customs, traditions, norms and rules of behavior that have developed in a particular organization.

This culture prescribes certain rules of conduct for both managers and subordinates.

The culture of the head assumes the correct, optimal distribution of tasks between the employees of the organization. The effectiveness of the activity of the labor collective as a whole largely depends on this.

The manager must also monitor the organization of labor and the implementation of labor discipline, increasing labor productivity, etc.

Subordinates are obliged to perform work not mechanically, but creatively, in accordance with their qualifications.

But often subordinates can ignore the orders of the leader, resist their implementation. Sometimes behind this phenomenon there is not only evasion or negligence of subordinates, but also the vice of the decisions themselves. Therefore, the role of an economically competent leader in an organization is very high.

The manager's incompetence can manifest itself in thoughtlessness, unverifiable tasks, setting unrealistic deadlines for completing tasks, etc. But the economic illiteracy of performers (low qualification, optionality, etc.) is also undesirable.

Closely related to organizational culture professional culture, which includes a set of theoretical knowledge and practical skills related to a specific type of work. The degree of proficiency in professional culture is expressed in qualifications and qualification ranks.

It is necessary to distinguish between formal qualifications (which are certified by a diploma, certificate) of graduation from an educational institution, which implies a system of theoretical knowledge necessary for a particular profession, and real qualifications obtained in the process of working in this profession, which includes a set of practical skills and skills, i.e. professional experience.

Depending on the knowledge and skills of a person, professional selection is carried out (a system of practical tests, in which the degree of compliance of a person's abilities with the requirements of a particular workplace is checked).

41. POLITICAL CULTURE

To deepen the understanding of the specifics of political phenomena and processes in general political life allows the analysis of political culture.

A major contribution to the study of this problem was made by G. Almond, S. Verba, J. Powell. In their works, political culture appears as a special subjective perspective of politics. Political culture embodies the motivation of a person’s political activity in the form of spiritual motivations - orientations. Political culture in this case is presented as a socio-psychological attitude that determines the most stable and typical patterns and rules of political behavior of interaction between the power of the individual and society in the political system.

But political culture is influenced by political experience and traditions. This implies the recognition of the existence of objectified forms of political culture, i.e., recognized by society and existing as a reality of political signs, symbols, values, norms, institutions.

Political culture in this case forms the basis of consciousness and behavior of subjects. Political culture permeates all spheres of political life and includes both the culture of political consciousness, the behavior of individuals, groups, parties, and the culture of political institutions and organizations functioning in a given country.

Political culture also presupposes a culture of domination. In this case, the subject of analysis is the quality of the work of the institutions of power and administration that make up the political system, the explanation and evaluation of the ways in which power relations function.

The most complete description of the structure of political culture is provided by a sociological analysis of its constituent elements. The basic element of political culture is semantic.

From this position, political culture appears as a set of signs and symbols endowed with a certain meaning, through which communication and retransmission of political experience, knowledge, ideas, concepts are carried out.

In this regard, great importance is attached to political language, which objectifies ideas and concepts.

A special kind of signs are political symbols that act as a visible expression of the main idea of a particular political phenomenon.

The most common political symbols include, first of all, national-state symbols: flags, coats of arms, anthems.

With the help of these symbols, the self-identification of the nation is carried out.

The core of political culture is the value-normative system. It is an important motivating factor in political behavior.

42. DEFINITION AND FUNCTIONS OF THEORETICAL CULTURE

In cultural studies, as in most other sciences, it is customary to distinguish two areas - theoretical and applied.

Of great importance in cultural studies is theoretical area - development of theories that allow us to identify the general patterns of cultural life, to understand its essence and meanings.

The goals of theoretical cultural studies are a holistic knowledge of the phenomenon of culture, the development of a categorical apparatus and research methods.

Among fundamental categories of theoretical cultural studies distinguish cultural phenomena, objects, properties of culture, types of historical development of culture, cultural processes, cultural meanings, symbols of culture, cultural values, etc.

Theoretical cultural studies constantly updates its categorical (conceptual) apparatus.

This process is associated with the formation of new trends in cultural thought, scientific directions, points of view on cultural problems.

The highest level of research in theoretical cultural studies is a generalization on the scale of general patterns that define cultural phenomena and processes as special categories of human existence. At this level, the conceptual apparatus of cultural studies is created, the methodology and methodology for studying cultural problems are developed. At this level, general explanatory concepts of the structure of culture, its typology and dynamics are created, and the functions of culture are studied.

The next level of theoretical research makes an analysis of cultural systems (language, morality, ethics, etc.).

The third level of theoretical research associated with the analysis of cultural forms - basic patterns reproduced in every culture (norms and stereotypes of consciousness and behavior of people, reference samples and cultural styles, etc.). Researchers believe that it is cultural forms that serve as the basic basis of culture. Some cultural forms are so widespread that they are called cultural universals.

The latest level of theoretical research associated with the analysis of the actual facts of culture, they are usually called artifacts. They are special cases of the realization of cultural forms. A systematic description of a huge variety of artifacts is also provided by the history of culture.

Theoretical research in cultural studies is constantly stimulated by the creative exchange between this science and philosophy, sociology, anthropology, linguistics, history and other sciences. The theory of culture is based on a serious factual base, which allows it to be a living and fruitful part of cultural and humanitarian knowledge.

43. APPLIED CULTURE

Culturology has, along with the theoretical level of research application layer, which has practical significance.

The goals of applied cultural studies are forecasting, designing and regulating cultural processes that exist in practical life.

Applied culturology also develops the main directions of cultural policy, the goals and methods of the network of cultural institutions, the tasks and technologies of sociocultural interaction.

The applied significance of cultural studies is also manifested in the fact that it participates (along with psychology, sociology, pedagogy) in the study of the phenomena of socialization, culturalization.

An important area of applied culturological research is the issues of protection and use of cultural heritage, the study of cultural traditions, forms of religious culture.

The solution of applied problems is primarily carried out by institutions - state cultural institutions, various public organizations, educational, educational and educational institutions, the media, the system of physical culture and sports, etc. All these institutions set normative models and are designed to regulate people's value orientations. The most important task in this case is the development of a common cultural policy of the state and society.

Applied Culturology It is also carried out in the form of specific socio-cultural activities.

Given that any activity has a cultural basis, the training of specialists is also saturated with cultural information.

Applied cultural studies is of great importance in the field of cultural consulting, in the development of applied cultural projects, in organizations involved in art business and show business, commercial structures whose activities are related to intercultural contacts, advertising and creative agencies, on television, in museums, and in the tourism business. , hotel industry, etc.

Methods and forms of applied cultural studies contribute to overcoming negative trends in society, are used to prevent deviant behavior, prevent interethnic and other conflicts.

A complex of applied cultural knowledge exists in almost all areas of human life.

But at the present stage, the role of cultural specialists proper is increasing, who, applying theoretical knowledge in practice, become carriers of applied cultural studies.

Many educational institutions are engaged in the preparation of cultural specialists.

44. RELATIONSHIP OF THEORETICAL AND APPLIED CULTURE

Theoretical and applied levels of cultural studies are closely interconnected.

Theoretical cultural studies, exploring the most general patterns of the historical and social existence of culture, cannot help but rely in this work on empirical and practical foundations, a factual basis.

Applied Culturology, which is directly involved in the development of technologies for the practical organization and regulation of cultural processes in society, carries out this work not without relying on the theoretical baggage accumulated in fundamental cultural studies.

This knowledge is used by applied cultural studies in the study, planning and development of methods for purposeful forecasting and management of cultural processes; social technologies for the transmission of cultural experience and mechanisms for achieving a certain level of development of certain forms of sociocultural practice in the course of general cultural and educational activities.

Consequently, theoretical and applied cultural studies are a system of objects under study that are in a hierarchical relationship with each other: both the most general levels of cultural processes and their more specific implementation are studied.

The theoretical and applied aspects of cultural studies are not self-sufficient forms, in the practical life of people they act in an interconnected unity. This allows cultural studies as a whole to act as the basis for the cultural orientation of people, their behavior.

Culture encompasses the whole life of people in all its manifestations.

Outside of culture, not a single scenario of people's life activity (culture of thinking, communication, work, study, recreation) can develop. Their concretization is carried out not without relying on a theoretical cultural foundation. As a result, the life activity of people is organized by culture, clothed in various forms.

Taken together, they form a culture of life.

Theoretical knowledge of cultural studies is popularized, which increases the degree of cultural awareness of people.

New knowledge penetrates practical reality, enriches it.

Penetrating into the minds of people, cultural knowledge (both theoretical and practical) forms the cultural environment in which, in fact, people live.

Culturology as a theory and applied science makes it possible to understand the specifics of the human way of life, the problems of human self-development as a subject of the cultural and historical process.

Having become the internal state of a person, culture makes a person's life meaningful and valuable.

45. DEFINITION OF THE RESEARCH METHOD

The concept of "method" (from the Greek word methodos - "way") means a set of methods and operations of theoretical or practical development of reality.

The method equips a person with a system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which he can achieve the intended goal.

The method is one of the criteria for distinguishing a separate science from the whole variety of knowledge.

The doctrine of the method began to develop in the science of modern times. Its representatives considered the method a guideline in the movement towards true knowledge.

Currently, there is a whole field of knowledge that is specifically concerned with the study of methods and which is usually called methodology.

By studying the patterns of cognitive human activity, the methodology develops methods for its implementation on this basis.

The most important task of methodology is to study the origin, essence, effectiveness and other characteristics of cognitive methods.

In the methodology of scientific research, it is customary to single out general scientific и private scientific methods.

The most common are philosophical methods. Among scientific methods, empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are usually considered.

Empirical level of scientific knowledge characterized by a direct study of real-life, sensually perceived objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and setting up experiments.

Theoretical level of scientific research is carried out at the rational (logical) level of cognition. At this level, the most profound, essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the studied objects and phenomena are revealed. The theoretical level represents a higher level in scientific knowledge. The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws.

It should be borne in mind that the method itself does not predetermine success in the knowledge of certain aspects of reality. It is also important to be able to apply the method correctly in the process of cognition. And for this you need to know the subject of research.

The methodology of modern knowledge is characterized by: convergence of the methods of natural science and social sciences and humanities; search for new research methods; the widespread introduction of the apparatus of hermeneutics and other understanding sciences, which ensures the convergence of explanatory and interpretive approaches; active introduction of the ideas and methods of synergetics into scientific knowledge, the increase in connection with this probabilistic methods and techniques, etc.

46. THEORETICAL RESEARCH METHODS

In theoretical knowledge, two general methods are known - dialectical and metaphysical. Gradually, the dialectical method began to be used among the predominant methods of cognition. Along with these methods, there are general scientific methods that also have a wide range of applications.

One of the important requirements of the dialectical method is to study the object of knowledge from all sides, to strive to study as many of its properties, connections and relations as possible.

The principle of comprehensiveness implemented in the form of an integrated approach to the objects of knowledge. This approach also underlies interdisciplinary research.

An important place in the dialectical method of cognition is occupied by the problem of taking into account the connections of the object under study with other objects.

Consideration of these interrelations in the system, integrity led to the allocation of a systematic approach in science, the development of methods of system analysis.

The study of relationships between previous and subsequent states of system objects is carried out within the framework of the principle of determinism, which makes it possible to reveal the cause-and-effect series in the development of certain objects.

The study of objects in their development is the most important principle of dialectics. It is this principle that most clearly distinguishes the dialectical method from the metaphysical one, which ignored the study of objects, taking into account their changes.

Among the general scientific methods, it is worth highlighting:

1) climbing method from concrete to abstract and abstract to concrete;

2) idealization method (mental introduction of certain changes in the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the study). This method is useful when it is necessary to exclude a number of object properties that are essential in its functioning, but hide the processes occurring in it. A complex object in the process of idealization is presented as if purified, which facilitates its study (this distinguishes idealization from a fruitless fantasy);

3) formalization method - display of meaningful knowledge in a sign-symbolic form, which allows you to escape from the study of real objects, the content of the theoretical provisions that describe them, and operate instead with symbols (signs). Formalization can occur using natural or artificial languages. A striking example of formalization is the mathematical descriptions of various objects and phenomena widely used in science, based on relevant substantive theories.

The formalization method helps to ensure the brevity and clarity of scientific information recording, which opens up more operational opportunities for operating it.

47. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH METHODS

General scientific methods of empirical knowledge are:

1) watching - purposeful, systematic and systematic study of objects, based mainly on the data of the sense organs (sensations, perceptions, ideas). This is the initial method of empirical knowledge, which allows obtaining primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation (as opposed to everyday observation) is characterized by a number of features - purposefulness, systematicity, and activity.

Scientific observations are accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge, necessary for fixing the properties, aspects of the objects that make up the subject of research. Descriptions of the results of observations form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the objects under study, classify them according to certain characteristics, and find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development. According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct and indirect (using certain technical means);

2) experiment - active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object under study to identify

and the study of certain aspects, properties, relationships. The experimenter can transform the object under study, create artificial conditions for its study, interfere with the natural course of processes. Along with this, the experiment can be repeatedly reproduced, it allows you to identify those connections that are not found in natural conditions. The experiment is used to experimentally test hypotheses and theories and to obtain new scientific concepts;

3) dimension - this is a process consisting of determining the quantitative values of certain properties, aspects of the object or phenomenon being studied using special technical devices.

The measurement result is obtained in the form of a certain number of units of measurement - standards, with which the measured side of the object or phenomenon is compared. (Currently, in natural science, the International System of Units of Physical Quantities - SI, adopted by the General Conference on Weights and Measures, is used predominantly.) The basic units of measurement are the meter, kilogram, second, ampere, etc.;

4) comparison - a cognitive operation that underlies judgments about the similarity and difference of objects, comparison in order to find out how objects and phenomena relate to each other, to the external environment, and to their structural elements. Comparison is possible on a certain basis, criterion. Items that are comparable on one basis may be incomparable on another.

48. GENERAL LOGICAL METHODS OF KNOWLEDGE

The general logical methods of cognition include, first of all, analysis and synthesis.

Analysis (from the gr. analysis - “decomposition”) - a method that involves dividing an object into its component parts for the purpose of studying them independently. Analysis is a necessary stage in understanding an object. But it constitutes only the first stage in the process of cognition. The next stage of cognition is associated with another method - synthesis.

Synthesis (from Gr. synthesis - "connection") - the union of various aspects, parts of an object into a single whole, which is not a mechanical, but an organic unity. Synthesis is a generalization based on the identification of the essence. As a result of synthesis, a completely new formation appears, the properties of which are determined not only by the external connection of the properties of the components, but also by the result of their internal interconnection and interdependence.

Induction (from Latin inductio - "guidance") - a logical method of research, involving a sequence of reasoning from the particular to the general.

Deduction (from Latin deductio - "inference") - a logical device that involves the transition in the process of cognition from the general to the particular, from some given premises to their consequences.

Analogy (from Gr. analogia - "correspondence", "similarity") - a method of transferring the found property of one object to another based on the similarity of objects in some other properties. The method of analogy is based on comparison. The analogy method is not always reliable.

To obtain a more reliable conclusion, it is important: to compare as many properties as possible for the compared objects; objects must be similar in the most important and essential features; take into account not only similarities, but also differences, so as not to transfer differences to another subject of study.

It must be borne in mind that if the object in relation to which a conclusion is made by analogy with another object has some property that is incompatible with the property whose existence is to be concluded, the general similarity of these objects loses all meaning.

Modeling - a method of studying object models. This method is based on methods of abstraction and analogy. Modeling is used to expand ideas about the original (prototype, sample model).

There are several types of modeling: mental (ideal), physical, symbolic (sign). A variety of symbolic modeling is mathematical.

The modeling method is actively developing: some types of models are being replaced by others as science progresses.

49. DEFINITION OF "CIVILIZATION"

In the system of humanitarian knowledge, along with the concept of "culture", the term "civilization" is widely used.

Concept "civilization" has a fairly large number of values. Up to the present time, there is no unambiguous interpretation of it either in domestic or foreign literature.

Etymologically, this word comes from lat. civitas, which means "state centered in the city". The adjective "civilized" originally meant "urban", "educated", "educated" as opposed to "uneducated", "rude", "wild", "barbarian".

In the future, such opposition not only survived, but also acquired a more detailed justification.

In the XVIII-XIX centuries. The view of civilization as the third link in the chain of human evolution, passing through “savagery - barbarism - civilization,” became widespread. The ideas of the Enlightenment left their mark on this concept (this concept, as an independent category, became widespread in this era); it was increasingly understood as a process of improving society and the state.

In this case, civilization was the most perfect stage in the development of mankind.

This understanding of civilization persists today. Thus, the modern researcher S. Huntington defines civilization as a cultural community of the highest rank. He identifies eight civilizations - Western, Confucian, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Orthodox-Slavic, Latin American and African. The further course of human history will depend on their interaction, according to the scientist.

The concept of "civilization" is often understood in the sense of the totality of the achievements of the material and spiritual culture of mankind, and not only it (ufologists, for example, speak of unearthly civilizations).

Gradually, a civilizational approach developed in science, which understands civilization as the unity of a certain type of society and the corresponding type of culture. The civilizational approach required some typology of civilizations. The basis for the identification of civilizations were many characteristics: economic, religious, geographical, etc. Agrarian, industrial civilizations, Eastern and Western civilizations, Christian, Islamic and other civilizations are distinguished. The evolution of humanity is also considered as a change of civilizations (ancient, etc.).

In the future, a fundamentally different interpretation of this concept appeared.

After the publication of the book O. Spengler The "decline of Europe" began to be called civilization the last stage of the development of culture, in which a tangible preponderance of material interests over spiritual ones is achieved.

50. INTERRELATION OF CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

In the scientific literature on the issue of the relationship between the concepts of “culture” and “civilization” there are several positions - identification, opposition and interdependence.

Initially, these concepts were used as synonyms, no opposition was intended.

Since the Enlightenment, philosophers have insisted on the relationship of these concepts. In their opinion, only high culture could give rise to civilization, and civilization, accordingly, was an indicator of the cultural development of society and individuals. These terms are often used as synonyms in writings. G. Humboldt, E. Taylor. According to Z. Freud, it is culture and civilization that distinguishes humans from animals.

But along with the identification of the concepts of “civilization” and “culture”, already in the Age of Enlightenment, a tradition and their opposition arose. By culture, many researchers began to understand the spiritual potential of humanity, and by civilization - the material sphere. Even then, it was first noticed that material progress does not yet mean achieving a high level of spiritual development. The concept of civilization becomes synonymous with urbanization, soulless technicism, and is understood as a source of dehumanization of the world.

According to O. Spengler, civilization is the last stage in the development of culture, the stage of its decline and death. According to N. Berdyaeva, culture has a soul, civilization - only methods and tools.

Even more deeply contrasts civilization and culture G. Marcuse. For him, civilization is a cold, hard, everyday reality, culture is a holiday.

But, even opposing culture and civilization, scientists could not but recognize their interdependence. Thus, an optimal view of this problem arose, the supporters of which recognize the existence of differences between culture and civilization, but at the same time do not deny their interaction.

Within the framework of this direction, a view has developed of civilization as a process of evolution of cultures towards more complex states. With this approach, culture and civilization coexist in unity.

The real connections between them appear in certain forms. The first of them - genetic (culture, as the earliest form, creates civilization and is objectified in it). The second form of communication is structural-functional, since culture and civilization, embodying the material and spiritual aspects of life, cannot exist without interaction. Third connection - dysfunctional. Under it, civilization subjugates culture, unifies it, and leads to a crisis. But this in turn means that new values may emerge that will form the foundation of a new culture.

51. TYPES OF CIVILIZATIONS

Within the framework of the theory of the historical evolution of cultures, the existence of many local civilizations is recognized.

Local civilizations close in their features are combined into cultural-historical types. But the criterion for the unification of civilizations may be different.

A commonality of natural and climatic conditions of life can be recognized as a typological feature. In this case, mountain, steppe, river, forest, sea civilizations are distinguished, having similarities and differences in economic, socio-political and cultural activities.

Other cultural and historical typology appears if religion is taken as the basis. Depending on the most common religion, types of Christian, Islamic, Buddhist, Confucian civilizations are distinguished.

On the basis of economic and economic characteristics, agrarian, industrial, post-industrial civilizations are distinguished.

To characterize the commonality of culture and civilization, the national-ethnic principle is also used, highlighting the American, Russian and other civilizations. The regional approach is more often used, then the civilizations of the West and East, North and South are singled out.

The substantiation of this cultural concept is present in the works N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, P. Sorokin.

N. Ya. Danilevsky singled out original civilizations: Egyptian, Chinese, Assyro-Babylonian-Phoenician, Jewish, Greek, Roman, New Semitic (or Arabian) and Germano-Roman (or European). He considered the Slavic civilization to be among the youngest; according to the scientist, the future belongs to it.

Each type of these civilizations goes through certain stages of development and is distinguished by achievements in one area or another. At the same time, civilizations cannot be assessed on a “higher-lower” scale. No civilization can claim to represent the highest point of development.

Not all civilizations develop in the same way. Some go into oblivion, others turn out to be one-sided, others are subject to external influences. The life of civilizations is finite, but culture is infinite, so the progressive movement of mankind does not stop.

O. Spengler identifies Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian, Chinese, Greco-Roman (Apollo), Byzantine-Arab (magical), Western European (Faustian) civilizations.

According to the typology A. Toynbee Western Christian, Orthodox Christian, Islamic, Hindu, Far Eastern civilizations differ.

The following typology is proposed in the scientific literature: proto-civilization, early civilizations, world civilizations and universal civilizations.

52. TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE

Concept "technique" as ambiguous as the concept of "culture".

There are a huge number of definitions of technology - a way to subjugate nature, a means of releasing the restrictions of nature, creating an artificial environment, etc.

In a broad sense, technology is a product of human civilization, technical knowledge, part of social progress, social dynamics, in a narrow sense - tools used by man in his activities to transform nature, artificial objects created by man, having their own internal nature and logic of action.

Interaction of technology and culture is quite controversial. But this has been noticed by people recently. Prior to this, technological progress was perceived quite optimistically, the development of science and technology fit into the cultural context, the system of cultural values, and hopes for a better economic and cultural future were associated with their development. Technology enriched human existence, made it possible to expand the habitat, change circumstances, and make life easier.

Technique, included in culture, has a priority in modern civilization.

Without technology, culture (as an artificial environment) is impossible. It was technology that created a new reality, created what nature could not achieve, but at the same time technology increasingly separated man from nature, the natural background of life.

Providing wealth, economic power, technology actively helped man assert his dominance over nature, instilled a sense of people's independence from natural and other circumstances, and strengthened faith in the limitless possibilities of transformative human activity.

As a result of the accelerated process of technization (the constant increase and improvement of the world of tools), human civilization (primarily European) began to acquire a technogenic character. The complexity of technology and its volume began to exceed the controlling capabilities of man. The unpredictability of the consequences for nature and man of the process of the rapid development of technology has increased.

New aspects have appeared in the relationship of man as a creator of culture and technology. The boundaries between man and machine were increasingly blurred, the way of life of a person in the tech world was changing, and the problem of creating artificial intelligence marked the limit to human existence itself.

The cult of science and technology led to the spiritual one-sidedness of human existence, this lowered the possibilities of general cultural development, the harmonious interaction of technology and culture.

53. TECHNOGENIC CIVILIZATION

Due to the rapidly expanding process of technization and the accompanying system of values that dominate culture, modern (primarily Western European) civilization began to acquire a technogenic character. Characteristic features of a technogenic type of civilization are the rapid change in technology and technology, the ability to multiply knowledge and invent something new.

The decisive role in its emergence belongs to science.

Technogenic civilization is distinguished by the following features:

1) a special idea of nature as a field for the application of human forces;

2) absolutization of man's transformative activity, aggressive intervention in nature;

3) the determining role of the development of material production;

4) focus on technical and economic performance outside of its human, socio-cultural dimension.

Among other socio-cultural universals of culture that underlie technogenic civilization, one should also highlight the rapid (in geometric progression) change in the objective world that affects the way of life; the dynamics of social ties that change the ratio of traditionality and innovation in cultural and civilizational development; the dominance of scientific rationality; orientation to the autonomy of the individual; a special understanding of the power, strength and character of nature.

It is believed that with such a one-sided scientific and technological development, human civilization may not have a future.

Science and technology contain not only unlimited possibilities, but also dangers.

A person at a certain stage can completely lose control over technology, scientific and technological progress, become dependent on technology and unpredictable side effects of scientific and technological development. A person, instead of an active engine of scientific and technological progress, can turn into its victim, lose spiritual wealth and versatility of thinking.

Forming as a personality of a technocratic type, a person can turn into an appendage of technology and lose his own unique human forms, the deepest features of his essence.

The prospect of such an outcome of the life of human civilization as a special form of social organization, the awareness of negative trends that have developed due to accelerated technization, led to the understanding that modern technogenic civilization is in crisis.

Many researchers assess the chances of humanity in overcoming this crisis in different ways.

Among the answers to this question there is not only a pessimistic "no", but also an optimistic "yes".

54. CRISIS OF TECHNOGENIC CIVILIZATION, POSSIBLE WAYS TO OVERCOME IT

The absolutization of only the scientific and technical side of people's life, faith in its limitless possibilities gradually led to the understanding that this path of development leads to a dead end, deprives of prospects. This is the essence of the crisis of technogenic civilization.

Technology can serve not only for the good, but also for the evil of people.

Among the researchers of this situation there are pessimists who believe that humanity will not be able to find a way out of the crisis. Scientific and technological progress can no longer be stopped; it not only threatens human existence, but can also interrupt it (for example, nuclear war, which is still the main potential danger).

Others look at the future of human civilization with optimism. Mankind has been in danger of destruction more than once, but there has always been a way out of a seemingly hopeless situation.

This group of scientists sees a way out of the current crisis situation in the ability to manage and direct technical development:

1) through the awareness of the need to change priorities in the scale of cultural values, to create a new attitude to nature, to form an ecological culture;

2) through a change in the principles of measuring technology, its criteria, inclusion in the system of these assessments along with technical and technological optimality and economic efficiency, profitability and the sociocultural human dimension. To do this, it will be necessary to provide for a whole range of measures: learn to anticipate the social and cultural consequences of technical activity, set limits to technical invention. Much that is unpredictable in its consequences should remain in the realm of fantasy, mental gymnastics, and not the basis of activity;

3) through overcoming technocratic one-sidedness, including the parameters of the significance of human existence in the sphere of any activity.

These changes can become conditions for overcoming the crisis of technogenic civilization.

The second way is seen in improvement of man himself, the development of not only its general technical, but above all sociocultural potential.

It is impossible to stop progress. Technology plays a huge role in the modern existence of a person, in his work, organization of life, saving time, improving communications, universalizing life. Technological inevitability can also be mitigated by integrating technical and human knowledge.

The general cultural dimension should also become a measure of professionalism and competence.

55. DEFINITION OF A SOCIAL INSTITUTION

Word "institute" comes from lat. institutum, which means "establishment", "institution", "organization".

Social institutions are an integral part of the social structure, one of the main categories of sociological analysis of society.

The concept of a social institution was borrowed by the social sciences from jurisprudence, so it largely retains the semantic coloring associated with the norms of the regulatory activity of a person and society.

But the institutional aspect in social science has acquired a broader interpretation, which makes it possible to approach these cultural phenomena from the side of their social significance.

This deepened the understanding of the essence of social institutions, made it possible to look at them as the pillars on which society rests.

The term "institution" has many meanings. In science, there are many versions and approaches to the interpretation of this concept, which does not allow us to give an unambiguous definition of this category.

However, some key points in its understanding can be identified.

Most often, a social institution is understood as some more or less stable set of formal and informal rules, principles, and guidelines that regulate various areas of human activity and organize them into a single system.

With the help of this category, a certain community of people performing certain roles, organized by means of norms and goals, is designated.

Often, speaking of social institutions, they mean a system of institutions through which one or another aspect of human activity is legalized, ordered, organized in a society where certain people are empowered to perform certain functions.

This concept is used in a narrow sense (as the name of educational institutions) and in a broad sense.

In the broadest sense, social institutions are understood as specific socio-cultural formations that ensure the relative stability of ties and relations within the social organization of society, some historically determined ways of organizing and regulating various forms of social (including cultural) activities.

Social institutions arose in the course of the development of human society, the social division of labor, the formation of certain types and forms of social relations.

Society how a complex set of economic, political, legal, moral, ethical, aesthetic, ritual and other relations is institutionalized in the respective entities.

They also objectify culture as a way of human activity.

56. TYPES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

The most fundamental social institutions present in any society include: institution of property, state, family, industrial organizations, science, system of communication means, upbringing and education, law, religion, army, leisure etc. Thanks to them, the functioning of the social organism takes place, the processes of socialization and inculturation of individuals are carried out, the continuity of generations is ensured, skills, values and norms of social behavior are transmitted.

All social institutions they are also forms of culture, acting as an instrument of communication between culture and society, culture and civilization.

The process of formation of social institutions is called institutionalization. No society can do without it.

In any social institution there are the most common structural elements: the purpose and scope of the institute; functions envisaged to achieve the goals; normatively conditioned cultural roles and statuses; a set of means to achieve goals and implement functions, including a set of various sanctions.

In the course of the evolution of mankind, social institutions have varied depending on the era and the nature of the culture. But any social institution arose only when the need for its existence was realized.

Institutions could play different roles in society.

So, in the Middle Ages, the institution of religion played a decisive role. With the emergence of property, the active development of commodity-money relations, the importance of the institutions of craft and trade began to grow.

At a certain stage of historical evolution, the institutions of family and state became enduring in importance. The first structures and regulates the life of the original social unit, the second - the sphere of general social life.

Society starts from the family. The state represents the general social order. Already by virtue of the provision of general social functions by the state, it acts as the core of society; without it, society is at the mercy of local forces and local interests.

Without the state, society loses its stability and disintegrates. The state, embodying the strength and influence of society as a whole, acts as a unifying and protective principle, a condition for stability and order. But the state can suppress other institutions, culture as a whole. This has happened many times throughout human history. This deformed the socio-cultural life of society, but did not stop it.

Many institutions retain their significance despite the vicissitudes of life (for example, the institution of religion).

57. FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Social institutions perform a number of functions in society. Among the most important of them are the following:

1) regulation of the activities of members of society within the framework of their roles and statuses. Any activity is regulated; it is thanks to social institutions that the appropriate regulations are developed. Each institution has a system of rules and norms that consolidate and standardize sociocultural interaction, making it both predictable and communicatively possible;

2) appropriate sociocultural control. It provides order and framework within which the life activity of any individual takes place;

3) creating opportunities for life activities of one kind or another.

In order for specific socio-cultural projects to be implemented within the community, it is necessary that the appropriate conditions be created. Social institutions are directly involved in this;

4) enculturation and socialization of individuals. Social institutions are designed to ensure the possibility of a person’s entry into society and culture, familiarization with their values, norms and rules, orders existing in society;

5) ensuring integration and sustainability of the entire sociocultural organism. This function ensures the process of interaction, interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of a particular social group, occurring under the influence of institutional requirements. Integrity, carried out through institutions, is necessary to coordinate activities inside and outside any social institution, it is one of the conditions for its survival, reproduction and development;

6) ensuring and establishing communications. The communicative capabilities of social institutions are not the same: some are specifically designed to transmit information (mass media, television, radio), others have very limited capabilities for this or are designed primarily to perform other functions;

7) conservation of culturally significant activity regulations, their preservation and reproduction. Culture and society could not develop if it were not for the opportunity to store and transmit accumulated experience and thereby ensure continuity in the development of sociocultural traditions.

Thus, social institutions, managing entire spheres of society, act as powerful multifunctional tools that allow a person to fight for existence and successfully survive. Social institutions help a person to adapt to life in society.

58. DEFINITION OF CULTURAL IDENTITY

One of the leading human needs is the need for a variety of relationships with the outside world, the need for collective life, which is realized through the self-identification of the individual with any ideas, values, social groups and cultures. This kind of self-identification is defined in science by the concept of "identity".

The wide dissemination of this concept and its introduction into scientific circulation was due to the works of the American psychologist E. Erickson. Nowadays this concept is included in the lexicon of all social sciences and humanities, it attracts the attention of scientists in various fields and gives rise to numerous theoretical and empirical studies of this problem.

Identity in the most general sense, it means a person's awareness of his belonging to any socio-cultural group, allowing him to determine his place in the social space and freely navigate in the world.

The need for identity is caused by the fact that each person needs a certain orderliness in his life, which he can get only by being in the community of other people.

To do this, he must voluntarily accept the elements of consciousness that dominate in this community, tastes, habits, norms, values and other means of interconnection created by the people around him.

The assimilation of these elements of the social life of a particular group gives a person's life a predictable character, and also makes him involved in the corresponding cultural tradition.

Since each individual is simultaneously a member of several different sociocultural groups, he has several identities at once.

In their totality, a person’s gender, ethnic and religious affiliation, professional status, etc. themselves, other people, society and the world as a whole).

The essence of cultural identity It consists in self-identification of a person with certain cultural patterns of a particular cultural community.

People's ideas about themselves differ significantly in the cultural traditions of different eras and peoples. Usually a person acts as a carrier of the culture in which he grew up and formed as a person. Meeting someone from a different culture can be enriching, but it can also lead to confrontation. Therefore, it is important to exclude in cultural interaction the causes that can lead to conflicts.

59. MODERNIZATION OF CULTURE

The word modernization is of French origin: moderne - "newest", "modern".

In cultural studies cultural modernization refers to the process of cultural change of an innovative nature.

Modernization is opposed by reverse trends - conservation, traditionalism (or traditionalism). In any culture, these two principles are present, but in various specific historical conditions they manifest themselves in different ways.

The process of modernization of culture can have a narrow meaning: it no longer refers to the changes that occur in any era, but only those changes that occur in the cultural life of people at the present stage.

In this case, the modernization of culture is understood as the process of bringing this or that social formation in line with modern, current ideas about the forms and methods of cultural practice.

The term "modernization" is directly related to the theories of modernization, which constitute an influential branch of an even more general theory of development.

Within the framework of modernization theories, the process of "modernization" of socio-cultural life is considered as the main mechanism of social development.

An important point of this process is the change in social structures - economic, social, political (in the process of industrialization, urbanization, rationalization, democratization, etc.).

Modernization theories were used in relation to traditional societies, which were to come closer economically and technologically to the state of advanced industrial societies.

These theories proceeded from the priority of the capitalist socio-economic model and Western rational-individualistic culture. They were presented as a kind of universal model, to which all mankind should aspire.

But the transfer of modern technologies and financial investments to traditional countries did not lead to a positive result - it did not bring them closer to the number of advanced ones, but, on the contrary, led to social tension and destabilization. Then theories of “lagging”, “dead-end”, “fragmentary”, “wrong” modernizations, etc. appeared.

In later concepts of modernization, the emphasis was already on the study of the possibilities of traditional societies to "modernize" on their own basis, outside the economic context. Of particular interest were the socio-cultural and political factors of their development.

In cultural studies, the theory of modernization is associated primarily with the name of the American political scientist S. Huntington, who made a great contribution to the study of civilizational processes.

60. TRANSITION FROM INDUSTRIAL CULTURE TO POST-INDUSTRIAL

In one of the typologies of culture that studies its dynamics, there are three stages: agrarian, industrial and post-industrial (information), replacing each other due to technological progress.

The first stage was the longest in the history of mankind, other stages developed at an accelerated pace.

Each of these stages was of great importance in the life of mankind.

As part of agricultural history Writing appeared, agriculture and crafts actively developed, cities grew - the sprouts of a future industrial culture.

The origin of the industrial stage of development happened gradually, in the bowels of the old.

Western Europe became the epicenter of the development of industrial culture. Already in the Middle Ages, scope was opened for the widespread use of machines and technical inventions, which subsequently transformed the life world of people, made it more comfortable and convenient.

Gradually, the rational principle in cultural development became dominant. Religion lost its universal role. The 17th century is considered to be the initial century of scientific and technological progress. It is at this time that important scientific and technical discoveries occur. Man for the first time appears as a transformer of nature. Science is the main means of conquering nature. In the 17th century The first forms of scientism emerged, within which it was believed that the laws of development of the world and society could be fully known and the life of society could be scientifically organized, just as the natural world is organized. XIX century became a period of the most active development of science and technology.

This led to fundamental changes and unprecedented achievements in the field of productive forces and material production.

All this became possible due to the emergence of new energy sources - steam, electricity, internal combustion engine. High performance technology was used throughout. A new capitalist system was established.

By the XNUMXth century industrial civilization began to fully realize its potential in all spheres of culture.

But during the heyday of industrial culture, the contradictions inherent in it gradually began to manifest themselves.

In the 1930th century two world wars broke out, the economic crisis of the XNUMXs, and the environmental crisis - all this devalued the importance of rationalism. These and other events and phenomena caused the transition of the industrial era to the post-industrial era. The result of understanding the changes that have occurred in society and culture is postmodernism, which is often defined as the culture of a post-industrial, information society.

61. CULTURE OF POSTMODERNISM

The term "postmodernism" has been widely used since 1979 after the publication of the book by the French philosopher Jean Francois Lyotard "Postmodern State". Among writers, it was first used in 1971 by an American researcher Ihab Hassan. He also gave it a modern meaning.

Postmodernism is a concept that highlights the specifics of the state of modern Western European culture.

Postmodernism owes its origin to modernity with its cult of rational knowledge and technical transformations, confidence in the progressive development of society and the endless progress of mankind, evolving towards greater efficiency and expediency, adaptability to changing living conditions.

However, by the turn of the 1970s. environmental problems, economic stagnation, crisis conditions in culture gave rise to the idea of the "end of history", which no longer goes forward, the dead end of technocracy, and even the exhaustion of scientism.

Modernist ideas were replaced by a new worldview, which opposed the optimistic belief in the limitless possibilities of science and technology, positive prospects for the development of the world.

In the most concentrated form, the postmodern vision of the world is formed in postmodern philosophy. The impulse to this direction was given F. Nietzsche, it was continued by the classics of postmodernism: R. Barthes, M. Blanchot, J. Bordillard, G. Vattimo, P. Virilio, V. Welsh, J. Deleuze, F. Guattari, M. Foucault and more

There are various options for understanding the culture of postmodernism - from the vision of postmodernism as a phase of evolution and the deepening of modernism to the opposition of postmodernism to modernism.

Despite the different versions of the understanding of postmodernism, the new worldview has become characterized by: the perception of the world as chaos, which is possible only in fragments; understanding the world as a multiple and pluralistic phenomenon; denial of unidirectional determination; recognizing only uncertainty; acceptance of the idea of multivariate development.

Postmodernist attitudes manifested itself in literature and art. Thus, in art, postmodernism denies stylistic and genre divisions, the distinction between high and low, any hierarchy of values, the difference between art and its original - life. Postmodern culture frees a person from any kind of regulators. Newness without traditions and stereotypes becomes a way of life.

Postmodernism sees the basis of knowledge not in truth and reason, but in intuition, everyday life. The pluralistic world of postmodern man cannot be reduced to any unifying principle.

62. PREREQUISITES FOR THE APPEARANCE OF THE UNIVERSALIZATION OF CULTURE

Under cultural universalization the process of rapprochement of different cultures, their convergence, the formation on this basis of a universal culture is understood.

The comprehension of the problems of universalism, the common fate of mankind, is reflected in myths, legends, tales (for example, in the legend of Ancient Babylon, set forth in the Bible).

The phenomenon of universality became the subject of scientific research.

The ideas of universalism are derived from ideas about humanity, which has developed gradually, as different peoples come closer together.

Humanity is seen as a kind of community with a common destiny.

The humanistic ideal of humanity as a universal human race took shape during the Renaissance. The cult of man that developed in this culture aroused interest in history, which was supposed to answer the question of who was and who was to become a person not as a separate individual, but as part of the total humanity.

The Age of Enlightenment gave the idea of rationalism, faith in the rational unity of people. The search for the original universal culture, from which all peoples moved into a single world history, was carried out by many philosophers-enlighteners (F. Voltaire, I. G. Herder and etc.). The ideas of world citizenship can be traced in the writings I. Goethe, I. Kant, F. Schiller.

The idea of the unity of human history is clearly expressed in the theory of axial time K. Jaspers. In his opinion, humanity has common origins and a single path of development.

Many scholars identify religion as the basis for the unity of humanity. Particular attention is paid to the consolidating role of religion, which unites peoples in meta-associations.

The modern era is also characterized by ideas about the integrity of the world and the formation of a universal culture on this basis.

This process involves the adoption by representatives of various national cultures of a system of universal values, attitudes and orientations. This process is ambiguous, it is devoid of linear certainty. This process is largely unpredictable and is characterized by inconsistency.

Supporters of universalism are interested in the "convergence of cultures" and even seek to develop some strategies for this convergence.

The idea of universalism Western, therefore, attempts made to implement it sometimes cause a negative reaction and contribute to the growth of particularistic tendencies (ideas about the separate development of cultures).

But cultural unification does not mean unification, the reduction of the entire diversity of cultures to a single model. This is primarily about the relationship, mutual understanding of different cultures, their mutual enrichment.

63. DEFINITION AND ESSENCE OF CULTURAL UNIVERSALIZATION

Under cultural universalization the process of establishing a single global culture on the planet is understood.

According to scientists, this process is quite possible due to modern scientific, technical, economic and communication capabilities and is already actively taking place in the real world.

Proponents of cultural universalization believe that there are no fundamental differences between East and West, South and North. People everywhere are people and adhere to deep similar values. Differences (still existing) are temporary, caused by social conditions and can change with them.

In cultures that are still recognized as different, the same evolutionary laws operate, peoples go through the same stages in their development, have the same cultural structure: art, political institutions, science, law, religion, etc. Knowledge is integrated , development of common principles of thinking, cognition, explanation of the world.

A universal feature of human cultures is the existence of languages that, according to modern researchers, operate on the basis of a universal grammar inherent in all languages. All languages can explain not only events, qualities, things and actions, but also many emotional states of a person. Linguistic scholars also identify many other similar principles that underlie languages, which indicates that they are not as different as it sometimes seems.

Scientists have also identified many other universals that testify to the similarity of the cultures of different peoples. Cultural universals dealt with F. Boas, B. Malinowski, L. White, A. Bastian, C. Wissler, E. Durkheim, M. Moss, G. Simmel and more

Cultural universals (biological, psychological, socio-cultural) made it possible to fix the common thing that underlies a diverse human community. Universals of culture are the basis of every culture. Universals of culture make possible the mutual understanding of cultures, just what contributes to the formation of a single and at the same time diverse world.

The identification and refinement of universals continues. Research in this direction is aimed at finding grounds for a possible "convergence" of peoples and cultures in some kind of universal unity.

Associated with the problem of cultural universalization is the need to develop not only a theoretical substantiation of this trend, but also uniform principles according to which the process of universalization can take place in practical life.

The search for a model that would give an idea of the mechanisms of interaction and ways to achieve mutual understanding of cultures continues.

64. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SIDES OF CULTURAL UNIVERSALIZATION

Concept of cultural universalization

proceeds from the fact that at a certain stage of human evolution, culture will lose its still-preserving ethno-national and other definitions and will become simply human - a manifestation of man, regardless of the diverse forms of his expression. This process will occur under the condition of the interpenetration of cultures, their mutual enrichment, and will stimulate the general cultural development of mankind.

But theoretical ideas about such a cultural future in real practical refraction often turn into a unification of culture, reducing it to some average form.

This process does not enrich cultural development, but impoverishes it. Culture thus loses its individuality.

A unified culture relies on the average capabilities of consumers, which reduces the ability to comprehend its deep essence. The planting of cultural and behavioral stamps distorts many cultural values. Under the influence of the media, television, the Internet, it is possible to go into virtual reality, which distracts people from comprehending the problems of immediate reality.

As a result, there is a decrease in the level of culture.

Negative factor is also a process of technization. Man ceases to create, the machine does it for him. The cult of technology reveals the inadequacy of the socio-cultural development of man to his industrial power. The development of technology, along with many positive aspects, is associated with many risks, critical situations (for example, an environmental crisis).

The prospect of losing many of the identity characteristics of a particular culture does not suit everyone.

Therefore, along with tendencies towards universalization in socio-cultural development, there are also opposite tendencies, which are called particularistic.

The ideological basis of particularism is the idea of an independent, isolated development of cultures.

Particular emphasis is placed on the need for identification characteristics of cultures, their preservation.

Particularism acts as a healthy beginning in the conditions of forcible unification of economic, political, social and cultural life.

It should be noted that these trends - universalism and particularism - are interconnected, their dynamic interaction contributes to understanding how the process of cultural development takes place, which contributes to their interconnection, borrowing, and what in cultures deepens rejection, condemnation, rejection.

65. DEFINITION OF GLOBAL ISSUES OF MODERNITY

Globalization (from lat. globus - "ball") is the process of growing a phenomenon into a global phenomenon and its transformation into an integral global environment.

Globalization processes become possible when the prerequisites for the emergence of a unified global infrastructure are created, when a certain level of standardization and unification of people's lives is achieved.

The process of globalization is now manifested in almost all areas of people's lives. In the economic sphere, it became possible thanks to the emergence of a free market space, a unified global investment environment, the creation of a unified legislative framework, etc. In the political sphere, a striking manifestation of globalization processes is the attempt to create political supersystems (for example, the Council of Europe, the European Parliament). Under the powerful influence of the United States, the features of a unified political space on a global scale are gradually emerging.

It should be emphasized that not only positive processes of human development, but also negative ones acquire a global character.

The latter arise as a result of the development of society and threaten humanity not only with regression, but in general with its existence. These processes are called the global problems of our time.

First of all, the possibility of thermonuclear war poses a global threat to the existence of life on earth.

On the verge of a dilemma - to disappear or survive - humanity has put the ecological crisis associated with a sharp deterioration in the natural habitat of people.

An equally important global problem is the issue of overcoming the gap in the level of socio-economic and cultural development of various states of the world.

Recently, the demographic crisis associated with increased anthropological pressure on the biosphere has been rapidly among the global problems.

For the first time, the attention of the world community to the existence of global problems was drawn by scientists from the Club of Rome (this is a worldwide non-governmental organization established in 1968).

It was these scientists who, having studied the trends of planetary development, expressed concern about its future state.

It was they who first raised the problem of the limits of population growth, industrial and agricultural production, environmental pollution, etc. With going beyond these limits, humanity will face the problem of depletion of raw materials and food resources and (as a consequence) survival.

The studies of the Club of Rome gave impetus to the study of global problems.

66. CAUSES OF GLOBAL PROBLEMS

By their origin, global problems are the result of human activity, generated by the spontaneous development of civilizations, delimitation of cultural centers and peripheries, uneven scientific, technical, economic, socio-political and cultural development of countries and regions.

So, problem of the threat of thermonuclear war generated by the factor of fear, which stimulates an increase in the arms race for the purpose of self-defence. Solving this problem will create favorable opportunities for solving other problems.

Its solution will make it possible to free up colossal funds directed to the arms race. This problem is also a priority because of its fatality (there will be neither winners nor losers in a thermonuclear war). Attempts are being made to stop the arms race, but so far this problem is far from being resolved.

Ecological problem generated by the reckless and spontaneous needs of industrial society.

The excessive use by man of the achievements of scientific and technological progress has led to an increase in the load on all systems of the biosphere: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, flora and fauna.

The result of this was air and water pollution, the death of fauna and flora, the appearance of ozone holes, climate change, etc. But if in previous centuries nature was still able to self-repair, then in the XNUMXth century. human intervention in natural processes turned out to be so strong that the balance in the relationship between man and nature, nature and society was disturbed, which created a threat of destruction of the human habitat.

There is a gap between the level of development of different countries. Most of the world's population lives in developing countries. These countries have a significant stock of natural resources, but produce a smaller part of the world's gross domestic product. Economic underdevelopment gives rise to poverty, insolvency, social instability, and aggressiveness. But, despite this, developed countries continue to use the resources of developing countries to maintain a high standard of living, dooming developing countries to constant economic and social backwardness. This leads to a state of global instability and social tension.

Cultural achievement of humanity (excess of birth rate over death rate) also entails a negative consequence - anthropogenic pressure on the biosphere increases. This leads to a shortage of natural resources. Scientists propose to reduce anthropogenic pressure through depopulation and population control. There are other opinions on this issue.

67. WAYS OF SOLVING GLOBAL PROBLEMS

Special studies of global problems also include a set of measures to resolve them. But along with the adoption of legal regulations, the development of environmental education and education, the tightening of sanctions for violations and crimes, the development of social programs for birth control and other things, many scientists see the solution to global problems in changing the person himself, his culture. This change should be aimed at restoring the harmony of man and the continuously changing world.

cultural change should lead to the birth of new values - social, ethical, spiritual, which will form the cultural atmosphere of the future.

But in order for this cultural transformation to become a reality, not only huge material costs are necessary, but also a restructuring of the principles on which modern culture is based.

For this, you will have to:

1) replace standardization diversity and pluralism, which will be caused by new types of production, patterns of consumption (according to the theory of development of reasonable needs), various forms of political behavior, the coexistence of different religious systems, etc.;

2) develop the process not only centralization, but also decentralization of cultural ties and relations. This will reduce the importance of dividing the world into a developed center and a backward periphery. Peripheral worlds can also become centers of culture, science and education;

3) ensure widespread informatization of society, entailing a fall in the status of the bureaucracy and social hierarchy. The vertical division of society must be more actively replaced by horizontal interaction between people;

4) ensure the transformation of a person into the main social value.

In changing, first of all, the nature of man himself, the scientists of the Club of Rome see the solution to global problems.

In their opinion, the current crisis is a direct consequence of the inability of a person to rise to a level corresponding to his new, powerful role in the world, to realize his responsibility for its preservation and further development.

But many scientists have an idealistic approach to assessing reality, and it is imperfect. The balance of interests necessary for the problem-free existence of mankind can be achieved only on the basis of overcoming social and other contradictions, ways of satisfying the needs of all people inhabiting the planet. But today's world is very far from that. It is positive that at the present stage global problems are not only identified, but the urgent need to resolve them is also recognized.

68. GLOBAL SOCIO-CULTURAL CRISIS

In the XX century. there was a crisis not only in the field of material, but also spiritual life. A new form of socio-cultural crisis has also acquired a global character. It was in this century that mankind twice experienced the horror of world wars, which devalued all ideas about humanism.

Space of spirituality scientific and technological development, especially that developed at the present stage, also reduces. The increasing complexity of technology increases the likelihood of human errors and increases the scale of their possible destructive consequences. The modern use of reason (the purpose and nature of which have not been fully studied) creates a threat to the existence of its very carrier - man.

But a person without an idea of the deep meaning and direction of his life and all of humanity will not be able to solve the problem of his existence.

Therefore, many scientists insist on the need to strengthen the spiritual, moral vector of development.

In their opinion, the survival of mankind will be ensured not only by the development of the ecology of nature, but above all by the ecology of the spirit, moral ecology.

But it is precisely in this area that man has not advanced forward throughout his entire evolution. Therefore, in order to survive, a person must make a fundamentally new revolution, which has never happened before - axiological. The impetus for its onset is seen in the fact that an increasing number of people are showing hostility to the value system of industrialism with its emphasis on unbridled growth and consumerism.

The ability to breathe fresh air, use clean water, and lead a healthy lifestyle is becoming increasingly valuable. Of course, these impulses have not yet led to a radical change in the way people live. Value consciousness still lags behind the needs of the time.

Many are still guided by the philistine principle "enough for our age", do not think about the long-term interests of civilization.

Mass production capability provoke inflated consumer expectations, selfish motives, moral relativism.

Without the ability of civilization to provide all this, it is economically impossible even to approach the formulation of the problem of establishing a new set of post-material values.

The situation seems to be hopeless. But many people are quite optimistic about the possibility of a socio-cultural crisis. A common interest in survival will force humanity to follow the path of guided development, in the spirit of the joint evolution of the material and spiritual principles.

But until this happens, the socio-cultural crisis will retain its current significance.

69. FUTURE OF CULTURE

End of XX century turned out to be saturated with contradictory processes, but this actualized the question of the direction of mankind and its culture in the XNUMXst century. There are no exact answers to this question yet, but a number of possibilities, probable lines of development in modern research have been outlined.

Using various methodologies, arguments and evidence, scientists draw different scenarios for the future of culture, among which the most prominent are pessimistic and optimistic ones.

According to pessimists, culture is in a deep crisis and is moving towards its decline.

Evidence of the crisis state of culture is the global problems of mankind, the deepening of social inequality, numerous local conflicts, the crisis of morality and morality.

These problems were first identified in the report to the Club of Rome "The Limits to Growth", prepared under the leadership of D. Meadows.

The report made a disturbing conclusion that humanity is heading towards a catastrophe, which it can avoid only by introducing new values and orientations into culture.

Futurological research has become widely known throughout the world. O. Toffler, in which he argued the inevitability of the decline of industrial society, which will be accompanied by crisis phenomena in culture.

Pictures of a possible future are also widely represented in the literature of the XNUMXth century. (in warning books D. Orwell, O. Huxley, E. Zamyatina and etc.).

OptimistsOn the contrary, we are convinced that modern culture is developing in the right direction, that its future lies in science and technology, economics and new technologies. It is the development of these areas that will allow other problems to be resolved. The further existence of people is unthinkable without scientific and technological progress.

During the multi-thousand-year process of evolution, a person will no longer be able to simply survive in natural conditions. Optimists believe that in modern culture (despite the horrors of wars) there has not been a dehumanization of society, the importance of the individual, his freedoms and opportunities is still high in it.

The individual is still perceived as the basis of society and the basic element of the changes taking place in it.

Scientific and technical progress accelerated the process of cultural rapprochement of peoples, their communicative interaction. Economic, political and cultural differences do not interfere with general cultural progress.

computer revolution, expanding human information capabilities, will further accelerate the process of bringing cultures closer together and will allow humanity to develop common principles of life necessary for survival. Culture will retain its functions in the new conditions.

70. CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE IN RUSSIA

The problems of cultural development were actively comprehended by Russian philosophers.

The most important stage in the formation of the Russian philosophy of culture was the disputes of Westerners (K. D. Kavelin, V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen etc.) and Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakova, brothers K. S. and I. S. Aksakov etc.) in the second half of the XNUMXth century.

The impetus for the beginning of these disputes was creativity P. Ya. Chaadaeva, who was interested in general and specific problems of the cultural development of Russia.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. a whole galaxy of remarkable philosophers appears in Russia. it V. S. Soloviev, N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, P. A. Florensky and more

The main topics of their reflections are the religious, spiritual foundations of various types of culture, the philosophy of art, understanding the features of Russian culture, its similarities and differences from the culture of European countries.

Cultural issues were addressed not only by humanities scholars, but also by other researchers.

So, K. E. Tsiolkovsky actively worked on the development of not only space theory, but also its philosophy.

Russian scientist V. I. Vernadsky formulated the foundations of planetary ethics, which formed the basis of a scientific direction called Russian cosmism. The teaching of V.I. Vernadsky about the noosphere - the sphere of the universal mind - is still an important scientific direction.

He also spoke about the influence of space on the Earth's biosphere and ethnogenesis L. N. Gumilyov.

Many Russian literary figures had their own views on the process of cultural development.

F. M. Dostoevsky tried in his work to reconcile the task of personal spiritual improvement of a person with the ideal of building a harmonious society on the basis of a global theocracy.

The writer was concerned with many problems - the mystery of man and the human roots of social evil, the intrinsic value of personal freedom, etc. The writer most actively defended the ideals of religious humanism.

The developed concept of culture was also created by L. N. Tolstoy. He was looking for answers to fundamental philosophical questions - about the meaning of life, the purpose of man, the specifics of the organization of his inner, spiritual world. The writer associated the improvement of life with the moral improvement of each person.

The writer also owns the idea of non-resistance to evil by violence. It was within the framework of this idea, according to the writer, that the gospel ideal of universal love could be realized.

The events of 1917 changed the course of national history, including intellectual and cultural history. The philosophy of culture found itself under the dominance of Marxist teaching and the dictates of communist ideology.

71. INFLUENCE OF THE GEOPOLITICAL FACTOR ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

Russia belongs to the type of societies subject to various geographical and geopolitical influences.

V. O. Klyuchevsky, N. O. Lossky much attention was paid to the geographical conditionality of Russian history and culture.

He spoke about the geographical uniqueness of Russia, developing within the boundaries of two zones - the steppe and the forest-steppe, the contacts of Russia with the steppe L. N. Gumilyov.

The steppe was perceived most often as a threatening beginning, the habitat of the Horde, ready to fall on the country, cause ruin. Therefore, later, after the inclusion of the steppe into the Russian state, it remained for a long time a space difficult for economic development, it was inhabited by people who were looking for a free life.

Russia is also a country geopolitically sandwiched between two civilizational centers - East and West. It contains three cultural worlds - Christian, Muslim and Buddhist.

Living between different cultural poles, which, of course, influenced the direction of the cultural development of Russia, contributed to the establishment of a unique type of cultural and historical development of the country.

This aspect of the specifics of Russian history and culture was of interest to N. A. Berdyaeva. The historical and cultural Russian experience, including in geopolitical refraction, has been the subject of research A. Toynbee, O. Spengler, P. Sorokin, N. Ya. Danilevsky and more

The impact from the West and the East was ambiguous and often took extreme forms, exposing the Russian people to the threat of displacement and dispersion. Under these conditions, the role of consolidating structures - the state and religion, which were of great importance in Russia - increased sharply. External threats (especially the Mongol-Tatar invasion) showed the Russian people the danger of internal strife and the need for strong state power, which would act as a unifying and protective principle, a condition for stability and order, and the preservation of the integrity of the country.

This also constitutes the specificity of Russian history and culture, caused by the geopolitical position of the country.

The oriental despotism of the tsarist autocracy is to a certain extent a legacy of the Mongol yoke.

According to researchers, it was the inclusion of Russia in the nomadic empire of the East that allowed the country to adopt experience in managing large territories from a single center.

Geopolitical factor significantly influenced the choice of spiritual tradition - faith. Russian culture for many centuries was imbued with the Byzantine spirit and style. Rus' adopted Orthodoxy from Byzantium.

72. INFLUENCE OF ORTHODOXY ON THE FORMATION OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

The most important cultural event in the life of Ancient Russia was the adoption of Christianity by Prince Vladimir in 988.

The choice of religion largely determined the close economic, political and cultural ties between Russia and Byzantium.

Christian religion contributed to the ideological formation of a centralized grand ducal power, which was essential to preserve the integrity of the country, which was surrounded by not always friendly neighboring formations. Statehood, in turn, acted as a guarantor of faith.

With the introduction of Christianity, the international prestige of the country increased, its history began to develop in line with the common European tradition.

But the Russian Church, which adopted the Byzantine doctrine, was autocephalous. The result of this situation was cultural isolation, local isolation of this church from Western Europe.

Orthodoxy was alien to any serious attempts at reformation. Orthodoxy was affirmed as the final truth and there was no such authority that could change it.

On this soil, a messianic consciousness was born - an idea of the special destiny of Russia given by God in the history of mankind.

Messianic representations later developed by the Slavophiles, disputes about the purpose of Russia do not subside even now. (The messianic tradition was also continued in the Soviet period, when the USSR was perceived as an outpost of progressive humanity.) Nevertheless, the influence of Christianity in the development of the self-consciousness of the Russian people and their culture was significant. The consolidating role of Christianity in the life of Russian society and the state has become especially significant.

The main thing that Christianity gave Russia is writing, book culture. The first books that appeared in Russia were church texts. The Psalter was especially popular. It was most often taught to read and write.

Schools and libraries began to be created at the monasteries. Historical chronicles arose, church architecture and temple painting flourished, and the first legal code, the Russian Truth, was adopted. The era of development of enlightenment and learning has begun. Rus' quickly moved to a place of honor among the countries of Europe.

Especially important was the impact of Christianity on folk morality. The Church waged a struggle against the remnants of pagan life: polygamy, blood feud, barbaric treatment of slaves. She opposed rudeness and cruelty, introduced the concept of sin into the minds of people, preached piety, humanity, mercy to the weak, defenseless.

Author: Barysheva A.D.

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