History of world and domestic culture. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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History of world and domestic culture. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. General characteristics of the period. The emergence of art. Mythology

The culture of the primitive era is the foundation of all subsequent culture of mankind. Many phenomena of the life of modern society originate in the deep antiquity of the primitive era.

1. Language.

2. Writing.

3. Art.

4. Religion.

5. Mythology.

6. Science.

7. Morality, etc.

The primitive era covers a huge period from the appearance of man to the emergence of the first class societies and states, as well as writing. The human race has existed for about 2,5 million years. Homo sapience (reasonable man) is only about 40 thousand years old.

Man has been using tools for more than 2 million years. Their use opened up wide possibilities for primitive man:

1) use of natural resources;

2) adaptation to the environment;

3) collective hunting;

4) protection from enemies. During the Neolithic period:

1) tools are being improved;

2) methods of stone processing (sawing, drilling, grinding);

3) bows, arrows, pottery appear. Along with hunting, fishing, gathering, agriculture and cattle breeding are spreading. These two great achievements of the primitive economy made man a man.

The most important prerequisite for the decomposition of primitive society was the transition to the use of metals.

With the advent of art, a qualitative leap took place in the development of human society. Primitive art has become a new phenomenon.

The starting point of a person’s artistic creativity could be his aesthetic needs, sexual instinct, mythological thinking, religious practice, the need to consolidate and transfer accumulated experience, the need for entertainment, etc.

Biological and cultural development has helped man to use symbols. No living being, except man, has this ability.

Mythology occupies an important place in primitive culture. It, being the main form of a person's worldview at an early stage of development, shows how he realizes himself, the world around him and his place in this world.

One of the most common forms of primitive beliefs was the cult of ancestors - the veneration of the spirits of deceased relatives. Varieties of primitive beliefs are:

1) animism;

2) totemism;

3) fetishism.

The development of agriculture in the late period of the primitive era required the ordering of the calendar. Irrigation work led to the formation of the technique of geometric calculations, the development of exchange - to the improvement of counting systems. Ultimately, all this led to the accumulation of mathematical knowledge. And with the advent of the smelting of ore metals, the foundations of chemistry were born.

2. Visual arts and the emergence of writing in the primitive era. Development of thinking, accumulation of knowledge

In the primitive era, all types of fine arts were formed:

1) graphics (drawings, silhouettes);

2) painting (images in color, made with mineral paints);

3) sculpture (figures carved from stone or molded from clay);

4) decorative art (carving on wood, stone, bone; reliefs, ornaments).

The first works of primitive art that have come down to us belong to the Upper Paleolithic, their age is about 40 thousand years. Among them, a special place is occupied by the so-called "Venuses" - images, apparently associated with the cult of the mother ancestress.

At the end of the XIX century. primitive cave painting was discovered (Altamir cave in Spain). Later, researchers discovered dozens of similar caves in Spain, France, and also in Russia (Kapova Cave, South Urals).

The advent of writing was of great importance. One of the first forms of writing is pictographic writing, consisting of individual specific images.

With the onset of the Mesolithic era, the image begins to dominate the person. Color and volume give way to movement. If Paleolithic cave painting consists of many figures that are compositionally unrelated to each other, then multi-figure rock art reproduces hunting scenes, honey gathering, ritual actions, dances, battles, etc.

In the Neolithic era, art undergoes profound qualitative changes. Culture ceases to be unified, it acquires distinct features and original character in different territories.

With the development of abstract thinking, language, mythology, religion, the accumulation of rational knowledge, a person had a need to embody complex images in art: the sun, earth, fire, water. An ornament consisting of stylized abstract motifs is gaining popularity: a cross, a circle, a spiral, a triangle, a square, etc.

At the same time, there is a desire to decorate all the objects that a person used. Ornament or individual symbols covered ancient ceramics - the most common type of decorative art.

Among the most mysterious phenomena of primitive art is a group of megalithic monuments:

1) menhirs;

2) dolmens;

3) cromlechs.

Primitive art became the beginning of a figurative reflection of the surrounding world, a means of its knowledge, as well as the formation of the inner world of the person himself. The study of monuments of primitive art allows us to understand the patterns of formation and development of the entire world artistic culture.

3. Features of Chinese culture

Education and science. Religion. Literature. Chinese fiction 1920-1930

Chinese civilization is one of the most ancient in the world. According to the Chinese themselves, the history of their country begins at the end of the XNUMXrd millennium BC. e. Chinese culture has acquired a unique character: it is rational and practical.

Knowledge and learning were treated with great respect in China. Knowledge usually meant postulates from the sphere of the humanities.

Chinese mathematicians wrote essays on calculations using a pole in a circle. From the 12th century BC e. The Chinese knew the properties of a right triangle. Astronomy developed. Already in the II millennium BC. e. the ancient inhabitants of China divided the year into 4 months, the month - into XNUMX weeks. Chinese doctors have made a great contribution to world medicine. Of the technical inventions, the water mill should be mentioned.

Knowledge of writing is based on sources, many of which were compiled in the early periods of Chinese history. It is known that already in the XV century. BC e. In China, there was a developed system of hieroglyphic writing (more than 2000 hieroglyphs). The great invention was the manufacture of paper, the production of which began in 105 AD. e.

Myth-making in China dates back to ancient times. The place of numerous revered gods in Chinese culture is occupied by legendary sages and cultural heroes.

Later philosophical teachings - Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism - undoubtedly enriched Chinese culture.

It is characteristic that all the religious systems of China had much in common: they all had a cult of obedience, reverence for elders and ancestors, and the idea of a passive, contemplative attitude towards reality. These ideas defined the Chinese national psychology.

Chinese literature has its roots in deep antiquity. The oldest Chinese literary monument is the poetic anthology Shijing (Book of Songs).

During the Han Dynasty, the main Chinese historical work, Sima Qian's Historical Notes, was written. This work contains a detailed description of prominent personalities and events.

Early 1920th century was marked by the growth of the national self-consciousness of the Chinese, which contributed to the overthrow of the imperial system in the country. The New Youth magazine, which appeared in these years, criticized traditional Chinese culture and called for the speedy introduction of Western norms. Chinese fiction of the 30s and XNUMXs characterized by the influence of socialist and communist ideas, harsh satire on the existing order.

4. Theater, music, dance, cinema, painting, architecture and arts and crafts in Chinese culture

The role of the Chinese theater was significant, all performances in which were accompanied by music. Back in the 80st century BC. e. more than XNUMX types of national musical instruments were known in China.

Each emperor of China kept a staff of musicians and dancers at court. In China, professional music was considered a deed unworthy of a noble person, and even court musicians were representatives of the lower social strata.

In the cities of medieval China, there were permanent theater buildings. Actors in China were considered the lowest class and had to abide by many rules and prohibitions.

Ballet, which has deep historical roots in folk dance art, has become a new type of theatrical art in China. From the early 1950s to the mid-1960s, a number of ballet performances on historical and contemporary themes were created, and in the 1980s. Over 100 new productions have already been staged.

Cinema in China appeared in the 1920s, but it achieved its most significant success after 1949.

Guohua is a traditional genre of Chinese painting. Paintings are written in black or gray ink with a brush on paper or silk. The master, with the help of just a few strokes of black ink of various thicknesses, creates the general outlines of the landscape and human figures, without writing out the details.

Both Buddhist and Taoist monasteries have been one of the centers of Chinese culture for many centuries. It was the Chinese Buddhist monks who invented the art of xylography, i.e., book printing, the reproduction of text using matrices (boards with mirror hieroglyphs carved on them).

Already in the II millennium BC. e. Jade and bone carving was developed. Green jade was a cult object in China, it was revered as an "eternal stone" that keeps the memory of ancestors. The most important center for the production of products using cloisonne enamel is Beijing.

Interesting and unusual architecture of China. Already in the 2st millennium BC. e. the Chinese built buildings of 3-XNUMX or more floors with a multi-tiered roof. Typical was a building consisting of supports in the form of wooden pillars with a tiled roof, which had raised edges and a clearly marked cornice - a pagoda. This type of building was the main one in China for many centuries.

The time when a single centralized state was formed in the country (221-207 BC) was marked by the construction of the main part of the Great Wall of China, which has partially survived to this day.

5 Features of Indian culture. Literature. The science. Religion. Music. Dance. Theatre. Movie

India is one of the oldest countries in the world that laid the foundations of the global civilization of mankind.

Indian literature has about 40 centuries of existence. It is so heterogeneous and was created in so many languages that it is extremely difficult to describe it. The most ancient is the Vedic literature. For a long time the Vedas had the character of oral art.

A prominent representative of Bengali literature is Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) - poet and writer, musician and artist. The pinnacle of recognition of Tagore's poetic work was the award of the Nobel Prize in Literature to him for 1913 BC for the collection of poems "A Handful of Songs".

Indian science has made great strides. Ancient Indian scientists developed the decimal system of counting and introduced the concept of zero. With minor errors, they determined the distance from the Earth to the Moon and the Sun, calculated the radius of the Earth, and made many astronomical and scientific discoveries. All major religions of the world are represented in India:

1) Hinduism;

2) Islam;

3) Christianity;

4) Buddhism;

5) Judaism;

6) Zoroastrianism.

Hinduism is the most widespread in the country, which is practiced by more than 80% of the population. It is followed by Islam (about 12%), then - Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, etc.

The peaceful coexistence of different religions in India has created a unique atmosphere of identity in the culture of this country. The religious views of the Indians on the world are vividly and succinctly expressed in their fine arts.

The classical music of India has its own specifics. There is no European harmony in it. Indian religious music has never been written down. Classical Indian music is performed on Indian national instruments. These primarily include wines and sitars, as well as a large number of different drums.

Indian classical dance has its roots in ancient times. It is filled with specific content. Each movement of the legs, arms, eyes, eyebrows and other parts of the body has its own meaning, so Indian dance can be read, in addition, it is often accompanied by dance recitative.

Indian theater is one of the oldest theaters in the world: its theory and practice were developed around the XNUMXnd century BC. BC e.

Indian cinema is a unique phenomenon that has no analogues in world cinema. Indian cinema is original. It is a natural continuation of the musical-dance drama. It is always national: the action of any film is always connected with India and its people.

6. Periodization and general characteristics of the culture of Ancient Egypt. Religion. Education and science. Literature

The civilization of Ancient Egypt is one of the oldest in the world. The history of the culture of Ancient Egypt is usually divided into the following periods:

1. Pre-dynastic period (IV millennium, 33-30 centuries BC);

2. Ancient Kingdom (XXX-XXIII centuries BC);

3. Middle Kingdom (XXI-XVIII centuries BC);

4. New Kingdom (XVI-XI centuries BC);

5. Late time (XI-332 BC).

For a long time, Egyptian culture developed in isolation. In the traditional world of the Eastern kingdoms, there were practically no changes. The funeral cult was of great importance in the religion of Ancient Egypt.

The characteristic features of the ancient Egyptian culture were the consciousness of power, the desire to preserve and increase it, the thirst for immortality. Art as a whole had a monumental character that overwhelmed the viewer.

The polytheism that existed in Egypt did not contribute to the centralization of the state. Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (XIV century BC) tried to carry out religious reforms in order to establish monotheism.

The most important feature of the religion and culture of ancient Egypt was the protest against death. The Egyptians believed in the immortality of the soul - this was the main doctrine of the Egyptian religion, and the passionate desire for immortality determined the whole worldview of the Egyptians. The desire for immortality became the basis for the emergence of the funeral cult, which played an extremely important role in the history of Ancient Egypt.

The emergence of Egyptian writing dates back to the XNUMXrd millennium BC. e. Despite the complexity of hieroglyphic writing, already in the most ancient period, not only priests, scribes and nobles were literate, but also builders. Science was an important part of Egyptian culture: without scientific knowledge, it was impossible to manage the economy, construction, military affairs, and government. Mathematics developed under the influence of practical needs. The Egyptians learned to accurately determine the timing of sowing, ripening and harvesting grain.

Significant advances have been made in medicine. The development of medical science was facilitated by the custom of mummification of corpses, thanks to which priests and doctors could study the anatomy of the human body and its internal organs.

By the II millennium BC. e. include the oldest geographical maps that have come down to us. Historical knowledge was also accumulated.

The civilization of Ancient Egypt left mankind a rich literary heritage. The most characteristic feature of ancient Egyptian literature is its inseparable connection with religion and the indispensable traditional character of ancient stories. Most of the literary works were the art form of myths.

7. Music, painting, architecture and sculpture of ancient Egypt

The musical culture of Egypt is one of the most ancient in the world. Music accompanied all religious ceremonies, mass festivals. Musicians enjoyed great respect in society, they were considered relatives of the pharaohs.

Painting was also very common in ancient Egypt. Most of the murals of the Old Kingdom have not been preserved, but many examples of the Middle Kingdom have come down. The frescoes depicted scenes from the life, life of people, nature on the banks of the Nile.

In the Middle Kingdom, the plots become more diverse, the scenes become more dynamic. Wall images of the New Kingdom have undergone significant changes. In temple reliefs and murals, dynamic, complex compositions were replaced by smooth, unhurried subjects.

An important feature of ancient Egyptian culture was the construction of pyramids. The search for new architectural forms for the exaltation of royal power led to the appearance of such structures. In the XXVIII century. BC e. architect of Pharaoh Djoser Imhotep created a pyramid of seven decreasing steps placed one on top of the other.

The period of the New Kingdom is especially interesting for its architecture. The main type of architectural structure in the period of the New Kingdom is the temple. In the capital of Egypt, Thebes, two famous temple complexes were created in Karnak and Luxor.

The emerging trends in the visual arts led to its extraordinary rise, which went down in history under the name of the Amarna period (beginning of the XNUMXth century BC). Found in the pharaoh's tomb Tutankhamen works of art are also made in the traditions of the Amarna style.

The architecture of Egypt was inextricably linked with sculpture, and sculpture was associated primarily with ideas about the afterlife.

Next to the pharaoh's pyramid Khafra rises an amazing statue of the so-called Great Sphinx, a fantastic creature with the body of a lion and the portrait head of a king.

The statues of the prince can serve as classical examples of the sculpture of the Old Kingdom. Rahotep and his wife Nofret.

During the heyday of the Middle Kingdom, a new direction was formed in the plastic art of Egypt. Masters begin to pay more attention to the individual characteristics of the individual.

The new style of harmony and beauty is also manifested in the fine arts and sculpture of the New Kingdom.

The most significant achievements of the Amarna period are associated with the development of a new style of plastic forms, with a new interpretation of the image of a person. The pinnacle of the plastic art of the period under review is the portrait busts of the beautiful wife of Akhenaten, the queen Nefertiti.

8. Features of ancient culture. Religion. Theatre. Music

Antique culture in the history of mankind is a unique phenomenon, a role model and a standard of creative perfection. Greek culture was formed on the basis of the Aegean and Crete-Mycenaean cultures and became the cradle of modern European culture.

The special geographical position of Greece - the intersection of busy maritime trade routes, city-states with their democracy and a special way of thinking (contemplation, plus a high level of logic) - constitute the content and originality of Greek culture.

Ancient Rome means not only the city of Rome, but also all the countries and peoples conquered by it as part of the Roman state. Ancient Rome gave mankind an example of an enriched cultural environment: comfortable cities with paved roads, magnificent bridges, buildings of libraries, archives, palaces with solid furniture.

In ancient culture, there is a desire to express their understanding of the world. Aesthetic categories are being developed that express important assessments and aspects of the attitude of the Greeks:

1) harmony;

2) symmetry;

3) beauty.

The ancient religion is characterized by polytheism - polytheism. Gradually, more individualized gods emerged, such as Zeus.

Numerous priestly colleges (vestals, augurs) maintained respect for the gods and observance of customs and traditions.

Theater played an important role in the life of the ancient Romans. It could express their feelings and emotions. The theater not only reflected the life of the ancient Greeks and Romans, but also served as a manifestation of their interest in politics. Ancient Greece left 3 names of the authors of the tragedy:

1) Aeschylus;

2) Sophocles;

3) Euripides.

The fate of the theater in the Hellenistic era is interesting. The first work of the creator of the "new comedy" - comedy of manners - Menander (342-291 BC) dedicated to the life of ordinary Athenian families with their worries.

Women's roles have always been played by men. Greek actors wore masks on their faces, which were replaced even during the performance of one role. In the Hellenistic era, the art of the actor became a profession.

The architecture of the Roman theater had a number of features that distinguished it from the Greek. Seats for spectators were arranged in one or more tiers in the form of a semicircle. Circus performances and gladiator fights held in the Colosseum were very popular.

Music was also of great importance in antiquity. The Greeks believed that the harmony in music creates the mood of a person. A distinctive musical culture existed in Rome as well. Descriptions of ancient triumphal, wedding, memorial and drinking songs have been preserved.

9. Enlightenment, science and literature of ancient culture

The education of free-born citizens in Ancient Greece was aimed at training slave owners who knew how to keep slaves in subjection and protect their state from external enemies. Depending on the conditions of development, various systems of education developed, of which the most famous were two:

1) spartan;

2) Athenian.

In Sparta (Laconica), education was directed mainly to physical training. Teaching reading and writing was not included in the compulsory education program. Athenian education was much more versatile and set as its task a combination of moral, aesthetic and physical education.

Roman education as a system developed during the period of the Republic. With the development of cities, schools arose in which boys were taught to read, write, and count. Aristocrats gave their children their initial education at home. Much attention in the system of education was given to the physical training of youth.

In antiquity, scientific knowledge also actively developed. Among the sciences stand out:

1) geography (Eratosthenes);

2) physics (Democritus);

3) philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Democritus, etc.).

The natural science knowledge of Rome was formed on the basis of the development of centuries-old production, the experience of the Romans themselves and the assimilation of the culture of other peoples of the Mediterranean.

Literature developed rapidly. Period VI-IV centuries. BC e. called "Greek Classics". The great Greek poetess Sappho sings beauty and love in her poems. Literature seeks to reflect the weaknesses and vices of man: a special prose genre is born - a fable, the "father" of which was Aesop.

The literature of the Roman people began to take shape in the XNUMXrd century BC. BC e. The Roman author, whose works are known to us, descendants, in full, was the playwright Plautus (c. 254-184 BC). Speeches were examples of oratory Mark Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC). Along with prose literature, Latin poetry has also achieved great success in creativity Lucretia Cara (c. 99-55 BC), author of the philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things".

An outstanding lyric poet was Gaius Valerius Catullus (c. 84-54 BC). He became famous as the author of original lyrical poems addressed to his beloved woman, Lesbia. The greatest literary works were created by poets Virgil (70-19 BC) и Horace (65-8 BC). The creator of the classical Roman elegy was Tibullus (c. 50-19 BC). Publius Ovid Naso (43 BC - 17 AD) He became famous for his love lyrics, the book "The Science of Love".

10. Painting, architecture, sculpture and vase painting of ancient culture

The era of classics, especially high (450-400 BC) she did not tolerate models with flaws - everything in a person must be perfect.

The reign of Emperor Nero, one of the most cruel rulers in Roman history, was the heyday of portraiture. The artists of Ancient Rome for the first time paid close attention to the inner world of a person and reflected it in the portrait genre, creating works that had no equal in antiquity.

The painting of the era of the republic is characterized by portraits that are very close to the original.

In the middle of the XNUMXst c. in the visual arts, the genre of still life (from the French "dead nature") began to take shape, showing inanimate objects.

The Emperor Trajan refused lush hairstyles, rich chiaroscuro. The art of his time is committed to the ideal of apparent simplicity: here grandeur and power appear, previously absent in works of art.

The era of geometry in Greece (IX-VIII centuries BC) has long been underestimated by scientists. The murals were dominated by the geometric style, named after the clear, logical forms of the main decorative techniques.

The Greeks create a city in which a thoughtful and clear system of architectural forms is formed - an order (from the Latin "ordo" - order, system), which then becomes the basis of Greek and new European architecture. The Romans for the first time began to build "typical" cities, the prototype of which were the Roman military camps. Two perpendicular streets were laid, at the intersection of which the city center was erected. The Romans invented concrete - the most important building material, with the help of which they fixed the buildings under construction.

The first Greek orders are Doric and Ionic (the names are associated with the places of their origin). Later, the Corinthian order appears, close to the Ionic. In the XNUMXth century BC e. the formation of the main types of temples is being completed.

In ancient sculpture of the archaic period, anthropomorphic (human-like) statues of gods are still common. And the characters of the statues of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. BC e. not only gods, but also young men - kuros and girls - bark, participants in religious processions.

Sculptors worked in ancient Athens Phidias, Myron, Polykleitos.

The further development of sculpture is associated with an increase in interest in the inner world of man.

Another important element of the art of antiquity is painted vases. Their shapes and sizes varied greatly.

In Attica, XNUMXth century BC e. - the area of Athens - black-figure style vessels were popular: black figures were located on a light background.

11. Features of Japanese culture. Literature. Religion

The periodization of Japanese history and art is very difficult to understand. Periods (especially starting from the XNUMXth century) were distinguished by the dynasties of military rulers (shoguns).

The traditional art of Japan is very original, its philosophical and aesthetic principles differ from Western ones. Their formation was influenced by the special attitude of the Japanese to the beauty of their native nature, which since ancient times was perceived as a perfection created by God.

The Japanese literary tradition is considered one of the most ancient. Early written works date back to the XNUMXth century. Their appearance is associated with the borrowing of Chinese hieroglyphic writing.

The first written monuments of Japanese literature are collections of Japanese myths and legends about the deeds of gods and legendary heroes. XNUMXth century considered the heyday of court literature (prose and poetry).

The classical genre of Japanese poetry is considered to be poems called "short verse", which consist of 5 lines (31 syllables - distribution along lines 5-7-5-7-7).

In the XNUMXth century legends, parables and stories that arose in oral form gained great popularity. Then the author's prose is formed. The main genre for a long time was gesaku - genre entertaining stories, the main content of which was funny stories from the surrounding life.

The aesthetic principles of Japanese art were formed under the influence of three most important religious and philosophical doctrines that determined the traditional worldview of the inhabitants of the Land of the Rising Sun:

1) Shinto;

2) Confucianism;

3) Buddhism.

The veneration of nature as a divine principle took shape in the ancient national religion of the Japanese - Shinto. Initially, each clan had its own patron deities, but the official Shinto pantheon evolved from the patron deities of the ascendant Yamato clan.

Confucianism, like Buddhism, came to Japan from China. Confucianism is usually understood as the traditional ancient Chinese religious and philosophical doctrine, which elevated ethical principles to the category of universal laws.

Buddhism played an important role in the development of traditional Japanese art. At the heart of Buddhist philosophy is the idea that the so-called real world (samsara) is actually a human illusion that appeared due to a misunderstanding of the essence of things.

Traditional Japanese aesthetics, combining Shinto, Confucian and Buddhist ideals, has developed specific principles, the understanding of which is the key to Japanese art.

12. Theater, painting, architecture, sculpture and arts and crafts of Japanese culture

A special aesthetic function is performed in the theater by the magnificent, luxurious attire of the actors and masks, which express the subtlest shades of human feelings with deep psychologism. In dramas, the main emphasis was on psychological images. Comprehension of the acting skills of the No theater began from early childhood and improved throughout life. The repertoire is very diverse: at present, about 240 plays of various content are known. It is noteworthy that in classical theatre, all roles, including women's, are performed only by men.

The tradition of kabuki theater is tied to urban culture. Kabuki was a favorite spectacle of city dwellers of all strata and levels of wealth and suited the tastes of this public. The emergence of kabuki theater dates back to the very beginning of the XNUMXth century.

In parallel with the tradition of kabuki, the tradition of Japanese puppet theater, jeruri, also developed. Each doll, which is approximately 1/2 to 2/3 of a person's height, is controlled by 3 people at once.

The religious currents of Japan influenced the development of Japanese art. The legendary history of Japan, the exploits of gods and heroes have become the plot basis for many works of Japanese fine art. An idealized natural landscape served as an expression of Confucian aesthetic principles in painting, causing the viewer to strive for perfection and impeccability. Zen ideas also inspired art, including monochrome ink painting on paper. Buddhist painting became widespread, focusing on the canonical images of the Buddhist pantheon. Traditional Japanese painting is characterized by a wide variety of styles, forms and techniques.

In Japan, starting from the XNUMXth century, Buddhist temples were built. Open for viewing, they served as a decoration of the area; their high multi-tiered roofs organically fit into the relief, harmoniously blending with the surrounding landscape.

Grandiose castles with high towers, decorated with multi-tiered roofs, became a characteristic feature of Japanese architecture of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. The heart of the castle was the main wooden tower, erected on a stone foundation. Stone walls were built around this tower with adjoining outbuildings and courtyards, and protective ditches were dug. Household items in Japan played the role of ritual attributes. Masters sought to give them an impeccable appearance. For example, many bowls for the tea ceremony were valued unusually highly for "the seal of otherworldly beauty", containing the whole Universe.

13. Features of the culture of the Arab countries. Religion. Islam. Life and customs of Muslims. Sharia

The geography of the modern Arab world is surprisingly diverse.

Arabic medieval culture It also developed in those countries that underwent Arabization (adopted Islam), where classical Arabic dominated for a long time as the state language.

The greatest flourishing of Arab culture fell on the VIII-XI centuries:

1) poetry developed successfully;

2) the famous fairy tales "A Thousand and One Nights" were compiled;

3) many works of ancient authors were translated.

Islam was the basis of the religious life of the inhabitants of the East. Islam (Arabic for "submission") is the youngest of the three world religions. In the modern world, Islam is the second world religion in terms of the number of followers. It is a monotheistic religion, and in almost all Muslim-majority countries, Islam is the state religion. Islam originated in Arabia in the XNUMXth century, its founder was Muhammad. This religion developed under the influence of Christianity and Judaism. The ideal form of Islamic statehood is an egalitarian secular theocracy. All believers, regardless of their social status, were equal before the divine law; An imam or mullah is the leader of a common prayer, which can be led by any Muslim who knows the Koran. Legislative power is possessed only by the Koran, and executive power - religious and secular - belongs to God and is exercised through the Caliph. Main directions of Islam:

1) Sunnism;

2) Shiism;

3) Wahhabism.

The main source of Muslim doctrine is the Koran (Arabic for "reading aloud"). The second source of Muslim doctrine - the Sunnah - examples from the life of Muhammad as an example of solving religious socio-political problems.

In addition to sermons, prayers, spells, edifying stories and parables, the Koran contains ritual and legal regulations that regulate various aspects of the life of Muslim society. In accordance with these instructions, family, legal, property relations of Muslims are built. The most important part of Islam is Sharia - a set of norms of morality, law, cultural and other principles that regulate the entire social and personal life of a Muslim.

The traditional norms of behavior of Eastern society were combined with traditional thinking and mythology, an important part of which was represented by angels and demons, or jinn. Muslims were very afraid of the evil eye, they believed in the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. Great importance in the Arab East was attached to dreams. Divination was also widespread.

14. Science, literature, fine arts, calligraphy and architecture of the Arab countries

Ever since the XNUMXth century. how applied sciences to religious disciplines develop:

1) grammar;

2) mathematics;

3) astronomy.

The contribution of the Arabs to mathematical science was significant. Abu-l-Wafa deduced the sine theorem of trigonometry, calculated the table of sines, introduced the concept of secant and cosecant. Arab medieval medicine was glorified by Ibn Sina - Avicenna (980-1037), author of the encyclopedia of theoretical and clinical medicine. Abu Bakr, a famous Baghdad surgeon, gave a classic description of smallpox and measles and used vaccinations. Arab philosophy largely developed on the basis of the ancient heritage.

Enduring world fame brought Omar Khayyam (1048-1122), Persian poet, scientist, his poems:

1) philosophical;

2) hedonic;

3) free-thinking rubai.

In order to destroy the memory of tribal idols, sculpture was forbidden in Islam, images of living beings were not approved. As a result, painting also did not receive significant development in Arab culture, being limited to ornaments. From the XNUMXth century began to develop the art of miniatures, including books.

The artist did not seek to reproduce earthly reality. The true world had to be comprehended speculatively, through the reading of the Koran, the recitation of prayers, the inscription and contemplation of the sacred inscriptions from the Koran, the hadiths, the names of Allah and Muhammad.

In the Muslim medieval culture of the East and West, the degree of mastery of the "beauty of writing", or calligraphy, became an indicator of the intellectuality and education of a person. Various handwritings were developed.

It should be noted that medieval Arabic architecture developed on the basis of the processing of Greek, Roman and Iranian traditions by the Arabs. From the XNUMXth century buildings begin to be decorated with floral and geometric ornaments, which included stylized inscriptions - Arabic script. Such an ornament - the Europeans called it an arabesque - was built on the principle of endless development and rhythmic repetition of the pattern.

The main place in the construction of cities was occupied by religious buildings - mosques. They were a square courtyard surrounded by galleries on pillars or columns. The Arab world also gave birth to such a unique phenomenon as Moorish art.

Moorish art is a conventional name for an artistic style (a mixture of Arabic and Gothic styles) that developed in North Africa and Andalusia (Southern Spain) in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. Distinctive features are fragile, frost-like carved stone patterns and inscriptions on the walls, thin twisted columns, wrought iron window bars and multi-colored stained-glass windows.

15. General characteristics of the culture of the Middle Ages. Education and science. Worldview. Literature. Theatre

In the XNUMXth century, the Great Migration of Nations began - the invasion of tribes from Northern Europe and Asia into the territory of the Roman Empire. The Western Roman Empire fell; its other part - Byzantium - was to exist for some more time. The Middle Ages has come - a historical era following the Ancient World and preceding the Renaissance.

The origins of medieval culture largely originate in the era of antiquity. In addition to Christianity, the Middle Ages adopted from antiquity some artistic forms, as well as handicraft skills.

In the VII-VIII centuries. there were schools at the monasteries, where the teachers were monks, and the students, who were very few, were the children of knights. Here they taught theology and the "seven free arts", as well as writing and counting. Universities arose from these schools (from the word "universum" - "community"):

1) in Bologna (Italy, 1088);

2) Cordoba (Spain, IX);

3) Oxford (1209);

4) Sorbonne in Paris (1215);

5) Vienna (1348), etc.

The science of the Middle Ages was discovered by theologians of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. - the so-called "fathers of the church":

1) Augustine the Blessed;

2) Ambrose;

3) Philosopher Boethius;

4) Historians Jordan and Bede Venerable.

In the XII-XIII centuries. science continues to evolve. Scholasticism becomes its basis - a doctrine in which reality was comprehended with the help of the logic of reason. At the same time, the scholastics were often carried away by the verbal form, behind which the content was poorly guessed, that is, they wrote and spoke in a heavy, incomprehensible language.

An outstanding scientist of the Middle Ages was Thomas Aquinas (1225-1247), teacher, author of 18 works on theology and philosophy.

Another famous scientist was Roger Bacon (1214 - 1294) - Naturalist, teacher of mathematics and philosophy.

Barbarians worshiped the forces of nature, magical rites played a huge role in their lives. With the emergence and development of states in Europe, the core of human life and worldview becomes the Christian religion. The whole life is considered only as a short segment, full of dangers for the human soul. The ideal becomes a life without frills and vicious joys, sincere faith in God, observance of rituals, as well as such qualities as humility, patience, virtue, faith, hope, etc.

If the treatises of the early Middle Ages were not addressed to specific segments of the population, then the literature of the Middle Ages was class-based.

The number of entertainment and educational activities has increased dramatically. Preachers spoke before the cathedrals, professors and students held discussions.

16. Painting, architecture and sculpture of the Middle Ages

Roman painting served as a model for miniaturists. The author of a medieval miniature is not just an illustrator, he is a talented storyteller who managed to convey both the legend and its symbolic meaning in one scene.

"Carolingian Renaissance" (from the French "revival") - this is how the researchers called the art of this era. In the era of the Carolingians, the art of miniature - book illustration - reached an extraordinary flowering. There were no miniature schools, but there were centers for the production of illustrated manuscripts at monasteries (for example, a book-writing workshop in Aachen).

Carolingian temples outside were decorated very modestly, but inside they shone with wall paintings - frescoes. Many researchers have noted the great importance of fine arts in a barbaric world where most people could not read.

The murals of the Romanesque period have practically not been preserved. They were edifying; the movements, gestures and faces of the characters were expressive, the images were flat.

After its emergence in the V-VIII centuries. states of the Germanic tribes, they converted to Christianity. Stone Christian churches began to be built. Churches were built on the model of Roman basilicas. The temple, which had the shape of a cross in its plan, symbolized the way of the cross of Christ - the path of suffering. From x century the architects gradually changed the design of the temple - it had to meet the requirements of the increasingly complex cult. In the architecture of Germany at that time, a special type of church emerged - majestic and massive. This is the cathedral in Speyer (1030-1092 / 1106), one of the largest in Western Europe.

The name "Gothic art" (from the word "Gothic", after the name of the Germanic tribe of the Goths) arose in the Renaissance. Gothic cathedrals differed significantly from the monastic churches of the Romanesque period. The Gothic cathedral is directed upwards: they began to use a new design of vaults here (the vault rests on arches, and those on pillars). The lateral pressure of the vault is transmitted to flying buttresses (outer semi-arches) and buttresses (outer supports of the building). The walls ceased to serve as a support for the vault, which made it possible to make many windows, arches, galleries in them, stained-glass windows appeared - images made up of colored glasses fastened together.

Sculpture also developed in the Middle Ages. On Frankish reliefs of the 7th-8th centuries. Christian martyrs are depicted. From x century The first images of Christ, the Mother of God, and saints appear. During the Romanesque period in Germany, sculpture was usually placed inside churches. It began to appear on facades only at the end of the 12th century.

17. Features of the culture of the Renaissance. Science, literature and social thought

Renaissance (French "Renaissance") is a phenomenon of cultural development in a number of countries of Central and Western Europe. Chronologically, the Renaissance covers the period of the XIV-XVI centuries. At the same time, until the end of the XV century. The Renaissance remained largely an Italian phenomenon.

The Renaissance is an era of great economic and social transformations in the life of many European states, an era of humanism and enlightenment.

Ideas about the person himself are changing. The most important feature of the Renaissance worldview was individualism. Another characteristic feature of the new worldview was the awakening of national self-consciousness.

Another interesting feature is the phenomenon of the Northern Renaissance in the countries of Central and Northern Europe. In the Netherlands, the Middle Ages still dominated the way of life of people, so the urban culture of the Netherlands gave a different kind of Renaissance. A characteristic feature of the North was the deepening of culture into the inner world of man.

During the Renaissance, great discoveries were made in:

1) astronomy (N. Copernicus, J. Bruno, I. Kepler, G. Galileo);

2) medicine (F. Paracelsus and others);

3) mathematics (J. Cardano and others);

4) geography;

5) geology;

6) zoology;

7) botany, etc.

Invention I. Gutenberg in the middle of the 15th century. printing, the emergence of newspapers made it possible for more people to come into contact with the printed word.

The nature and content of the new era was expressed in many ways by fiction. The first sprouts of humanistic ideology found their expression in the work of Dante.

Major writers of the Italian Renaissance:

1) Dante Alighieri (1265-1321);

2) Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375);

3) Francesca Petrarch (1304-1374).

A prominent writer of the Renaissance was Nicolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) - politician of the late Renaissance. The most important figure in the European Renaissance was Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536) - writer, philologist, philosopher, theologian, author of works on pedagogy, translator from Greek and Latin. The most vividly advanced ideas of the French Renaissance were embodied in the works of Rabelais, Ronsard and other writers who attached great importance to literature and art in the affirmation of humanistic ideals.

The work of prominent Spanish humanists of the era, such as M. Cervantes (1547-1616), Lope de Vega (1562-1635) and others, were characterized by a deep national-historical content, patriotism, and a high appreciation of human dignity. England also saw the greatest upsurge of literary creativity. It is enough to name the brilliant playwright and poet W. Shakespeare (1564-1616).

18. Painting, architecture and sculpture of the Renaissance. Major painters of the Northern Renaissance

The brightest page of the Italian Renaissance was the visual arts, especially painting and sculpture. Proto-Renaissance (XIII - early XIV centuries) - the threshold of the Renaissance - gave the world Giotto da Bondone (1266/76-1337) - the founder of European painting, the ancestor of realism.

The early Renaissance (end of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries) was represented by a galaxy of brilliant artists:

1) Masaccio (1401-1426);

2) Donatello (1386-1466);

3) Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510).

The High Renaissance illuminates the work of two great titans, brilliant artists - Leonardo da Vinci и Raphael Santi The greatest artist of the Renaissance was Titian Vecellio (1476/77-1576).

Architecture occupies one of the leading places in the artistic culture of the Renaissance. Characteristic features of architecture during this period are:

1) an increase in the scale of civil, secular construction;

2) a change in the nature of monumental, cult architecture - striving for breadth.

The new era inscribed great names in the world history of architecture:

1) F. Brunelleschi;

2) L. Alberti;

3) D. Bramante;

4) Michelangelo Buonarroti;

5) F. Delorme and more

In the development of architecture, an important place belongs to the construction of palace architecture - the palazzo.

In France, the Renaissance in architecture can be divided into two phases:

1) first - early period (1500-1540), castles of the king and the French nobility: Chambord, Blois, Chateaubriand, etc.).

2) the second is mature (1540-1570). The most significant building of this period is the royal palace of the Louvre, created by the architect P. Lesko (1515-1578).

Sculpture flourished. Outstanding masters in this field are Donatello и Michelangelo Buonarroti.

The major painters of the Northern Renaissance of this era were:

1) Jan van Eyck;

2) Hieronymus Bosch;

3) Pieter Brueghel the Elder.

The most prominent representatives of the fine arts of Germany were:

1) Albrecht Durer;

2) Lucas Cranach Sr.;

3) Hans Holbein Jr.

The largest French painter of the XV century. was Jean Fouquet (c. 1420-1477/1481). And the most striking and original figure of the Spanish Renaissance is considered El Greco (1541-1616).

At the end of the Renaissance in the visual arts, a new direction emerged - mannerism (manner, style), characterized by intense images, sophisticated form, and complicated solutions. Mannerism spreads in all kinds of art and becomes a harbinger of a new style - baroque.

19. Features of the culture of the New Age. Science and technology. Spiritual life of man

Since the beginning of the XIX century. there is a sharp change in the human environment - the urban lifestyle begins to prevail over the rural. In the XNUMXth century a turbulent process begins. The mindset of a person is changing.

The transition from manufacture to factory production and the invention of the steam engine revolutionized industry. Making machines required more and more metal. The English engineer Bessemer invented a rotating furnace - a converter - for smelting. The chemical industry appeared. In 1846, Howe invented the first sewing machine, which was improved in 1851 by Singer. Printing developed. They learned how to make cheap types of paper from wood pulp. In the 1825th century Rail transport enters people's lives. The first railway was built by George Stephenson in England in 1803. Locomotives were improved, travel speeds increased, and the American Westinghouse invented brakes driven by compressed air. In 1804-1826 American engineer Evans drove the first steam car through the streets of Philadelphia. The telegraph apparatus created in the USA by the inventor Morse became widespread. In 1783 The first railway suspension bridge was built. In XNUMX, the Montgolfier brothers (France) created a flying machine that was lighter than the air it displaced. At the beginning of the XNUMXth century. the bicycle was invented. Its prototype was an ordinary scooter. The Frenchman Diné slightly changed the model and called his car a bicycle, that is, “swift-footed.”

With the development of civilization, the spiritual life of a person changed, interest in the history of one's family, a kind, increased. But only rich people could order picturesque portraits. At this time, a photograph appears. In 1839, Louis Daguerre, a Parisian artist and physicist, created the first method of photography.

In 1803, the English General X. Shrapnel created a type of explosive projectile, which received the same name "shrapnel". In 1862, the Swede Alfred Nobel set up the production of dynamite.

One of the features of industrial civilization was a sharp increase in human interest in the world around us. Scientists prove that the Earth revolves around the Sun. The foundation for the powerful upsurge of science at the beginning of modern times was laid by two great scientists - an Englishman I. Newton (1642-1727) and German G. Leibniz (1646-1716). A revolution in science was made by the book of an English scientist C. Darwin (1809-1882) about the origin of man. The method of long-term storage of products was invented by L. Pasteur.

20. Literature, Social thought, music, fashion, painting, architecture and sculpture of the modern era

Man has ceased to be the measure of all things, as it was in the Age of Enlightenment. The movement for gender equality was actively developing. The influence of religion on man has weakened.

Revolutions in Western Europe and America contributed to the design in the XIX century. main ideological directions:

1) conservatism;

2) liberalism;

3) socialism.

The great French bourgeois revolution ended the Age of Enlightenment.

Writers, artists, musicians, poets witnessed grandiose historical events, revolutionary upheavals. Many of them enthusiastically welcomed the changes, admired the proclamation of the ideas of Equality, Brotherhood, Freedom. But the time has come for disappointment. Tragic notes of doubt about the possibility of transforming the world on the principles of reason sounded in philosophy and art. Attempts to get away from reality and at the same time comprehend it caused the emergence of a new worldview system - romanticism.

In the 30s. XNUMXth century serious changes in society will create conditions for the emergence of another creative direction - critical realism.

Talented composers gained worldwide fame: the Austrian F. Schubert (1797-1828), Pole F. Chopin (1810-1849) - "king of mazurkas". Further the development of romantic musical traditions received in the work Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901): operas "Don Carlos", "La Traviata", "Aida", "Rigoletto" brought him worldwide fame.

Fashion has also changed. The Great French Revolution seriously influenced her. Elegant France began to wear wooden clogs and braces. In the middle of the XIX century. women's clothing includes crinolines (a gathered wedge-shaped skirt, the shape of which was supported by numerous petticoats).

In the visual arts, the ideas of romanticism and critical realism are spreading. In the heavy atmosphere of Spain at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. creativity was formed Francisco Goya (1746-1828). They showed interest in the inner world of man and his experiences Théodore Géricault (1791-1824), Eugene Delacroix и Honoré Daumier (1808-1879).

Realistic traditions in the visual arts are strongly associated with the name Gustave Courbet (1819-1877).

There have been changes in urban planning, construction equipment - metal, glass, concrete are widely used. New factories, banks, apartment buildings, railway stations, libraries, exhibition halls are being built. In the middle of the XIX century. in the design of their facades and interiors, classical architectural forms of rococo and classicism were often used.

21. General characteristics of the culture of the twentieth century. Education and science. Museums. Movie

Culture of the 20th century is distinguished by its versatility and variety of styles. New types of art are appearing - body art, graffiti, etc. Modern methods of broadcasting culture are spreading - television, the World Wide Web, the Internet. Mass migrations of people around the globe are taking place, and there is a worldwide integration of culture. At the same time, two trends are clear: the unification of culture and the development of national traditions.

In the modern world, there are different education systems: from traditional (with a wide range of subjects studied and classical teaching methods) to specialized (with a certain set of subjects and innovative methods). Private schools are very popular in the West.

In the field of higher education, the most prestigious universities stand out:

1) Oxford;

2) Harvard;

3) Sorbonne and others.

There is a demand on the labor market for new professions: a programmer, a trade specialist and others, which requires specialists in training and education. New branches of science are developing:

1) space;

2) genetics;

3) chemistry;

4) plastic surgery;

5) organ transplant;

6) cloning, etc.

Great changes have occurred in the field of cinema. In 1911, the First All-Russian Congress of Cinematographers met, and periodicals on cinematographic issues were published. Later, during the NEP era, a young generation of innovative artists came to cinema, among whom were D. Vetrov and L. Kuleshov, who each united groups of students and like-minded people around themselves. According to S. Eisenstein, cinema should actively influence the viewer, building sharp, unusual episodes. During the Great Patriotic War, cinematic genres such as newsreels and popular science films developed, but feature cinematography also existed. Early 1980s was relatively successful for Soviet cinema. V. Menshov’s film “Moscow Doesn’t Believe in Tears” received worldwide recognition and the American Oscar. The process of perestroika could not but affect the cinematic process, as did the collapse of the USSR. The system of multinational cinematography was destroyed, and in some places the film process was interrupted. Attempts are being made to expose Soviet totalitarianism. Liberation from censorship often had a detrimental effect on cinema, which did not recognize moral and ethical boundaries.

A Hollywood star like Marilyn Monroe has become a real idol of millions of people. In the second half of the century, pop culture was born, home video appeared, and the “tape revolution” occurred. Elvis Presley and the Beatles are becoming idols of youth around the world.

22. Painting, architecture and sculpture of the twentieth century

Painting of the twentieth century is very diverse and is represented by the following main areas:

1) avant-garde (impressionism, modernism, cubism, fauvism);

2) realism;

3) pop art;

4) public art, etc.

The term "pop art" (English "popular, public art") was born in England in the mid-1950s. The first exhibitions of representatives of this trend revealed the main motifs and origins of pop art, such as comics with their seriality and simplified drawings, catchy and bright commercial advertising.

At an exhibition of hyperrealists ("superrealists"), the viewer may be confused: the paintings painted with paint look exactly like large format photographs. Initially, this trend was called photorealism. Body art (eng. "art of the body") is an artistic practice in which the human body serves as the material. At the origins of body art was Yves Klein, who exhibited in the 1950s. his "anthropes" - canvases with prints of the bodies of the sitters painted by him.

After 1945, the United States became the world leader of the avant-garde in architecture, where in the 1920s and 30s. the most prominent European architects of the pre-war period, such as V. Gropius and L. Roe, emigrated. The main direction in the development of European architecture of those years was urban planning. The destruction of World War II (Rotterdam, Le Havre, Hannover and other cities) gave architects the opportunity to create a fundamentally new type of city. In the mid 1950s. construction equipment was undergoing a real revolution. The possibilities of modern materials were increasingly used:

1) thin-walled concrete;

2) aluminum;

3) plastics;

4) synthetic films, etc.

Since the mid 1950s. the architecture of the West is a motley, diverse world. Representatives of the trend that originated in England - brutalism (from the English "rough"), considering the main content of architecture to be construction, flaunted the constructive basis of the structure.

Sculpture develops in a deeply individual manner, many masters continue to follow the traditions of the great masters of antiquity.

Creativity is widely known Alberto Giacometti (1901-1966). His excessively elongated, thin, fragile figures are devoid of strength and passion. A special role in the art of the 20th century. played by the so-called vitalists (from the word “vital”) - artists who, in conventional, symbolic, and sometimes abstract images, sought to convey the rhythm and poetry of life. Turning to sculpture was also natural for the Cubists. In statues Osip Zadkine (1890-1967) - a native of Russia, the form lives its own life. The figures are composed of multidirectional surfaces: sometimes convex, sometimes concave.

23. Culture of Ancient Russia. The culture of the pagan period. Life of Russia

The history of the Old Russian state began long before the adoption of Christianity. The Christian culture of Russia was based on the pagan layer of culture.

The earliest information about Old Russian culture is contained in the "Tale of Bygone Years" - the first significant all-Russian chronicle. It is recorded there that Prince Vladimir the Holy wanted to create an all-Russian pagan Pantheon of gods. The main God of the Russians is Perun the Thunderer. "Cattle God" Veles also occupied an important position (cattle in those days was identified with money). The weather was controlled by Stribog (wind god) and Dazhd-bog (sun god).

The epic gradually took shape. His plots were preserved mainly in epics recorded many centuries later ("Mikhailo Potok", "Danube", "Volga and Mikula", about the heroes Dobrynya Nikitich and Ilya Muromets).

The most important feature of culture is undoubtedly the art of building, that is, architecture. Russia for many years was a country of wood, and its architecture, pagan chapels, fortresses, towers, huts were built of wood.

Pagan Russia knew painting, sculpture, music, but in an exclusively pagan, folk expression. Ancient wood carvers, stone cutters created wooden and stone sculptures of pagan gods and spirits. Painters painted the walls of pagan temples, made sketches of magical masks, which were then made by artisans; musicians, playing stringed and woodwind instruments, entertained the tribal leaders and entertained the common people.

The culture of the people is inextricably linked with their way of life, everyday life, just as the way of life of the people, determined by the level of development of the country's economy, is closely connected with cultural processes.

All the testimonies of contemporaries indicate that Kyiv was a large and rich city. In Kyiv, golden-domed churches shone with their domes, the palaces of Vladimir, Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich struck with grace; Sophia Cathedral, the Golden Gate - a symbol of the victories of Russian weapons, surprised with monumentality, wonderful frescoes.

Life of its own went on in the palaces and rich boyar mansions. The vigilantes were stationed here, and countless servants were crowded. Women sat at the table on equal terms with men. The guslars delighted the ears of the distinguished guests and sang to them; large bowls and horns of wine went around in a circle.

The favorite pastimes of rich people were falconry and hawk hunting. Races, tournaments, various games were arranged for the common people. Baths were an integral part of ancient Russian life.

Hundreds of large and small ships crowded at the piers of the Dnieper.

24. Achievements of the Christian culture of Russia

By the time of the adoption of Christianity, Russia was already a country with a distinctive culture. Crafts and wood construction techniques reached a high level.

Not later than the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries. Slavic alphabets - Cyrillic and Glagolitic - are spreading in Russia. Created in the second half of the XNUMXth century by the brothers Cyril (Konstantin) and Methodius and having an initial distribution in the West Slavic state - Great Moravia, they soon penetrate into Bulgaria and Russia.

The first Russian monument of Slavic writing is the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 911.

The appearance in Russia after the adoption of Christianity of literature in the Slavic language, on the one hand, and the complication of public life with the development of feudal relations, the formation of a state structure, on the other, contributed to the widespread spread of literacy. A clear evidence of this is birch bark letters - letters on birch bark of various (mainly business) content. They were discovered during excavations already in nine ancient Russian cities (the bulk of the finds come from Novgorod).

In the XI - early XII centuries. a large number of translated works (mainly from Greek) of both religious and secular content are distributed in Russia. The latter include, in particular, historical works, among which one can single out the translation of the Byzantine Chronicle of George Amartol.

The earliest of the works of ancient Russian literature that have come down to us is Illarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace". It was written in the middle of the XNUMXth century. Metropolitan Hilarion, the first (and only in the period from the adoption of Christianity to the middle of the XNUMXth century) Russian by origin head of the Russian Church. The main idea of the "Sermon on Law and Grace" is the entry of Russia after the adoption of Christianity into the family of Christian peoples, in which the author sees the merit of Prince Vladimir and his son Yaroslav, who continued the work of spreading the new faith. At the same time, the pre-Christian past of Russia in the eyes of Illarion does not look like "dark ages", on the contrary, he emphasizes that Vladimir, his father Svyatoslav and grandfather Igor "dominated not in a thin and unknown land, but in Russian, which is known and heard in all four corners earth".

In the second half of the XI - the beginning of the XII century. a number of original works arose in Russia, among which stands out a cycle of legends about the first Russian saints - princes Boris and Gleb and the "Life" of the abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Theodosius, written by the monk of this monastery Nestor.

25. The genre of chronicle in the culture of Ancient Russia. Construction of churches. church art

The most important place in ancient Russian literature is occupied by the genre of chronicle. Some researchers believe that its appearance can be dated back to the end of the 10th century, when the first chronicle was created. The Tale of Bygone Years unfolds a broad canvas of Russian history, which is considered as part of world history (biblical and Roman-Byzantine history). The author used a number of translated Byzantine sources, oral legends (about the founding of Kiev, about the calling of the Varangian princes, about Princess Olga and a number of others: works belonging to the hand of Prince Vladimir Monomakh - “Teachings for Children” and a list of “paths” - campaigns and trips that Monomakh committed during his life).

From Byzantium, Rus' adopted the construction of its churches in the image of the cross-domed temple of the Greeks: a square, dissected by four pillars, forms its basis; rectangular cells adjacent to the dome space form an architectural cross. The first Russian churches, including the Church of the Tithes, at the end of the 10th century. were built by Greek masters in strict accordance with Byzantine traditions, but the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv reflected a combination of Slavic and Byzantine traditions: thirteen cheerful domes of the new temple were placed on the basis of the cross-domed temple. This step pyramid of St. Sophia Cathedral resurrected the style of Russian wooden architecture. St. Sophia Cathedral, created at the time of the establishment and rise of Rus' under Yaroslav the Wise, showed that construction is also politics.

With this temple, Russia challenged Byzantium, its recognized shrine - the St. Sophia Cathedral of Constantinople.

The Christian Church introduced a completely different content into painting, sculpture, and music. Church art is subordinated to the highest goal - to sing the Christian God, the exploits of the apostles, saints, church leaders. It was created mainly according to church canons, where everything that contradicted the highest Christian principles was cut off. Asceticism and rigor in painting (icon painting, mosaics, frescoes), sublimity, "divinity" of Greek church prayers and hymns, the temple itself, which becomes a place of prayerful communication of people - all this was characteristic of Byzantine art. If this or that religious, theological theme was strictly established in Christianity once and for all, then its expression in art, in the opinion of the Byzantines, should have carried this idea only once and for all in an established manner; the artist became an obedient executor of the canons dictated by the church.

26. General features of the culture of the era of fragmentation. Culture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus

The era of fragmentation covers the XII-XV centuries. Russian history and the beginning of the XVI century. For the Russian spiritual culture of the middle of the XII-XIII centuries. the emergence of original cultural centers in different regions of Russia is characteristic. The main role in this process was played by large and strong principalities, such as:

1) Galicia-Volyn;

2) Vladimir-Suzdal;

3) Veliky Novgorod.

By the middle of the XIV century. Gaining strength in the struggle for power, a new principality in the political arena - Moscow. The annals are widely developed. Any serious monuments in the field of material and spiritual culture of the XIII century. after the Mongol-Tatar invasion was not preserved.

Church ("hagiographic") literature also became widespread.

From the beginning of the XIV century. there has been a new upsurge of culture in the Russian lands, which continued during the XIV-XV centuries. Large cities of Russia were expanded and restored. In 1408, the All-Russian chronicle code was compiled. In 1442, the first Russian Chronograph, compiled by Pachomius Logofet, appeared - a world history that included the history of Russia. Stone construction and church painting continue to develop. In architecture, there is a combination of local traditions, forms borrowed from Byzantium and elements of the Western European Romanesque style.

The first independent Vladimir-Suzdal prince was the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky.

The white-stone carving of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia during the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest, clearly expressed in the decorations of palaces and cathedrals, became a remarkable feature of ancient Russian art.

Simultaneously with the court church, Yuri Dolgoruky founded the Transfiguration Cathedral (1152-1157) in the city of Pereslavl-Zalessky founded by him.

Yuri's successor, Prince Andrei, decided to make the young city of Vladimir the capital of the principality he had inherited.

In Vladimir, in the princely courtyard, there was the Church of the Savior; they entered the city through the Golden Gate (1164). The new Vladimir Assumption Cathedral (1158-1160), founded by Andrei, surpassed all the cathedrals of Hagia Sophia in Russia in height. The walls and pillars in it were thinner than in the buildings of Yuri Dolgoruky; instead of protrusions-blades spreading along the wall, flat 4-sided semi-columns were constructed.

In Bogolyubovo there is a building that has become a symbol of ancient Russian architecture - the famous Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165). The prince ordered to put it where r. The Nerl flows into the Klyazma, in memory of his son, young Izyaslav, who died in battle with the Volga Bulgars.

27. Culture of Veliky Novgorod and the Moscow principality in the era of fragmentation

For several centuries, Novgorod the Great was the "second capital" of Russia after Kyiv. This city was famous for its population and wealth. The princes of Kyiv "placed" their eldest sons on the throne of Novgorod.

In Novgorod, an original version of an Orthodox church is presented, and although it is less connected with the embodiment of Byzantine architectural consciousness than in Kyiv, in expressiveness and brevity it is akin to the nature of northern nature.

In the second half of the XIII century. in Novgorod, stone construction came to a standstill. The city escaped the Mongol-Tatar invasion, but was forced to repel the onslaught of the Germans and Swedes. Tver and Novgorod were the first to resume the tradition of stone construction. Already in 1292, Novgorodians began to build the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna, and in the 1360th century, a number of temples were created on Novgorod land, which are now considered remarkable creations of ancient Russian architecture. Among them are the churches of Fyodor Stratilat on the Brook (1374) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyina Street (XNUMX).

In Moscow, which led the process of unification of Russian lands, the most active construction was carried out. In the center of the Kremlin, on Cathedral Square, the Ivan the Great Bell Tower appeared (completed under Boris Godunov).

Information about the first stone church in Moscow is contradictory. The chronicle calls the Assumption Cathedral, built in 1327 under Prince Ivan Danilovich, nicknamed Kalita. The construction of the new Assumption Cathedral on the site of the old building was carried out without delay, and two years later the walls of the temple were almost ready. But on the night of May 20, 1474, the northern wall of the building brought to the vaults suddenly collapsed.

On the advice of Sophia Palaiologos, his second wife, who lived for many years in Rome, the Grand Duke settled on Aristotle Fioravanti of Boshi. Four years later (1479) the construction was completed.

Fioravanti managed to organically combine the traditions and principles of Russian architecture with the advanced technical achievements of European architecture. The five-domed Assumption Cathedral was the largest public building of that time. In 1484-1489. Pskov craftsmen erected the Cathedral of the Annunciation - the house church of the Moscow sovereigns. Not far from it was built the tomb of the Moscow Grand Dukes - the Archangel Cathedral. At the end of the XV century. The Faceted Chamber was built, which got its name from the "facets" that adorned the outer walls. The Faceted Chamber was part of the royal palace, its throne room. The Moscow Kremlin has become a kind of symbol of the power and strength of the state that has developed around Moscow.

28. Creation of a special style of temple construction and painting of the XIV-XV centuries. era of fragmentation

In the second half of the XIII - the middle of the XIV century. Novgorod masters created a special style of temple construction. The small size of churches was dictated by the fact that funds from the citywide treasury were no longer used for church buildings. Parishioners collected money for the construction, taking into account their own interests and opportunities.

Customers from among the rich townspeople sought to ensure that their church was distinguished by the elegance of forms and original decor. The facades of temple buildings began to be covered with small figured niches, recesses in the form of rosettes, and crosses made of hewn brick. The drums of the domes were surrounded by rows of coquettish arches and triangles. The three-lobed covering, emphasized by a decorative arch, eventually turned into a favorite technique of Novgorod architects and became in the XIV-XV centuries. a true architectural symbol of the Novgorod style of temple construction.

Novgorod architects of the post-Mongol era switched to other building materials: church buildings were laid out mainly from roughly hewn limestone slabs and boulders.

In Novgorod the Great, in addition to church architecture, secular architecture developed. The stone Chamber of Facets was erected, in which noble boyars gathered for advice.

The Novgorod school of painting developed later than the schools of other principalities. Its characteristic features were the clarity of the idea, the reality of the image, and accessibility.

Painting of the XIV-XV centuries. rose to a new, higher stage of its development. In Novgorod during the painting of the Volotov Church, and later in Moscow at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century. artist Feofan the Greek worked. He worked together with Simeon Cherny on the design of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, and also participated in the design of the Archangel Cathedral in Moscow. The largest Russian artist of the late XIV - early XV centuries. was Andrei Rublev. Together with Theophan the Greek and the painter Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The famous work "Trinity" belongs to his pen. Rublev's work is characterized by a departure from the church canons of painting; his works amaze with their emotionality, depth and truthfulness in their depiction of people. Great development in the XIV-XV centuries. Russian applied art reached. Outstanding examples of jewelry, wood and stone carvings, wooden sculpture, and silk embroidery have been preserved. The rise of Russian culture reflected the development of the Great Russian people.

29. General characteristics of the culture of Russia in the XVI century. Life and social thought

The process of folding a single centralized state was reflected in the development of Russian culture. Many features of the development of local cultural traditions were lost. Entire icon-painting schools disappeared, as happened, for example, with Tver icon-painting.

Art of the XNUMXth century closely related to the interests of the state. In the reign of Ivan IV, the state began to directly control art. Such measures, of course, harmed art, encouraging handicraft and thoughtless repetition of "models". Second half of the XNUMXth century turned out to be unfavorable for the development of Russian culture. Due to the crises of domestic and foreign policy, as well as the disasters of the late XVI century. many cultural processes go deep and declare themselves again only in the next century.

In the writings of religious freethinkers-heretics of the XNUMXth century. bold judgments are preached about the need for a "cheap" church, the meaninglessness of church sacraments and icons.

A notable feature of the XNUMXth century - the rise of journalism. The most important issues of society become the subject of wide discussion not only by ecclesiastical, but also by secular authors.

In the middle and third quarter of the century, a whole galaxy of publicists appeared with their works. I. S. Peresvetov in the fall of 1549 submitted proposals for reforms to the young Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible. Ermolai-Erasmus, an opponent of non-acquisitive people and heretics, proposes to alleviate the situation of the peasants.

The most prominent publicists of the oprichnina era were Tsar Ivan the Terrible and his opponent, Prince Andrei Kurbsky. The prince, who fled from Russia to Lithuania from the repressions unleashed by the hypochondriac and cruel tsar, exposes his behavior and terrorist methods of government.

In "The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir" the most important ideas of the official doctrine of autocracy were substantiated, and the family of Moscow sovereigns was erected to "August Caesar".

The question of the nature of power was discussed in the controversy between the Josephites and nonpossessors. Nil Sorsky (the leader of the nonpossessors) did not take part in the controversy, but his student, the former disgraced prince Vassian Patrikeyev, paid great attention to it.

The ideology of the Orthodox Church was developed in such journalistic works as the messages of the Elder of the Pskov-Caves Monastery Philotheus (in the 20s), "The Tale of the Novgorod White Klobuk", the creation of which a number of researchers date back to the 1453th century. These works preach the ideas of the sinfulness of the entire Catholic faith and the role of Russia as the only center of true Christianity after the fall of Constantinople in XNUMX.

30. Science and literacy in Russia in the XNUMXth century. The emergence of printing in Russia

During this period, literacy develops in Russia. Knowledge of writing and counting was required in many branches of activity. Birch bark letters from Novgorod and other centers, various written records (chronicles, stories, etc.), inscriptions on handicrafts indicate that literate people were never translated into Russia.

There are guides for:

1) grammar;

2) arithmetic;

3) treatment with herbs (alphabets, herbalists, etc.). Accumulated:

1) practical observations;

2) knowledge of construction equipment (were necessary in the construction of buildings);

3) knowledge of dynamics (calculations of the flight range of stones, nuclei).

The circle of geographical knowledge was expanded by Russian travelers. They left descriptions of their travels. Such are the merchants V. Poznyakov, T. Korobeinikov (holy places, XNUMXnd half of the XNUMXth century). Russian people, penetrating to the north, to Siberia, made descriptions, "drawings" of new lands; ambassadors - article lists with information about foreign states.

An overview of world history was given by "Chronographs" of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, which glorified the activities of princes, church hierarchs, canonized as saints, as well as "Life" (Dmitry Donskoy, Sergius of Radonezh, Stefan of Perm, etc.).

Translated literary works were in circulation; from them, as well as various collections, educated Russian people drew thoughts, sayings of Democritus, Aristotle and other philosophers and writers.

The appearance of book printing in Russia was of great importance. The printing of books began only in the middle of the 1550th century, under Ivan the Terrible. At first, it was the so-called "no-exit press" (from the 50s), then - with imprint data (that is, an indication of the place, year of publication, etc.). In the early 1563s. The first printing house begins its activity in Moscow. In XNUMX, Ivan Fedorov began to work in Moscow. He was not only a publisher, but also an editor of books. His first editions in Moscow were books of Holy Scripture. Under unclear circumstances, Ivan Fedorov was forced to move to Lvov.

In the XVI century. life basically retained its former features. New phenomena also appeared: spices in rich houses (cinnamon, cloves, etc.), lemons, raisins, almonds; sausage eaten with buckwheat porridge. The fashion for skullcaps (tafias) spread; this was condemned by the Stoglavy Cathedral. More stone houses were built, although most of them remained wooden. Russians were fond of playing checkers and chess. Interest in narrative, fiction literature, characteristic of the second half of the XNUMXth century, has declined significantly.

31. Painting and architecture in Russia in the XNUMXth century

In the XVI century. The themes of ancient Russian painting began to expand significantly. Much more often than before, artists turn to the plots and images of the Old Testament, to the instructive narratives of parables and, most importantly, to the legendary-historical genre.

At the same time, in the painting of the XVI century. there is a perceptible inclination towards abstract "philosophizing". The church and the state tightly controlled icon painting, so icon painting originals (collections of samples) became widespread at that time.

Moscow painting of the end of the XNUMXth century. marked by great achievements. This is due to the work of outstanding masters - Dionysius and his school.

At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries, on the one hand, the predominance of the Moscow school of painting in Russia is determined; on the other hand, her assimilation of the traditions of local schools, which were gradually leveled under the influence of the all-Russian cultural center, which Moscow has become with its masters, ideas, aspirations.

The brilliance and careful study of details, the elegance and subtlety of the drawing are characteristic of the icons of the "Stroganov school". Its representatives (Prokopy Chirin, Nikifor Savin, and others) worked in Moscow, but often carried out orders from the Solvychegodsk rich Stroganovs.

But at the same time, there is a certain departure from the mighty examples of Andrei Rublev and Theophan the Greek, a decrease in the heroic "breath" of art from the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. At the same time, the progressive development of painting prepared his future successes.

The most outstanding achievement of Russian architecture at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. was the construction of the buildings of the Moscow Kremlin. Old, dilapidated buildings were replaced with new ones; this is:

1) Assumption;

2) Arkhangelsk;

3) Cathedral of the Annunciation;

4) Temple-pillar of Ivan the Great.

For ceremonial receptions, the Faceted Chamber was built.

In the XVI century. built on a larger scale. Many churches and cathedrals were erected throughout the country.

The Pokrovsky Cathedral (Church of the Intercession of the Mother of God), or St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow, the greatest monument of tent architecture, in essence, a complex of nine churches, looks just as fabulous. It was built by Russian architects - Barma and Postnik in 1555-1560. Initially, the temple was white, and it received its motley coloring only in the XNUMXth century.

In general, Russian culture of the XVI century. is of great importance. Firstly, it fully reflected the final transition from a fragmented Russia to a centralized state with its new requirements for art. Further, she was able to withstand the ideological pressure of the second half of the century and prepare the consciousness of the Russian people for the significant changes and shifts that took place in the cultural development of the XNUMXth century.

32. General trends in Russian culture of the XNUMXth century. Literature, education, science, painting of the XNUMXth century

XNUMXth century in the history of Russian culture, as well as in the history of Russia in general, - the beginning of a new period. At this time, the secularization of culture takes place, a turning point in the consciousness of man and society. The Russian people in the turbulent years of the Time of Troubles, popular uprisings and wars, advances to Siberia and the Far East realized himself as a person.

The heyday of Russian social thought in the first quarter of the XNUMXth century. associated with the appearance of a number of narratives of spiritual and secular authors about the events of the Time of Troubles. The most prominent representative in the official literature of the XVII century. was a monk Simeon of Polotsk. The folk accusatory trend is "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum", written by himself.

Signs of secularization are also found in education - by the end of the century, every second or third city dweller could read and write. At the same time, literacy training ceased to be a church privilege. In 1634, V. Burtsev's primer was published and repeatedly republished over the course of a century. The question arose about the establishment of schools. In 1680, a school was founded at the Printing House, the main discipline in which was the Greek language; in 1687 - the Slavic-Greek-Latin School, and then the Academy, where both secular and spiritual disciplines were taught.

The range of reading has expanded significantly. From the XNUMXth century a lot of books, printed and especially handwritten, have been preserved.

Scientific knowledge also developed. Russians were famous as masters of metal processing, foundry business. Bells were cast well in Russia, their "crimson ringing" was famous throughout the country.

The Russian masters of construction equipment, the construction of wooden and stone buildings, were equally successful and reliable.

When constructing water mills and, which is especially significant and important, iron-working and other manufactories used water engines. Expanded geographical knowledge, ideas about Russia, its territory and the peoples living on it, the vast expanses of Siberia and the Far East.

Throughout the XNUMXth century Russian national style develops new features and forms. The Stroganov school was further developed with its fine writing, the finest drawing of details.

In creativity Simon Fedorovich Ushakov (1626-1686), master of the Tsar's Armory, the greatest Russian artist, and other masters, a desire for realism is outlined. I. Vladimirov wrote a kind of theoretical treatise justifying realism in painting: closeness to nature, the need for art to strive for beauty and light, not to suppress, but to delight a person.

33. Russian architecture of the XNUMXth century. Rise of civil architecture

In the XNUMXth century Significant changes have affected architecture. After the Time of Troubles, stone architecture began to revive. In Moscow, the walls and towers of the Kremlin are being restored; above its main gate, Spassky, a beautiful tent superstructure is erected, this gives the tower a festive and solemn look. Another new detail appears in the appearance of the tower - the chimes.

The main building material was still wood. The pinnacle of wooden architecture of the 1667th century. is the luxurious royal palace in Kolomenskoye (1668-XNUMX), dismantled "for dilapidation" a century later, under Catherine II. The Tsar's Palace in Kolomenskoye consisted of multi-framed choirs placed on basements (lower floors of economic importance). The facades of residential front rooms were richly decorated with carved architraves and various endings in the form of tents, barrels, cubed and ledge roofs.

The rise of civil architecture, clearly manifested in the late XV - early XVI century. in the construction of the Kremlin Palace, had a worthy continuation in the XNUMXth century. On an unprecedented scale were built:

1) palaces;

2) administrative buildings;

3) residential buildings;

4) guest yards.

The architectural appearance of these buildings reflected the desire of architects to create completely new types of buildings, to develop a new style.

The Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, built in 1635-1636, seemed to defy the building traditions of the previous century with its size and magnificent decor.

Gradually, the volume of brick construction increased - mainly the buildings of government agencies, commercial and industrial enterprises. The use of multi-colored tiles, figured bricks, and white stone details began, which gave the buildings a festive look.

The rapidly developing trade needed modern trading yards for Russian and foreign merchants. The Gostiny Dvor in Arkhangelsk (1668-1684) was built according to a special plan within the boundaries of a closed courtyard.

The residential architecture of the province reflected local traditions. Often, wooden chambers towered above the stone chambers, living in which was considered more beneficial to health. At this time, the principle of regularity gradually began to prevail in architectural buildings.

At the end of the XVII century. a new style of temple architecture arises - the Moscow baroque, which was used to build small churches in the estates of Russian nobles. It was in this style that the Church of the Intercession in Fili was built.

Moscow baroque architecture became a bridge between Byzantine and European.

34. General trends in the culture of the era of Peter the Great. Education, science

At the turn of the XVII and XVIII centuries. In Russia, the Middle Ages ended and the New Age began. In Russia, this historical transition occurred rapidly - within the life of one generation.

Russian art of the XVIII century. in just a few decades, it was destined to secularize (turn from religious to secular), master new genres (for example, portrait, still life and landscape) and discover completely new themes (in particular, mythological and historical). Because of this, different styles of art existed in Russia in the XNUMXth century. simultaneously. Reforms carried out Peter I (1698-1725), affected not only politics, economics, but also art. The goals of the young king were:

1) put Russian art on a par with European art;

2) to educate the domestic public;

3) surround your yard with architects, sculptors and painters.

Despite the fact that at that time there were almost no major Russian masters, after only a hundred years, Russia presented a whole galaxy of talents.

The creation of a regular army and navy, the formation of an absolutist bureaucracy, and other reforms in the country required a radical restructuring of the entire education system and the training of a large number of qualified specialists. Peter I forced the Russian nobility to study. Already in 1699, the Pushkar School was founded in Moscow, and in 1701, a "school of mathematical and navigational sciences" was opened in the building of the Sukharev Tower. In the time of Peter the Great, the Medical School was opened (1707).

Secular education required new textbooks. In 1703, “Arithmetic, that is, the science of numbers...” by L. F. Magnitsky was published, which introduced Arabic numerals instead of alphabetic ones.

Simultaneously with the reform in the field of education in the first quarter of the XVIII century. The publishing industry flourished. In 1708, Peter I introduced a new civil script instead of the old Church Slavonic.

Russian sailors-hydrographers have done a lot to map the Azov, Caspian, Baltic and White Seas. The search for iron and copper ores in the Urals and Siberia was actively conducted with the assistance of local peasants. The activities of Russian inventors were noted with great success. E. Nikonov presented a project for the creation of "hidden ships" (submarines). A famous mechanic of the time of Peter the Great was A. K. Nartov, the inventor of lathes and screw-cutting machines, the creator of an optical sight.

The pinnacle of achievements of the Petrine era in the field of science and education was the creation of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg (it was opened after the death of Peter I in 1726).

35. Literature and theater. Life of the Russian people

This layer of Russian culture was the most colorful, the most mosaic and heterogeneous; he practically did not come into contact with the work of the elite.

In the time of Peter the Great, there was less persecution of traditional pagan festivals with their stormy "hums", dances, round dances, etc.

During this period, the nobility, and partly the townspeople, were direct witnesses of a noticeable increase in non-religious printed books. In 1708, a sample of letters of various content was published with the use of the latest vocabulary, where Dutch, German words, terms, and expressions abounded.

Within the framework of literature, the birth of Russian classicism takes place. The most famous works of this genre are the works of the orator, writer, church and public figure of the era of Peter, the main supporter of church reform, Feofan Prokopovich. Prokopovich's main theme is the glorification of the army, reforms and Russia. Economic journalism was represented by the works of an outstanding scientist I. T. Pososhkova (1652-1726).

In 1702, a theater was built on Moscow's Red Square, which opened its doors to the common public. However, such a theater was rare. Peter's time includes attempts to create public theaters ("comedy temples") in Moscow and St. Petersburg, where plays on historical themes and comedies were staged.

In the era of Peter the Great, interest in secular music, amateur music-making was born, and professional choral art was developing. Bravura military drill music is gaining popularity.

New everyday forms of culture were planted in the life of the noble elite. In 1700, at the gates of the Kremlin, mannequins with samples of new clothes for the nobility (Hungarian, Saxon and French) were even exhibited.

The original figure of the king, who at first observed traditional ceremonies only at diplomatic receptions, brought dramatic changes to palace life. Traditions were simplified, stiffness disappeared. Since 1718, by decree of the king, "assemblies" were introduced, which legalized the forms of royal communication with people he needed and liked. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms set forth in the translated book "Youth's Honest Mirror".

In the capitals, on solemn dates, in honor of one or another "victory" in the Northern War (the capture of Azov, the victory at Poltava, the anniversary of the Peace of Nystad, etc.), colorful fireworks and grandiose masquerades were in fashion. Treats were exhibited on the squares (fountains of wine, fried carcasses). The patriarchal way of life gradually gave way to "secularism" and rationalism.

36. Painting and architecture 1700-1725

In the field of fine arts in the first quarter of the XVIII century. active development receives secular painting. An outstanding portrait painter of this time was A.

M. Matveev (1701-1739). Among the engraving masters I. Adolsky was famous. The works of artists A.F. Zubov, A.I. Rostovtsev and P. Picard brought to us the architectural appearance of both Russian capitals.

From the end of the XNUMXth century Russian pictorial art is being transformed. In the art of icon painting, a tendency began to appear for a transition to a realistic depiction of the world and people. The so-called parsuna genre is developing - a realistic portrait created in a traditional planar manner. The artists of this genre were influenced by Western European painting.

Architecture in the time of Peter the Great also experienced Western European influence. A new phenomenon in Russian culture was the spread of sculptural compositions, which was especially pronounced in the creation of palace and park ensembles, for example, in the design of the Grand Cascade of the Peterhof Palace (architect J. B. Leblon).

A fundamentally new architecture also appeared, based on the order system (columns, porticos, pediments, etc.). The interiors of church churches began to be decorated with multi-tiered wooden iconostases with intricate decorative carvings. One of the brilliant masters of carving was the architect I.P. Zarudny. Fundamentally new architecture created the basis of the capital of Russia at that time - St. Petersburg. Here, from the very beginning, the North German (Dutch) version of Baroque with a restrained, dryish decor, with a desire for maximum rationality, was developed. The bearer of this trend was D. Trezzini. He took an active part in the planning of St. Petersburg, in particular its Vasilievskaya part. The Swiss D. Trezzini designed the most important buildings in St. Petersburg - the Peter and Paul Fortress and its cathedral, the building of the Twelve Colleges (built on Vasilievsky Island in 1722-1734, completed by M. G. Zemtsov).

The palace of A. D. Menshikov, whose main facade faces the Neva, has long been the most luxurious private house in the northern capital.

A little higher along the Neva River was the Summer Palace (1710-1714), architects D. Trezzini and A. Schlüter. Peter I was especially proud of the Summer Garden that surrounded this building.

Peter's transformations in the sphere of culture, life and customs were of a pronounced political nature. They were supposed to emphasize the fundamental difference between the Russian Empire, created in a quarter of a century, and a great state of the European type.

37. General characteristics of the culture of the era of "palace coups" and Catherine's reign. Education and science

XNUMXth century occupies an important place in the history of Russian culture. The secular direction becomes decisive in its development. A system of general and special education was created, a university was opened, periodicals and journalism appeared. A new, western-oriented poetry, drama and prose is emerging. In painting, the portrait comes to the fore. Outstanding examples of civil architecture appear in architecture.

Since the time of Peter I, education in Russia has acquired an increasingly clear secular character. At the same time, the traditional form of "literacy education" was massive and ubiquitous. The number of soldiers' garrison schools has increased. The main attention was paid to the education of nobles in closed educational institutions. In 1731, the Shlyakhetsky Cadet Corps was created, and in 1752, the Naval Shlyakhetsky Corps. In addition, noble children were taught in private boarding schools, as well as at home. In the XVIII century. it is becoming fashionable to invite foreign teachers, especially French ones.

In total, at the end of the XVIII century. in Russia there were about 550 different educational institutions, in which about 60 thousand people studied.

One of the main events of the middle of the XVIII century. was the opening of the first higher civil educational institution - Moscow University. I. I. Shuvalov was its curator. However, the ideological builder of Moscow University was M. V. Lomonosov.

It reached a significant level of development in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. Russian science.

M. V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1768) was an outstanding scientist of the XNUMXth century, whose interests covered various fields of science.

In the XNUMXth century, the interest of Russian society in its historical past grew, and historiographic works appeared. The first Russian historian V. N. Tatishchev (1686-1750) writes "Russian History from the Most Ancient Times". Following Tatishchev, historical works appear:

1) M. V. Lomonosov;

2) M. M. Shcherbatova;

3) I. N. Boltina and others.

A number of very interesting achievements characterize the development of technical thought in Russia. One of the most famous inventors of that time was I. P. Kulibin (1735-1810).

Physical-geographic research and natural science have been widely developed. In 1724, by order of Peter I, the First Kamchatka Expedition was equipped, headed by V. Bering and A. I. Chirikov. The results of this expedition are grandiose: the riches of the Urals, Siberia and Altai are described, materials on geography, zoology, botany, ethnography, etc. are collected.

38. Literature and social thought, theater and painting of the era of "palace coups" and Catherine's reign

Under the conditions of the feudal-serf system, literature was predominantly of the nobility. Folk art was oral. Noble literature of the XVIII century. developed in line with classicism.

This was most clearly manifested in the work of A.P. Sumarokov, who wrote comedies and tragedies that perform educational functions, as well as in the early representative of classicism of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. -

A. D. Kantemira. An important stage in the development of Russian classicism was the work of the court poet

V. K. Trediakovsky (1703-1769). The largest Russian poet of the late 18th century. was G. R. Derzhavin (1743-1816). At the end of the 18th century. There is a departure from classicism, overcoming sentimentalism and the formation of realistic tendencies. First of all, this manifested itself in creativity D. I. Fonvizina (1745-1792) - creator of social comedy.

The founder of Russian sentimentalism is considered a writer, historian, who bore the nickname "Columbus of Russian history", the author of "History of the Russian State" N. M. Karamzin (1766-1826).

The largest figure in Russian social thought is A. N. Radishchev (1749-1802).

In the XNUMXth century, theatrical art developed quite widely in Russia. Counts P. B. and N. P. Sheremetevs had the most famous theater with a magnificent troupe of serf actors. The famous serf actress, singer shone in the Sheremetev troupe P. I. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova (1768-1803).

An interesting evolution in the XNUMXth century. undergoes musical creativity. Among the nobility, Russian folk songs are widely distributed, as well as stylization of the folk style of the song.

A characteristic feature of the painting of the XVIII century. - liberation from cult themes. A special place in Russian painting of the XVIII century. took the portrait. Realism begins to emerge in portraits A. P. Antropova (1716-1795). Serf artist Sheremetev worked successfully in the portrait genre I. P. Argunov (1729-1802). Along with the magnificent ceremonial portrait in the work F. S. Rokotova (1736-1808) an informal, intimate portrait appears, in which all attention is paid not to magnificent clothes, but to a person’s face.

Creativity is diverse and widely represented D. G. Levitsky (1735-1822). Levitsky's ceremonial portraits, filled with the splendor of clothing, convey the richness of the subject's texture. The continuator of Levitsky’s traditions was V. L. Borovikovsky (1757-1825), in whose portraits the art of psychologism reached the pinnacle of perfection.

39. Architecture and sculpture of the era of "palace coups" and Catherine's reign

In the first half of the XVIII century. The dominant style in architecture was baroque. It is characterized by the creation of huge ensembles, distinguished by solemnity, splendor, an abundance of stucco, sculptures, columns. In the second half of the XVIII century. Baroque is replaced by Classicism.

The most striking figure of the middle of the XVIII century was V.V. Rastrelli (1700-1771). In 1754-1762 Rastrelli erected a new Winter Palace on approximately the same spot where the Winter Palace of Peter I stood.

In the second half of the XVIII century. a number of the largest talented Russian architects appear. In their work, Russian classicism acquired its main features.

V. I. Bazhenov (1737-1799) - the great Russian architect, one of the first representatives of Russian classicism.

Along with the palace and park architecture in the XNUMXth century, the construction of public buildings was becoming increasingly important. One of the first buildings of this type is the famous Admiralty in St. Petersburg, the work of a Russian architect I. K. Korobova (1700-1747).

The great Russian architect made a great contribution to the construction of large public buildings in Moscow M. F. Kazakov (1738-1812). A wonderful example of Kazakov’s creativity is the Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin.

Simultaneously with Russian architects, foreigners also successfully worked in Russia. Among them, the most talented were the Scot Charles Cameron and the Italian Giacomo Quarenghi.

Architect I. E. Starov (1745-1808) also adhered to the canons of classicism. His most famous work is the Tauride Palace of Prince G. A. Potemkin-Tavrichesky in St. Petersburg (1783 - 1789).

Finally, one cannot fail to mention the magnificent achievements of Russian sculptors of the XNUMXth century. Among the first is the famous F. I. Shubin (1740-1805). The tendencies of realism and sharp portrait characteristics are clearly expressed in his work.

A whole galaxy of outstanding masters worked in the field of decorative sculpture in this era:

1) F. G. Gordeev;

2) M. I. Kozlovsky;

3) I. P. Prokofiev;

4) F. F. Shchedrin;

5) I. P. Martos.

They left wonderful examples of decorative and monumental sculpture. Of particular note is the monument to Peter I, created by the French sculptor Falcone (1716-1791). In general, at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. the public preferred sculptures based on mythological and historical subjects. Therefore it was very popular M. I. Kozlovsky (1753-1802), since in his work he turned mainly to ancient mythology and biblical traditions.

40. General characteristics of the Golden Age of Russian culture (first half). Development of education, literature and science

The fate of Russia in the first half of the XNUMXth century was ambiguous. These years began with the victory in the Patriotic War, and ended with the unsuccessful Crimean War.

The first half of the XNUMXth century, the time of Pushkin, is called the Golden Age of Russian culture. Its beginning coincided with the era of classicism in Russian literature and art. After the defeat of the Decembrists, a new upsurge in the social movement began. This gave hope that Russia would gradually cope with its difficulties.

During the period of transformations of the beginning of the XIX century. the public education system was reformed. In 1803, six educational districts headed by trustees and four categories of educational institutions were created. According to the Charter of 1804, the universities became centers for the training of pedagogical personnel, carried out the methodological guidance of schools in the educational district. At the beginning of the century, closed educational institutions for nobles appeared - lyceums (in Yaroslavl, Odessa, Tsarskoye Selo), higher educational institutions were opened (Commercial Institute, Institute of Communications).

Relying on the achievements of European science, Russian scientists have achieved major successes. In 1811, Russian sailors, led by the captain V. M. Golovkin (1776-1831) explored the Kuril Islands.

F. P. Litke (1797-1882) explored the Arctic Ocean, the shores of Kamchatka and America, founded the Russian Geographical Society. In 1819, Russia sent an expedition to the southern polar seas on two sloops led by F. F. Bellingshausen (1778-1852).

in the literature of the first half of the nineteenth century. different artistic directions coexisted:

1) classicism;

2) sentimentalism;

3) pre-romanticism;

4) romanticism;

5) realism.

At this time, A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol create their works.

Patriotic War of 1812 At the same time, after the war, religious sentiments intensified in society. Fearing the influence of the European revolutionary movement, the government increased political control within the country.

In 1814-1815. the first secret organizations arose in the army, whose task was to change the existing system.

In the second floor. 20s - early 30s. Numerous secret circles were formed in Russia. Their members discussed political and philosophical problems, tried to comprehend the events of December 14, 1825, and read forbidden literature. There were circles at Moscow University: V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. V. Stankevich, and others. Most of them were dispersed by the police.

41. Theater and painting of the Golden Age of Russian culture (first half)

The theater began to play an increasingly prominent role in public life. The centers of theatrical life were the Maly Theater in Moscow (since 1824) and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg (since 1832). The formation of the Russian national school in music is associated with the name M. I. Glinka (1804-1857), author of romances, symphonic works, classical operas: “A Life for the Tsar” (1836), “Ruslan and Lyudmila” (1842). He was an innovator in music A. G. Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869), who created the opera-ballet “The Triumph of Bacchus”, the operas “Rusalka”, “The Stone Guest”.

Although foreign troupes and serf theaters continued to play a large role in the theatrical life of Russia, some Russian landowners became theater entrepreneurs. Glinka's opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila", coldly accepted by the public, is distinguished by the brightness of musical colors, the ingenious lightness of technique and classical simplicity. Pushkin's plot also formed the basis of the opera "Mermaid" by A. S. Dargomyzhsky. This opera also met with a cold reception from the public, accustomed to the melodies of Italian composers.

The beginning of the XNUMXth century is called the Golden Age of Russian painting. At this time, Russian artists reached a level of skill that put their works on a par with the best examples of European art. The primacy remained with the historical genre.

A famous portrait painter of this time was O. A. Kiprensky (1782-1836). His paintings attract with warm golden tones in the spirit of the Dutch artist Rembrandt.

V. A. Tropinin (1776-1857) was born into a family of serfs, Count Morkov. A strong character and love for art helped him defend his right to do what he loves. famous artist S. F. Shchedrin (1791-1830) one of the first to discover the unusual color effect of the moonlit path, which became very popular in Russian painting in the middle and second half of the XNUMXth century.

K. P. Bryullov (1799-1852) managed to find a middle ground between classicism that dominated academic painting and new romantic trends.

The first major work of the 18-year-old Alexandra Ivanova (1806-1858) on the plot from Homer's "Iliad" - "Priam asking Achilles for the body of Hector" (1824) - showed that he perfectly mastered the academic style of painting. In the painting "The Appearance of Christ to Mary Magdalene" (1834-1836), the classical posing and gestures of the heroes are combined with the Christian enlightenment of their faces, a sense of miracle. For this picture, Ivanov received the title of academician. For more than 20 years, the author has been working on the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People".

42. Architecture and sculpture of the Golden Age of Russian culture (first half)

Classicism dominated the architecture of the XNUMXth century. Buildings built in this style are distinguished by a clear and calm rhythm, correct proportions.

There were significant differences in the architecture of St. Petersburg and Moscow. Even in the middle of the XVIII century. Petersburg was buried in the greenery of estates and was in many ways similar to Moscow. Then the regular building of the city began along the avenues that cut through it, rays diverging from the Admiralty. Construction was of fundamental importance at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. the Exchange building on the spit of Vasilyevsky Island.

Nevsky Prospekt, the main thoroughfare of St. Petersburg, has acquired the form of a single ensemble since its construction in 1810-1811. Kazan Cathedral. It was built on the model of St. Peter in Rome as an architect A. N. Voronikhin (1759-1814).

For forty years, from 1818 to 1858, St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg was built - the largest building erected in Russia in the first half of the XNUMXth century. The project was designed by a French architect O. Montferrand (1786-1858).

The final work on the formation of St. Petersburg ensembles is associated with creativity K. I. Rossi (1775-1849). The following buildings were built according to his design:

1) Senate and Synod;

2) Alexandria Theatre.

In 1813, the Commission for the Restoration of Moscow was organized, which was engaged in the restructuring of the city for thirty years. In the same year, he returned to Moscow from the people's militia O. I. Bove (1784-1834), who received the position of architect.

In the first decades of the XIX century. Moscow has taken on a new look. And in this, along with Osip Bove, played an important role Domenico Gilardi (1785-1845).

At the same time, the architect Stasov continued his work. His most famous buildings were two St. Petersburg churches - the Transfiguration and Trinity Cathedrals.

C. A. Ton (1794-1881) in his work he tried to revive the traditions of ancient Russian architecture. In 1838-1849. under his leadership, the Grand Kremlin Palace was built. In 1839, on the banks of the Moskva River, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was laid to commemorate the deliverance of Russia from the Napoleonic invasion.

Sculpture also flourished. A monument to Minin and Pozharsky was erected on Red Square - a work I. P. Martos (1754-1835). Following the traditions of classicism, the sculptor dressed his heroes in antique clothes.

In the 40-50s of the XIX century. Nevsky Prospekt was decorated with bronze sculptures P. K. Klodt (1805-1867) "Horse Tamers" installed on the foundations of the Anichkov Bridge across the Fontanka. The monument to Nicholas I on St. Isaac's Square in St. Petersburg also belongs to Klodt.

43. General characteristics of the culture of the Golden Age (second half). Education and science

Second half of the XNUMXth century - the time of the final approval and consolidation of national forms and traditions in Russian art. The "Russian theme" became popular in art. Achievements of foreign art resonated in Russia. In turn, Russian culture, primarily literature and music, received worldwide recognition. Russian culture has taken a place of honor in the family of European cultures.

The existing system of public education did not satisfy the social and economic development of the country. On the issue of secondary education, there was a long discussion between supporters of the real and the classical schools. "Regulations on primary public schools" of June 14, 1864 introduced, in addition to state, zemstvo and Sunday schools. The charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums, approved on November 19, 1864, divided secondary educational institutions - gymnasiums - into classical and real ones with a 7-year term of study. On June 18, 1863, a new charter for the universities was approved. University self-government was restored. After 1881, changes again took place in the field of education. And the infamous circular of the Ministry of Public Education of June 5, 1887 ("on cook's children") introduced a restriction on admission to the gymnasium.

Second half of the XNUMXth century became a period of new outstanding discoveries of Russian science.

I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905) laid the foundations of national physiology.

I. I. Mechnikov (1845-1916) founded the School of Microbiology and Comparative Pathology.

K. A. Timiryazev (1843-1920)By studying the process of photosynthesis, he laid the foundation for the Russian school of plant physiology.

60-70s 1869th century called the golden age of Russian chemistry. The greatest discovery of this time was the periodic law of chemical elements (XNUMX), discovered by D. I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) and recorded in the form of a table. Developed a fundamental theory of chemical structure A. M. Butlerov (1828-1886).

Discoveries in the field of technology brought world fame to Russian scientists. These are inventions P. N. Yablochkova (1847-1894) - arc lamp and electric lighting system developed by him; A. N. Lodygina (1847-1923) - electric incandescent lamp; A. F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) - the world's first patented aircraft (1881). The discovery of world significance was the invention of the radiotelegraph. A. S. Popov (1859-1905).

In the field of historical science actively worked S. M. Solovyov (1820-1879) and his student V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911).

44. Literature and social thought, museums, theater, music of the Golden Age of Russian culture (second half)

Fiction of the second half of the 80th century. continued the traditions of A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol. The clash of ideas, moral problems, new phenomena in public life, the path of development of Russia - these and other topics worried the heroes of the works of I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy. In the XNUMXs. the first stories of A.P. Chekhov appeared. The theme of the people was central in the work of N. A. Nekrasov. Subtle lyrical works were created by A. A. Fet, F. I. Tyutchev.

The book publishing business became an increasingly developing branch of entrepreneurship. Some publishers sought to give their activities an educational focus.

I. D. Sytin (1851-1934) began with the publication of popular prints, dream books, oracles. Then he began to print primers, calendars, fiction and popular science literature - at a very low price, counting on mass demand.

"Encyclopedic Dictionary" of Brockhaus and Efron, in 82 volumes, was published in 1890-1907. and became the best Russian encyclopedia.

The State Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow is one of the largest collections of Russian fine art, a world famous national cultural center. The museum bears the name of the founder - a Moscow merchant P. M. Tretyakova (1832-1898), who donated his art gallery to the city in 1892, as well as a small collection of his brother and a house that they began to rebuild into a museum building.

The main theaters in the country in the second half of the 1870th century were still the Maly and Alexandrinsky. Talented actors and actresses performed on stage - P. A. Strepetova, M. N. Ermolova. At the end of the XNUMXs. The theatrical activity of director K. S. Stanislavsky begins.

Painting and musical life of the second half of the XNUMXth century. marked by the emergence of new talents that brought world fame to Russian art.

In the 60s. XNUMXth century in St. Petersburg, a small group of composers rallied, setting out to continue the work of M. I. Glinka. Subsequently, this group, according to the apt expression of the art critic V.V. Stasov, was called the "Mighty Handful". Its main organizer and theorist was M. A. Balakirev.

P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) was not part of the Mighty Handful. He gravitated towards pan-European musical forms, although in his work one can feel belonging to the Russian school. Especially brightly his talent manifested itself in the symphonic poems "Romeo and Juliet", "The Tempest". Tchaikovsky's ballets ("Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty", "The Nutcracker") have become world ballet classics.

45. Painting, architecture and sculpture of the Golden Age of Russian culture (second half)

On November 9, 1863, a large group of graduates of the Academy of Arts refused to write competition works on the proposed theme from Scandinavian mythology. Finding themselves without workshops and without money, the rebels united in a kind of commune - the Artel of Artists, headed by the painter I. N. Kramskoy (1837-1887). Seven years later, the “Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions” was born.

The eldest of the Wanderers, who worked in the domestic genre, was G. G. Myasoedov (1834-1911). The work that brought him the greatest success was “The Zemstvo is Dining” (1872). The most famous painting of another Itinerant - V. M. Maksimova (1844-1911) - "The arrival of a sorcerer at a peasant wedding" (1875). He painted quite a few canvases and N. A. Yaroshenko (1846-1898), but the painting "Life Everywhere" (1887-1888) brought him fame.

I. K. Aivazovsky (1817-1900), while still a student, chose the seascape as the main theme of his work. Settling in Feodosia, he created the best works, the most famous - "The Ninth Wave" (1850).

A. K. Savrasov managed to show the beauty and subtle lyricism of a simple Russian landscape. His painting "The Rooks Have Arrived" (1871) made many contemporaries take a fresh look at their native nature.

The singer of the Russian forest, the epic breadth of Russian nature became I. I. Shishkin (1832-1898). A. I. Kuindzhi (1841-1910) attracted by the picturesque play of light and air. Russian landscape painting of the XNUMXth century reached its pinnacle. reached in the work of the student A. K. Savrasova I. Levitan (1860-1900).

In the second half of the XIX century. account for the creative flowering of I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov and V. A. Serov.

In the second half of the XIX century. in connection with the expansion of the use of iron and glass, the beginning of the use of concrete, architects focused on the functionality of buildings.

In the second half of the XIX century. architecture and sculpture were in crisis. Realism dominated art. Architects turned to historical traditions, but in practice this led to a mixture of different styles. Such a mixture of different genres in one work is called eclecticism.

Similar trends were observed in the field of sculpture.

At the end of the 50s. 1862th century A competition was announced for the creation of a monument to the Millennium of Russia. It was supposed to be erected in Novgorod in XNUMX. The winner of the competition was M. O. Mikeshin (1835-1896).

The sculptor achieved success only by abandoning monumentality. Such is the famous monument to A. S. Pushkin on Tverskoy Boulevard in Moscow (1880) by Alexandra Opekushina (1838-1923).

46. General characteristics of the culture of the Silver Age. Education and science. Literature. Theatre. Cinema

Russian culture of the late XIX - early XX century. received the name of the Silver Age (term N. A. Berdyaev). During this period, two different cultural streams met: on the one hand, traditions dating back to the XNUMXth century prevailed, on the other hand, a tendency to search for non-traditional forms appeared.

In architecture, the Art Nouveau style is being promoted. A characteristic feature of the culture of the early XNUMXth century was the emergence and rapid spread of urban mass culture. The most striking example of this phenomenon was the unprecedented success of a new kind of spectacle - cinema.

The growth of the industry created a demand for educated people. The number of secondary and higher educational institutions grew rapidly: by 1914 there were more than 200 of them. Saratov University was founded (1909).

In general, the education system did not meet the needs of the country.

The modernization of the country also required a fresh influx of forces into the sphere of natural sciences. New technical institutes were opened in Russia.

Among the famous scientists of this time is V. I. Vernadsky (1863-1945) - Encyclopedist, one of the founders of geochemistry, the doctrine of the biosphere, which later formed the basis of his idea of the noosphere, or the sphere of planetary intelligence. In 1903, the work of the creator of the theory of rocket propulsion was published K. E. Tsiolkovsky (1875-1935). The work was essential N. E. Zhukovsky (1847-1921) и I. I. Sikorsky (1889-1972) in aircraft construction.

The development of literature went in line with the traditions of Russian classical literature of the XNUMXth century, the living personification of which was L. N. Tolstoy. Russian literature of the beginning of the XNUMXth century. represented by the names of A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, V. Korolenko, A. Kuprin, I. Bunin, etc.

Early XNUMXth century was the heyday of Russian poetry. New trends were born: acmeism (A. Akhmatova, N. Gumilyov), symbolism (A. Blok, K. Balmont, A. Bely, V. Bryusov), futurism (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky), etc.

Theater life was also intense, with the Bolshoi (Moscow) and Mariinsky (St. Petersburg) theaters occupying leading positions. In 1898, K. Stanislavsky and V. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Moscow Art Theater (originally the Moscow Art Theater).

At the beginning of the XX century. The attention of the musical community was drawn to the work of such talented Russian composers as:

1) A. Scriabin;

2) N. Rimsky-Korsakov;

3) S. Rachmaninov;

4) I. Stravinsky.

Particularly popular among various segments of the urban population was the one that appeared at the turn of the 1908th-XNUMXth centuries. cinema; in XNUMX the first Russian feature film "Stenka Razin" was released.

47. Painting, architecture and sculpture of the Silver Age

In the visual arts, there was a realistic trend, represented by I. Repin, the Association of Traveling Exhibitions and avant-garde trends. One of the trends was an appeal to the search for national original beauty - the works of M. Nesterov, N. Roerich and others. Russian impressionism is represented by the works of V. Serov, I. Grabar (Union of Russian Artists), K. Korovin, P. Kuznetsov ("Blue Rose ") and etc.

In the first decades of the XX century. artists united to arrange joint exhibitions: 1910 - the exhibition "Jack of Diamonds" - P. Konchalovsky, I. Mashkov, R. Falk, A. Lentulov, D. Burliuk and others. Among the famous artists of this period are K. Malevich, M Chagall, K. Tatlin. A major role in the development of artists had contacts with Western art, a kind of "pilgrimage to Paris".

A significant role in the development of Russian art was played by the artistic direction "World of Art", which arose at the end of the XNUMXth century. In Petersburg.

Early works M. V. Nesterova (1862-1942) made on historical subjects in a realistic manner. The central work of Nesterov is "Vision to the youth Bartholomew" (1889-1890).

K. A. Korovina (1861-1939) often called "Russian Impressionist".

Art V. A. Serova (1865-1911) difficult to attribute to a particular direction. In his work there is a place for both realism and impressionism.

The great Russian artist is widely known M. A. Vrubel (1856-1910). The originality of his painting style lay in the endless fragmentation of the form on the edge. Native of Saratov V. E. Borisov-Musatov (1870-1905) worked a lot in the open air (in nature). In his sketches, he tried to capture the play of air and color.

In architecture, a new style has become widespread - modern with its characteristic desire to emphasize the purpose of residential and public buildings.

Architect F. O. Shekhtel (1859-1926) became a singer of the Art Nouveau style; the flourishing of architecture of this style in Russia is associated with his name. In 1902-1904. F. O. Shekhtel rebuilt the Yaroslavl station in Moscow.

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. a new generation of sculptors was formed who opposed the realistic direction. Now preference was given not to careful detailing of the form, but to artistic generalization. Even the attitude towards the surface of the sculpture, on which fingerprints or stacks of the master were preserved, has changed. Interested in the characteristics of the material, they often preferred wood, natural stone, clay and even plasticine. Particularly prominent here A. S. Golubkina (1864-1927) и S. Konenkovwho became world famous sculptors.

48. General characteristics of the culture of the 20-30s. XNUMXth century Education and science. Sport. Literature. Public life. Cinema. Theatre

Cultural life of the Soviet Union in the 1920-30s. contradictory: the elimination of illiteracy of the adult population, familiarization with the achievements of culture, ideological pressure, the fight against any manifestations of dissent, the persecution of religion, the expulsion of prominent cultural figures from the country and repression against those who remained.

The state ideology put forward socialist realism as the main artistic method - academic art, designed to educate people in the spirit of communist morality. In 1932, all independent associations were banned by a special government decree.

Theorists of Russian Marxism in the 1920s. They established a stamp in ideology according to which a “cultural revolution” took place during this period. The population census in 1920 revealed 54 million illiterate people in the country, so the task of eliminating illiteracy was one of the main ones. Thousands of literacy schools (educational schools) were created.

By the end of the 30s. in all the union republics there were higher educational institutions, and in all their capitals - universities.

The leaders of the Soviet government also took measures to develop sports: athletes were awarded orders, were given cash prizes, and were awarded the title of Honored Masters of Sports of the USSR.

In 1932, the first All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers took place. Two years later, the Union of Writers of the USSR was created under the leadership of M. Gorky.

In the early 1920s poetry dominated literature. There are also new stories and novels by major prose masters - for example, A. Tolstoy ("Walking through the torments" (1921). Against the backdrop of the revolutionary era, works of a symbolist and formalist nature became widespread. From the second half of the 1920s, literary works began to be filled with the same stamps, the range of plot topics was limited.

The Church, as the bearer of the spiritual values of the people, could not come to terms with the Bolshevik approach to culture and education of the masses, which was accompanied by the replacement of universal values with class criteria. Hence the merciless struggle against religion launched by Soviet power in the 1920-1930s.

Cinema still plays an important role. Talented directors, cameramen, actors created films that had an indelible impact on the minds of people ("Bright Way", "Volga-Volga", "Pig and Shepherd").

On the stages of many famous theaters (MKhAT, Maly Theatre), along with the classics in the 1920s. plays by new playwrights on revolutionary themes were staged.

49. Painting, architecture and sculpture of the 20-30s. XNUMXth century

The development of art was also characterized by the existence of the struggle of various directions. The Association of Artists of the Revolution (AHR, 1922) was the most popular art organization, which aimed to develop the Wandering traditions in the spirit of "artistic documentaryism" (I. Brodsky, E. Cheptsov, K. Yuon). Another significant association - the "Society of Easel Painters" (OST, 1925), organized by graduates of VKhUTEMAS, sought to create paintings that were modern not only in their content, but also in visual means (works by A. Deineka, Yu. Pimenov and others. ).

The founder of Suprematism K. Malevich and V. Kandinsky also worked fruitfully.

Creative style is unique K. S. Petrova-Vodkina (1878-1939). The result of Petrov-Vodkin’s quest was a real masterpiece - “The Bathing of the Red Horse” (1912).

Creation Marc Chagall (1887-1985), covering almost the entire 20th century, has become one of the most interesting pages of both Russian and European painting.

V. E. Tatlin (1885-1953) - the artist of the Russian avant-garde, the founder of constructivism.

As a result of the nationalization of land and large real estate in the cities, the state became the only customer for construction work in Soviet Russia.

In the first half of the 1920s, when construction was limited, projects for various buildings (residential buildings, labor palaces, workers' clubs, communal houses) were widely developed. The development was an architectural style based on the so-called constructivism. Neoclassicism began to revive.

A striking example of technical innovation is the Moscow radio tower, built in 1922 according to the project V. G. Shukhova (1853-1939).

At the same time, mass construction was carried out in the country. Model projects of residential buildings, schools, and public institutions were developed. The development of the construction industry was aimed primarily at reducing the cost and speeding up work.

The art of sculpture acquired special social and political significance in Russia after 1917.

For some time, Soviet sculpture still retained echoes of impressionism, modernity and avant-garde of the early 1920th century, but by the end of the XNUMXs. the main reference point for most sculptors was the classics. Here, for the first time, a tensely dramatic composition was shown. I. D. Shadra (1887-1941) "The cobblestone is the weapon of the proletariat"; majestic, inspired by the image of the Russian Empire, the group of A. T. Matveev "October. Worker, peasant and Red Army soldier" and statues V. I. Mukhina (1889-1953) "Peasant Woman" and "Worker and Collective Farm Girl" (both 1927).

50. General characteristics of the era of the Great Patriotic War. Education and science

The conditions in which culture developed during the Great Patriotic War were very difficult. The patriotic beginning in art was very strong. Many cultural figures carried out an important mission during the war years: their works created a favorable background in the allied countries for supporting the USSR in the fight against fascism.

A necessary condition for the successful development of the national economy of the country was the continuous training of new personnel in universities and technical schools. In 1941, admission to universities was halved, and their number decreased, the number of students decreased by 3,5 times, and the terms of study were reduced to 3 years.

The war changed the peaceful orientation of scientific work. On June 23, 1941, at an emergency meeting, the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences called on scientists to mobilize all forces to fight the Nazi invaders.

The research topics were focused on the following areas:

1) development of military-technical problems;

2) scientific assistance to industry;

3) mobilization of raw materials.

Bauxite deposits in the Southern Urals, tungsten, molybdenum, copper, manganese deposits in Kazakhstan, large oil reserves in Tataria were discovered and developed in the shortest possible time.

Major problems were solved by medical scientists. But many remarkable scientists continued to languish in the prisons and camps of the Gulag. During the war years, N. I. Vavilov, P. A. Florensky and others died there.

Since 1943, a laboratory under the leadership of I.V. Kurchatov began operating in Moscow, which began development of uranium fission. And by the end of the war, S.P. Korolev and Yu.B. Khariton, released from the camp, began laying the foundations for the development of rocket technology.

Physicists A.F. Ioffe, S.I. Vavilov, P.L. Kapitsa, chemists N.D. Zelinsky, A.E. Favorsky actively worked for the defense. The scientist A.P. Alexandrov successfully solved the problem of mine protection of ships.

About half of all types of small arms and the overwhelming number of new types of artillery systems that were in service with the active army in 1945 were created and launched in series during the war. Thanks to the efforts of Soviet tank builders, especially the workers and engineers of the Ural "Tankograd", the enemy's advantage in armored vehicles was relatively quickly overcome. By 1943, the saturation of the Soviet Armed Forces with tanks and self-propelled artillery began to increase.

Since the second half of 1942, the production of aircraft and aircraft engines has been steadily increasing. The Il-2 attack aircraft became the most massive aircraft of the Soviet Air Force.

51. Literature, music, theater, painting and architecture of the era of the Great Patriotic War

In the spiritual confrontation with the fascist aggressors, our culture played its own special role. A characteristic feature of the development of culture is the deepening of interest in the national classical heritage.

In the days of severe trials, patriotic journalism came to the fore. The authors have largely freed themselves from the stereotypes of the pre-war years, their works have become closer, more understandable to people.

An outstanding work was the poem by A. T. Tvardovsky about Vasily Terkin, the main character of which combined the features of many real people and the character of folk tales.

The poems of Pushkin and the novels of Tolstoy, Turgenev, the music of Glinka and Tchaikovsky acquired a new meaning. In the most difficult days of the siege of Leningrad, D. Shostakovich created the ingenious Seventh Symphony.

Drama and musical theater actors, pop artists also contributed to the common cause of the fight against the enemy. The concert activity of musicians and artists at the fronts and in the rear took on a large scale. The concerts were attended by L. A. Ruslanova, L. O. Utesov, K. I. Shulzhenko and others.

The painting of the war years is significantly different from the pre-war. There were stages in its development. At the beginning of the war - basically fixing what he saw. The plans were not always successful, the paintings lacked depth in the disclosure of the topic, the power of generalization. Laconism, simplicity of visual means, but also a certain straightforwardness are characteristic of plot paintings of 1941-1942.

The oldest masters V. Baksheev, N. Krymov, A. Kuprin, I. Grabar also worked in the genre of landscape during the war years. These years also preserved such almost documentary landscapes, which eventually became a historical genre, such as "Parade on Red Square on November 7, 1941." K. F. Yuon (1942).

"Leningrad in the days of blockade and liberation" - this is the name of a series of more than three dozen autolithographs A. F. Pakhomova (1908-1973).

First of all, the portrait develops, because the artists were shocked by the character of the Soviet man.

In the last years of the war, one of their best paintings was created by the Kukryniksy, turning to the image of antiquity - Sophia of Novgorod as a symbol of the invincibility of the Russian land ("The Flight of the Nazis from Novgorod", 1944-1946).

The heroic poster of the Great Patriotic War adopted the best traditions of the revolutionary poster. In the first days of the war, the famous poster by I. M. Toidze "The Motherland Calls!" (1941) appeared on the streets.

It is difficult to talk about the architecture of this period. There was a lack of labor and materials. All construction work during this period was mainly associated with the installation of evacuated equipment, the creation of buildings for the needs of industry.

52. Features of Soviet culture in the 1950s-1980s. Education and science

Features of the culture of the USSR of this period consisted in the struggle of the government with deviations from the "tasks of social construction." The pressure and control on the part of the party were so great that they oppressed the freedom of artists and scientists. In order to control culture in the mid-1970s. the system of state orders was introduced. Increased censorship. The acquaintance of Soviet citizens with foreign artistic culture was constantly limited.

The development of culture in the 1960-80s. was contradictory. Although funds for the development of culture were constantly increasing, the achievements did not match the costs.

During this period, the leadership of the USSR began to pay great attention to education. In 1946, the Soviet government significantly increased spending on science as well. In the postwar period, a whole series of research institutes was organized. War and repression in the 1930s dealt a heavy blow to the intelligentsia.

In the 1940s - early 50s. Soviet science and technology achieved a number of successes in the field of physics, chemistry, and precision mechanics, but they were mainly aimed at military needs. In 1949, an atomic bomb was tested in the USSR, and research was underway in the field of chemical and bacteriological weapons.

During the years of the seven-year plan (1959-1965) there was a significant shift in the field of technical progress. In July 1956, the first Soviet jet passenger aircraft TU-104 took off into the sky. In 1957, a multi-stage intercontinental ballistic missile was launched. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet artificial Earth satellite was launched. The USSR became a pioneer in space exploration. On April 12, 1961, the first space flight in history was made by the Soviet pilot-cosmonaut Yu. Gagarin.

In the mid 1950s - early 60s. the development of the mass media (media). Broadcasting covered the entire country.

The time of the "thaw" was characterized by the rise of Soviet science and culture. Much attention was paid to secondary and higher education.

In 1957, the world's most powerful elementary particle accelerator, the synchrophasotron, was launched in the USSR.

1985-1991 in the field of education, science and culture are characterized ambiguously. In the field of education, changes began to occur since 1988.

During the second half of the 1980s. in the USSR, there were practically no serious discoveries, and the leading branches of science, such as astronautics, nuclear physics, molecular biology, and others, hardly maintained the level achieved in the previous period.

53. Standard of living. Literature, social thought of the Soviet era 1950-1980s

The campaign against cosmopolitanism that unfolded in the late 1940s and early 50s had a negative impact on the development of literature and art. Well-known Soviet composers and writers were persecuted: S. Prokofiev, A. Khachaturian, N. Myaskovsky, A. Akhmatova, M. I. Zoshchenko and others, whose work was classified as anti-Soviet.

During the period of the "thaw" there was a noticeable rise in literature and art, which was greatly facilitated by the rehabilitation of some of the cultural figures who were repressed under Stalin.

At the same time, it was in the sphere of culture that the relapses of Stalinism were especially clearly manifested. In 1957-1962 "Meetings" of party leaders with cultural and art workers were held, at which extremely harsh assessments were made.

In many cities, the number of theater studios has increased dramatically. New films began to appear on the screens. It is necessary to name the films of T. Abuladze. The penetration of Western cultural products, especially video films, into the country has increased significantly. The prestige of the journals Novy Mir (editor A.T. Tvardovsky), Yunost (editor V.P. Kataev) was constantly growing.

A real shock for millions of Soviet people was the publication of a short story by A. I. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich.

In the second half of the 1960s. dissident movement begins to grow in the country. In 1965, the writers A. Sinyavsky and Yu. Daniel were convicted for publishing their works in the West. In 1974 AI Solzhenitsyn was deprived of his Soviet citizenship and forcibly expelled from the USSR. Film director A. Tarkovsky, director Y. Lyubimov, writer V. Nekrasov, poet I. Brodsky, cellist M. Rostropovich and others ended up abroad.

The ideology of neo-Stalinism was also opposed by the "village" prose of V. Astafiev and B. Mozhaev. A special place in the culture of those years was occupied by books and films by V. M. Shukshin.

Another specific feature of the culture of the 1960s and 1970s was the so-called "tape recorder revolution".

The recognized leaders were the bards V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, A. Galich and others. Elements of a special, youth pop culture appear and are fixed.

Since the mid 1970s. inflation started. Scarcity had a profound effect on the mass consciousness. At the same time, official propaganda waged an intensified struggle against "materialism".

In the 1970s-1980s. Among the writers, one can single out F. Iskander, poets I. Brodsky, N. Korzhavin, A. Galich, directors A. Tarkovsky, Yu. Lyubimov, A. German, T. Abuladze, S. Parajanov, the Mikhalkov brothers and others.

54. Painting, architecture and sculpture in Soviet culture in the 1950s-1980s

In 1947, the Academy of Arts of the USSR was established, and already in the 1950s. in the field of fine arts, a rigid educational and production system was established. The future artist had to go through a number of mandatory stages:

1) art school;

2) school or institute.

The state was the main customer and buyer of his works. The main style was the so-called socialist realism (socialist realism), or Sots Art. In Soviet painting of the late 1950s - early 60s. the "severe style" was established. The source of inspiration for the masters of the "severe style" was the life of ordinary people, which they conveyed in a sublimely poetic spirit. The images in the paintings "Our everyday life" (1960) by P. F. Nikonov and "Rafters" (1961) by N. Andronov are generalized and laconic.

N. S. Khrushchev criticized abstract and formalist artists at exhibitions. In particular, the sculptor E. Neizvestny, having no idea either about his works or about the author himself.

In the circles of the creative intelligentsia - writers, artists, filmmakers (later they were called "sixties") - opposition to official art was formed.

Already at the end of the 1950s. There was a group of artists passionate about European and American surrealism. They fully declared themselves in the second half of the 60s and in the 70s.

Soviet artists who worked outside the framework of official art gained fame in the West, as their works were acquired mainly by foreigners. Western critics called these masters "nonconformists".

In the 1970-80s. among the "non-conformists" forms of avant-garde art, such as actions, performances, became more and more popular. Here the artist did not represent any work, but himself as the bearer of the idea.

In the 1980-90s. Russian art developed in parallel with Western art. Private galleries (M. Gelman, A. Salakhova, and others) sprang up to support "non-traditional" forms of art.

Similar processes took place in architecture. So, in the 1950s. the party leadership condemned "decoration" and "excessive luxury." A course was taken for the mass construction of residential buildings. Asceticism and simplicity became standards. The dominating position among architectural forms was occupied by a parallelepiped, among building materials - concrete (the Kremlin Palace of Congresses, the Taganka Theater).

And in the 1970s and 80s. a variety of shapes, styles, materials became popular. Titanium and glass structures appear, the historical style is especially fond of architects.

55. General characteristics of the Culture of Russia 1991-2003. Education and science

The culture of the period under study is characterized by the following features:

1) a wide variety of styles, genres and trends;

2) the state ceases to dictate the canons, style and subjects in art;

3) restrictions in science and teaching are removed;

4) new myths are born in culture;

5) culture is losing its main customer, and its funding is sharply reduced;

6) mass art comes to the fore;

7) in the 1990s. there was a return of a number of names - the Russians learned about such layers of culture as the culture of the Silver Age (the work of the poets I. Mandelstam, A. Akhmatova, M. Tsvetaeva, L. Gumilyov and others) and the Russian Diaspora (V. Nabokov, M. Aldanov and etc.).

Science and education found themselves in difficult conditions. Interestingly, the main place in state policy is given to secondary education. It is regulated by the law on education, adopted in 1992. At the same time, the content of education has changed qualitatively: it has become person-oriented and correlated with world standards.

Secondary and higher schools are experiencing difficulties due to a lack of material resources, a decrease in the level of teaching, and the unwillingness of power structures and political leaders to provide normal funding. The unpreparedness of the majority of educational institutions to operate in a market economy, to earn money on their own, also had an effect.

But higher education is now in great demand and is actively developing, universities are opening, new promising specialties are emerging. Thus, by the middle of 2001, there were about 600 state and 250 non-state universities in Russia. A characteristic feature is the paid - commercial - form of education.

As far as science is concerned, post-Soviet science adapted extremely poorly to the market economy. commonplace in the 1990s. became the so-called "brain drain" abroad - many scientists have chosen better working conditions. Nevertheless, a large number of scientists remained in Russia, they work and achieve good results with modest funding. Priority in funding is given to scientists working in the natural sciences (fundamental and applied industries). Funds-sponsors play an important role (domestic - for example, the Potanin Foundation, foreign - the Ford Foundation, the Soros Foundation).

Scientists in the humanities, who have received the opportunity to freely communicate with foreign colleagues, today are not shackled by the former ideological uniformity. They more objectively reveal the history of the Fatherland, its culture and contribution to the development of world civilization.

56. Literature, cinema, theater, media, painting, architecture and sculpture in Russia 1991-2003

Literature continues to evolve. New names appear:

1) Petrushevskaya (new style - "gray on gray");

2) Sorokin ("naturalism");

3) Pelevin (modernism);

4) B. Akunin (detective genre).

The Russian reader gets acquainted with the masterpieces of world literature - the works of G. Marquez, P. Coelho and others.

In the late 1990s domestic cinema begins to develop. The paintings by S. Mikhalkov and S. Bodrov Sr. compare favorably. As for the actors, many of them work on television, in the theater. Theatrical art is in great demand today. Musicals are popular. The theater of O. Tabakov "Snuffbox" is world famous. New theaters are constantly being opened (there are more than 200 in Moscow alone), art exhibitions, music festivals, etc. are being held. Circus art is developing.

In a different situation are archives and museums, which, in order to survive, provide paid services to the population and legal entities (for example, rent out premises for presentations and exhibitions). Among the museums, the St. Petersburg Wax Museum is especially popular. In general, the lack of funds deprives libraries of the opportunity to increase their funds, museums to replenish their collections, publishing houses to publish serious literature, etc.

Russian show business is actively developing, trying to get as close as possible to American and European standards.

A real boom in the 1990s. survived the media - there are many new newspapers, magazines, TV channels. A special place among them is occupied by the Kultura channel, which broadcasts news of Russian culture.

The ways of broadcasting culture are changing globally - the Internet has appeared and has become a massive worldwide network.

Russian painting and sculpture find themselves in difficult conditions today. The official portrait painter of the President of the Russian Federation V. V. Putin, Nikas Safronov, made a large number of portraits of the president, as well as figures of world culture (for example, the portrait of Sophia Loren, stylized as the "Mona Lisa" by L. da Vinci). The portrait painter A. Shilov ("Dance with Cupid") is actively working. Widely known among artists is V. Vysotsky's friend, who lives in America, M. Shemyakin (a series of paintings "Masquerade", scenes from the life of the XNUMXth century).

The sculptural works and projects of Zurab Tsereteli, including the monument to Peter the Great (2002), are popular all over the world.

There is an upswing in the construction industry. But the construction of residential buildings according to individual projects, as well as multi-apartment residential buildings according to design non-standard projects, comes to the fore.

Author: Konstantinova S.V.

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