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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Teria of the organization. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. THE PLACE OF ORGANIZATION THEORY IN THE SYSTEM OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE Organization theory - this is the science of the basic laws of the life of organizations as real objects. The theory of organization as an independent discipline emerged from sociology - a science that studies social structures, their elements and social processes. The concept of "sociology" literally means the doctrine of society and combines two terms: lat. societas - "society" and Greek. logos - "word, teaching". Sociology as an independent science has developed in XNUMXth century . It, in turn, stood out from philosophy, which is the science of the most general patterns of development of nature and society, focused on the development of a generalized system of views on the relationship of man with the world around him. The most significant methods of the basis of the theory of organization are based on research in the field of the sociology of labor, taking into account its nature and content. A particularly important role is played by the theory of motivation and the motivation of personnel to conscious work with the ratio of various incentives and factors of job satisfaction, the effectiveness of various methods of material and moral incentives, and the social aspects of the expedient organization of labor. Assessing the role of the individual in the team and the behavior of individuals in the process of organizational activity, the theory of organization is largely based on psychology (Greek psyche - "dousha"). Psychology is the science of the laws of formation and functioning of the individual's mental reflection of objective reality in human activity. The phenomena of mental reflection manifest themselves in the form of emotional experiences that are inaccessible to objective observation. Particularly significant is the contribution to the theory of organization of the scientific discipline called social psychology , which is designed to study the patterns of behavior and activities of people, due to their presence in social groups, as well as the psychological characteristics of these groups themselves. Modern social psychology studies the patterns of communication and interaction between people, taking into account social and interpersonal relations, the characteristics of not only small, but also large social groups. No less significant contribution to the organizational science of mathematics, statistics, logic, matrix theory, graph theory, game theory, cybernetics and informatics. It is also necessary to note the connection between the theory of organization and a number of economic disciplines: organizational behavior, personnel management, research of management systems, development of management decisions, strategic, banking, financial, production and innovation management, quality management. 2. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Social organization is an association of people aimed at achieving common specific goals. The concept of social organization is closely related to the concept of the collective. The composition of the team and the direction of its activities, determined by the desire to achieve a common goal, are regulated by the administrative apparatus, as well as the ethical and legal norms adopted in this organization and society as a whole. These norms for the most part do not depend on the specific individual composition of the team and therefore are impersonal. At the same time, the activities of the organization are largely determined by the formally unregulated behavior of the members of this group. The unity or conflict of the team, its stability, the level of qualifications, the consciousness of employees, their business activity and many other human factors affect the level of efficiency of the organization. In this regard, in the processes of managing an organization, along with such areas of activity as the management of financial and administrative services, the direction of socio-psychological management is specially distinguished. The concepts of the organizational system and the team are interrelated, but not identical. Under collective is understood as a coalition of all employees of the organization engaged in joint labor activities. The organization includes the collective as its basis and cannot exist without the collective. The indicators of many elements included in the organizational system depend on the composition and mood of the team. The team can be completely replaced, however, the organization will continue to exist. The concept of organization, in addition to the team, also includes the material and technical base, finance, production, information support system and the activities of the organization. A fully automated enterprise that operates without human intervention cannot be recognized as an organization. A private enterprise, which employs only one person, also cannot be considered an organization, since it is deprived of the paramount component of the organization of the collective. Social organizations that carry out production and economic activities are commonly called business organizations. These are enterprises, firms, financial and other organizations operating in the conditions of new market relations that are characteristic of modern conditions in Russia. The starting point for their existence is not only a "commercial idea", that is, making a profit, but also the solution of socially significant problems. 3. ORGANIZATION AS AN OBJECT, INTERACTION AND MANAGEMENT PROCESS Term "organization "it is customary to use in conversation about public associations, budgetary and commercial, state and non-state bodies, however, it can also be found in such phrases as the organization of production, the organization of the technological process, the organization of technical training, the organization of financial resource management, the organization of information support, the scientific organization labor, organization of a concert, organization of movement, organization of a hike, and many others.In addition, it can be the organization of a heating system, organization of water supply, organization of an electrical network, organization of communications, etc. Organization means structure, structure and combination, as well as a good, planned, deliberate arrangement of something. Therefore, in sociology, the term "organization" is usually considered in three different senses: as an object (phenomenon); as a management process; as an impact or action (adjustment of something). Let us briefly characterize all three concepts. An organization as an object is an artificial coalition of people that is an element or part of a social structure and performs certain functions. For example, these are enterprises, firms, banks, authorities, institutions, voluntary unions created on a professional or other basis. Organization as a process is a set of operations that provide the relationship between the components of the system in the process of its existence. This is a type of activity that includes the distribution of functions between members of this team, ensuring interaction between participants, monitoring the execution of instructions and orders of higher officials, distribution of material and monetary funds. In this sense, the organization is nothing more than a process of managing the activities of people. Organization as an impact involves the ordering or adjustment of the action of the specified object. With regard to a material object, this can be, for example, the organization of a water supply system. In principle, in this sense, the concept of "organization" is applicable to the enterprise, if we are talking about, say, the development of an organizational structure diagram, or organizational design. The course "Organization Theory" uses all three of the listed senses of the term "organization", since we are talking about organizations as managed objects, and about organizational activities related to managing a team, and about designing organizations with the development of their organizational structures. 4. REASONS FOR CREATING ORGANIZATIONS The modern idea of creating organizations as purposeful associations of people highlights the problem of motivation. The starting point that encourages people to join in organizations is the widespread idea that through cooperation, you can achieve better results both from the point of view of the individual and the community as a whole. It is important that each member of the team does everything in his power to achieve the overall goal of the organization. To this end, a system of incentives is being created that orients a person to the choice of certain forms of activity necessary to achieve the goals of the organization. First, you should find out the needs and motives that guide a person when he comes to work in an organization. It is also necessary to understand what rewards he expects for the work done, and assess whether he deserves these rewards or not. Reward - this is all that a person considers valuable for himself. Motive associated with a specific need and is an incentive to activities aimed at satisfying this need. Modern motives and needs determine the motivational sphere of a person. Need This is the state of a person, determined by the need for something. Needs are divided into primary (physiological needs of the organism) and secondary (manifestations of a psychological nature). Motivation in a broad sense is a set of motives that determine a person's disposition to certain actions and deeds. The motives for which people unite in organizations can be divided into two groups: the achievement of common goals through the achievement of individual goals and the achievement of individual goals through the achievement of common goals. The first type of motivation it is typical mainly for business-type organizations - firms, enterprises, financial institutions, etc. A person who takes a job, for example, in a large trading enterprise or in the service sector, will work to satisfy his personal needs in salary, in human communication, in the realization of his abilities, in promotion through the ranks and recognition from colleagues. The second type of motivation more characteristic of public-type organizations - parties, unions, etc. An organization develops successfully only when the achievement of common goals is carried out simultaneously with the satisfaction of the individual goals of all members of the team and when the achievement of personal goals is carried out taking into account the interests of the entire organization. 5. ORGANIZATION AS A CONTROLLED SYSTEM Social organization is a complex, open, controlled, dynamic system with purposeful action. Applied to social organization system - this is an artificially created set of interacting elements and subsystems, designed to achieve a specific goal. A systematic approach is fully applicable to social organization, which is a methodology for knowing the constituent parts through the whole and the whole through the constituent parts. An organization has all the features of a system: - set of elements; - the unity of the main goal for all elements; - relative independence of elements; the presence of links between elements; - integrity and unity of the elements of the structure; - clearly defined management. Organizations are created by people to achieve certain social, corporate and personal goals. At the same time, within the framework of the organization, the interests of a large number of people are united, material resources, buildings and equipment are concentrated. In the process of its work, a certain information environment is created that determines the communication links of the organization and the organization's connections with the external environment, its own socio-psychological climate is formed, which also determines relations between people. The basis of any organization is its purpose. Goal is the desired state of the system as a result of a controlled process of its development. The goal should be socially significant, relevant, real, measurable, understandable to performers, compatible with sub-goals, with opportunities, have specific deadlines and allow for adjustments when external and internal conditions change. The goal of the organization largely depends not only on the desire of the members of its team (subjective side), but also on the real possibilities of its implementation (objective conditions). An organization will only be viable if its goals are in good enough agreement with the goals of society as a whole. Successful achievement of the set goal or the implementation of sub-goals provides for the coordinated action of all members of the organization, the reasonable distribution of material and financial resources, the creation of an information support system, and the use of modern management technologies. To achieve the goal with minimal time and material costs, it is necessary to coordinate the activities of all parts of the organization. To do this, in any organization, a management part (management, administrative and managerial apparatus, managers) and a managed part (executive units) are allocated. 6. ORGANIZATION AND STATE SYSTEM In a market economy and competitive struggle, almost every organization is an independent self-regulating system. At the same time, any organization is part of a more general and very complex organizational system - the state. Depending on the economic policy pursued at the state level, legislative and normative-orienting regulation of business relations is carried out. The state is assigned such functions as: 1) establishment of regulatory requirements for the content and quality of entrepreneurial activity (quality standards, environmental requirements, sanitary standards, etc.); 2) determination of procedures for conducting economic affairs by issuing licenses, adopting documents on the procedure for carrying out economic activities; exercising control and supervision over the observance of the law and business activities; introduction of prohibitions and sanctions for violation of the law. Currently, it is customary to distinguish four statuses of organizations: 1) a legal entity registered in the state register, having its own seal and bank account (joint stock company, limited liability company, etc.); 2) a non-legal entity not registered with a state body (subdivisions of a legal entity, a simple partnership, a number of associations of organizations); 3) a non-legal entity registered with a state body (entrepreneur without forming a legal entity); 4) informal organization of citizens (friendly companies, amateur groups, civil families). The Government of the Russian Federation deals with the issues of streamlining the system of state support for small business. Russia is a member of many international organizations that regulate the economic interaction of state systems at the international level. In industrialized countries, small businesses constantly receive powerful government support. In the United States, small businesses receive annual subsidies from the country's budget. Large firms receiving government orders are given a percentage of the orders they are required to pass on to small businesses. In addition, state insurance of bank loans is carried out and tax benefits are established. 7. TYPES AND TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS In the state system, there are a large number of social organizations that solve a wide variety of tasks: economic, cultural, social, religious, etc. Simultaneously with the identification of similarities, a description of the main differences occurs. For different types of organizations, different methods of studying their activities are used, since many organizations set themselves significantly different social goals. Even when solving everyday problems, we use classification. Depending on the specific situation, we may be interested in trade organizations, organizations providing social, household or medical services. An organization's belonging to a certain group may determine its relationship to state control bodies, to the customs service, to the tax inspectorate, etc. The traditional classification is the distinction of organizations on a territorial basis or, for example, by type of activity. From what has been said, it follows that there are many ways to divide organizations into types and types. The choice of a specific method is determined by the task or purpose of the study. Organizations can be divided into the following categories: governmental and non-governmental, commercial and non-profit, budgetary and non-budgetary, public and economic, formal and informal organizations. Organizations can be classified according to their industry: transport, industry, trade, production and processing of agricultural products and other activities. Organizations are also distinguished by the type of social tasks they solve: economic, financial, political, medical, educational and other activities. It is customary to distinguish three main types of social organizations: business, public, associative. Business organizations (enterprises, institutions, etc.). The target setting of such organizations is a commercial idea, which is based on a way to make a profit. Community organizations are a union of individual participants united by a socially significant goal. Unlike business (economic) organizations focused on meeting the needs of the population, public organizations are engaged in solving social problems of society or the problems of members of their organizations. Associated organizations built on the basis of personal sympathies, mutual affection, common interests - this is a family, a circle of friends from among the nakoms, a student company, informal groups and associations. The above classification is of a generalized nature. 8. OBJECTIVES OF THE CONTROL SYSTEM A feature of the activity of a business organization today is work in conditions of intense competition not only within the country, but also at the interstate level. The modern system of management functions can be represented by the following list of main tasks: coordination and integration of the efforts of members of the organization in the direction of achieving a common goal; organizing interaction and maintaining contacts between working groups and individual members of the organization; collection, evaluation, processing and storage of information; distribution of material and human resources; personnel management (development of a system of motivations, combating conflict situations, monitoring the activities of members of the organization and groups); contacts with external organizations, negotiation, marketing and advertising activities; innovative activity; planning, control over the execution of decisions, correction of activities depending on changes in working conditions. When analyzing management, it becomes obvious that the problems of managing a modern organization are mainly related to: - with the complication of the structure of the organization; - with the development of means of communication both within the organization and in communication with the outside world; - with the presence of a large number of competitors, in connection with the significant development of production throughout the world; - with the need to create a flexible system of economic and psychological motivation that helps increase the interest of employees in achieving the goal of the organization. The cohesion or conflict of the team, its stability, the level of qualifications, the consciousness of workers, their business activity and many other human factors determine the effectiveness of organization management. When solving the problem of stimulating productivity growth, the principles formulated in the framework of the theory of choice of managers who own socio-psychological methods of management, the theory of the realization of goals, the theory of satisfaction of needs and the theory of justice are used. A certain part of the staff does not like to organize their work. These are people who are devoid of any ambition and initiative. Such people need demanding, imperious, tough and decisive leaders who have the ability to organize the work of subordinates and convince them of the need to work "tirelessly". The second group includes people with initiative and great creative potential, with a highly developed self-esteem. Such employees need democratic leaders who are flexible, sensitive and tactful. 9. HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF MANAGEMENT The modern type of hierarchical management structure has many varieties. The linear management structure is the most appropriate only for simple forms of organizations. The scheme works well in small organizations with high professionalism and authority of the leader. The linear-functional management structure is based on the so-called "mine" principle of building and specializing the management process, depending on the duties assigned to the deputy heads - functional managers. Line-staff management structure is a combined structure that combines the properties of linear and linear-functional structures. It provides for the creation of special units (headquarters) to help line managers to solve certain problems. Matrix control structure is a lattice organization built on the principle of dual subordination of performers: on the one hand, to the direct manager of the functional service, which provides personnel and technical assistance to the project manager, on the other hand, to the project (target program) manager, who is endowed with the necessary authority to implement the management process in accordance with the planned time, resources and quality. The matrix scheme is used in complex, science-intensive production of goods, information, services, knowledge. Program-target management structure provides for the creation of special management bodies for short-term and long-term programs. It is focused on ensuring the fullness of linear powers within the framework of ongoing programs. The product management structure is one of the options for the program-targeted structure. It provides for the assignment to the manager responsible for the release program of a particular product, all responsibility for the quality and timing of the work. This manager is endowed with all the rights of disposal in terms of activities related to the manufacture of a particular product or range of products. The project management structure is formed when the organization develops projects, which are understood as any processes of purposeful changes in the management system or in the organization as a whole, for example, the modernization of production, the development of new technologies, the construction of facilities. Functional-object structure of management provides for the allocation of the most qualified specialists in functional units, who, in addition to their functional duties, are appointed as managers of specific works or objects in this unit. 10. DIRECTION OF SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT The leader must be a highly qualified and competent specialist, familiar with the socio-psychological methods of management and able to apply these methods in practice. There is a theory of goal realization, which is based on the fact that there are people in the team who can work well only if the goals set by the leader are achieved. These people must constantly see the results of their work, otherwise their activity will be paralyzed. Goal fulfillment theory suggests that the manager choose quick tasks for such people and constantly notify them of the benefits of the work they are doing. The theory of needs is based on stimulating human activity by satisfying his needs and interests. The theory of justice is based on the subjective expectation of each person to be rewarded for his work. If an employee believes that his colleague received more encouragement for the same work than he did, then this will certainly have a negative impact on his productivity. The theory of justice requires the leader to take into account the close attention of subordinates to his actions in relation to others. The leader, making this or that decision and implementing it, must be able to eliminate contradictions and manage the disagreements that arise in this case, expressed in the form of immunity, polarization, collision, antagonism. At the same time, he must occupy a well-defined and logically meaningful place in the scheme of the basic relations of the members of the team. The transition from full support to the peak of disagreement - antagonism is carried out, as a rule, gradually, starting from a situation of full support, when there are no contradictions between the performer and the leader. Full support for the leader's decisions on the part of subordinates may indicate either the passivity of the subordinates, or the great authority of the leader, or the incompetence of the subordinates. In some cases, full support for the leader's decisions is a symptom of trouble in the organization. At the stage of immunity, the performer, due to a lack of understanding of the task or disagreement with the leader, does not immediately start work. There is some delay in time. To complete the task, the performer needs additional information or clarification. Polarization is characterized by a contradictory approach of the manager and the executor to the means and methods of solving the problem, which, however, does not interfere with the achievement of the final goal if there is mutual understanding between them. The clash is characterized by the understanding and support of only part of the received task. 11. FEATURES OF SOCIAL LAWS A law is a generally accepted rule that is recognized as binding. All living and non-living things on Earth obey the laws of nature. The life activity of people is regulated by the laws of social development and government decrees. With regard to social organizations under by law is understood as a stable, objective connection of phenomena or events, inherent in a sufficiently large number of organizations and having inevitable repetition in similar conditions. Social laws determine the relationship between people and groups and are manifested in the course of their activities. Relations between organizations and people working in these organizations develop in accordance with social laws. Unlike the laws of the material world, the action of one and the same social law can have varying degrees of intensity in situations of the same type, which forces us to consider a social law not as a constant characteristic or stable connection of phenomena, but as a certain trend that has a certain degree of reliability. This feature of the operation of social laws significantly distinguishes them from most of the laws known in the natural sciences. The manifestation of the action of laws in relation to social organizations always contains some element of uncertainty, since the development of organizations is closely connected with the activities of people. Under uncertainty the incompleteness or inaccuracy of information about the conditions for the implementation of the project or solution, including the costs associated with them. In some cases, this uncertainty can be estimated by the probability of the occurrence or non-occurrence of an event. To assess the degree of deviation of the behavior of an individual or organization from the rules established by social law, it is customary to distinguish three main types of uncertainties: uncertainty, randomness and vagueness. Decision-making in conditions of uncertainty (full or partial) is a characteristic feature of a newly created business organization or an organization that is mastering a new type of activity. This affects not only the lack of one's experience, but also the inability to use someone else's. Accidents in the theory of organization are usually called factors that obey social laws and allow an assessment of the possibility of their implementation using the methods of mathematical statistics and probability theory. Vagueness is associated with relative uncertainty arising from the presence in laws and descriptions of the conditions for their operation of formulations that allow ambiguous interpretation. 12. LAW OF SYNERGY Synergy means the joint and homogeneous functioning of the elements of the system. The law of synergy: in any organization, both an increase in energy and a decrease in the energy resource are possible compared to the simple sum of the energy capabilities of the elements. The action of the law of synergy in organizational systems significantly separates the organization from other objects and systems of the material world. For all natural systems (with the exception of complex biological ones), the basic law is the law of conservation and transformation of energy, according to which in any closed system, with all its changes, the amount of energy remains constant. The law of synergy states that in closed social systems it is possible to change energy in the direction of both increase and decrease. As applied to social organizations, the law of synergy manifests itself, in particular, in an increase in energy that exceeds the sum of the individual efforts of the members of the organization. This phenomenon predetermined the transition of mankind to organized forms of labor and social activity and led to the emergence of organizations. The most important feature of the operation of the law of synergy within social organizations is the ability to control the increase in energy. In business organizations, this is expressed in the targeted regulation of energy and productive potential. A difficult task is to carry out activities of a socio-psychological nature. In social terms, it is necessary to provide for the development of special programs related to leisure and vacations. In psychological terms, in addition to meetings with management representatives, at which the goals and objectives of the organization are explained in detail and the state of common affairs is described, it is advisable to introduce a special section into the professional training program. For all parts of the organization requires a special system of motivation. It is obvious that these measures should be combined with a sufficiently effective system of control and a system of prompt correction of the measures taken. The main difficulty in managing the synergy effect is that, unlike physical systems, for which there are energy units and methods for assessing the energy potential, for organizational systems there are still no ways to objectively assess the level of internal energy. The solution of practical problems of managing a business organization forces researchers to conduct active searches in the direction of developing such assessments. The simplest way is to evaluate the performance of the analyzed organization in comparison with the work of another similar organization. 13. THE LAW OF SELF-PRESERVATION AND THE STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL A business organization is a kind of self-existing system, similar to a living organism that is born, grows, develops, improves, gets sick, ages and dies. Organizations have an inherent desire for self-preservation. In the life of many organizations, there have been situations when they were on the verge of liquidation or entered into bankruptcy proceedings. Some of them were liquidated, while others, having reorganized the enterprise, managed to find resources and survived. The solution to the problems of survival of organizations contributes to the law of self-preservation, which states that any organization as a socio-economic system is inherent in the desire for self-preservation (survival) through the minimal use of human and material resources. The law of self-preservation serves as the basis for assessing the organization's ability to survive in changing conditions of existence. The resulting estimate is used to determine the time of existence of the organization and to predict its further development. In the course of building an assessment, it is necessary to draw up the most complete description of the factors of the internal and external environment that affect the activities of the organization, to divide these factors into two groups: positive and negative. Positive factors refer to resources that increase the organization's ability to fight for survival. An organization is capable of survival and sustainable progressive development if the energy potential of positive (creative) factors exceeds the corresponding indicator of negative (destructive) factors. The main difficulty in drawing up a balance of creative and destructive potential lies in the fact that, when assessing the ability of an organization to self-preserve, it is necessary to take into account not only internal factors of a materialized nature (availability of funds, the state of the material and technical base, work technology, etc.), but also socio-psychological factors. It follows from the law of self-preservation that profit cannot be the main goal of the organization, because profit is a purely internal problem. The basis of the struggle for self-preservation is the ability of a business organization not only to adapt to the external environment, but also to be able to use the changes taking place in it in their own interests. A complete and exhaustive analysis of the external environment allows the leaders of both newly created and existing business organizations to anticipate potential threats to survival, as well as to anticipate new development opportunities. Competent forecasting allows you to develop a model of the situational behavior of the organization and avoid its death. 14. LAW OF DEVELOPMENT OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS Organization is a very complex entity. It includes people, equipment, buildings, information environment, etc. The law of development says: in the process of the life of an organization, irreversible and regular changes occur aimed at maximizing the use of energy potential to achieve the goal, resulting in a qualitative change in the state of the organization . The energy potential of an organization is determined not only by the potential of material resources, but also by the capabilities of the team, which depend on the intellectual and professional preparedness of its members, as well as on the general psychological and emotional mood. Goal - this is an anticipation of the results to which the organization's activities are aimed. The purpose of a business organization should be based on the needs of the consumer, i.e., the organization should solve socially significant problems facing society. The activity of almost any business organization is based on a commercial idea, i.e., the foresight of how it will earn money and what income it will receive. However, this understanding of purpose is too simplistic to ensure successful development. Profit should be considered as one of the criteria for success, and not as an end in itself. We should not forget that money is not a goal, but only a means to an end. The main goal of the organization should be effective and rapid development. This task can be solved through the development and expansion of the market, the introduction of new work technologies or the release of new products, the solution of the most pressing social problems, etc. The last statement is most important for non-profit business organizations whose work is completely focused on solving the most important social problems facing in front of society. So, the goal has been outlined, now it is necessary to establish how it corresponds to the capabilities of an already existing or newly created business organization, that is, whether it is realizable in principle. This procedure is carried out in several stages: - analysis of the organization's capabilities; - analysis of the external environment; - identification of a set of subgoals by forecasting; - morphological analysis. Morphological analysis - this type of analysis provides a prediction of the organization's actions in conditions of a sharp change (gap) in the identified development trends of both the organization itself and the environment; - Analysis of the starting position. This is the final stage of the procedure for identifying the prospects for the development of the organization in terms of achieving the goal. 15. THE LAW OF COMPOSITION AND PROPORTIONALITY The organization is a single, integral developing object, which, as a purposeful dynamic self-adjusting system, is characterized by a tendency to unite. The formation of associations of various levels occurs in accordance with the law of composition and proportionality, which states that within the framework of achieving a common goal, there is an objective tendency of organizations to create sustainable associations in compliance with the principles of proportionality and proportionality. This trend is realized primarily in the desire to choose the optimal structure and create a favorable environment, which is especially typical for modern organizations operating in the context of globalization of the economic and political activities of the world community. Against this background, there is an active formation of "world-wide" organizations, which are usually called super-organizations, since they regulate or influence the work of such large organizational systems as entire states. As for business organizations, in relation to them, the law of composition and proportionality is expressed in the desire to work with conscientious and reliable partners. If we are talking about organizations of a production type, then such partners are primarily suppliers of raw materials, materials, components, as well as organizations that sell products. As a certain market sector develops and conquers, interaction is established not only with partners, but also with consumers of the product produced by the organization or services provided, as well as with competing organizations engaged in similar activities. Interaction with competitors, if possible, should not be antagonistic, as this increases the risk and complicates the activities of all opposing organizations. It is desirable to turn most of the potential competitors into your friends and partners. The task of the control link is to accelerate this process and minimize material and intellectual costs. In the process of implementing this trend, business associations of a complex type arise, which are also called super-organizations. The current stage of development of economic and economic activity in Russia is characterized by the presence of three powerful factors that force enterprises to create associations and implement joint group development strategies. The first of them is related to the general state of the country's economy, the second - to the activities of banks, the third - to the introduction of new market technologies for doing business. 16. LAW OF INFORMATION AND ORDER The law of information and order means that any social organization is capable of survival only if it is provided with complete, reliable and orderly information. The completeness of information is determined by the possibilities of access to the resources of the information space in which the organization operates, as well as the state of external and internal communication links. In modern conditions, any organization has access to very large amounts of information. Despite the extensive network and high speed of modern information systems, the process of finding the right information requires considerable effort. In addition, in the conditions of the market and intense competition, part of the information about the activities of organizations is transferred to the category of strictly confidential, while becoming inaccessible not only to members of other organizations, but also to the majority of members of their own organization. The reliability of information is a necessary condition for the use of the obtained data in the activities of the enterprise. Sources of information must be reliable and beyond doubt. In some cases, deliberately false information is entered into information databases in order to misinform competitors or undermine customer confidence in them. The ordering of information implies the structuring or distribution of information according to the degree of its importance for solving the problems of managing an organization. A complex and responsible task in the formation of an internal information system is the collection and systematization of information received from various departments of the organization. It is recommended to develop a unified system of information requests that would ensure the timely and prompt transfer of information accumulated in departments to the central database. The main consumer of information is the organization's management system. However, the possession of large amounts of information does not mean that it will be effectively used in the organization's activities. In today's oversaturated information environment, huge amounts of information are available to any person, but far from everything that he can learn reaches his consciousness, and even more so is used in life. From the myriad of information that collapses, we try to select the information that we need or may need in the future. The same approach is true for the organization. From the general flow, the management system perceives and selects only that information that meets the goals set and can be used in management procedures. Therefore, all available information should be ordered according to the target attribute. 17. E-COMMERCE Currently, virtual enterprises exist not only in the field of production and distribution of goods, but also in the field of financial flow management. The rapid development of network management technologies in the processes of selling goods and services has led to the emergence of new, but already fairly well-established concepts, such as e-commerce, e-commerce and a virtual store. E-commerce - is doing business with the use of modern information and communication technologies. The use of network technologies and the development of the e-commerce system are leading to a revolutionary transformation in the way business is done. It is assumed that the impact of e-commerce, not only on individual enterprises, but also on the entire value chain of countries as a whole, will be comprehensive. Under business deal in the e-commerce environment (in accordance with the Federal Target Program for the Development of Electronic Commerce in Russia) is understood a commercial or business transaction made through a computer network, as a result of which the ownership or the right to use a material product or service is transferred from one person to another. In the e-commerce system, most business processes are implemented electronically based on the use of information and communication technologies. In this case, the information is transmitted directly to the recipient, bypassing the stage of creating paper copies. At the initial stage, e-commerce developed on the basis of the use of network technologies in the processes of selling goods and services, as well as information support for solving management problems. The subsequent, fairly rapid increase in the number of enterprises using the benefits of e-commerce has led to the formation of a global information environment that includes business organizations of various types: trade enterprises, buyers, manufacturers of goods, financial institutions that provide business processes, forwarding services and many others. Virtual organizations, the number of which is growing rapidly day by day, perform a number of very important functions to ensure economic activity. In particular, the reduction in the time and cost of financial transactions has led to the emergence of virtual banks. Virtual automatic banks perform the entire range of banking operations in real time. Initially, they were created to service operations performed by legal entities. 18. THE LAW OF UNITY, ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS The study of organizations as socio-economic objects provides for the mandatory use of analysis and synthesis operations. Analysis and synthesis in the study of the functioning of the organization are so intertwined that they cannot exist without each other. Therefore, speaking about the law of the unity of analysis and synthesis, one should mean their inseparability and constant interaction, carried out within the framework of the dialectical principle of unity and struggle of opposites. Analysis and synthesis in their unity form the basis of a systematic approach to the study of the organization's activities. The law of the unity of analysis and synthesis states that through the use of analysis and synthesis procedures in the organization's management processes, the organizational system is adjusted to the best option for achieving the set goal. Analysis, or decomposition, - this is the division of the whole into parts or the representation of a complex object in the form of simple components. The analysis of cause-and-effect relationships between the selected parts is reduced to finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for maintaining the required interaction between these parts of the whole. The essence of synthesis is to combine the simple constituents of an object into a single whole. Association within the framework of synthesis is carried out on the basis of mutual necessity and interconnection. Here experience and intuition can help, and experience helps in repetitive situations, and intuition - in new circumstances. It is important that in the process of decomposition important properties of the constituent parts of the whole are not lost. It is equally important that the performers do not forget that each unit in the organization is only a part of a single system, the management of any purposeful dynamic organizational system involves the development and implementation of specific solutions. The decision made on the management of a socio-economic organization or any part of it is a connecting element between the management links and the links that perform specific functions. In addition, with the help of control decisions, the connection between the individual links of the control system is implemented. From this point of view, a solution is a means of communication between links and elements of an organization, including between people. As a rule, decisions are made in accordance with the hierarchy of distribution of power, determined by the organizational structure. The links of the upper levels of the hierarchy make decisions on the management of the links of the lower levels of the hierarchy that are subordinate to them. The effectiveness of management decisions taken determines the survival of the organization in a highly competitive environment. 19. SPECIFIC LAWS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION New information technologies, network communications and automation of managerial work contribute to strengthening the positive effect of the objective laws of the organization and improving the principles of management. Specific laws reflect: the inseparable connection of all parts of the organization; proportionality of production and management; transition from administration to strategic planning; proactive management; the impact of technological innovations on the development of socio-economic organizational systems; requirements for saving time and intellectual resources of the organization's personnel. The law of originality. It provides for the existence for each organization of the best and only its inherent structure of production and management. Law of social harmony. Orients to the fact that in each organization the development of the social sphere increases the productivity of employees by increasing their emotional level and intensifying labor activity. The law of social loading. Establishes that for each person there is an optimal amount of workload, in which his abilities and capabilities are fully revealed. The scope of e-commerce is constantly expanding. There are two virtual law firms operating on the Russian Internet. The law of effective perception and memorization of information. It assumes that the processes of perception and memorization of information are most effectively implemented if they approach the process of thinking. The law of effective comprehension. Coordinates for effective understanding of the new, this is possible only if a person has a large amount of knowledge or information on this topic. installation law. Orients that any person perceives most fully the information for which he tuned in and for which he prepared. The law of stability of information. Assumes that the first information about an event is more stable than repeated information about the same event. The Law of Accessibility of Information. Provides that the intelligibility of the message is higher when using several forms of presenting the same information at the same time. The principles of optimizing the functioning of the management system and increasing the efficiency of people in the organization follow from the laws of the organization. When studying the laws and principles of organization, it should be remembered that they will work effectively only if the manager can find their reasonable combination, single out the main law and subordinate all other laws and principles of organizing managerial work to it. 20. STATICS AND DYNAMICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS The concepts of statics and dynamics, which are now widely used to characterize social organizations, are borrowed from mechanics and their meaning is similar to the corresponding physical terms. The following formulation of these concepts in relation to organizational systems can be proposed. Statics (from the Greek statike - "balance") is a balanced state of the organizational system in which it is located, regardless of changes (both positive and negative) occurring in the external environment. All parameters and indicators reflecting the activities of the organization remain unchanged for a long time. The static organization is satisfied with what has been achieved and strives for a "quiet" life, without any change whatsoever. And if there are no changes, then there are no development prospects. Such organizations in our difficult times will not be able to stay "afloat" for a long time. Dynamics (from the Greek dynamis - "strength") is the development of organizational systems and their forward movement towards new goals under the influence of the influences applied to them. Dynamically developing organizations are characterized by the desire to constantly increase the pace of their development, master new technologies, increase production output, expand the range of tasks to be solved, develop new markets in order to obtain additional profit. Speaking about the statics and dynamics of the organization, it would be appropriate to recall the laws of mechanics formulated by Newton. According to Newton's first law - the law of inertia - an object that is not acted upon by forces is at rest or in uniform motion; only the action of force can change this state. This statement can be transferred by analogy to the activities of the organization, which, like any material system, is characterized by inertia. To overcome inertia, significant efforts are required on the part of the management part of the organizational system. One of the main tasks in studying the dynamics and statics of an organization is to identify the patterns of its behavior under various influences from the external and internal environment. The ideal for managerial influence is a well-oiled machine. In order to bring each individual employee of the organization closer to this ideal, he is assigned a certain role in the organization, strictly regulated by job descriptions and functional responsibilities. The organization has financial and technical resources, the disposal of which is regulated by a system of service relations. The result of this complex system of relationships is the achievement of sustainability by the organization. 21. OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF STATIC AND DYNAMIC ORGANIZATIONS Let us carry out a comparative analysis of the principles of operation of static and dynamic organizations. Any organizational system is interested in the transition to a stable, sustainable state of its existence. The organization management system also strives for a certain stability in the arrangement and reliable functioning of the control object subordinate to it, while having the ability to effectively control it. The transition to a sustainable mode of operation is an objectively existing built-in development goal of any organization. Achieving this goal is tantamount to acquiring new resources, reducing staff turnover, reducing the number of reorganizations, and reducing conflict. Elements of statics are inherent in any organizational system. Among them, the state of the financial performance of the enterprise at a fixed point in time; structural scheme of the enterprise; distribution of power; staffing and job responsibilities. The problem is that an organization, having achieved a certain stability, can eventually turn into a conservative system, this behavior was typical mainly of large organizations that successfully worked for a long time in fairly stable conditions of planned economic management. This led to the death of many large organizations or to their disaggregation, i.e., to the disintegration into several smaller and relatively viable organizations. To assess the possible behavior of the organization with changes in the external and internal environment, full-scale and computational experiments are carried out. When studying the static and dynamic properties of organizational systems, in addition to reflexive, other types of analysis of management systems are used: structural, informational, parametric, factorial analysis and the transition to working in a dynamic mode - a necessary condition for ensuring the life of an organization. We can single out a number of objective signs of an organization that operates according to a dynamic principle: a target setting that meets the objective needs of society; flexible organizational structure; operation of the control system based on the principle of sorting out alternative solutions and choosing the most effective control option in terms of achieving the goal. We list the necessary properties that the governing bodies of dynamically developing organizations oriented to work in the global market should be tuned to: leadership, progressive development of the organization, customer orientation, the use of new technologies, the presence of a centralized organization management structure. 22. PROPERTIES OF DYNAMIC ORGANIZATION Leadership. The traditional concept of leadership includes a strictly formalized activity of the leader, whose responsibilities include: formulating the task, providing subordinates with the necessary resources to solve the problem, rewarding for achieving positive results and reprimanding for insufficient performance. At the same time, the actions of subordinates should be aimed at fulfilling the orders of the formal leader. Organization development. The traditional concept of planning the dynamics of the development of a business organization is based on the distribution of tasks and the timing of their implementation. Terms are calculated based on the capabilities of the organizational system. For an organization whose goal is to survive in a global market, development planning must be based on a common vision of the goal and go in two directions. Orientation to the consumer. The most important aspect of the interaction of a dynamically developing organization with the external environment is the quality of products or the level of customer service. New technologies. In a poorly developed market, with an average level of competition and a relatively constant business environment, production is updated as equipment becomes obsolete. The development of market relations, the saturation of the market with goods and increased competition force organizations to strive for improvement and continuous improvement of all stages of the technological process and business procedures. New market technologies should be integrated into all processes, including organization management. Organization management structure. The traditional concept of management implies the existence of a centralized structure and a certain hierarchy of organization management, which provides for the vertical distribution of power and the subordination of executors to persons occupying a higher position. The results of this form of management are bureaucratization of processes, slow decision-making, and ineffective communication links, especially in the direction from the bottom up. Innovations coming from lower levels of the hierarchy (from subordinates) are ignored in most cases. The use of more flexible decentralized management structures of an organic type increases the speed and direction of decision-making and, accordingly, the speed of response to changes in the external environment. At the same time, innovations offered by both management and subordinates are encouraged. In modern conditions, setting up an organizational management system for a dynamic mode of operation is a guarantee of its well-being and success. 23. PRINCIPLES OF RATIONALIZATION Rationalization - this is the improvement, improvement, implementation of a more expedient organization of managerial and executive work. Rationalization is based on the improvement of management, which ensures the highest possible level of efficiency in the development of subjects of economic and economic activity in the interests of society under the current conditions, within the framework of objectively operating laws of organizational systems and taking into account the productive forces of society as a whole. But it is also influenced by the production relations of a particular social organization with its inherent forms of ownership. Rationalization of organizational activities - this is, first of all, a process that provides an improved, and therefore better, state of the system through a clear organization of production activities, through the use of the latest achievements of science and technology in all departments of the enterprise, including its management and managed parts. Technical and organizational improvement at the enterprise is inextricably linked with improvements in working conditions and a creative approach to solving problems. The principles of rationalization are effective only if they are based on the laws of organizational systems. The term "rationalization" comes from the Latin word ratio - "reason", therefore, rationalization should be understood as a reasonable organization of labor. The main directions of rationalization of the activity of organizational systems are the improvement of the scientific organization of labor, the results of labor, means of labor and technological processes. Improvement of the scientific organization of labor. The rationalization of the labor process provides for the creation of the most favorable working conditions, the elimination of overload and nervous strain, the creation of a favorable psychological climate in the team, material incentives for employees, their interest in acquiring a solid status of the company. Improving the results of labor consists in: expanding the range of services provided; streamlining the range and range of products; in improving the consumer qualities of manufactured products; in standardization, unification and normalization of products; in improving the quality characteristics of raw materials and materials for their most complete and comprehensive use. Improving the means of labor and technological processes consists in the use of know-how, in technical re-equipment, in modernization and progressive changes in the technical level of the equipment used, which provide a positive dynamic for the development of the enterprise. 24. QUALITY STANDARDS At present, the ISO 9000 and JSO 9001 systems of standards, of course, are among the universally recognized standards for assessing the quality of socio-economic organizations at the world level. Their advantage over other quality assessment systems is that they do not impose any restrictions on the size , industry affiliation and form of ownership of the enterprise. The ISO 9001 quality assurance system applies to all types of enterprise activities, from the establishment of the production process (in some cases, the release of a new type of product is accompanied by the design of a new organizational system) and to the conclusion of contracts with subsequent compliance with contractual obligations and after-sales service. The undoubted advantage of the quality maintenance model based on the international standards of the ISO 9000 and ISO 9001 families is that they describe the necessary elements that an organization's management system should include, and not how these elements are implemented by a particular organization. The ISO 9000 and ISO 9001 standards describe only the minimum requirements that an organization needs to meet to demonstrate its ability to provide quality in all aspects of its business activities. It should be noted that the transition of organizations to the above-described life support models based on quality improvement is not the ultimate goal of their work, but a condition for uniform progressive movement towards achieving the set socially significant goal. The modern idea of the quality of products is based on the principle of the most complete compliance with the needs of consumers. The consumer of products manufactured by an organization can be an individual, another organization or a complex organizational system, such as a state. Any product is described by a certain set of characteristics. They are contained in the description of the technical conditions that the manufactured products must satisfy, they also determine the organization of the technology of the production process. Drawing up a set of consumer requirements is a significant difficulty, as it is associated with the socio-psychological aspects of human life and individual personality traits. The existing developments in the field of studying the needs of people and the relationships between them do not make it possible to compile a complete description of the set of requirements for a particular product, however, with their help, the developer of a product or process can achieve quite tangible practical results. 25. QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIZATION In modern conditions, an organization is capable of survival only if it is aimed at solving some socially significant task. Successful implementation of the social mission is impossible without the qualitative performance of the functions that determine the range of tasks facing the organization in the framework of achieving the goal. In addition, any organization has internal quality control systems. The presence of such a complex set of various circumstances that affect the quality of an organization's activities leads to the fact that in conditions of intense competition and saturation of the market with goods and services, only those organizational systems survive that strive to work better than other organizations engaged in similar activities. Organizations that are characterized by poor quality management of business processes or that produce low-quality or insufficiently high-quality products are doomed to defeat in the process of competition. To successfully solve the problems of proactive management, the leader must be able to measure his actions with the actions of the leaders of other organizations of a similar type. At present, in connection with the globalization of the market, the assessment of the quality of the functions performed by an organization is one of the key problems in ensuring the progressive economic development of society at the level of both individual organizations and complex organizational systems, such as the state and the world economic system as a whole (including between suppliers and consumers). In the modern world, a common understanding of the need and importance of a systematic solution of problems that arise in assessing the quality of organizations' activities has been formed, both in relation to the final product and in the field of high-quality solution of management problems. The application and certification of the quality system is considered today as a necessary condition for the successful operation and development of organizations of any form of ownership, as well as the most reliable form of guaranteeing the conformity of the quality of the supplied products and services with the requirements of the population. In recent years, the quality of the organization's work has been invariably associated with the requirements of environmental safety. Enterprises that have not certified their quality system are already practically closed to the world market today. In the conditions of globalization of the market and with the intensive development of e-commerce, this leads to the restriction and subsequent termination of the activities of enterprises that neglect the requirements for certification of quality systems. 26. ORGANIZATION DESIGN OBJECTIVES The purpose of a business organization is based on a commercial idea, so it is determined on the basis of market analysis and relevant marketing research. The goal should be relevant, achievable, real, understandable to the performers, commensurate with the possibilities and carried out within a specific time frame. When defining the goal, the social orientation of the organization should be considered from two points of view: from the standpoint of consumer requests, i.e., meeting the needs of society for goods and services, and from the standpoint of solving the problems of ensuring, sustainable progressive development of the organization itself while meeting the social needs of its own team. When solving the problems of designing an organization, it is advisable to single out three main groups of goals. functional purpose. This goal has already been achieved earlier at this enterprise. For a trading enterprise, an example of a functional goal could be the purchase and sale of a certain batch of goods at regular intervals. Analogous goals determine the solution of a problem that has already been achieved at another enterprise, but has never been achieved at the projected enterprise. Development goal. This is a goal that has never been achieved by anyone before. Such a goal, as a rule, is associated with the formation of new systems. At the first stage, the novelty of such a goal was that previously in our country there were no organizations of this type, so there was no experience in this field of activity. Undoubtedly, the complexity of the design process and the complexity of the organization itself will be determined by the type of goal. In the first case, the design of a new organization or the development of an old one is reduced to the introduction of methods already "tested" in the previous work. In the second case, the design provides for a mandatory analysis of the work of organizations engaged in a similar type of activity, and the choice of the most appropriate option for a newly created organization. In the latter case, to create a new organization with a previously non-existent direction of activity, maximum effort and complete independence in making fundamental decisions will be required. The purpose of a business organization is multifaceted. In addition to fulfilling its functional purpose as an element of a social structure, an organization as an independently operating system has to solve problems that ensure its viability and viability within the social environment. The goals associated with the struggle of the organization for its existence are called the tactical goals of the system. Some of them may conflict with functional goals. 27. RISK CRITERIA (BY R. BUSKIRK) R. Buskirk, professor of marketing and director of the Entrepreneurial Program at the University of South Carolina, has developed a model that helps you evaluate the merits of a planned business. He based the model on 15 criteria in order to assess the risk of undertaking and understand how close the planned business is to the "ideal business": 1) there is no need for capital investments. Many people dream of an "ideal business" that does not require any investment. The more money your project requires, the riskier it is; 2) established markets. Ideally, it is good to have an established market for the product. The easiest way to assess a future market is to study the competition; 3) the existing sales system. Don't create your own distribution system if you want to avoid unnecessary risk; 4) high demand for the product. It is necessary to conduct marketing research and find out the real need for the product, which will certainly reduce the degree of risk; 5) constant and reliable supply. It is important to focus on the problem of regular supply of goods, especially if it is associated with foreign supplies; 6) lack of government intervention. As insurance options, have such activities that are not subject to restrictions by the state; 7) no need for a large staff. The more people you have on staff, the more problems; 8) gross profit. Starting a new business, you should not be guided by superprofits. Having paid taxes, settled with a supplier, wholesaler, retailers, paid for marketing, you can consider yourself a successful entrepreneur if you receive a 10% income; 9) the frequency of trading transactions. Attracting the attention of the consumer is the main task of the entrepreneur; 10) elements of novelty. Any product or service offered to the buyer must have an element of novelty; 11) credit for buyers. This is a forced measure, which you often have to resort to in order to sell your product; 12) technical obsolescence or change of fashion. To cope with this kind of risk, you need to be a very skillful manager who has intuition and clearly monitors all innovations; 13) obligations. The best thing to do is to try to limit your obligations and take them into account when planning your finances; 14) competition. The lack of competition suggests that the market may not work out; 15) impeccable ethics - a necessary condition for the successful conduct of business. 28. DESIGN AND METHODS OF ADJUSTING ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS The process of organizational design consists in the consistent convergence of a rational management structure with its reference model. It is especially important that this process occurs not only at the stage of creation of the organization, but also after the start of its work. The design and adjustment of organizational structures are carried out on the basis of several complementary methods. The analogy method consists in the application of organizational forms and management mechanisms that have justified themselves in organizations with similar characteristics (goals, technology, specifics, size, etc.) in relation to the projected organization. The method of analogies includes the development of typical management structures, as well as the definition of boundaries and conditions for their application. The expert-analytical method consists in the examination and analytical study of the organization by qualified specialists with the involvement of managers, which makes it possible to identify the specific features of problems and "bottlenecks" in the work of the management apparatus. The method makes it possible to develop rational recommendations for the formation or restructuring of management based on quantitative assessments of the effectiveness of the organizational structure, rational principles of management, expert opinions, as well as generalization and analysis of the most advanced trends in the field of management organization. This method is the most flexible and comprehensive. The goal structuring method involves the development of a system of goals and subgoals of the organization, including their quantitative and qualitative formulation and subsequent analysis of organizational structures from the standpoint of their compliance with the system of goals. The method of organizational modeling consists in the development of formalized mathematical, graphical and other representations (models) of the distribution of powers and responsibilities in the organization. The developed models are the basis for conducting a computational experiment in order to build, analyze and evaluate various options for organizational structures in the relationship of their variables. At present, automated systems have appeared that allow, based on functional goals and information about the state of the organization's resources and the dynamics of the development of the external environment, to obtain the appropriate project of the organization. The choice of a method for solving a particular organizational problem depends on its nature, as well as on the results of the relevant study. The quality and efficiency of the methodology used, the availability of the necessary information, the qualifications of the system developers, the timing of the issuance of recommendations, the material and scientific and technical base should be taken into account. 29. STAGES OF DETERMINING THE INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF THE ORGANIZATION The first stage is the selection of the initial system of criteria by which the quality of the indicators will be assessed. In accordance with the general theory of economic analysis, when solving this problem, the organization should be considered as a single system that includes a number of elements that are in a certain interaction. At the same time, she herself, as a subject of economic activity, is part of a higher level system, the action of which is aimed at improving the quality of public life. The second stage of building an integral assessment involves ranking indicators according to the degree of significance of their impact on the work of the organization. Due to the large number of factors and the difficulties of compiling their formal description when determining the values of the coefficients that reflect the degree of influence of various phenomena on the work of the organization, at this stage the method of expert assessment is used, using data from a survey of managers of various organizations engaged in similar activities, and independent experts. The ranking of factors largely depends on the goal that the organization sets for itself and the chosen strategy of action. Therefore, the ranking of factors should be carried out for each typical strategy separately. With this approach to the study of the quality of the work of the organization, the coefficients of relative importance are dimensionless values that characterize only the measure of the relative preference of some factors over others. The third stage of finding an integral assessment involves the construction of an economic and mathematical model and the determination on its basis of the reference value of the quality indicator. For this purpose, the development of methods for evaluating private indicators characterizing the effectiveness of the organization. Then, the values of partial indicators are determined for a reference organization selected from a set of enterprises engaged in the same type of activity and implementing similar development strategies. In accordance with the previously described methodology, the absolute value of the quality indicator is determined for it, which is subsequently used as a starting point (standard) for ranking the quality of all organizations to be surveyed. In the case of assessing the quality of organizations focused on a development strategy, the maximum value of the absolute quality indicator in the group should be taken as a benchmark. The absolute indicator of the quality of an ideal model is found by calculating the integral score for the maximum values of the quality characteristics achieved by any organization in the group. 30. SUBJECTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITIES Applied to the social system under organizational activities means: the union of people in groups; integration of the activities of members of the organization's team (people work together, together); integration of the goals of all members of the team (people work to achieve a common goal). The subject of organizational activity are members of the team that have an active influence on the activities of the organization, participation in the work of the organization provides for the analysis of ongoing events and phenomena, creative understanding of the work cycle and influencing it in order to increase the efficiency of the organization and obtain the greatest economic effect. The administrative and managerial apparatus acts as a generalized subject of management of a business organization. His involvement in organizational activities is most obvious. It consists of employees who form goals, develop plans, make and approve management decisions, organize their implementation with subsequent control. The subjects of organizational activity include the president of the company, general director, commercial director, technical director, deputy directors, managers, etc. Depending on the object of organizational influence, the subjects can be leaders of public associations, informal leaders, organizing committees, unions, etc. Active participation in the work of the organization involves the analysis, creative understanding of ongoing processes and the impact on its work. With the transition to a market economy, there has been a significant expansion of the functions that any business organization needs to perform. Now the organization itself must determine its goal on the basis of an analysis of the needs of social development, choose an action strategy that ensures survival in a highly competitive environment, form its structure and relationships in the team, manage the resources and results of its work. The manager as a subject of organizational activity must be able to analyze the situation and present his case from the most advantageous side. At the same time, he must know how to cope with the risks that are inevitable in the conduct of any business. Of particular importance is the creative approach to decisions made by the manager, since management is not only a science, but also an art. When making decisions, the subject of organizational activity should be guided by both rational principles based on calculation and mathematical logic, and irrational principles based on experience, intuition, informal logic and even premonitions. 31. OBJECTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITIES Control object - this is a controlled subsystem, something that is subject to control by the subject. In other words, it is the receiver and executor of the control action presented as a set of functions or tasks. Both a person and a machine can act as an object. The state of the control object depends on the control actions from the control subject. Note that the same person can be both a subject (in relation to direct performers or material objects) and an object (in relation to higher officials). The organizational activities of the subjects and objects of management of the organization are regulated by the regulations on departments and services, as well as job descriptions. The management function "organization" is included in all specific management functions. The social organization as an object of the social system includes the labor collective. The object of organizational activity, within the framework of official duties, performs the procedures for preparing, agreeing and executing decisions, as well as all operations related to these procedures. The object of organizational activity receives a task, comprehends it, conducts information work, fulfills an order or order, hands over the work done to the customer or uses it in his organization, etc. The concepts of "subject" and "object" are relative, not absolute. They characterize the role of team members in the development and adoption of managerial decisions. The subject of control is the control subsystem in the control system or its separate element. The decision maker is a collective concept. It can be not only one person, but also a group, a team of an organization. For example, the Academic Council of a higher educational institution is also a decision-maker, in this case, a collective subject of organizational activity acts in its role. Depending on the functional duties assigned to them, team members can be both subjects and objects of organizational activity. For example, the head salesman is the subject in relation to the ordinary sellers who carry out his instructions, but at the same time he is the object in relation to the store manager. Note that the subject of organizational activity can be at the same time its own object, since it can perform the work given to itself. Moreover, ordinary employees can at the same time be a collective subject of organizational activity, for example in the form of a shareholders' meeting. 32. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Organizational culture is a system of norms, rules and moral values that regulates relations between members of the organization. Organizational culture is inextricably linked with organizational behavior, in which it is customary to single out: the behavior of the leader; group behavior; individual behavior (personal behavior). The main goal of organizational behavior is to help people perform their duties more productively and get more satisfaction from this. To achieve this goal, the value orientations of each individual and the entire organization as a whole must be formed. Organizational culture is an element of the information environment of a business organization. Since the organization itself is part of the social system, its business culture is an integral part of the social culture. The impact of society on the activities of the organization is diverse. The cultural environment of the organization depends on the degree of development of society, existing local and national traditions, legal and socio-moral factors of public life. These factors to varying degrees (directly or indirectly) affect the formation of organizational culture within the organization. One of the main tasks of organizational culture is to reduce the share of the subjective factor in the implementation of management procedures and, accordingly, reduce management risk. This is achieved due to the impersonality of the created organizational culture. Of course, the activity of each individual person depends on the psychological and physical properties of the individual, the level of education, experience and other personal factors. However, the employee must be aware that violation of the established schedule leads to administrative liability up to and including dismissal. In the event of a discrepancy between the objective requirements generated by the organizational culture and the psychophysical qualities of the individual, a contradiction arises, which in some cases can be eliminated through administrative measures. One of the important measures to maintain the organizational culture that has developed in the organization is the assessment of the professional suitability of personnel. This is especially important when recruiting new employees. One of the most important elements of organizational culture is the current motivation system - a set of ways to encourage members of the organization to active creative activity in order to achieve their personal goals and the goals of the organization. The need for remuneration serves as the basis for developing an economic-type motivation system. 33. DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL SCIENCE Organizational science began to emerge in ancient times, primarily in the form of the organization of management activities. Scientists found the first management tips in the economic and administrative cuneiform texts of the ancient Sumerians, who lived in the period from XXIX-XXVIII centuries on III-I centuries BC e. in Southern Mesopotamia. Written sources that have come down to us Sumer, researched by an American professor S.N. Kramer , reflect the socio-economic situation in the interfluve, at least for 3000 years BC e. teaching Ptahhotep (2000-1500 years BC e.) contains advice on the need to listen carefully to subordinates and delve into their problems. The king's code Hammurabi (1792-1750 gg. BC e.) in ancient Babylon contains a set of laws on state administration, among which are the use of witnesses and written documents for control, the establishment of a minimum wage, and the recognition of the inadmissibility of shifting responsibility. Research on organization theory began to be carried out on a systematic basis with 1890 d. Within the framework of these studies, the principles of organization were formulated, creating the basis and criteria for the formation of organizational structures, the creation of a system of divisions, the definition of manageability and the delegation of rights and responsibilities. The most important role in the development of organizational science was played by the successes of the natural sciences of the end XIX - start XX centuries These successes created the technical and social prerequisites for the scientific and technological revolution, which caused a radical, qualitative transformation of the productive forces on the basis of the transformation of organizational science into a leading factor in the development of the world economy and social production. To the middle XX in. science has become a direct productive force that has changed the whole face of social production, the nature and content of labor, the structure of productive forces and the structure of society. This led to an accelerated growth in labor productivity, had an impact on all aspects of society and contributed to scientific and technological progress. The prerequisites were created for the emergence of a single system that unites all spheres of human activity: theoretical knowledge of the laws of nature and society (science), a complex of technical means (technology), the process of creating material wealth (production) and ways to rationalize practical activities in the production process (management). The well-known scientists who made the main contribution to the development of the main sections of the classical theory of organization include A. Fayol, J. D. Lisney, A. K. Reilly, L. Urwick, M. Weber. 34. DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL THOUGHT IN RUSSIA В of Russia a significant role in the development of organizational activity was played by public administration reforms, which were carried out by Peter I the Great (years of life - 1672-1725 ). Promoting the development of domestic industry, Peter I established central bodies (boards) that were in charge of industry and trade, began to transfer state-owned enterprises to private hands and issue subsidies to their owners. In addition, he introduced a tariff that shielded new branches of domestic industry from foreign competition. A significant revival and upswing of economic life in of Russia marked the reign Elizaveta Petrovna (years of life - 1709-1762). During the reign Catherine II (years of life - 1729-1796 ) in Russia, the Free Economic Society (1765 d.), a "general land survey" was begun to streamline landlord landownership. AT 1767 She convened the Commission on the Code and drew up a mandate for it, broadly borrowing the ideas of leading Western thinkers in terms of organizational activities. Special importance for social development of Russia had, of course, a peasant reform 1861 city, which abolished serfdom and laid the foundation for the capitalist formation in the country. Later, in 1906 , began the Stolypin agrarian reform of peasant allotment land tenure in of Russia, which was terminated by a decree of the Provisional Government in June 1917 in XX in. development of organizational thought in of Russia went the hard way. Domestic organizational science arose much later than in the West. Changes in the state system, wars and post-war devastation hindered the development of organizational science. Its development was hampered by a centralized command system for managing the national economy. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to organizational science. L.V. Kantorovich - a well-known Russian economist and mathematician, Nobel Prize winner in economics - determined the importance of objectively determined estimates that arise in the analysis of optimal economic models. His research contributed to the creation of the theory of optimal planning and management of organizations. Achievements A.N. Kolmogorov и V.A. Kotelnikova in the field of mathematics have largely contributed to the creation of economic and mathematical models of modern organizations. In recent years, some scientific categories and concepts of organization theory have been introduced, specialization of research in this area has been outlined, the first positive results have been obtained regarding the understanding of the experience of foreign organization theory, specific forms of management democratization have been proposed and implemented in relation to the conditions Russia. 35. CONTRIBUTION OF INFORMATIZATION TO ORGANIZATIONAL SCIENCE A distinctive feature of the new information space is the unlimited possibility of access to it by a wide range of users. We can talk about creating a new information environment for human life. The creation of the informatics industry and the transformation of information into a commodity led to profound social transformations in all spheres of society and, above all, in the activities of organizations. Unlike other objects of the material world, information has not only quantitative characteristics, but also semantic content, and for ensuring the activities of organizations, the latter quality is the most important. The modular principle of management, combined with the possibilities of communication tools, significantly increases the adaptive capacity of organizations. The ability of organizations to quickly respond to changes in the external environment significantly expands their ability to fight for survival. The development of means of communication and, in particular, network technologies for the transmission of information leads to the globalization of economic activity. Successful entry of organizations into the information economy is unthinkable without the creation of a highly developed infrastructure for information support, which includes modern means of communication. However, the solution of this problem is not possible without the implementation of appropriate support at the state level. The experience of countries with developed market economies shows that the development of a society informatization strategy should be carried out at the state level. Throughout the civilized world, a large proportion of R&D is carried out at the expense of state funding and organizations involved in the development and support of existing communication systems are maintained in working condition. A necessary component of this infrastructure is a fleet of modern PCs. Any organization should be equipped with modern computers, if possible included in an internal network with access to the Internet. As information resources develop, communications will cover all organizations conducting economic and social activities. The leadership of our country and individual subjects of organizational activity have achieved notable success in mastering modern business methods based on the principles of the information economy. The creation of a developed information environment will lead to a change in the nature of interaction between organizations, to the creation of new forms of associations that will ensure the advancement of our country in the direction of further development of modern methods of doing economic activity. 36. THE ROLE OF INFORMATION IN THE PROCESS OF LIFE ACTIVITIES OF ORGANIZATION In a variety of functions that information performs in the life of an organization, two main factors should be emphasized. The first of these is due to the fact that the information used in the production process is of a productive nature and, therefore, plays the role of a resource necessary for the release of the final product. This property is especially evident in the activities of firms for which information is the subject and product of labor. These include public and private organizations involved in the coordination and management of the activities of other organizations, including marketing agencies. The subject of the activity of the latter is information about the state of the market and the actions of its subjects, and the result of labor is information used in the management systems of organizations. The second feature of the impact of informatization on the life of organizations is that the development of an approach to information as an independent object has led to the creation of a new scientific direction - the information economy. Development and successful implementation in practice of scientific developments in this area, which began with 90 x y y XX century, was due to the following reasons: the increasing influence of scientific and technological progress on the activities of organizations; the determining influence of the level of information support; the revolutionary nature of the pace of development of informatization; transition to interstate forms of economic activity. The fact that organizations (both public and economic) depend on the completeness, reliability, reliability and efficiency of the information used forced us to consider it as an objective life support resource. In the information economy, information is considered as the result of the intellectual work of all members of society. From this point of view, it turns into a commodity, i.e., an object of sale that has its own specific features compared to traditional goods and services. The classical approach to evaluating the feasibility of using information resources with the help of the resulting economic effect turned out to be unproductive. This is due to the fact that many achievements are trade secrets. In order to obtain meaningful assessments in this area, it is necessary to develop state systems for statistical analysis of the activities of organizations. At the same time, state support is needed for independent marketing agencies involved in the comparative evaluation of the activities of various organizations. 37. MODULAR PRINCIPLE OF BUILDING ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES One of the most effective methods of reorganization is the introduction of the modular principle of building production processes. Due to this, the possibilities of using modern information technologies are noticeably expanding and the reactive capabilities of the entire organization are increasing. In sufficiently developed organizations, in the management system itself, it is advisable to single out, in addition to the control and managed parts, also a functional part. The functional part is engaged in information support of decision-making procedures, and decision-making is implemented in the control part. The functional part of the management systems of economic entities includes personnel involved in marketing analysis, accounting and statistical accounting. In order to improve the efficiency of the organization, it is advisable to build the activities of the functional links of the management system according to the modular principle. The transition to the modular principle of building organizational management structures is closely related to a new direction in the theory of organization, which develops international standards for the structure and elements of management systems. One of the essential sections of the proposed standards is the description of information support modules designed to solve management problems. For an organization engaged in a specific type of activity, the standards make it possible to compile a complete list of elements of the management system. The need to increase the organization's survival potential in a competitive environment requires the inclusion in its structure of additional (possibly, for the time being reserve) modules that will be involved in the restructuring of the organization to other types of activities in the event of emergency situations that make it inexpedient to achieve the main goal. Each organization in the process of morphological analysis of the main goal must develop a system of sub-goals that ensure survival in the event of an unfavorable development of events. Sometimes the achievement of safety sub-goals is included in the daily activities of the organization at the same time as ensuring progress towards the main goal. In this case, the redundant modules are not used at full capacity in the current activity. Changes in the approach to the analysis of organizations are also related to the fact that in the information economy the main form of accumulation of resources is the accumulation of knowledge and useful information. Communication links within the organization should be built in such a way that specialists not only use their knowledge in their work, but also supply other members of the organization with it. 38. STAGES OF THE LIFE CYCLE OF ORGANIZATION The concept of the life cycle indicates the most characteristic symptoms of the collapse of the organization, manifested at the stage of decline. Childhood. This is a dangerous period, since the greatest number of failures occur during the first years after the organization's inception. The task of this period is to achieve rapid success, and its goals are a healthy existence and development, and not simple survival. Often the work is carried out to the limit, so as not to lose increasing success. Adolescence. During this transition period, the growth of the organization is carried out, as a rule, unsystematically, in jerks. More organized procedures are gradually replacing the risky passion for success. Planning, development of budgets, forecasts are being established. early maturity. The hallmarks of this period are expansion, differentiation, and possibly diversification. Structural divisions are formed, the results of which are changed by the profit received. Many generally accepted methods of performance evaluation, job descriptions, delegation of authority, performance standards, expertise, organization of training and development are used. However, tendencies towards bureaucracy and the struggle for power, localism and the desire to achieve success at any cost are beginning to appear. The rise of strength. Having shareholders on the board, the organization sets the goal of balanced growth at this stage. Structure, coordination, stability and control should be as important as innovation, improvement of all parts of the organization and decentralization. Full maturity. With a competent, but not always responsible leadership, the organization operates almost by itself. Despite the fact that income levels are quite acceptable, growth rates are slowing down. The organization may deviate from its original goals under the influence of public opinion. However, the weaknesses are too obvious. Aging. This stage would never have come if the leadership of the organization was constantly aware of the need for renewal. Competitors invariably bid for the organization's market share. Bureaucratic red tape, a strategy that is not always justified, an inefficient system of motivations, a cumbersome system of control, a closeness to new ideas - all this, taken together, creates clogged conditions. The organization rolls back, and the struggle for its survival begins again. Update. The organization is able to rise from the ashes like a Phoenix. This can be done by a new team of managers authorized to carry out reorganization and implement a planned program of internal organizational development. 39. CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION In some organizations, top managers make all decisions, while lower-level managers only carry out their directives. In other organizations, the decision-making process moves down to the managers most closely associated with the specific issues on which decisions are made. The first case is known as centralization, the second - as decentralization. The term "centralization" refers to the degree of concentration of decision-making in one hand, which is associated only with formal power, that is, with the rights that a certain person in an organization is vested with. The larger the organization, the more complex decisions it makes. Many firms are faced with the need to make operational decisions in connection with the behavior of competitors, changing customer needs, complaints from consumers or employees. In the case when the speed of decision-making is critical, it is necessary to resort to a certain decentralization. However, decentralization does not mean abolishing control. Control must be so effective that decentralized actions can be properly assessed. The essence of centralized organizations is the separation of decision-making and implementation processes: top managers make decisions, middle managers communicate and coordinate them, employees carry them out. Comparative analysis shows that centralized organizations, whose activities are based on the principles of "command and control", as a rule, are costly. They are slow to adapt to market changes and poorly responsive to changing customer needs, limited in creativity and initiative to operate effectively in a competitive environment. Decentralization requires such an organization of management activities that would make it possible to make complex and prompt decisions. An analysis of the experience of decentralization in management structures reveals a number of advantages of such organizational restructuring. In a decentralized organization model, the manager can exercise more autonomy in determining personal contribution to solving problems. The process of decentralization requires the adoption of certain organizational and economic measures, including the incurring of costs. In particular, it is necessary to develop and implement training programs for managers, to overcome the prevailing stereotypes of working in centralized structures and the resistance of workers to change. Accounting and reporting systems are undergoing changes, which entails an increase in administrative costs. 40. COORDINATION IN ORGANIZATIONS Coordination is a process of distributing activities in time, ensuring the interaction of various parts of the organization in the interests of fulfilling its tasks. Coordination ensures the integrity, sustainability of organizations. The higher the degree of division of labor and the closer the interdependence of departments, the greater the need for coordination. If the work is performed by two people in the same unit, then coordination is practically not required. In small organizations, where all employees know each other, it is not difficult to ensure the coordination of their work. In large organizations with a high degree of specialization and distribution of responsibilities, achieving the required level of coordination requires some effort from top management. Obviously, if the activity of an enterprise is distributed among dozens of departments with thousands of employees, then the need for coordination increases immeasurably. There are the following types of interdependence of business units: 1) nominal interdependence. The units united by this interdependence contribute to the common cause, but are not directly related to each other; 2) consistent interdependence. With this type of communication, the work of units engaged in subsequent stages of work depends on work in previous stages; 3) mutual interdependence. With this ratio, the inputs of one unit become the result of the work of another, and vice versa. In the exercise of nominal interdependence, enterprises use standard coordination that does not directly affect people. By its nature, coordination activities can be: preventive, that is, aimed at foreseeing problems and difficulties; eliminating, i.e., designed to eliminate interruptions that occur in the system; regulatory, i.e., aimed at maintaining the existing scheme of work; stimulating, i.e., aimed at improving the performance of a system or an existing organization, even in the absence of specific problems. Along with coordinating the activities of enterprise divisions, coordination also increases the reliability of interaction with the external environment. The problems of ensuring effective coordination of the activities of all departments of the organization are directly related to the level of communication development, the need to maintain constant information exchange. When a production manager transmits instructions or other information through the means of communication, he must be sure that his message will be correctly understood and received in a timely manner. 41. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS Communication processes, in which employees of the management apparatus participate, are vital links between the leader and his subordinates, between managers of the same level, between the organization and the external environment. Communication processes enable managers to carry out their work effectively and make decisions about choosing the best strategy to achieve their goals. Communication in organizational structure involves interaction between people. It is the process of exchanging information and transferring information between individuals or their groups. Organizational communication is the process by which leaders develop a system for providing information to large numbers of people within the organization and to individuals and institutions outside of it. It serves as a necessary tool in coordinating the activities of departments of the organization, allows you to obtain the necessary information at all levels of management. Communication is important to leaders for the following reasons: 1) managers spend most of their time on communication, so they should be interested in improving this type of activity; 2) communications are necessary for effective management; 3) communications are necessary to assert the authority and express the will of the leader; 4) well-established communications contribute to organizational effectiveness. If an organization is effective in communication, it is effective in all other activities. It is customary to distinguish four main functions of communication in a group or organization as a whole: control, motivation, emotional expression and information transfer. With the help of communication, the behavior of group members is controlled. In organizations, there is a hierarchy and formal subordination that employees must adhere to. At the same time, it enhances motivation by communicating to employees what needs to be done, how to improve performance, etc. For most people, their work is the primary source of social interaction. Communication, which is carried out in a group, is a mechanism by which group members express their attitude to what is happening, thereby it contributes to the emotional expression of workers and allows the realization of social needs. The function of communication is also essential, which is associated with its role in the decision-making process. It allows you to provide the data that individuals and groups need to make decisions by communicating information to identify and evaluate alternative solutions. 42. PATTERNS OF GROUP BEHAVIOR Intergroup conflict usually occurs when one or more members of a group become frustrated when faced with obstacles to achieving group goals. In some cases, they try to find the source of the obstacles within the group. Often, group members themselves, methods and procedures, equipment, relationship patterns, or similar factors can hinder the group from achieving its goals. More often, however, external sources of problems are looked for. Some other group may be seen as a limitation or even an obstacle in achieving the goals of this group. A group that has become a negative stereotype for another group and is perceived as a source of its troubles is not necessarily such. For example, in reality, such a source may be a less visible group or a group with which it is necessary to maintain good relations (in particular, the highest level of management). But a group that creates a stereotype may transfer the source of its hostility to a group with which its interests intersect or against which it is safer to oppose. Some common patterns of behavior between groups that compete with each other are repeated with sufficient frequency, which makes them very useful in the analysis of intergroup behavior. If a group competes with another group, it is likely to become more cohesive. As the conflict grows, each of the groups develops a negative attitude towards the other, contacts between them narrow, they interact only when performing the most important tasks. This lack of interaction and communication reinforces and perpetuates the negative stereotypes that groups form about each other. In the course of competition, group perceptions can change if one of the groups "takes the lead" or "wins". Members of the "winning" group may develop complacency, which, in turn, may reduce their attention to the tasks of the group and increase their concern for the satisfaction of individual needs. This happens when a group perceives itself as doing well over a long period and hopes to do well in the future. This does not happen in a situation where the group has just achieved an advantage and still perceives the opponent's actions as a potential threat. In any case, the group is more likely to remain cohesive, with little attention paid to critical evaluation of its methods and ways of behaving. Naturally, the behavior of the "losing" group will be different. Group members will blame the failure on some external factor, such as a higher-level leader or the unethical behavior of another group. 43. LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS Organizations that do not learn (and therefore do not change) are considered doomed in a rapidly changing environment. Hence the recommendations to create groups that learn in the process of activity, to focus on the need to generate new ideas in the learning process. There are even attempts to give a symbolic interpretation of organizational learning. The continued prosperity of a firm seems to be closely related to the organizational ability to effectively and thoughtfully manage its own development. Firms with the above characteristics ("living companies") have a longer lifespan. Those organizations that focus only on increasing shareholder returns are less likely to survive in the long term. They were called "economic companies". The internal organizational conditions that make it difficult to train employees include: the usual activities of the operator, engineering standards, administrative culture, based on established ideas about the technology of management activities. The theory of organizational learning proposed five disciplines, the mastery of which is designed to overcome shortcomings in the stereotypes of thinking, knowledge and skills of the staff. Not all organizations encourage people to develop. As a result, huge resources remain unused. Along with this, there are many workers who are not accustomed to constantly developing personal skills. The discipline of personal excellence begins with the identification of the value orientations of the employee and their alignment with the goals of the organization. It is known that groups can learn in sports, in the arts, in science, and even in entrepreneurial activities. There are amazing examples where group knowledge surpasses individual knowledge and groups show extraordinary opportunities for coordinated action. When groups do learn, not only do they perform extremely well, but individuals develop faster than would otherwise be the case. The components related to innovation in human behavior need to be considered as disciplines. The word "discipline" in this case refers to a theory or technology that must be studied and improved in order to put it into practice. The discipline indicates the development path for acquiring certain skills and competencies. Some people have inner talent, but any other worker can develop professionalism through training. The organization is constantly in a state of discipline training. 44. INTELLECTUAL ORGANIZATIONS In studies of management specialists, it is noted that an intellectual organization will be formed from a large number of small interacting enterprises on the principle of a “free society” rather than a “totalitarian state”. The architecture of smart organizations will be flexible, able to change depending on new challenges and respond to local conditions. Not the designers of the organization at the very top, but the decisions of middle and lower levels of management, who freely choose how to coordinate the work of the group with the work of the organization as a whole, will make the organization capable and adaptive. Such flexible systems require new forms of work discipline and control with wide involvement of workers in the decision-making process in order to better determine which links and groups of links work and become profitable, and which are ineffective. These systems also need guarantees that freedom of choice will not be limited, so that each employee can put into practice their talents and skills, their intelligence. The main qualitative characteristic of an intellectual organization is the transition from administrative control and coordination to direct responsibility and control of performers working in interconnected groups consisting of people of equal rank. In any organization, performers need, on the one hand, a high level of individual and group autonomy to stimulate their personal initiative. On the other hand, they need extensive connections within and outside the group in order to have the necessary information to make decisions. Bureaucratic organizations do not encourage either personal initiative or expanding the range of responsibilities, even if there are attempts to give them these powers. Post-bureaucratic organizations provide both an open market choice and a choice of decision makers. This, in turn, requires the use of such structural processes and principles that would allow maintaining the openness of systems and guaranteeing the convergence of the interests of individual groups of individuals and society as a whole. The most important determinants of an intellectual organization are interrelated. This is why relationships of any kind must simultaneously take into account the need for both freedom and interdependence. Intelligence is most effective when reliable information is available. On the other hand, employees who are denied information become indifferent to the success of the organization, because they do not have enough information to make a reasonable decision. 45. CIRCULAR CORPORATIONS What is fundamentally important is not whether independent enterprises are part of the same organization, but how well the process of interaction between them is managed. Joint ownership does not in itself reduce the tensions between dependent activities. The resolution of contradictions associated with all types of interaction within the organization or outside it, the task of building a democratic hierarchy led to the emergence of a new type of organization, called circular. The circular organization is a democratic hierarchy. In contrast to the hierarchical command structure of the management system, democracy in organizations has such essential characteristics as: the absence of undivided authority; the opportunity for each member of the organization to participate in the adoption of all decisions that directly affect him; the ability of members of an organization to make decisions that affect only those who make them. In a centralized hierarchy, each employee (except for the top manager) is the subject of supreme power. In a democracy, any leader is subject to the collective power of workers. The main structural characteristic of the circular organization is that a council is formed around each leader. Each council (except at the very top and bottom of the organization) should ideally have a minimum membership of a leader who leads the council and a direct report to that leader. A board of directors with more than two subordinates usually consists of these subordinates. Any council has the right to involve third-party representatives in its work. For example, on the board of functional corporate units, such as marketing or finance, leaders of other functional units are often invited to participate. The boards of those departments that use the products of other departments (for example, accounting, research and development) often include the heads of these departments. External clients and consumers are also invited to participate in the council. Interregional organizations, diversified companies invite public representatives of the regions where they work, including representatives of consumers, environmental protection structures, etc., to the councils. Involving additional members on the board improves the organization's understanding with shareholders and other stakeholders. Most units in an organization have internal shareholders, and many have external ones. 46. MULTIDIMENSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS Reorganization is only one of the possible ways to adapt to changes in the environment. Generalization of practice and research indicate the possibility of developing such an organization model that could adapt to changes without restructuring. Such an organization is called multidimensional. The need for organization stems from the division of labor. To organize means to divide work and coordinate it in such a way as to obtain the desired result. The deeper the division of labor, the more coordination is required. In a typical organizational structure, horizontal division shows how work is divided at each level, that is, how responsibility is distributed. The vertical division shows how work at various levels is coordinated and integrated. There are three directions of the division of labor in the organization, and therefore, three types of organizational units: 1) functionally defined structures whose product is consumed within the organization (system input) (for example, departments of supply, finance, legal, personnel, R&D, construction, production departments and workshops); 2) structures defined by products or services, the results of which are consumed outside the organization (for example, factories and departments that are part of large corporations); 3) market structures, determined by the classification of the organization's external customers to which the organization sells its products (for example, branches in relevant geographical areas or branches serving large consumers, wholesalers). The structure of the organization reflects the relative importance of each of the three criteria underlying it. Reorganization involves changes in the relative importance of any of the three criteria for building an organization. These divisions can buy products from internal or external suppliers and then sell at a profit. They evaluate the activities of other departments of the organization from the point of view of external users, they can work as consultants to executive directors and other heads of departments. Many departments in a multi-dimensional organization may also be three-dimensional. In research and development organizations, programs consisting of two or more projects were multidimensional, while the projects were one-dimensional. However, such programs were subordinate to specially appointed managers. For example, a similar software organization is part of a larger organization. 47. VIRTUAL CORPORATIONS virtual product - this is what is produced instantly and targeted, at the request of the customer. It is paid by the consumer instantly. Virtual products are the result of a combination of numerous and varied advances in technology. One of the main principles of the production of virtual products is the integration of production processes with suppliers that produce absolutely interchangeable products. Of great importance to consumers is not only virtual products, but also the emergence of a new type of corporations designed to produce such products. virtual corporation - a society of functional partners managing the design, production and sale of products and services using modern information technologies and a system of contracts, with independent working groups and structures. Its distinctive features are: - intermittent nature of functioning; - implementation of communications and management actions based on integrated and local information systems and telecommunications; - relationships with all partner and other interested organizations through a series of agreements, contracts and mutual ownership of property; formation of temporary alliances of organizations in related fields of activity; - partial integration with the parent company and maintaining joint ownership as long as it is considered beneficial; - contractual relations of employees with the administration at all levels. A virtual corporation is basically a joint ownership and strategic alliance that binds together the specific goals and coordinated efforts of all its member organizations. The basic goal of a virtual corporation is to combine key technologies and competencies in order to best meet the demand in the consumer market. Groups of workers, united by means of computer networks, are able to participate in a single production process, not only being in one place, but also simultaneously in different places scattered around the world. New constructions of virtual character blur the formal lines of organizations so that it is often difficult to tell where one organization ends and another begins. Virtual organizations are increasingly subcontracting to external entities in order to take advantage of smaller organizations, their flexibility and adaptability. There are so many external contracts that they become the framework, the "umbrella" of the organization. This determines its main quality - a wide distribution in space and time. 48. NETWORK ORGANIZATIONS The transfer of market relations to the internal sphere of companies has brought to life a new type of structure - network organizations, in which the sequence of commands of a hierarchical structure is replaced by a chain of orders for the supply of products and the development of relationships with other firms. Networks are a collection of firms or specialized units whose activities are coordinated by market mechanisms instead of command methods. Firms using old organizational structures prefer to have all the resources needed to produce a particular product or service. In contrast, many network organizations use the common assets of several firms located in different parts of the value chain. Network organizations rely more on market mechanisms than on administrative forms of resource management. However, these mechanisms are not just relationships between independent economic entities. In fact, the various components of the network exchange information, cooperate with each other, supply products in order to maintain a certain place in the value chain. Although network contractors have been a private phenomenon, many of the newly developed networks assume a more active and motivated role for participants in joint projects. Experience shows that such voluntary active behavior of the participants not only improves the final results, but also contributes to the fulfillment of contractual obligations. In a number of industries, the number of which is constantly growing, networks are an association of organizations based on cooperation and mutual ownership of shares of group members - manufacturers, suppliers, trading and financial companies. The network organization itself has a number of limitations. In order to understand the real and potential weaknesses of the network, it is useful to consider the causes of its inherent weaknesses. Moreover, similar processes and contradictions were observed in all previous organizational forms. Widespread success, the use of the advantages of each new form was replaced by the identification of its shortcomings in the development process. Studies show that two types of typical mistakes are characteristic of the development of various organizational forms: 1) expansion of the form beyond its internal capabilities; 2) the appearance of such modifications that do not correspond to the internal logic of this organizational entity. The organizational form can work effectively only within certain limits. When the logic of the form is violated, failure is inevitable. 49. MAIN PROPERTIES OF THE ORGANIZATION OF THE FUTURE The main property of the organization of the future, as studies show, will be constant adaptation to a dynamic external environment. Figuratively speaking, the organization will resemble a chameleon, changing its color due to changes in light, emotions, temperature. As an adaptive mechanism, the organization will change in accordance with changes in external conditions and objective requirements for it. A generalization of the ongoing processes and emerging trends shows that such features of organizations as greater flexibility, commitment to individuals, predominant use of teams, and high internal competitiveness will come to the fore. The organization of the future must first of all be flexible. She is mobile, committed to adapting to changes in the external environment, which, of course, means changes for her clients. She readily embraces change. At the same time, not any minor elements of the organization are subjected to transformations, but its essential core - structures, processes, methods. The dynamics of organizational changes depends on the pace of development of technology and technology, business development conditions. Commitment to individuals. The traditional social contract, which is the main condition for the work of an individual, in various modifications implies an increase in wages, a certain level of responsibility and guarantees for the safety of workers. The new social contract is likely to be based on commitment to the individual. Primary use of commands. Among the skills that the organization requires from its employees, the ability to work in teams, which in the future will play an important role in all activities, occupies an increasingly prominent place. High internal competitiveness. The strength of an organization lies in its internal competitiveness, which is based on the knowledge and experience of its staff. The organization mobilizes all its potential, ensures its rational organization and use in accordance with the requirements of customers and the market. Non-market oriented functions will not be resourced or funded. Striving for diversification. The organization of the future must strive to diversify its workforce and suppliers. Diversification is used to increase the competitiveness of the company and expand the services provided to customers. It is necessary to provide an opportunity for all employees to contribute to the changes, to allocate the required time for their training. An important factor in competitiveness is the ability to build relationships between employees, manage work and personnel, and train in this area. 50. EVALUATION OF THE EFFICIENCY OF ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECTS The effectiveness of the organizational structure should be assessed at the design stage, when analyzing the management structures of existing organizations for planning and implementing measures to improve management. The approach to evaluating the effectiveness of various options for the organizational structure is determined by its role as a characteristic of the management system: 1) a group of indicators characterizing the effectiveness of the management system, expressed through the final results of the organization's activities and management costs; 2) a group of indicators characterizing the content and organization of the management process, including the immediate results and costs of managerial work. The following can be attributed to the regulatory characteristics of the control apparatus: productivity, flexibility, efficiency, reliability. The productivity of the management apparatus can be defined, in particular, as the amount of final products produced by the organization or the volume of information generated in the management process per employee employed in the management apparatus. Flexibility characterizes the property of the control apparatus. To change, in accordance with emerging tasks, one's role in the decision-making process and establish new connections, not to violate the orderliness of relations inherent in this structure. Efficiency in making managerial decisions characterizes the timeliness of identifying and solving managerial problems, which ensures the maximum achievement of the goals set while maintaining the stability of established production and support processes. The reliability of the control apparatus as a whole is characterized by its trouble-free (corresponding to the goals) functioning. If we consider the quality of setting goals and setting problems sufficient, then the reliability of the management apparatus can be relatively fully characterized by its diligence, i.e., the ability to ensure the fulfillment of tasks within the established deadlines and allocated resources; 3) a group of indicators that characterize the rationality of the organizational structure and its technical and organizational level, which can be used as normative in the analysis of the effectiveness of the designed options for organizational structures. These include the level of centralization of management functions, the accepted standards of manageability, the balance in the distribution of rights and responsibilities. To assess the effectiveness of management, it is important to determine the compliance of the management system and its organizational structure with the management object. 51. FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GROUPS Modern financial and industrial groups (FIGs) are diversified multifunctional structures formed as a result of combining the capitals of enterprises, financial and investment institutions, as well as other organizations in order to maximize profits, improve the efficiency of production and financial operations, increase competitiveness in the domestic and foreign markets, strengthening technological and cooperative ties, growth of the economic potential of their participants. A characteristic feature of the current stage of development of financial and industrial groups is their diversified focus, which allows them to quickly respond to changes in market conditions. A modern financial and industrial group is characterized by efficiency and flexibility in managing the flow of financial resources both between the parent company and branches, and between the branches (divisions) themselves. financial and industrial groups have a number of advantages over other market entities in economic and financial terms: there is a strengthening of the technological chain from the extraction of raw materials to the production of final products, the integration of production is enhanced; diversification of activities gives greater stability to the enterprises of the group and increases the competitiveness of their products; real prerequisites and opportunities are being created for the restructuring of production; there are prospects for the accumulation of significant capital to achieve the set production and financial goals; there are real opportunities for maneuvering financial resources both within the FIG itself and outside it, expanding the scope of activities and spheres of influence; there is a redistribution of capital between the various divisions of FIGs in accordance with the strategic choice of the group; the financial strength of the group, its financial stability and the ability to use the advanced capital with maximum efficiency increase. Among the areas of activity that contribute to the revival of investment processes, the following are called upon to play an important role: - formation within the framework of financial and industrial groups of investment companies created on the principle of direct financing, i.e. under equity securities. To increase interest, it is necessary to provide for the possibility of subsequent redemption of securities; - creation of venture funds at the expense of all participants in FIGs, whose task is to finance the most risky investment projects; - wide use of the mechanism of creating joint ventures and subsidiaries in order to organically combine the financial resources of FIG members. 52. INTERACTION OF THE STATE AND ENTERPRISES At present, the degree of state intervention in the economic life of Russia is determined mainly by the specific conditions of the transition period, and not by theoretical models and conditional economic calculations. The change in the forms of ownership is not accompanied by the application of forms and methods of effective management. Ownerlessness of state-owned enterprises. The trend towards division into separate parts of large and medium-sized enterprises. Destruction of production and management structures of a corporate type. The rights and responsibilities of owners and managers are not demarcated and largely not streamlined. Lack of a regulatory framework that defines the requirements for the management of state-owned enterprises. National level. Self-elimination of state structures from the purposeful use of the system of economic and administrative levers. The absence of a clear delineation of rights and responsibilities both along the vertical of power and between the authorities and business entities. Lack of legal protection of contractual relations. Disorganization of the system of orders and purchases of products, works and services for state needs. Poor system of state contracts. Lack of a system for training managers in managing state blocks of shares. Lack of executive discipline, coordinating and control functions. Along with the general regulation of economic relations, one of the important tasks of the state is to conduct a selective policy of supporting enterprises. It can be implemented not only on the basis of normative acts of general effect, but also through the adoption of targeted normative and administrative acts, as well as on the basis of a competitive distribution of resources and funds for the development of priority areas of the economy, three forms of state regulation of economic life can be distinguished: 1) approval of uniform for all general rules of conduct for business entities; 2) the establishment of various legal regimes for certain groups of economic entities (or individual entities); 3) use of individual administrative acts of management. The ratio and degree of implementation of these forms determine the degree of state intervention in economic relations. Indeed, excessive state interference in economic life suppresses private initiative, reduces the effectiveness of private property, deprives competition of dynamics, minimizing the effectiveness of a market economy. However, there are no once and for all established rational limits for state intervention in economic life. 53. TYPES OF ORGANIZATION OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Business partnerships and companies - These are commercial organizations with authorized (share) capital divided into shares (contributions) of its participants. Business partnerships can be created in the form of a general partnership and a limited partnership (limited partnership). Business companies may be created in the form of a joint-stock company, a limited liability company or an additional liability company. Full partnership - this is a partnership, the participants of which (general partners), in accordance with the agreement concluded between them, are engaged in entrepreneurial activities on behalf of the partnership and are liable for its obligations with all their property. Limited partnership (limited partnership)) is a partnership in which, along with participants who carry out entrepreneurial activities on behalf of the partnership and are liable for the obligations of the partnership with their property (general partners), there is one or more participants-contributors (limited partners). Limited Liability Company - a company founded by one or more persons, the authorized capital of which, in accordance with the constituent documents, is divided into shares of a certain size; participants in a limited liability company are not liable for its obligations and bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company, to the extent of the value of their contributions. Additional liability company - a company founded by one or more persons, the authorized capital of which, in accordance with the constituent documents, is divided into shares of a certain size; the participants of such a company jointly and severally bear subsidiary liability for its obligations with their property in the amount of a multiple of the value of their contributions, determined by the constituent documents of the company. Joint-stock company - a company whose authorized capital is divided into a certain number of shares; participants of a joint-stock company (shareholders) are not liable for its obligations and bear the risk within the value of their shares. Production cooperative - this is a voluntary association of citizens for joint production or other economic activities based on their personal labor and other participation and the association of their property shares. unitary enterprise a commercial organization is recognized that is not endowed with the right of ownership of the property assigned to it. non-profit organization is an organization whose main purpose is not to extract profit and distribute it among the participants. 54. STRUCTURE DESIGN METHODS The management structure of a production and economic organization as an object of design is a complex system. It combines both technological, economic, informational, administrative and organizational interactions that lend themselves to direct analysis and rational design, as well as socio-psychological characteristics and connections. The process of organizational design consists in a sequence of approaching the model of a rational management structure, in which design methods play an auxiliary role in considering, evaluating and adopting the most effective options for organizational decisions for practical implementation. The design of organizational management structures is carried out on the basis of the following main complementary methods. The method of analogies consists in the application of organizational forms and management mechanisms that have justified themselves in organizations with similar organizational characteristics (goals, type of technology, specifics of the organizational environment, size, etc.) in relation to the projected organization. The expert-analytical method consists in the examination and analytical study of the organization, carried out by qualified specialists with the involvement of its managers and other employees, in order to identify specific features, problems, "bottlenecks" in the work of the management apparatus, as well as to develop rational recommendations for its formation or restructuring based on from quantitative assessments of the effectiveness of the organizational structure, rational principles of management, expert opinions, as well as generalization and analysis of the most advanced trends in the field of management organization. This method, which is the most flexible and comprehensive, is used in combination with other methods and (especially with the methods of analogy and goal structuring) and has a variety of forms of implementation. A special place among expert methods is occupied by the development of graphical and tabular descriptions of organizational structures and management processes, reflecting recommendations for their best organization. The method of structuring goals involves the development of the goals of the organization and the subsequent analysis of organizational structures in terms of their compliance with the system of goals. The method of organizational modeling is the development of formalized mathematical, graphical, machine and other representations of the distribution of powers and responsibilities in an organization, which are the basis for building, analyzing and evaluating various options for organizational structures by the relationship of their variables. 55. THE PROCESS OF FORMATION OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES The content of the process includes the formulation of goals and objectives, the determination of the composition and location of units, their resource support (including the number of employees), the development of regulatory procedures, documents, provisions that fix and regulate the forms, methods, processes that are carried out in the organizational management system. This process can be organized into three major stages: - formation of a general structural diagram of the control apparatus; - development of the composition of the main divisions and relations between them; - regulation of the organizational structure. The formation of a general structural diagram in all cases is of fundamental importance, since it determines the main characteristics of the organization, as well as the directions in which a more detailed design of both the organizational structure and other critical aspects of the system (intraorganizational economic mechanism, ways of processing information, staffing). The main feature of the second stage of the process of designing the organizational structure of management, the development of the composition of the main divisions and the links between them, is that it provides for the implementation of organizational decisions not only in general, for large linear functional and program-targeted blocks, but also for independent (basic) divisions of the management apparatus, distribution specific tasks between them and building intra-organizational relationships. Under the basic divisions are understood in this case independent structural units (departments, departments, bureaus, sectors, laboratories), into which linear functional and program-targeted subsystems are organizationally divided. Base units may have their own internal structure. The regulation of the organizational structure provides for the development of quantitative characteristics of the management apparatus and procedures for management activities. It includes: determination of the composition of the internal elements of the basic units; determination of the design number of units, the labor intensity of the main types of work and the qualifications of performers; distribution of tasks and work between specific performers; establishing responsibility for their implementation; development of procedures for performing managerial work in departments; development of the procedure for interaction between departments in the performance of interrelated work packages; calculations of management costs and performance indicators of the management apparatus in the conditions of the projected organizational structure. 56. ORGANIZATION OF STATE ENTERPRISES A developed market economy is based on a fairly well-established system of interaction between various forms of ownership, among which state property occupies a special place. The state, on the one hand, acts as the owner of property and as an entrepreneur, and on the other hand, as a regulator of socio-economic processes. The direct property of the state, which is under its direct control, is singled out; state joint-stock property with 100% participation of the state in the joint-stock capital; mixed public-private ownership with a controlling stake in the hands of the state; shareholding of the state in the capital of private firms. The process of formation of state property is carried out in the following ways: 1) on the basis of the nationalization by the state of objects that are in private or mixed ownership; 2) creation of new facilities at the expense of the state budget; 3) redemption by the state of objects from private capital. The size of the public sector in each country is different and is determined by a number of interrelated factors: the historical conditions of the country, the current stage of its development, its place in world economic relations, the competitiveness of the national economy, socio-economic, historical, cultural and other features. State-owned enterprises are an instrument for carrying out state policy. Through the creation of certain enterprises, the state can exert a regulatory influence on the market in such areas as increasing employment, implementing high-risk projects, anti-inflationary measures, assisting local producers and suppliers of raw materials and components to public sector enterprises, leveling the levels economic development of regions, subsidizing certain categories of consumers. The state performs an active function, directing and coordinating the privatization process. As a rule, the privatization of state property includes several stages: 1) determination of the ultimate goal of the privatization project of a particular enterprise; 2) preparation of a privatization program; 3) choice of the privatization mechanism; 4) assessment of the situation on the market, marketing, search for potential buyers of shares, sale of shares. Often the state prefers to sell a small block of shares in a privatized enterprise on the market. Author: Efimova S.A.
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