Life safety. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Life safety. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. CONTENT OF THE DISCIPLINE "LIFE SAFETY"

Safety of vital functions is a field of scientific knowledge covering the theory and practice of protecting a person from dangerous and harmful factors in all spheres of human activity, maintaining safety and health in the environment. This discipline solves such problem, as identification of negative impacts of the habitat; protection from dangers or prevention of the impact of certain negative factors on humans; elimination of negative consequences of exposure to dangerous and harmful factors; creating a comfortable state of the human environment.

The main indicator of life safety is life expectancy. Development civilizations, by which we mean the progress of science, technology, economics, industrialization of agriculture, the use of various types of energy, including nuclear, the creation of machines, mechanisms, the use of various types of fertilizers and pest control agents, significantly increases the number of harmful factors that negatively affect person.

Throughout its existence, the human population, developing the economy, created a socio-economic security system. As a result, despite the increase in the number of harmful effects, the level of human safety increased.

Human impact on the environment, according to the laws of physics, causes response counteractions of all its components. The human body painlessly endures certain influences as long as they do not exceed the limits of adaptation. The course "Life Safety" provides for the process of knowing the complex relationships of the human body and the environment, in connection with which the course covers:

1) safety in the domestic environment;

2) safety in the working environment;

3) life safety in the urban environment (residential area);

4) safety in the natural environment;

5) emergency situations of peacetime and wartime.

Living environment - this is the total sum of factors affecting a person in everyday life. The reaction of the body to everyday factors is studied by such branches of science as communal hygiene, food hygiene, hygiene of children and adolescents.

Work environment is a set of factors affecting a person in the process of labor activity.

Safety in the natural environment - This is one of the branches of ecology. Ecology studies the patterns of interaction of organisms with the environment.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIN FORMS OF ACTIVITY

The main forms of labor activity are divided into physical and mental labor.

Physical work requires great muscular activity and takes place in the absence of mechanized means for work (the work of a steelworker, loader, vegetable grower, etc.). It develops the muscular system, stimulates metabolic processes in the body, but at the same time it is socially inefficient, has low productivity, and requires a long rest.

The mechanized form of labor requires special knowledge and motor skills, small muscles of the arms and legs are included in the work, which ensure the speed and accuracy of movement, but the monotony of simple actions, a small amount of perceived information lead to the monotony of labor.

Labor associated with automatic and semi-automatic production has the following limitations: monotony, increased pace and rhythm of work, lack of creativity, since the processing of objects is handled by the mechanism, and the person performs simple operations to service the machines.

Conveyor work is distinguished by the fragmentation of the process into operations, a given pace and rhythm, and a strict sequence of operations. Its disadvantage is monotony, leading to premature fatigue and rapid nervous exhaustion.

Brainwork associated with the perception and processing of a large amount of information and is divided into:

1) cameraman - involves the control of the operation of machines; is distinguished by high responsibility and neuro-emotional stress;

2) managerial - characterized by a large increase in the volume of information with a lack of time for its processing, great personal responsibility for decisions made, stressful and conflict situations;

3) creative work - requires a large amount of memory, stress, attention; it leads to an increase in neuro-emotional stress, tachycardia, an increase in blood pressure, an ECG change and other shifts in autonomic functions;

4) work of teachers and medical workers - this is constant contact with people, increased responsibility, frequent lack of time and information to make the right decision, which leads to high neuro-emotional stress;

5) work of pupils and students - implies concentration of memory, attention; there are stressful situations (at exams, tests).

3. HUMAN ENERGY EXPENSES DURING VARIOUS FORMS OF ACTIVITY

The level of human energy consumption in various forms of activity serves as a criterion for the severity and intensity of the work performed, is of great importance for optimizing working conditions and its rational organization.

Energy consumption level determined by the method of complete gas analysis, while taking into account the volume of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide released. With an increase in the severity of labor, oxygen consumption and the amount of energy consumed increase significantly.

The severity and intensity of work characterized by the degree of functional stress of the body. It can be energetic, depending on the power of work (during physical labor), and emotional (during mental labor), when information overload occurs.

Physical work It is characterized by a large load on the body, requiring mainly muscle effort and appropriate energy supply, and also affects the functional systems (cardiovascular, neuromuscular, respiratory, etc.), stimulates metabolic processes.

Its main indicator is heaviness. Energy costs during physical labor, depending on the severity of the work, are 4000-6000 kcal per day, and with a mechanized form of labor, energy costs are 3000-4000 kcal.

Brainwork combines work related to the reception and transmission of information, requiring activation of the processes of thinking, attention, memory. This type of labor is characterized by a significant decrease in motor activity.

Main indicator mental labor is tension, reflecting the load on the central nervous system. Energy consumption during mental work is 2500-3000 kcal per day. But energy costs vary depending on the working posture. So, in a working posture sitting, energy costs exceed the level of basal metabolism by 5-10%; standing - by 10-25%, with a forced uncomfortable posture - by 40-50%. With intensive intellectual work, the brain's need for energy is 15-20% of the total metabolism in the body.

The increase in total energy costs during mental work is determined by the degree of neuro-emotional tension.

Daily energy expenditure during mental work increases by 48% when reading aloud while sitting, by 90% - when lecturing, by 90-100% - among computer operators. In addition, the brain is prone to inertia, because after the cessation of work, the thought process continues, which leads to greater fatigue and exhaustion of the central nervous system than during physical labor.

4. METHODS FOR ASSESSING THE HARDNESS OF LABOR

The severity and intensity of labor are characterized degree of functional stress of the body. During physical labor, it can be energetic, depending on the power of the work. With mental work it can be emotional.

The physical severity of labor is a load on the body during labor, requiring mainly muscle effort and appropriate energy supply.

Classification of labor by severity produced according to the level of energy consumption, taking into account the type of load (static or dynamic) and the muscles being loaded.

Static work associated with the fixation of tools and objects of labor in a stationary state, as well as with the adoption by a person of a working posture. Work that requires the employee to be in a static position for 10-25% of the working time is work of moderate severity.

Dynamic work - the process of muscle contraction, leading to the movement of the load, as well as the human body itself or its parts in space. Energy is spent both on maintaining a certain tension in the muscles, and on a mechanical effect.

Labor tension It is characterized by an emotional load on the body during work, which requires predominantly intensive work of the brain to receive and process information. When assessing the degree of tension, ergonomic indicators are taken into account: shift work, posture, number of movements, etc.

Optimal working conditions provide maximum productivity and minimum tension of the human body. Optimal standards have been established for microclimate parameters and labor process factors.

Permissible working conditions are characterized by such levels of environmental and labor process factors that do not exceed the established hygienic standards for workplaces. The optimal and permissible classes correspond to safe working conditions.

Harmful working conditions are characterized by levels of harmful production factors that exceed hygienic standards and have an adverse effect on the body of the worker and (or) his offspring.

Extreme working conditions are characterized by such levels of production factors, the impact of which during the work shift (or part of it) poses a threat to life, a high risk of severe forms of acute occupational injuries.

5. COMFORT PERFORMANCE AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE

The best indicators of working capacity and rest are achieved in a comfortable state and with rational modes of work and rest.

Comfort - the optimal combination of microclimate parameters, amenities, livability and comfort in areas of human activity and recreation.

With a comfortable microclimate, the physiological processes of thermoregulation are not stressed, the functional state of the nervous system is optimal, physical and mental performance is high, the body is resistant to negative environmental factors. Comfortable and permissible parameters of the air environment in the working areas regulated by state standards and are provided mainly by the use of air conditioning, ventilation and heating systems. The normative values of the microclimate parameters in the working areas of industrial premises depend on the category of work, the period of the year and other indicators.

plays an important role in achieving effective performance artificial lighting, which can have a psychophysical effect, relieve tension in the visual organs, and increase the safety of activities.

Operational efficiency people depends on workplace organization; correct location and layout of the workplace; providing a comfortable posture and freedom of movement; using equipment that meets ergonomic requirements. The microclimate of industrial premises is characterized by a wide variety of combinations of temperature, humidity, air velocity, intensity and composition of radiant heat, is dynamic and depends on fluctuations in external weather conditions, seasons and days, the course and nature of the production process, air exchange conditions with the atmosphere. So, with a uncomfortable microclimate, there is a tension in the processes of thermoregulation. When performing physical work, the limits of thermoregulation decrease.

With changes in the microclimate that go beyond the boundaries of adaptive physiological fluctuations, discomfort manifests itself in the form changes in well-being. Apathy, tinnitus, flickering before the eyes, nausea, confusion, increased body temperature, convulsions and other symptoms appear. Therefore, in ensuring comfortable microclimate parameters, the installation of efficient heating, proper ventilation, air conditioning, and thermal insulation of heat sources are important.

6. WAYS TO INCREASE WORK EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of a person's labor activity to a large extent depends on the objects and tools of labor, the working capacity of the body, the organization of the workplace, and the hygienic factors of the working environment.

Working capacity - the value of the functional capabilities of the human body, characterized by the quantity and quality of work performed in a certain time. During labor activity, it changes over time. At the same time, they distinguish three main phases successive states of a person in the process of labor activity: the phase of increasing ability; phase of high stable performance; declining phase.

Important elements of labor efficiency improvement are:

1) improvement of skills and abilities as a result of labor training, as this increases muscle strength and endurance, increases the accuracy and speed of working movements, and physiological functions recover faster after work is completed;

2) the correct location and layout of the workplace, ensuring a comfortable posture and freedom of labor movements, the use of equipment that meets the requirements of ergonomics and engineering psychology, which ensures the most efficient work process, reduces fatigue and prevents the risk of occupational diseases.

The optimal posture of a person in the course of work ensures high efficiency and labor productivity, and an incorrect posture leads to static fatigue, a decrease in the quality and speed of work performed, and a decrease in response to danger.

When organizing the production process, it is necessary to take into account anthropometric and psychophysical characteristics of a person, its capabilities in relation to the magnitude of effort, tempo and rhythm of operations performed, as well as anatomical and physiological differences between men and women.

Periodic alternation of work and rest promotes high performance stability. In production, two forms of alternation of work and rest are distinguished: the introduction of a lunch break in the middle of the working day and the introduction of short-term regulated breaks, and the optimal duration of the lunch break is set taking into account the distance from workplaces of sanitary facilities, canteens and food distribution points. The elements of a rational regime of work and rest are industrial gymnastics and a set of measures for psychophysiological unloading.

7. FEATURES OF WORKING ACTIVITIES OF WOMEN AND ADOLESCENTS

When employing women and adolescents in the workplace, it is necessary to take into account anatomical and physiological characteristics of their body.

In adolescence there is an accelerated growth of the bones of the skeleton and muscles, especially the limbs, and at the same time - weakness of the ligamentous apparatus, faster muscle fatigue, deviations in the development of the respiratory organs and the gastrointestinal tract are not uncommon, and the processes of excitation and inhibition in the central nervous system are imperfect. Therefore, in this case, professional selection and orientation based on medical indicators are important. It is necessary to be based on an exact clarification of the requirements of the labor process to the degree of functional tension of various physiological systems.

For persons aged 16-18, a reduced 36-hour work week has been established. The use of the labor of adolescents in carrying heavy loads is limited, and if the work is connected specifically with the transfer of heavy loads, then the weight of the load should not exceed 4,1 kg.

Pronounced gender differences in the intensity of physiological functions, lower working capacity and labor productivity, the development of uncompensated fatigue at an earlier time, a significant frequency of violations in the implementation of specific functions are the grounds for including gender gradations in the classification of the severity and intensity of labor. These gradations are based on the effects of microclimate, chemicals, noise and vibration.

Anatomical and physiological features Women in some cases, with an unsatisfactory working environment, they can contribute to the occurrence of gynecological diseases and affect the state of reproductive function. For working women, they regulate Limit values for carrying and moving loads, introduce more favorable work and rest regimes, limit the use of women’s labor at night, and establish for them a part-time or part-time work schedule.

The maximum weight of the load lifted and moved by women, subject to the alternation of this work with other types of work up to 2 times per hour, is 10 kg, and with constant lifting and moving of weights during the work shift - 7 kg.

Since the woman's body is especially vulnerable during pregnancy, there is a need to transfer women for a certain period of time to jobs that are not associated with the danger of exposure to difficult and harmful working conditions.

8. ERGONOMICS

The problems of maintaining long-term performance can be solved ergonomics - a scientific discipline that studies labor processes in order to optimize tools and working conditions, increase the efficiency of labor activity and preserve the health of workers. Main object of ergonomics is a complex system "man is a machine", in which the leading role belongs to man. Ergonomics is closely related to engineering psychology, which considers the requirements for the mental characteristics of a person manifested during his interaction with technical means.

Ergonomics carries out a systematic approach to labor processes and operates with ergonomic indicators: hygienic, anthropometric, physiological, psychophysiological, aesthetic.

Ergonomic biomechanics based on anthropometric features (such as the size of the body, limbs, head, hands, feet, angle of rotation in the joints, arm reach) gives recommendations on the organization of the workplace, the design of tools and equipment.

The requirements of technical aesthetics are realized with the help of design (artistic design of equipment), its color design, design of graphic media, design of workwear and footwear. At the same time, conditions are created for optimal visual loads, harmony in the emotional content of labor processes, the least injury risk and minimal harmful psychological effects of the labor process are provided.

For the modern stage of scientific and technological revolution characterized by incomplete automation and mechanization of labor,

in connection with which there are unfavorable working conditions and occupational diseases. For example, it was found that operators of keyboard computers work in an uncomfortable posture, which is characterized by a strong forward inclination of the head (59° from the vertical) and the position of the hands in the air with the abduction from the body at an angle of 87°. This posture causes numerous complaints of operators about constant pain in the back, neck, shoulder girdle, forearm, and hand. Muscle fatigue in display operators is associated with forward tilt of the head and upper body, which leads to overstrain of the muscles of the neck, interscapular region, and forearm flexors in 1 hour. An uncomfortable posture leads to additional movements, a change in body position, which accelerates the onset of fatigue and leads to a decrease in the quality of work.

9. MEANS OF MEDICAL PROTECTION. INDIVIDUAL AID KIT

Means of medical protection are designed to prevent or reduce the degree of impact of damaging factors of emergency situations (ES), as well as to provide first aid to victims in emergency situations. To medical protective equipment include radioprotective agents, antidotes, antibacterial drugs, partial sanitization agents. The selection of the necessary drugs, explaining to the population the rules for taking them, are carried out by special units of the medical service.

Radioprotective means - These are drugs that increase the body's resistance to the action of radiation exposure (RW). They are means of preventing damage during external irradiation, when radioactive substances enter the body or when they affect the skin, they are used to weaken the primary reaction of the body to radiation.

Individual first aid kit (AI) is intended to prevent the development of shock, radiation sickness, lesions caused by organophosphorus substances. It comes in an orange plastic flat pack with a drug fixative.

В composition AI-2 includes 7 therapeutic and prophylactic drugs.

1. Pain reliever (in a syringe tube) is intended for subcutaneous or intramuscular injections for soft tissue injuries, skeletal fractures, and extensive burns.

2. Drug used for organophosphorus poisoning. Single dose - 1 tablet to prevent damage to VWF and when the first signs of poisoning appear. If symptoms increase, take 1 additional tablet.

3. Radioprotective agent No. 1 is taken when there is a threat of exposure. Single dose - 6 tablets. Repeated single dose (according to indications) - 6 tablets every 4-5 hours.

4. Radioprotective agent No. 2 is taken after the fallout of radioactive substances. Single dose - 1 tablet daily for 10 days.

5. #1 antibacterial taken to prevent bacterial infection of wounds, burns, as well as bacterial damage. Single dose - 5 tablets; repeat single dose - 5 tablets every 6 hours.

6. Antibacterial agent No. 2 is intended for use in the initial stage of acute radiation sickness (with vomiting, nausea, diarrhea). Single dose on the first day - 7 tablets; on the 2-3rd day, single doses are 4 tablets.

7. Antiemetic taken after radiation, as well as when nausea occurs after head injuries (bruises), concussions. Single dose - 1 tablet.

10. PRINCIPLES FOR SAFE INTERACTION OF HUMANS WITH THE ENVIRONMENT

The purpose of the development of the "society - nature" system is to ensure the quality of the natural environment, i.e. such a state of ecological systems in which the exchange of substances and energy within nature, between nature and man is constantly and invariably carried out, and life is reproduced.

Exist three principles of security human interaction with the environment:

1) provision priority of ecology over economics. However, such a solution to the issue may infringe on a person’s economic interests, since it does not always presuppose the necessary quality of life;

2) ensuring the quality of the natural environment through priority of economy over ecology, but taking into account human adaptation and self-regulation of nature. Such a path, as experience shows, leads to the degradation of the natural environment, causes irreparable harm to the health and genetic program of a person, leads to the extinction of society;

3) combination of environmental and economic interests is the only way, the effectiveness of which confirms history. But such a combination, in order to avoid deviations towards the economy, should be based on certain principles enshrined in law.

The measure that sets the limit of economic impact on nature is scientifically based standards, the development and strict observance of which in human economic activity is the essence of environmental protection.

The principles of human interaction with the environment are formulated in Art. 3 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On Environmental Protection":

1) priority of protection of life and health;

2) a scientifically based combination of environmental and economic interests;

3) rational use and reproduction of natural resources;

4) the legality and inevitability of liability for environmental offenses;

5) publicity in the work of environmental organizations and their close connection with public associations and the population in solving environmental problems;

6) international cooperation in the field of environmental protection.

All articles of the law are oriented towards these principles; they must comply with all the norms that regulate the ecological relationship between man and the environment. In the case when law enforcement authorities encounter a gap in the regulation of environmental relations, they are obliged to be guided by the general principles of environmental protection, which are formulated in the current legislation of the Russian Federation.

11. CAUSES OF MAN-MADE ACCIDENTS AND DISASTERS

Main reasons major man-made accidents and disasters are:

1) failure of technical systems due to manufacturing defects and violation of operating conditions. Many modern potentially hazardous industries are designed in such a way that the probability of a major accident is very high and is estimated at a risk value of 10^-4 and more (unregulated storage and transportation of hazardous chemicals leads to explosions, destruction of high pressure systems, fires, spills of chemically active liquids, etc.);

2) human factor: erroneous actions of operators of technical systems (more than 60% of accidents occurred as a result of errors of maintenance personnel);

3) high energy level of technical systems;

4) external negative impacts on energy facilities, transport, etc.. (shock wave and (or) explosions lead to destruction of structures).

So, one of the common causes of fires and explosions, especially at oil and gas and chemical production facilities and during the operation of vehicles, are static electricity discharges (a set of phenomena associated with the formation and preservation of a free electric charge on the surface and in the volume of dielectric and semiconductor substances), caused by the processes of electrification.

An analysis of the totality of negative factors currently operating in the technosphere shows that anthropogenic negative impacts are the main influence, among which technogenic ones predominate, formed as a result of transformative human activity and changes in biosphere processes caused by this activity. In this case, most of the factors are of the nature direct impact (poisons, noise, vibration, etc.). But in recent years, there has been a widespread secondary factors (photochemical smog, acid rain, etc.) that arise in the environment as a result of chemical and energy interactions of primary factors with each other or with the components of the biosphere.

The levels and scale of the impact of negative factors are constantly growing and in a number of regions of the technosphere have reached such values when a person and the natural environment are threatened by the danger of irreversible destructive changes.

12. HARMFUL SUBSTANCES, THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Harmful called substance, which, upon contact with the human body, can cause injuries, diseases or deviations in health, detected by modern methods both during contact with it and in the long term of the life of the present and subsequent generations.

The toxic effect of harmful substances is characterized by toxicometry indicators, according to which substances are classified as extremely toxic, highly toxic, moderately toxic and low toxic. The effect of the toxic action of various substances depends on the amount of the substance that has entered the body.

Harmful chemicals (organic, inorganic, organoelemental), depending on their practical use, are classified into:

1) industrial poisons used in production - organic solvents and fuels, dyes;

2) pesticides used in agriculture - pesticides, insecticides, etc.;

3) medicines;

4) household chemicals used in the form of food additives, sanitation, personal care, cosmetics, etc.;

5) biological plant and animal poisons contained in plants and fungi, animals and insects;

6) toxic substances - sarin, mustard gas, phosgene, etc.

К I will give It is customary to attribute only those that exhibit their harmful effects under normal conditions and in relatively small quantities.

К industrial poisons includes a large group of industrial substances and compounds that are found in production as raw materials, intermediates or finished products.

Poisons have selective toxicity. They are divided into:

1) cardiac with a predominant cardiotoxic effect (drugs, plant poisons, metal salts);

2) nervous, causing a violation of mental activity (carbon monoxide, alcohol, drugs, sleeping pills);

3) hepatic (chlorinated hydrocarbons, poisonous mushrooms, phenols and aldehydes);

4) renal - heavy metal compounds, ethylene glycol, oxalic acid;

5) blood - aniline and its derivatives, nitrites, arsenic hydrogen;

6) pulmonary - nitric oxide, ozone, phosgene, etc.

Industrial and chemical substances can enter the body through the respiratory system, the gastrointestinal tract and damaged skin.

Household poisoning occur when poison enters the gastrointestinal tract. Acute poisoning and diseases are possible when the poison enters directly into the blood (with a bite of snakes, insects, with injections of medicinal substances).

13. NEGATIVE IMPACT OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

The main sources of air pollution are natural (volcanic eruptions, dust storms, forest fires, natural methane, sulfur and sulfate oxidation, etc.) and anthropogenic (combustion of fuel in industrial and domestic installations, industry, vehicles, thermal power plants, industrial power plants, ferrous metallurgy enterprises, evaporation of petroleum products, etc.) sources. As a result of pollution, the following negative consequences:

1) exceeding the maximum permissible components of many toxic substances in cities and towns;

2) the formation of smog with intense emissions of nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons;

3) acid rain with intense emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides;

4) the appearance of a greenhouse effect with an increased content of the above chemicals and dust in the atmosphere, which contributes to an increase in the average temperature of the Earth;

5) the destruction of the ozone layer when nitrogen oxide and chlorine compounds enter it, which creates the danger of ultraviolet radiation.

Sources of pollution of the hydrosphere are biological, chemical and physical sources. Anthropogenic impact on the hydrosphere leads to a decrease in water reserves, a change in the state of the fauna and flora of water bodies, a violation of the circulation of many substances in the biosphere, a decrease in the biomass of the planet and, as a result, a decrease in the reproduction of oxygen.

Sources and substances polluting the soil, are: heavy metals and their compounds, cyclic hydrocarbons, benzopyrene, radioactive substances, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, pesticides, etc. Disturbance of the upper layers of the earth's crust occurs during the extraction of minerals and their enrichment; burial of household and industrial waste, during military exercises or tests, etc. Also, the soil cover is significantly polluted by precipitation in the zones of dispersion of various emissions in the atmosphere, arable lands are polluted when applying fertilizers and using pesticides.

Anthropogenic impact on the soil is accompanied by:

1) rejection of arable land and a decrease in their fertility;

2) excessive saturation of plants with toxic substances, which inevitably leads to contamination of food products of plant and animal origin;

3) violation of biocenoses due to the death of insects, birds, animals, some plant species;

4) pollution of groundwater, especially in the area of landfills and wastewater discharges.

14. MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS

Mechanical vibrations - These are periodically repeating movements, rotational or reciprocating. Any process of mechanical oscillations can be reduced to one or more harmonic sinusoidal oscillations, which are characterized by an amplitude equal to the maximum deviation from the equilibrium position; oscillation speed; acceleration; an oscillation period equal to the time of one complete oscillation; frequency of oscillations, equal to the number of complete oscillations per unit of time.

A variety of mechanical vibrations is vibration - these are small mechanical vibrations that occur in elastic bodies under the influence of variable forces, which are practically impossible to balance perfectly. For example, vibration on the ground propagates in the form of elastic waves and causes vibrations of buildings and structures.

Machine vibration can lead to malfunction of equipment and cause serious accidents. It is the cause of 80% of accidents in cars, as it leads to the accumulation of fatigue effects in metals and the appearance of cracks.

When exposed to vibration on a person the most significant is that the human body in this case is a complex dynamic system that changes depending on the posture of the person, his state (relaxation or tension) and other factors. For such a system, there are dangerous, resonant frequencies, and if external forces act on a person with frequencies close to or equal to the resonant ones, then the amplitude of oscillations of both the whole body and its individual organs increases sharply. For the human body in a sitting position, resonance occurs at a frequency of 4-6 Hz, for the head - at 20-30 Hz, for the eyeballs - at 60-90 Hz. At these frequencies intense vibration can cause traumatization of the spine and bone tissue, visual impairment, in pregnant women cause premature birth.

Fluctuations cause variable mechanical stresses in the tissues of the body, which are captured by many receptors and transformed into the energy of bioelectrical and biochemical processes. Information about the vibration acting on a person is perceived by the vestibular apparatus, which is located in the temporal bone of the skull and consists of the vestibule and semicircular canals located in mutually perpendicular planes. The vestibular apparatus provides an analysis of the positions and movements of the head in space, the activation of muscle tone and the maintenance of body balance.

15. ACOUSTIC OSCILLATIONS

Mechanical vibrations in elastic media cause the propagation of elastic waves called acoustic vibrations. The physical concept of acoustic vibrations covers both audible and inaudible vibrations of elastic media. Energy from the source of oscillations is transferred to particles of the medium. As the wave propagates, the particles are involved in oscillatory motion with a frequency equal to the frequency of the source of vibration, and with a phase delay depending on the distance to the source and the speed of propagation of the wave.

Propagating in space, sound vibrations create acoustic field. The distance between two nearest particles of the medium oscillating in the same phase is called wavelength, i.e., the wavelength is the path traveled by the wave in a time equal to the oscillation period. The speed of wave propagation depends on the density of the medium in which it propagates, the distance from the wave source and a number of other factors.

The human ear perceives and analyzes sounds over a wide range.

Pitch determined by the frequency of oscillation: the higher the frequency of oscillation, the higher the sound. The volume rises much more slowly than the intensity of the sound waves. The minimum threshold values are in the range of 1-5 kHz. The threshold of hearing in humans is 10 dB at a frequency of 1000 Hz, at a frequency of 100 Hz the threshold of auditory perception is much higher, since the ear is sensitive to low-frequency sounds. The pain threshold is considered to be sound with a level of 140 dB, which corresponds to a sound pressure of 200 Pa and an intensity level of 100 W / m². Sound sensations are evaluated according to the threshold of discomfort.

Ultrasound does not differ from an audible sound, but the frequency of the oscillatory process contributes to a large attenuation of oscillations due to the transformation of energy into heat and is classified as low-frequency (1,12x10⁴ - 1,0x10⁵ Hz) and high-frequency (1,0x10⁵ - 1,0x10⁹ Hz); according to the method of propagation - to air and contact ultrasound.

Infrasound is also an area of acoustic oscillations with a frequency below 16-20 Hz. In production conditions, infrasound is combined with low-frequency noise, in some cases - with low-frequency vibration.

The biological effect of the impact of acoustic vibrations on the human body depends on the intensity, duration of exposure and the size of the body surface exposed to vibrations, and is expressed by a functional violation of the organs and systems of the human body.

16. SHOCK WAVE

blast wave - this area of compressed air, rapidly spreading in all directions from the epicenter of the explosion with great speed and characterized by excess pressure in the front of the shock wave (the value by which this pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure). The blast wave consumes up to 50% of the energy of a nuclear explosion.

Under the influence of a shock wave there is a destruction of buildings, constructions, transport highways. Unprotected people receive closed and open injuries, because due to the small size of the human body, the shock wave instantly covers the person and subjects him to strong compression within a few seconds. An instantaneous increase in pressure is perceived by a living organism as a sharp blow. The cause of open damage is most often the secondary factors of the action of the shock wave - flying debris of buildings, structures, etc. In addition, the dynamic pressure creates a significant frontal pressure, which can lead to the displacement of the body in space. The duration of the shock wave is about 15 s.

Excessive pressure in the front of the shock wave of 10 kPa or less for people and animals located outside the shelter is considered safe. Mild lesions occur when excess pressure is 20-40 kPa and are expressed by short-term disturbances in body functions, dislocations and bruises are possible. Defeats moderate severity occur at an excess pressure of 40-60 kPa, while there are dislocations of the limbs, concussion of the brain, damage to the hearing organs, bleeding from the nose and ears. At an excess pressure of 60-100 kPa, severe contusions and injuries, characterized by severe contusion of the whole body, bone fractures, bleeding from the nose and ears; Damage to internal organs and internal bleeding are possible. And with excess pressure over 100 kPa, ruptures of internal organs (especially those containing a large amount of blood or filled with gas, as well as having cavities filled with liquid), concussion with prolonged loss of consciousness are also observed. Often such injuries incompatible with life.

The radius of damage by debris from buildings at an overpressure of 2-7 kPa can exceed the radius of direct damage to the shock wave.

air wave also works on plants. Trees are uprooted, broken and discarded, forming continuous blockages, from 30 to 50% of forest plantations perish, depending on the magnitude of excess pressure.

17. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND THEIR IMPACT ON HUMANS

The spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations in frequency reaches 10²¹ Hz. Depending on the energy of photons, it is divided into the area of non-ionizing and ionizing radiation. In hygienic practice, non-ionizing radiation also include electric and magnetic fields.

Electromagnetic fields (EMF) of industrial frequency (50 Hz) include power lines, open distribution devices, including switching devices, protection and automation devices, measuring instruments. long the action of such fields leads to disorders that are expressed by complaints of headache in the temporal region, lethargy, sleep disturbance, memory loss, irritability, apathy, pain in the heart. And chronic exposure to such EMF is characterized by rhythm disturbance and slowing of the heart rate, while there are functional disorders in the central nervous and cardiovascular systems, in the composition of the blood.

The impact of an electrostatic field on a person is associated with the flow of a weak current through it. At the same time, electrical injuries are never observed, but it is worth paying attention to the fact that with a reflex reaction to current (sharp removal from a charged body), mechanical injury is possible when hitting adjacent structural elements, falling from a height, etc. The most sensitive to electrostatic field of the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, analyzers (irritability, headache, sleep disturbance, etc. are noted). In addition, there are phobias caused by fear of the expected discharge, a tendency to psychosomatic disorders with increased emotional excitability and rapid exhaustion, instability of pulse and blood pressure indicators.

EMF can be constant, pulsed, infra-low-frequency (with a frequency of up to 50 Hz), variable.

When constantly working under conditions of chronic exposure to magnetic fieldsexceeding the maximum permissible levels, dysfunctions of the nervous system, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, digestive tract, and changes in the blood picture develop. With local exposure, vegetative and trophic disorders usually develop in areas of the body that are directly exposed to magnetic fields, manifested by a feeling of itching, pallor or cyanosis of the skin, swelling and thickening of the skin, and in some cases, keratinization develops.

18. IMPACT OF INFRARED RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY

Infrared radiation (IR radiation) - a part of the electromagnetic spectrum with a wavelength from 780 nm to 1000 microns, the energy of which, when absorbed in a substance, causes a thermal effect. Short-wave infrared radiation is the most active, as it has the highest photon energy that can penetrate into the tissues of the body and be intensively absorbed by the water contained in the tissues.

infrared rays provide The human body is mainly affected by heat, under the influence of which thermal shifts occur in the body, oxygen saturation of the blood decreases, venous pressure decreases, blood flow slows down and, as a result, disruption of the cardiovascular and nervous systems occurs. Irradiation with small doses of radiant heat is useful, but its significant intensity and high air temperature can have an adverse effect on humans.

Organs most affected by infrared radiation human: skin, organs of vision; with acute skin damage, burns, a sharp expansion of capillaries, and increased skin pigmentation are possible. With chronic irradiation, pigmentation changes can be persistent, and an erythema-like (red) complexion is observed. Acute disorders of the organs of vision include burns, conjunctiva, clouding and burns of the cornea, burns of the tissue of the anterior chamber of the eye. With acute intense infrared radiation and prolonged exposure, cataract formation is possible. IR radiation also affects the metabolic processes in the myocardium, the water-electrolyte balance in the body, the state of the upper respiratory tract, and the mutagenic effect of IR radiation is not excluded.

Visible radiation at sufficient energy levels can be dangerous to the skin and organs of vision. Pulsations of bright light cause a narrowing of the visual fields, affect the state of visual functions, the nervous system, and overall performance.

Broadband light radiation is characterized by a light pulse, the action of which on the body leads to burns of open areas of the body, temporary blindness or retinal burns. The retina can be damaged by prolonged exposure to light of moderate intensity, insufficient to develop a thermal burn.

Optical radiation in the visible infrared range at excessive density can lead to depletion of the mechanisms of regulation of metabolic processes, especially to changes in the heart muscle with the development of myocardial dystrophy and atherosclerosis.

19. ACTION OF ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION

Ultraviolet radiation (UV radiation) is not perceived by the organ of vision. Hard ultraviolet rays with a wavelength of less than 290 nm are trapped by a layer of ozone in the atmosphere. Rays with a wavelength of more than 290 nm (up to the visible region) are strongly absorbed inside the eye, especially in the lens, and only a small amount of them reaches the retina. UV radiation is absorbed by the skin, causing redness and activating metabolic processes and tissue respiration. Under the action of UV radiation, melanin is formed in the skin, which is perceived as a tan and protects the body from excessive penetration of ultraviolet rays.

UV radiation can cause proteins to fold. On this is based his bactericidal action. Preventive irradiation of premises and people with strictly dosed rays reduces the likelihood of infection.

Lack of UV adversely affects health, especially in childhood: with its lack, children develop rickets. Miners complain of general weakness, fatigue, poor sleep, lack of appetite. This is due to the fact that under the influence of ultraviolet rays in the skin, vitamin D is formed from provitamin, which regulates phosphorus-calcium metabolism, so the lack of vitamin D leads to metabolic disorders. In such cases, artificial ultraviolet irradiation is used both for medicinal purposes and for general hardening of the body.

Excessive ultraviolet exposure during high solar activity causes an inflammatory reaction of the skin, accompanied by itching, swelling, sometimes blistering and changes in the skin and deep-seated organs.

Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet rays accelerates skin aging, creates conditions for malignant cell transformation.

UV radiation from powerful artificial sources (luminous welding arc plasma, etc.) causes severe eye damage. A few hours after exposure, lacrimation, spasm of the eyelids, pain and pain in the eyes, redness and inflammation of the skin and mucous membrane of the eyelids appear. A similar phenomenon is also observed in the snowy mountains due to the high content of ultraviolet in sunlight.

In production conditions, sanitary norms for the intensity of ultraviolet radiation are established; it is mandatory to use protective equipment when working with ultraviolet radiation.

20. IONIZING RADIATION AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE ORGANISM

Ionization called the formation of positive and negative ions and free electrons from electrically neutral atoms and molecules.

Atmospheric ionization - formation of positive and negative ions (atmospheric ions) and free electrons in atmospheric air under the influence of solar radiation. As a result of ionization, atmospheric air acquires electrical conductivity and special healing properties.

Radioactive radiation (alpha, beta particles, neutrons, gamma quanta) have different penetrating and ionizing abilities. Have the lowest penetrating ability alpha particles (helium nuclei), the range of which in human tissue is fractions of a millimeter, and in air - a few centimeters. They cannot pass through a piece of paper, but they have the highest ionizing power.

beta particles have a greater penetrating power, but the ionizing power of beta particles (electrons, positrons) is 1000 times less than that of alpha particles, and when they run in air for 1 cm of the path, they form several tens of pairs of ions.

Gamma quanta belong to electromagnetic radiation and have a high penetrating power (in the air - up to several kilometers); their ionizing power is much less than that of alpha and beta particles.

Neutrons (particles of the nucleus of an atom) have a significant penetrating power, which is explained by their lack of charge. Their ionizing ability is associated with induced radioactivity, which is formed as a result of a neutron entering the nucleus of an atom of a substance: thereby its stability is violated, a radioactive isotope is formed. The ionizing ability of neutrons under certain conditions can be similar to alpha radiation.

ionizing radiation, which have great penetrating power, pose a danger to a greater extent when exposed to external irradiation, and alpha and beta radiation - when directly affecting body tissues when entering the body with inhaled air, water, or food.

With external irradiation of the whole body or its individual sections (local exposure) or internal irradiation of a person or animals in damaging doses, a disease called radiation sickness can develop.

Now radiation injury people may be associated with violation of the rules and norms of radiation safety when performing work with sources of ionizing radiation, in case of accidents at radiation-hazardous objects, during nuclear explosions, etc.

21. URBANIZATION

Urbanization - the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society; It is expressed in special urban relations, covering the socio-professional and demographic structures of the population, its way of life, culture, distribution of productive forces and resettlement. The prerequisites for urbanization are the growth of industry in cities, the development of their cultural and political functions, and the deepening of the territorial division of labor. Urbanization is characterized by the influx of the rural population into the city and the increasing movement of the population from the rural environment and the nearest small towns to large cities.

Urbanization - phenomenon generally progressive, since the concentration of production, scientific and cultural institutions, educational institutions creates the preconditions for the growth of a general culture, improvement of life, employment of people, food supply, and medical care. In addition, there is an increase in energy, industrial production, means of transport, as well as the development of agriculture with an increase in production, as its average consumption per capita increases.

All of the above signs of increasing urbanization lead to negative changes natural environment: pollution, smoke in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and soil. Now the environment has accumulated about 50 thousand types of chemical compounds that are not destroyed by ecosystem destructors. These changes lead to a reduction in the duration of sunlight, which causes beriberi, accompanied by fatigue, deterioration in well-being, decreased performance, and resistance to infectious diseases. Noise and vibration in urban areas have an irritating effect, excite the central nervous system, disturb sleep, and adversely affect performance. High density, contact of the population contribute to the rapid spread of various infections. Residents of large cities have an unfavorable shift in the nature of nutrition: the calorie content of food is increased due to an increase in fats and carbohydrates in the diet, and a decrease in proteins. The birth rate is noticeably decreasing in urbanized areas.

To eliminate these signs, it is necessary to conduct fundamental research to study all aspects of the life and activities of society, to study the state of health and all types of population movement.

22. SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

Source of air pollution can be any physical agent, chemical or species (generally micro-organisms) released into or produced in the environment in excess of natural amounts. Under atmospheric pollution understand the presence of gases, vapors, particles, solid and liquid substances, heat, vibrations, radiation that adversely affect humans, animals, plants, climate, materials, buildings and structures.

By origin, pollution is divided into natural, caused by natural, often abnormal, processes in nature, and anthropogenic, associated with human activities.

On the anthropogenic pollution accounts for a large share of air pollution. They are associated with the development of human production activities and are divided into local and global. Local pollution is associated with cities and industrial regions. Global pollution affects the biospheric processes on Earth and spread over great distances, as the air is in constant motion. Global atmospheric pollution is increasing due to the fact that harmful substances from it enter the soil, water bodies, and then re-enter the atmosphere.

Sources of air pollution divided into mechanical, physical and biological.

Mechanical pollution - dust, phosphates, lead, mercury formed during the combustion of fossil fuels and in the process of production of building materials.

physical pollution - thermal,

light, noise, electromagnetic, radioactive.

Biological pollution are a consequence of the reproduction of microorganisms and anthropogenic activities.

Common toxic substances polluting the atmosphere:

1) carbon monoxide (formed during forest fires, oxidation of terpenes, etc.);

2) sulfur dioxide (formed during volcanic eruptions, oxidation of sulfur and sulfates dispersed in the sea, fuel combustion in industrial installations);

3) nitric oxide (its sources are forest fires; vehicles, thermal power plants);

4) hydrocarbons (its sources are forest fires, natural methane and natural terpenes; vehicles, waste incineration, refrigeration, chemical plants, oil refineries);

5) dust (results from volcanic eruptions, dust storms, forest fires, fuel combustion in industrial installations, etc.).

23. SOURCES OF HYDROSPHERE POLLUTION

The main sources of pollution and contamination of the hydrosphere (reservoirs) is insufficient purification of wastewater from industrial and municipal enterprises, large livestock complexes, production waste during the development of ore minerals; water mines, mines; water and rail transport discharges; pesticides, etc. Pollutants entering natural water bodies lead to qualitative changes in water, which manifest themselves in a change in the chemical composition of water, in the presence of floating substances on the surface of the water and their deposition at the bottom of water bodies.

Industrial wastewater is polluted with industrial waste and emissions. The quantitative and qualitative composition depends on the industry and its technological processes.

Waste divided into two main groups: containing inorganic impurities (including toxic) and containing poisons. The first group includes wastewater from soda, lead and nickel ore processing factories, which contain acids, alkalis, heavy metal ions, etc. Wastewater from this group mainly changes the physical properties of water. Wastewater of the second group is discharged by oil refineries, organic synthesis plants, etc.

Stocks contain various petroleum products, ammonia, aldehydes, resins, phenols, etc. The harmful effect of this group of wastewater lies in oxidative processes, as a result of which the oxygen content in water decreases, and the biochemical demand for it increases. Population growth, the emergence of new cities increase the flow of domestic wastewater into inland waters, polluting them with pathogenic bacteria.

All of the above factors lead to a failure of the biological and physical regimes of water bodies.

Used for wastewater treatment mechanical, chemical, physicochemical and biological methods. When they are used together, the method of purification and disposal of wastewater is combined.

Mechanical method allows you to remove up to 60-75% of insoluble impurities from domestic wastewater, and up to 95% from industrial wastewater; chemical method - up to 95% insoluble impurities and up to 25% - soluble.

Physico-chemical method allows you to remove finely dispersed and dissolved inorganic impurities and destroy organic and poorly oxidized substances. There are several types biological devices for wastewater treatment: biofilters, biological ponds.

24. PRINCIPLES OF RATIONAL NATURE MANAGEMENT

Nature management - the sphere of social and production activities aimed at meeting human needs with the help of natural resources, as well as a scientific direction that studies the principles of rational use of natural resources, including the analysis of anthropogenic impacts on nature, their consequences for humans.

Regulating nature management (i.e., carrying out activities related to the extraction of useful properties of the natural environment), society should strive to give it a rational (reasonable) character.

Rationality of nature management means achieving not only an economic, cultural and health-improving effect, but also the protection of the natural environment.

To go from consumer psychology to realize the need for rational environmental management, it is necessary:

1) reassessment of views on nature (in government and in society) as a source of consumption;

2) strengthening educational and upbringing work with the population on environmental issues;

3) restructuring of economic methods if enterprises cause pollution or depletion of the natural environment.

In the future, on the basis of new thinking, it is possible to make a transition to a world economic system, which will be based on a moderate, stabilized use of natural resources, population management by an interstate international body.

Historical experience has shown the world that it is impossible to ensure the rational use of natural resources and compliance with environmental protection requirements in countries with poorly developed economies, but it is also impossible to develop the economy without meeting these requirements. Therefore, when solving a particular problem of the protection or use of the natural environment, it is necessary to take into account all the factors that can have an impact on it.

The irrational exploitation of natural resources leads to an ecological crisis. The only way out is as a result of revolutionary changes, the use of environmental safety measures. Rational nature management requires the introduction of mandatory consideration of the capacity of the natural environment, the correspondence of the development of productive forces to the potentialities of nature, compliance with the laws of balance, harmony as necessary conditions for the development of optimal relationships between nature and society. Ignoring these ecological patterns entails a violation of ecological functions.

25. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Concept "environmental protection" is a system of measures that are aimed at maintaining rational interaction between human activities and the natural environment, ensure the conservation and restoration of natural resources, prevent direct and indirect impact of the results of human activity and society on nature and health. Health is 17-20% determined by the quality of the environment.

Based on the principles of ensuring the safety of human interaction with the environment environmental protection is carried out in several ways: legal, natural science, economic, sanitary and hygienic, organizational and managerial, cultural and educational.

legal way involves the definition of subjects of environmental protection; establishment of prohibitive, permissive, obligatory, compensatory, empowering and other norms regulating environmental relations; determination of measures and means of exercising state control; establishment of measures of legal liability for environmental offenses and compensation for damage caused.

ecological function - one of the functions performed by the state as a political organization of society; its main purpose is to ensure a scientifically based balance of environmental and economic interests of society, to create the necessary guarantees for the implementation and protection of human rights to a clean, healthy and favorable natural environment for human life.

The Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of February 4, 1994 "On the state strategy of the Russian Federation for environmental protection and sustainable development" outlines the following areas for implementation State Environmental Strategy of the Russian Federation:

1) ensuring environmental safety;

2) protection of the environment;

3) improvement or restoration of disturbed ecosystems in ecologically unfavorable areas;

4) participation in solving international and global environmental problems.

Purpose of environmental legislation consists in providing the natural environment in the conditions of the economic development of society with means of legal regulation, which is achieved through the development, adoption and application of legal norms that reflect the requirements of environmental laws in the interaction of society and nature, fixing scientifically based standards of economic impact on the natural habitat.

26. AXIOM OF POTENTIAL DANGER

One of the main concepts of life safety is axiom about potential danger. The effect of this axiom extends to the “man - environment” system. Habitat should be understood as the environment of both natural and anthropogenic origin. The axiom predetermines that all human actions and all components of the living environment (primarily technical means and technologies), in addition to positive properties and results, have the ability to generate traumatic and harmful factors. Moreover, any new positive action or result is inevitably accompanied by the emergence of new negative factors.

Potential hazard lies in the hidden, implicit nature of the manifestation of dangers. For example, we do not feel until a certain point an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air. Normally, atmospheric air should contain no more than 0,05% carbon dioxide. Constantly in a closed or poorly ventilated room in which there is a sufficiently large number of people (for example, in a design office), the concentration of carbon dioxide increases. It has no color, no smell, and an increase in its concentration will manifest itself as fatigue, lethargy, and a decrease in efficiency. But in general, the body of a person who systematically stays in such conditions will react with complex physiological processes: a change in the frequency, depth and rhythm of breathing (shortness of breath), an increase in heart rate, a change in blood pressure. Such a state is called hypoxia, or oxygen starvation, and may lead to a decrease in attention, which in certain areas of activity can lead to injuries, etc.

Potential danger as a phenomenon is the possibility of human exposure to adverse or life-incompatible factors.

The axiom of potential danger provides quantitative assessment of negative impact, which is assessed by the risk of causing some kind of damage to health and life. Risk is defined as the ratio of certain undesirable consequences per unit of time to the possible number of events.

The concept is recognized in world practice acceptable risk, i.e. the risk at which protective measures allow maintaining the achieved level of safety. The degree of risk is assessed in world practice for various types of activities by the probability of deaths.

27. PREDICTION AND MODELING OF HAZARDOUS SITUATIONS

The experience of human interaction with technical systems makes it possible to identify traumatic and harmful factors, as well as to develop methods for assessing the likelihood of hazardous situations occurring. This is the accumulation of statistical data on accidents and injuries, various methods of converting and processing static data, increasing their information content. The disadvantage of the method is its limitations, the impossibility of experimentation and its inapplicability to assessing the danger of new technical means and technologies.

Here stands reliability theory. Reliability is the property of an object to maintain over time, within established limits, the values of all parameters that allow it to perform the required functions. In this case, probabilistic values are used. The basic concept of reliability is "refusal" - violation of the state of the technical device due to the cessation of operation or due to a sharp change in its parameters. The probability of failure within a given operating time is also estimated here. The reliability theory makes it possible to determine the technical resource of a tool - the duration of continuous or total periodic operation from the start of operation to the onset of the limit state.

The possibilities of electronic computing technology make it possible to develop method of modeling hazardous situations, which operates with formalized concepts: an ordered and specially organized representation of the objects under study using various physical and geometric signs. Statistical data on incidents, the structure and patterns of functioning of technical systems are subject to formalization.

For an incident to occur, three conditions must be met simultaneously: the presence of a source of danger, the presence of a person in the zone of action of the source of danger, the lack of protective equipment for a person. The probability of an accident or accident at work can be calculated. When building a tree of the causes of an accident with an analysis of previous events, one should single out random previous events, establish a connection between them, and analyze factors that are of a permanent nature. In this case, potentially dangerous factors that have not manifested themselves can be identified. For complex systems, analysis can be done using the fault tree method, in which the diagram shows events and conditions as logical consequences of other events and conditions.

28. ZONES OF NEGATIVE FACTORS

The danger zone has externally defined, spatial areas of manifestation and is characterized by an increase in the risk of an accident. There are the following zones of influence of negative factors:

1) areas for processing bulk materials, areas for knockout and cleaning of castings and plasma processing, processing of plastics, fiberglass and other brittle materials, areas for crushing materials, etc.;

2) vibration platforms, vehicles and construction tools, as well as vibration tools, control levers of transport vehicles, as well as areas around them;

3) areas near impact process equipment, devices for testing gases, vehicles, power machines;

4) zones near ultrasonic generators, flaw detectors;

5) areas near electrical equipment at direct current, areas near power lines, high-frequency transformers and induction drying, electric lamp generators, television screens, displays, antennas, magnets;

6) heated surfaces, molten substances, flame radiation;

7) lasers, reflected laser radiation;

8) nuclear fuel;

9) electrical networks, electrical installations, distributors, transformers, equipment with electric drive, etc.;

10) areas of movement of ground transport, conveyors, underground mechanisms, moving parts of machine tools, tools, gears;

11) areas near high pressure systems, containers with compressed gases, pipelines, pneumatic and hydraulic installations;

12) construction and assembly areas of work, maintenance of machines and installations;

13) areas of leakage of toxic gases and vapors from leaking equipment, evaporation from open containers and spills, emissions of substances during depressurization of equipment, spray painting, drying of painted surfaces;

14) welding zone and plasma treatment of materials containing chromium and manganese, pouring and transportation of dispersed materials;

15) galvanic production, container filling, liquid spraying, etc.

29. INJURY AND HARMFUL FACTORS

Traumatic and harmful factors of the working environment are typical for most modern industries.

physical factors are:

1) dust content in the air of the working area during the processing of bulk materials, in the areas of knockout and cleaning of castings;

2) vibrations (general, local) that operate in the zone of vibration platforms, in vehicles, as well as in vibrating tools;

3) acoustic vibrations (infrasound, noise, ultrasound) near vibration platforms, powerful internal combustion engines and other high-energy systems, as well as near shock-type technological equipment, etc.;

4) static electricity in areas near DC electrical equipment, spray painting areas, synthetic materials;

5) electromagnetic field and radiation (infrared radiation, laser radiation, ultraviolet radiation, ionizing radiation) in areas near power lines, high-frequency drying and induction drying installations, electric lamp generators; in the areas of laser action, reflected laser radiation; in areas of welding and plasma treatment; in areas of radiation sources used in devices, etc.;

6) electric current in the areas of the electrical network, electrical installations, distributors, transformers, equipment with electrical wires, etc.;

7) moving machines, mechanisms, materials, products, parts of collapsing structures and others in the areas of ground transport, conveyors, pipelines, etc.;

8) height, falling objects in the areas of construction and installation works;

9) sharp fragments and edges in the area of cutting and piercing materials and tools, metal chips, fragments of brittle materials;

10) increased or decreased temperatures of surfaces of equipment and materials in various installations in case of leakage;

11) gas contamination of the working area due to the leakage of toxic gases and vapors from non-hermetic equipment, etc.;

12) dustiness of the working area during welding and plasma processing of materials containing chromium and manganese or their transportation.

К chemical factors include the ingress of poisons on the skin and mucous membranes in galvanic production, when filling containers, spraying liquids; as well as the ingestion of poisons into the gastrointestinal tract in cases of errors in the use of fluids or deliberate action.

К biological factors include cutting fluids used in the processing of materials using emulsols.

Psychophysical factors occur in the form of physical overloads (static, dynamic) during prolonged work with displays, work in an uncomfortable position or lifting them, transfer of gravity, manual labor and in the form of neuropsychic overloads (mental overstrain, overstrain of analyzers, monotony of work and emotional overloads), which found in scientists, operators of technical systems, air traffic controllers, as well as observers of production processes and creative workers.

30. CLASSIFICATION OF RISK FACTORS

According to the degree and nature of the effect on the body, all factors are conditionally divided into harmful (factors that, under certain conditions, become the cause of diseases or a decrease in working capacity; this refers to a decrease in working capacity that disappears after rest or a break in vigorous activity) and dangerous (factors that, under certain conditions, lead to traumatic injuries or sudden and severe health problems).

These factors can be natural (or natural) and anthropogenic in nature, i.e., created by man (physical, chemical, biological), and psychophysiological.

Physical factors:

1) natural (all climatic indicators) - air temperature, humidity, wind speed, atmospheric pressure, solar radiation;

2) anthropogenic - dust content in the air of the working area; vibrations (general and local); acoustic vibrations (infrasound, noise, ultrasound; static electricity); electromagnetic fields and radiation; infrared radiation, laser radiation; ultraviolet radiation, laser radiation; electricity; moving machines, mechanisms, materials, products, parts of collapsing structures and other things, height, falling objects, sharp fragments; increased or decreased temperature of surfaces of equipment and materials; weapons of mass destruction.

Chemical factors:

1) natural - chemicals that enter the human body with air, water, food.

These include amino acids, vitamins, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, trace elements;

2) anthropogenic - gas contamination of the working area; dustiness of the working area; the ingress of poisons on the skin and mucous membranes; the ingress of poisons into the gastrointestinal tract from various enterprises and transport or after being hit by chemical weapons.

Biological factors:

1) natural - microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi);

2) anthropogenic - biological plant protection products, emissions from food industry enterprises, farms, enterprises for the production of proteins, sera, vaccines, cutting fluids, biological weapons.

Psychophysical factors: according to the nature of their action on the human body, they are divided into physical overloads (they include static and dynamic overloads) and neuropsychological overloads (mental overstrain, overstrain of analyzers, monotony of work and emotional overloads).

31. HYGIENE STANDARDS FOR THE CONTENT OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Due to the fact that the requirement of the complete absence of industrial poisons in the breathing zone of workers is often impossible, it is of great importance hygienic regulation of the content of harmful substances in the air of the working area, which is carried out in three steps:

1) substantiation of the estimated safe level of exposure;

2) justification of the maximum allowable concentration (MAC);

3) adjustment of this concentration, taking into account the working conditions of workers and their state of health. The establishment of MPC may be preceded by justification of the approximate safe level of exposure to harmful substances in the air of the working area, the atmosphere of populated areas, in water and soil.

Estimated safe exposure level set temporarily for the period preceding the design of production. It is determined by calculation from physicochemical properties or by interpolation and extrapolation in the homologous series of compounds or in terms of acute toxicity, and must be reviewed two years after their approval.

MPC of harmful substances in the air of the working area - concentrations that, during daily work for 8 hours or during other activities, but not exceeding 41 hours per week, during the length of service of the worker, cannot cause diseases or deviations in the state of health detected by modern research methods in the course of work or in the long term of life present or future generations. The content of harmful substances in the air of the working area should not exceed the indicators established by hygienic standards (GN) approved by the Federal Service for Supervision of Consumer Rights Protection and Human Welfare.

MPC of harmful substances in the air of populated areas - maximum concentrations related to a certain averaging period and not having, with a regulated probability of their occurrence, either direct or indirect harmful effects on the human body, including long-term consequences for the present and subsequent generations, which do not reduce a person's performance and do not worsen his well-being.

Maximum MPC concentration - the highest of the 30-minute concentrations recorded at a given point for a certain period of observation, which is based on the principle of the transformation of reflex reactions in humans.

Average MPC concentration - the average of the number of concentrations detected during the day or taken continuously for 24 hours. Its determination is based on the principle of preventing a resorptive (general toxic) effect on the body.

32. HYGIENE STANDARDS FOR THE CONTENT OF CHEMICALS IN WATER

Hygienic standards for the content of chemicals in the water of rivers, lakes, reservoirs are carried out in accordance with the "Sanitary rules and standards for the protection of surface waters from pollution" two categories:

1) reservoirs for household and drinking and cultural purposes;

2) reservoirs for fishery purposes. Sanitary regulations establish normalized values for such physical and chemical water condition parameters, such as: the content of floating impurities and suspended substances, smell, taste, color and temperature of water, acidity value, composition and concentration of mineral impurities and oxygen dissolved in water, biological need of water for oxygen, composition of water and maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of toxic and harmful substances and pathogenic bacteria in water.

The limiting indicator of harmfulness for reservoirs of economic and drinking and cultural purposes use three types: sanitary-toxicological, general sanitary and organoleptic. For fishery reservoirs, along with the above types, two more types of limiting water indicators (LPK) are used: toxicological and fishery. The sanitary state of the water body meets the requirements of the standards when the following condition is met: the ratio of the total concentration of the CLP substance in the design section of the water body to the MPC of the substance (MPC_В) must be less than or equal to 1.

So, in reservoirs for household and drinking and cultural purposes, MPC_В, for example, according to sanitary and toxicological standards, benzene should contain no more than 0,5 mg / l, and phenol (according to organoleptic indicators) no more than 0,001 mg / l. Gasoline and kerosene, according to the same indicators, should contain no more than 0,1 mg / l, copper, according to general sanitary indicators, no more than 1,0 mg / l. In water bodies belonging to the second category (for fishery purposes), toxicological TPC_В benzene should be 0,5 mg/l; fishery CIP_В phenol - 0,001 mg / l, gasoline and kerosene - not more than 0,1 mg / l. Toxicological LPK_В copper content should be no more than 0,01 mg/l.

Hygienic standards for the content of chemicals in the water of rivers, lakes, reservoirs are regulated by the Federal Law of March 30, 1999 "On the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population", the Regulations on state sanitary and epidemiological regulation (Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of July 24, 2000) and the corresponding hygienic standards (GN).

33. HYGIENE STANDARDS FOR THE CONTENT OF CHEMICALS IN SOIL

The main provisions of the theory and practice of hygienic regulation of the content of harmful substances in the soil are determined by the fact that not all intake of exogenous chemicals into the soil should be considered dangerous for human health and the environment. The safety of chemicals entering the soil is determined by the inadmissibility of exceeding the adaptive capacity of the most sensitive groups of the population or the threshold of self-cleaning capacity of the soil. The establishment of the standard is based on data obtained under extreme soil and climatic conditions (maximum migration of the substance into the media in contact with the soil), taking into account the effect on self-purification processes and microbiocenoses.

Hygiene standards are established taking into account the limiting indicator of harmfulness: general sanitary (OS), migratory water (MW), air (MA), organoleptic, phytoaccumulative (TV) (transition and accumulation in plants) and sanitary-toxicological. If we take into account the extreme variability of climatic and landscape conditions of soil formation, then the experimentally substantiated MPC can be considered as a reference value used to assess the danger of soil pollution in specific soil and climatic conditions.

MPC of an exogenous chemical in soil - its maximum amount (in mg/kg of the arable layer of absolutely dry soil), established in extreme soil and climatic conditions,

which guarantees the absence of negative direct or indirect impact on human health, its offspring and sanitary living conditions of the population through the environment in contact with the soil.

In terms of its value, the MPC of the soil differs significantly from the accepted permissible concentrations for water and air, since the entry of harmful substances into the human body directly from the soil occurs in exceptional cases and in small quantities (through media in contact with the soil, which are air, water and plants) .

To assess the content of harmful substances in the soil carry out sampling on a plot of 25 mXNUMX²at 3-5 points diagonally from a depth of 0,25 m, and when determining the effect of pollution on groundwater - from a depth of 0,75-2 m in an amount of 0,2-1 kg. In the case of the use of new chemical compounds for which there are no MPCs_П, temporary allowable concentrations are calculated: VDC_П = 1,23 + 0,48 MPC_ETC(for food, mg/kg).

34. HYGIENE STANDARDS FOR THE CONTENT OF CHEMICALS IN FOOD

In Russia, the content of chemicals in food products exceeds the hygienic standards in different years in 1-3% of the studied samples. Nitrates, being a natural constituent of plants, are present in amounts exceeding the maximum allowable levels in 2% of samples. Most often, chemical indicators in unacceptable concentrations are found in poultry and poultry products, in grain, baby food, honey and beekeeping products.

Pesticides. In general, the presence of pesticides in food can be assessed as insignificant, since samples exceeding the standard level amount to only 0,4%. Of the food products, the most contaminated with pesticides are meat and meat products (1,42% of samples), milk and dairy products, honey and beekeeping products (0,62%).

The number of food samples containing pesticides is more than 6%, which indicates a fairly wide prevalence of pesticides in food products.

Most commonly found in food karbofos (3,2%), decis (1,5%), actelik (3,7%), chloroethanol (2,8%), benzophosphate (1,2%), ambush (1,3%), cymbush ( 3,7%), diazinon (1,3%), bayleton (1,4%), sumicidin (3,0%), dilor (2,0%), ramrod (2,4%), semeron (4,8, 1,8%), phenmedipham (2,4%), polycarbocin (2,8%), omayt (4,4%), cineb (7,9%), propazin (1,2%), TILT (XNUMX, XNUMX%).

Mycotoxins. High levels of mycotoxins were most often detected in wild food products (0,35%), but in absolute terms, priority remains with bakery and flour products - 20% of non-standard samples.

Nitrosamines traditionally most often found in meat products.

Heavy metals in elevated concentrations are most often found in wild plants, poultry products and fatty plant products, mercury - in fish (0,21%), lead - in baby food (0,62%), cadmium - in wild foods (1,36% ).

35. LONG-TERM CONSEQUENCES OF HARMFUL, INJURIOUS AND AFFECTING FACTORS

Harmful, traumatic and damaging factors do not act selectively, they negatively affect all components of the "human - technosphere" and "technosphere - natural environment" systems simultaneously if they are in the zone of influence of hazards. In addition, the growth of anthropogenic negative impact on the environment is not always limited to the growth of only direct hazards. Under certain conditions, long-term consequences of negative impacts are possible, which can occur at the regional and global levels, have a negative impact on regions of the biosphere and significant groups of people.

These consequences include the processes of formation of acid rain, smog, the "greenhouse effect", the destruction of the ozone layer of the Earth, the accumulation of toxic and carcinogenic substances in the organisms of animals and fish, in food products, etc.

Despite the fact that traumatic impacts affect short-term and spontaneously, as well as in a limited space, occur during accidents and disasters, explosions and sudden destruction of buildings and structures, they have long-term consequences, characterized by long-term or periodic negative impacts on humans and the natural environment, elements of the technosphere. At the same time, the spatial zones of harmful effects vary widely from working and domestic areas to the size of the entire earth's space. These include the effects of emissions of greenhouse and ozone-depleting gases, the release of radioactive substances into the atmosphere, etc.

The impact of traumatic factors leads to injury or death of people, accompanied by focal destruction of the natural environment and the technosphere, they are also characterized by significant material losses. Prolonged exposure to traumatic factors has a negative impact on the health of people, leading to occupational diseases.

Influencing the natural environment, harmful factors lead to the degradation of representatives of flora and fauna, change the composition of the components of the biosphere. At high concentrations of harmful substances or at high energy flows, harmful factors, by the nature of their impact, can approach traumatic effects. For example, high concentrations of toxic substances in the air, water, or food can cause poisoning.

Thus, man-made hazards worsen people's health, lead to injuries, material losses and degradation of the natural environment.

36. RADIATION SAFETY STANDARDS

The human body is constantly exposed to cosmic rays and natural radioactive elements present in the air, soil, and in the tissues of the body itself.

Levels of natural radiation from all sources on average, they correspond to 100 mrem per year, but in some areas - up to 1000 mrem per year. For persons working in the field of action of ionizing radiation, the values of the maximum permissible dose for the whole body are established, which, with prolonged exposure, does not cause a violation of the general condition of a person, as well as the functions of hematopoiesis and reproduction.

For ionizing radiation, maximum allowable dose (SDA) 5 rems per year. The International Commission on Radiation Protection recommended one-time emergency exposure of 25 rem and occupational chronic exposure - up to 5 rem per year as the SDA and established a 10-fold lower dose for limited population groups. To assess the long-term effects of exposure to radiation in the offspring, the possibility of increasing the frequency of mutations is taken into account. The dose of radiation most likely doubling the frequency of spontaneous mutations does not exceed 100 rem per generation. Genetically significant doses for the population are in the range of 7-55 mrem/year. With a general external exposure of a person to a dose of 150-400 rem, radiation sickness of mild and moderate severity develops; at a dose of 400-600 rem - severe radiation sickness; exposure in excess of 600 rem is absolutely lethal if preventive and therapeutic measures are not used.

When irradiated with doses of 100-1000 rem, the lesion is based on the bone marrow mechanism of development radiation sickness. With general or local irradiation of the abdomen in doses of 1000-5000 rem - the intestinal mechanism for the development of radiation sickness with the prevalence of toxemia.

Acute irradiation at doses above 5000 rem develops fulminant form of radiation sickness. Death “under the beam” is possible when exposed to doses of more than 20 rem. When radionuclides enter the body, radioactive substances are incorporated. The danger of incorporation is determined by the characteristics of metabolism, specific activity, and routes of entry of radionuclides into the body.

The most dangerous radionuclides with a long half-life, poorly excreted from the body, radionuclides with a uniform distribution in the body, such as tritium and polonium-210.

Measures to limit public exposure are regulated by the Radiation Safety Standards NRB-99.

37. DEMOGRAPHIC AND ENVIRONMENT

In modern conditions of the development of society, not quantitative indicators of the consumption of economic goods per capita, but qualitative indicators are put forward in the first place, and among them the indicator of the ecological well-being of society is of paramount importance.

human habitat is a complex interweaving of interacting natural and anthropogenic factors. Under these conditions, a single integral criterion of the quality of the environment is needed in terms of its suitability for human habitation.

Human health (individual) - the process of maintaining its psychophysiological functions, optimal performance and social activity with a maximum life expectancy.

Health (complete mental and physical well-being) populations - the process of preserving and developing the biological and psychosocial life of the population living in a certain territory in a number of generations.

According to various sources, more than half of the people in urban areas are in a state of pre-illness, which has a number of significant differences from both health and disease. The main factors in this case are anthropological stress and fatigue associated with the problem of large cities - stress. Every year, thousands of deaths in cities around the world are linked to unfavorable environmental situation. Any impact causes a protective reaction in nature aimed at neutralizing it. This ability of nature has been exploited by man thoughtlessly and predatorily for a long time. But the pollution process is progressing sharply, and it becomes obvious that natural self-purification systems will sooner or later not be able to withstand such an onslaught, since the atmosphere’s ability to self-purify has certain limits. Missile launches, nuclear weapons tests, the annual destruction of the natural ozonizer - millions of hectares of forest, the massive use of freons in technology and everyday life lead to the destruction of the ozone layer.

Solving the problems of eliminating these problems is one of the most important issues of preserving people's health in these systems, since the difficult environmental situation is one of the reasons for the deterioration in the health of the population, which is directly related to birth and death rates. The highest rates of morbidity and mortality are recorded in the most environmentally unfavorable regions.

38. PROTECTION FROM TOXIC EMISSIONS

Toxic emissions from the environment enter the body through respiratory tract, through damaged and intact skin, through the gastrointestinal tract. Toxic effect of certain substances may appear in the form secondary lesions (for example, colitis with arsenic and mercury poisoning, etc.). Toxic emissions, getting into the air, slowly settle on the lungs of people, making it difficult to breathe; on the skin, clogging the sweat glands, impeding sweating and evaporation, which interferes with the normal thermoregulatory process, reduces skin resistance and increases the penetration of microbes, and also causes allergic reactions.

General toxic effect on the human body has dust of lead, manganese, antimony, not only causing poisoning, but also having an allergenic effect. At the same time, the filtering capacity of the nasal cavity decreases, chronic inflammatory processes (pulmonary silicosis, tuberculosis) develop in other parts of the respiratory tract, and bronchial asthma may develop. The fibrogenic effect of dust (proliferation of connective tissue in organs) depends on the content of free silicon dioxide.

In addition to dust concentrations hazardous to human health, there are explosive concentrations of organic dust: tobacco, flour, sugar, coal, leather, etc.

The basis for carrying out measures to combat toxic emissions are: Federal Laws "On Environmental Protection" 2002, "On Protection of Atmospheric Air" 1999, "On the Sanitary and Epidemiological Welfare of the Population" 1999, Regulations on the standards of harmful emissions ( pollutants) substances into the atmospheric air and harmful physical effects on it (Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 2000), Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation "On Approval of the Regulations on State Control over the Protection of Atmospheric Air" of 2001, etc.

The following measures are recommended to reduce dust content with toxic air emissions:

1) isolation of sources of dust formation (sealing of equipment);

2) humidification of air and dust-forming substances;

3) hydro- and pneumotransportation of substances;

4) installation of dust and gas suction devices;

5) deposition of dust (aerosols) in acoustic, electric fields, which not only reduces the dust content of the air, but also helps to capture valuable products of production;

6) the use of the most rational means and methods of cleaning the premises (vacuum cleaners, cleaning machines), the deposition of dust by spraying water;

7) the use of general and local exhaust ventilation;

8) the use of personal protective equipment (gas masks, respirators, overalls, glasses, etc.).

39. ENERGY PROTECTION

When solving problems of protection against energy impacts, a source, an energy receiver and a protective device are distinguished, which reduces the energy flow to the receiver to acceptable levels.

Protective device has the ability to reflect, absorb, be transparent with respect to the flow of energy and is characterized by energy absorption coefficients, reflections, transmission coefficient. Therefore, the following principles of protection can be distinguished:

1) protection is carried out due to the reflectivity of protective devices;

2) protection is carried out due to the absorption capacity of the protective device;

3) protection is carried out taking into account the transparency properties of protective devices.

In practice, the principles are usually combine, receiving various methods of protection (in particular, isolation and absorption).

Isolation Methods are used when the source and receiver of energy, which is simultaneously the object of protection, are located on different sides of the protective device. These methods are based on reducing the transparency of the medium between the source and the receiver. In this case, two main methods of isolation can be distinguished: a decrease in the transparency of the medium is achieved due to the absorption of energy or due to the high reflectivity of the protective device.

At the heart absorption methods lies the principle of increasing the flow of energy passed into the protective device. There are two types of energy absorption by a protective device: energy absorption by the protective device itself due to its selection from the source in one form or another, including in the form of irreversible losses, and energy absorption due to the high transparency of the protective device.

For example, when exposed to such a hazard factor as vibration, inertia, friction, elasticity and forcing forces act in the vibrosystem. Used for vibration protection vibration isolation method, when a vibration isolator with a low transmission coefficient is installed between the source of vibration and its receiver, which is also an object of protection.

Vibration protection by absorption methods is carried out in the form dynamic damping and vibration absorption. In the first case, vibration energy is absorbed by a protective device that takes vibration energy from the source to itself (there is an inertial dynamic vibration absorber). A protective device that increases energy dissipation as a result of increasing the dissipative properties of the system is called a vibration absorber. It is possible to combine these two properties simultaneously using dynamic vibration dampers with friction.

40. ENSURING THE SAFETY OF TECHNICAL FACILITIES AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Security Methods and environmental friendliness of technical systems and technological processes are as follows:

1) replacement of harmful substances with harmless or less harmful ones;

2) replacement of dry methods of processing and transportation of dusty materials with wet ones;

3) replacement and (or) improvement of technological operations associated with the occurrence of noise, vibrations, electromagnetic effects and other harmful factors, processes or operations in which the absence or lower intensity of these factors is ensured;

4) sealing of equipment and apparatus;

5) application of methods for complete capture and purification of technological emissions, purification of industrial effluents from pollution; the introduction of thermal insulation of heated surfaces and the use of means of protection from radiant heat;

6) development of low-waste and waste-free technologies (which allows the design and production of process equipment with closed cycles of movement of liquid and gaseous substances).

All technical means at commissioning and annually during operation checked for compliance with the requirements imposed on them, control and measuring equipment is checked annually in special laboratories. A technical device that does not comply with the data of the technical passport and safety requirements, as well as has not passed timely inspection, is not allowed for operation and is subject to repair, modernization or replacement and mandatory control.

Important means of increasing reliability and safety of technical systems during operation is functional diagnostics. Such systems make it possible to monitor an object as it performs its operational functions and respond to a failure at the moment it occurs. These systems are designed and manufactured together with the controlled object and are used at the production stage, during the operation of the object, and also allow you to immediately respond to disturbances in the operation of the object, connect backup units to replace faulty ones, and switch to other operating modes.

To ensure the environmental safety of technical systems and technologies, eco-bioprotective technology - means of protecting humans and the natural environment, aimed at localizing sources of negative impact, reducing the level of energy impact of factors on humans and the environment.

41. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS OF TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Pollution of the natural environment occurs not only from outer space or due to volcanic eruptions, but also as a result of economic activities related to industrial enterprises, agriculture and transport.

Anthropogenic pollution is divided into: dust, gas, chemical (including soil pollution with chemicals), aromatic and thermal (changes in the temperature of water, air, soil).

Among the substances polluting the atmosphere, 90% are gases and 10% are solid particles. The main sources of air pollution are vehicles (50%) and emissions from industrial enterprises.

Sulfur oxides - the main pollutant, the source of which is thermal stations, boiler houses, heavy and metallurgical industries. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, when interacting with water vapor (clouds), generate acid rain, which destroys crops, vegetation, fish stocks, and destroys buildings and structures.

A significant negative impact on the state of the atmosphere is exerted by carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide gases obtained from the combustion of hydrocarbons (coal, oil, peat, etc.). This change in atmosphere leads to greenhouse effect, which is expressed by rising temperatures, changes in weather and climate. A consequence of the greenhouse effect is an increase in desertification of lands due to intense evaporation of moisture contained in the soil.

Ozone-depleting substances are freon, chlorine, carbon.

The main objects of pollution are reservoirs, rivers, lakes, oceans. Billions of tons of liquid and solid waste are dumped into the oceans every year. An oil spill leads to the death of the living resources of the sea, including algae, plankton, which produce oxygen. Chemicals used in agriculture, construction and everyday life, the toxicity of which has not yet been fully studied, have become a massive source of environmental pollution.

These and other consequences of environmental pollution have a negative impact on a person’s physical health, his nervous and mental state, on the health of future generations. Some average data: 20% of the population suffers from allergies all the time; 35% of the population of industrial cities - various diseases as a result of exposure to a polluted environment; every day 25 people die on the planet due to poor quality water; the percentage of births of defective children increased to 000%; the growth of cancer diseases has increased, etc.

42. WASTE-FREE PRODUCTION

An active form of protecting the environment of populated areas from the harmful effects of industrial enterprises is the transition to low-waste and waste-free technologies. Under zero-waste technology and production, wasteless system understand not just the technology or production of a particular product, but the principle of organizing the functioning of production. At the same time, all components of raw materials and energy are rationally used in a closed cycle (primary raw materials - production - consumption - secondary raw materials), i.e., the existing ecological balance in the biosphere is disturbed.

The transition to low-waste technologies makes it possible to design and produce technological equipment with closed cycles for the movement of liquid and gaseous substances. For example, technologies with gas recirculation have been introduced in the production of fertilizers, which drastically reduces emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere.

Low-waste technology is an intermediate step in the creation of waste-free production.

With low-waste production, the harmful impact on the environment does not exceed the level allowed by the sanitary authorities, but for technical, economic, organizational or other reasons, part of the raw materials and materials goes into waste and is sent for long-term storage or disposal.

The basis of non-waste production is a complex processing of raw materials using all components, since production waste is a part of the raw materials that has not been used for one reason or another. At the same time, the development of resource-saving technologies is of great importance.

Low-waste and waste-free technology should provide:

1) complex processing of raw materials using all its components based on the creation of new waste-free processes;

2) creation and release of new types of products, taking into account the requirements of reuse;

3) processing of production and consumption waste to obtain marketable products or any beneficial use thereof without violating the ecological balance;

4) use of closed industrial water supply systems;

5) creation of non-waste complexes.

Thus, in mechanical engineering, the development of low-waste technological processes is associated with the need to increase the metal utilization factor. Increasing it not only provides technical and economic benefits, but also reduces the amount of waste and harmful emissions into the environment.

43. ECOBIOSECTION TECHNOLOGY

To ensure the environmental safety of technical systems and technologies, eco-bioprotective technology - means of protecting humans and the natural environment from dangerous and harmful factors.

Atmosphere protection from harmful substances is carried out by cleaning industrial air emissions from dust (dry and wet methods), fog with electrostatic precipitators and filters made of various materials), harmful gases (in adsorbers with and without chemical preparations) and vapors (condensation).

Hydrosphere protection is carried out by cleaning wastewater from polluting impurities with the extraction of all valuable substances from wastewater and their processing, or the destruction of harmful substances by oxidation or reduction, and then removing them in the form of gases and precipitation. To implement these methods, treatment facilities are used, through which all wastewater from industrial enterprises and city sewers must be passed.

For human protection in the conditions of production, as well as when interacting with technical means outside of production, various means are used that prevent or reduce the impact of dangerous and harmful factors to an acceptable level.

In particular, electrical installations must have protective grounding - connection of the installation case with a conductor under zero ground potential. In this case, electrical installations are grounded (electrical connection with a solidly grounded neutral of the current source of metal parts that may be energized) or protective shutdown (high-speed protection automatically turns off the electrical installation when there is a danger of electric shock to a person).

To protect against harmful substances in the workplace (for example, when soldering, working with adhesives, paints, laser processing of materials), local exhaust is used. ventilation.

Protective devices serve to protect moving parts of machines, places where particles of the processed material fly out, zones of exposure to high temperatures and harmful radiation.

vibration dampers (car and wagon springs), vibration isolators (rubber-metal shock absorbers, steel springs, etc.) protect a person from the harmful effects of vibration during low-frequency vibration, and sponge rubber gaskets - during high-frequency vibration.

Soundproofing increase solid panels made of vibration-damped material, glued from the inside to the body of the noise source.

44. DEVICES AND SYSTEMS FOR CLEANING EMISSIONS

Cleaning devices ventilation and technological emissions into the atmosphere are divided into:

▪ dust collectors (dry, electric, filters, wet);

▪ mist eliminators (low-speed and high-speed);

▪ devices for collecting vapors and gases (absorption, chemisorption, adsorption and neutralizers);

▪ multi-stage cleaning devices (dust and gas collectors, mists and solid impurities collectors, multi-stage dust collectors).

Their work is characterized by cleaning efficiency, hydraulic resistance and power consumption.

В dry dust collectors the gas flow performs a rotational-translational motion, and under the action of centrifugal force, dust particles form a dust layer on the cyclone wall.

Electric cleaning it cleans gases from suspended particles of dust and fog and is based on the impact ionization of gas in the zone of the corona discharge, the transfer of the charge of ions to impurity particles and the deposition of the latter on the collecting corona electrodes (the electrical resistance of dust layers is taken into account).

For fine gas cleaning filters are used from particles and dropping liquid. The process consists in retaining particles of impurities on porous partitions when dispersed media move through them, and the classification of filters is based on the type of filter partition, the design of the filter and its purpose, and the degree of purification.

Apparatus wet cleaning highly effective for cleaning from fine dust, cleaning from dust of heated and explosive gases. Their disadvantages include the formation of sludge during the cleaning process, which requires additional systems for processing, the removal of moisture into the atmosphere and the formation of dew, etc. These include Venturi scrubbers, bubble-foam dust collectors.

For air purification from mists of acids, alkalis, oils and other, fibrous filters are used - mist eliminators, based on the deposition of drops on the surface of the pores, followed by the liquid flowing along the fibers to the lower part of the mist eliminator.

absorption method (from gases and vapors) is based on the absorption of the latter by liquid using absorbers. In chemisorbers, gases and vapors are absorbed by liquid and solid absorbers with the formation of poorly soluble or low-volatile chemical compounds.

Thermal neutralization is based on the ability of combustible gases and vapors that are part of ventilation or process emissions to burn to form less toxic substances.

For highly efficient purification of emissions, multi-stage purification devices are used.

45. PROTECTIVE SCREENS

Protective screen - a device with a surface that absorbs, reflects or converts radiation of various types of energy. It is used to protect against radiation (for example, radiation or thermal).

Heat shields are used to localize sources of radiant heat, reduce exposure to workplaces and reduce the temperature of surfaces surrounding the workplace. The weakening of the heat flow behind the screen is due to its absorption and reflectivity and there are heat-reflecting, heat-absorbing, heat-removing screens.

By degree of transparency Screens are divided into three classes: opaque (metal water-cooled and lined asbestos, alpha, aluminum screens) translucent (from metal mesh, chain curtains, glass screens reinforced with metal mesh; all these screens can be irrigated with a water film) and transparent (from various glasses: silicate, quartz and organic, colorless, colored and metallized, film water curtains, free and flowing down the glass, etc.).

Shielding of electromagnetic fields is also necessary, as they have zones of induction and radiation. There are shielding of magnetic, electric and electromagnetic (plane wave) fields. In most cases, the same dielectric medium (air) is located on both sides of the screen. When shielding a magnetic field, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the material from which the shield is made.

Used to protect against electromagnetic fields metal sheets, ensuring rapid field attenuation in the material. In many cases it is cost effective use instead of a metal screen wire meshes, foil and radio absorbing materials, honeycomb grids. The composition of foil materials includes diamagnetic materials (aluminum, brass, zinc). Radar absorbing materials are made in the form of elastic and rigid foams, thin sheets, loose bulk mass or potting compounds. Recently, ceramic-metal compositions have been used more often.

Shielding efficiency honeycomb grids depends on the ratio of depth to width of the cell.

Protection against ionizing radiation can be screens made of aluminum, plexiglass, glass several millimeters thick. An essential role is played by bremsstrahlung, which requires stronger protection.

46. PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT AT PRODUCTION

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is designed to protect the skin and respiratory organs from the ingress of radioactive substances (RS), poisonous substances (S) and biological agents (BS). In accordance with this, personal protective equipment is divided by appointment for respiratory protection, skin protection and medical protective equipment.

Depending on the from the principle of protection all PPE are divided into insulating (completely isolating a person from environmental factors) and filtering (purifying the air from harmful impurities).

By manufacturing method all PPE are divided into industrial ones, which are made in advance, and improvised ones, made by the population themselves from improvised means.

In addition, there are personal PPE (intended for certain units) and non-standard (intended to provide units and the population in addition to or instead of the standard ones).

Respiratory protection equipment:

1) filtering - civil gas masks (GP-5, GP-7), combined arms RSh-4, PMG-2), children's (DP-6, PDF-Sh); respirators for adults R-2, for children R-2D, industrial RPG-67; the simplest means of protection (cotton-gauze bandages, anti-dust fabric masks);

2) insulating: IP-4, IP-5, KIP-5, KIP-7, etc. The choice of gas masks (filtering or insulating, industrial or civil, etc.) is determined on the spot by the relevant formations, depending on the nature of the emergency and environmental conditions.

Skin protection products designed to protect open areas of the body, clothing, shoes from ingress of AOHV, RV and BS; distinguish:

1) filtering skin protection means: ZFO-58 - protective filtering clothing - cotton overalls impregnated with chemisorption chemicals; improvised means - ordinary, everyday clothes (tracksuits, raincoats, mittens, boots). To increase the protective properties, clothing can be pre-impregnated with a soap-oil emulsion; for the preparation of which a piece of laundry soap is ground on a grater and dissolved in 0,5 l of vegetable oil.

2) insulating skin protection equipment: OZK (combined arms protective kit), L-1 (light insulating suit) and others, which are made of rubberized fabric. They are equipped with certain formations to eliminate an emergency. The time spent in insulating clothing is limited due to a violation of thermoregulation processes and depends on weather conditions.

47. CALCULATION OF THE PROBABILITY OF AN EMERGENCY

Emergencies create damage that may or may not be quantifiable (for example, deaths, personal injury, property damage, environmental damage, etc.). For the purpose of unification, various consequences and harm are denoted by the term "damage". Damage is measured in monetary terms or the number of deaths, number of people injured, etc. To measure damage in monetary terms, an equivalent must be found between these units of measurement.

Calculation of emergency probabilities (state of emergency). Let P{E} denote its probability. The probability of a certain event P{E} = 1, the probability of an impossible event P{E} = 0, the probability of the sum of pairwise incompatible PE (E_j E_jis not equal to zero if i ≠ j) is equal.

PE E_i, And_j,...,E_n, form a complete group of events if they are pairwise incompatible and one of them necessarily occurs for the complete group of events

In particular, for equally possible emergency situations (P{E} = p, i =1, 2,..., n), forming a complete group of events, the probability of an emergency

P = 1/n.

Opposite events E and E form a complete group, so

A complete group of events can be identified using the Karnot map. Three emergencies X, Y, Z form a Karnot map. The PEs written in the cells are pairwise incompatible.

When the number of emergencies exceeds five, Karnot cards are inconvenient to use. Then the complete group of events can be generated using binary numbers. For n emergencies, write decimal numbers from 0 to (2ⁿ - 1) and their representations in the binary system.

Let us determine the probability (P) of the emergency. R-PE is the sum a and N. Accident N and accident A can occur together. Therefore, the formula for determining the probability of pairwise incompatible events P{S} is unsuitable. Using a Karnaugh map to identify a complete group of events, we find the probability of an R-emergency:

P{A + N} = P{A} + P{N} - P{AN}.

If catastrophe (K) is impossible, K = AN is not equal to zero, then P{AN} = 0.

48. EMERGENCY SITUATIONS, THEIR TYPES

Emergency - a state in which, as a result of the occurrence of a source of an emergency situation in a certain territory or water area, the normal conditions of life and activity of people are violated, their life and health are threatened, damage is caused to the population, the national economy and the natural environment.

Emergencies are divided into man-made, anthropogenic, natural, as well as by the types and types of events underlying these situations, by the scale of distribution, by the complexity of the situation, and the severity of the consequences.

Classification of emergency situations objects of the economy by potential hazard:

1) with the release of mechanical energy - explosions, damage or destruction of mechanisms, assemblies, communications, collapse of structures and buildings; hydrodynamic; dam failures with ensuing consequences;

2) with release of thermal energy - fires, explosions in buildings on technological equipment; fires at the objects of production, processing, storage of flammable combustibles, explosives; transport fires; fires in residential, social and cultural buildings; detection of unexploded ordnance; loss of flammable, combustible, explosive substances;

3) with the release of radiation energy - accidents at nuclear power plants, nuclear power plants for industrial and research purposes with the release or threat of release of radioactive substances; accidents with the release of radioactive substances at nuclear fuel cycle enterprises; accidents on transport and space vehicles with nuclear installations or with a cargo of radioactive substances; accidents with nuclear weapons or operation, storage or installation; loss of radioactive sources;

4) with the release of chemical energy - accidents with the release of highly toxic substances during production processing or storage; transport accidents with the release of toxic substances; the formation and spread of potent toxic substances in the course of chemical reactions that began as a result of the accident; chemical munitions accidents; loss of sources of potent toxic substances;

5) leakage of bacteriological agents: violation of the rules for the operation of water supply and sewerage facilities; violation of technology in the work of food industry enterprises; violation of the regime of work of institutions of a sanitary and epidemiological profile.

49. AFFECTING FACTORS OF SOURCES OF NATURAL EMERGENCIES

To geological natural phenomena include the following: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, mudflows, snow avalanches, landslides, precipitation of the earth's surface, which occur as a result of karst phenomena.

Earthquakes - these are tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface, resulting from sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth or upper part of the mantle and transmitted over long distances in the form of elastic vibrations.

Volcanic activity arises as a result of constant active processes occurring in the depths of the Earth, and threatens the inhabitants of the Earth who live in close proximity to areas of volcanic activity.

Landslide - sliding displacements down the slope under the action of gravity of the soil masses that form the slopes of hills, mountains, river, lake and sea terraces. They are caused by watering the soil, changing the type of plantations, destruction of vegetation, weathering and shaking.

Seli - short-term rapid floods on mountain rivers, having the character of mud-stone flows; occur in connection with earthquakes, heavy snowfalls, downpours, intense snowmelt.

Avalanche - a snowfall, a mass of snow falling or sliding from the mountain slopes under the influence of some kind of influence and entraining new masses of snow on its way.

Meteorological springs are caused by wind, storm, hurricane, tornado, heavy rain, large hail, heavy snow, heavy snowstorms, dust storms, frost, severe frost or extreme heat.

Hydrological sources are called:

1) high water level is floods, in which flooding of low-lying parts of cities and towns, agricultural crops, damage to industrial and transport facilities occurs;

2) low water level, when navigation, water supply of cities and national economic facilities, irrigation systems are disrupted;

3) mudflows and snow avalanches;

4) early freezing and the appearance of ice on navigable water bodies.

Concept "natural fires" combines forest fires, fires of steppe and grain massifs, peat and underground fires of fossil fuels and is characterized by uncontrolled combustion and spontaneous spread over the surface.

К biological sources of emergency include epidemics, epizootics and epiphytoties.

Epidemic - the widespread spread of an infectious disease among people, significantly exceeding the incidence rate usually recorded in a given territory.

epizootics - infectious diseases of animals that have common features (presence of a specific pathogen, cyclical development, the ability to be transmitted from an infected animal to a healthy one and take on epizootic spread).

Space hazards: asteroids; exposure to solar radiation.

50. RADIATION-HAZARDOUS OBJECTS

Radiation hazardous called objects of the national economy that use sources of ionizing radiation in their activities.

In addition to nuclear power plants, which create the danger of an accident, there are many potential sources of radioactive contamination: they are directly related to the extraction of uranium, its enrichment, processing, transportation, storage and disposal of waste. Numerous branches of science and industry that use isotopes are dangerous: isotope diagnostics, x-ray examination of patients, x-ray evaluation of the quality of technical products. Some building materials are sometimes radioactive.

Since 1999, the exposure limits for people in the Russian Federation have been regulated by Sanitary Rules SP 2.6.1.758-99 "Ionizing Radiation, Radiation Safety, Radiation Safety Standards (NRB-99)".

All dose limits and acceptable levels installed for:

1) personnel (persons working with man-made sources (group A) or who, due to working conditions, are in the area of their influence (group B));

2) the population, including persons from the staff, outside the scope of the conditions of their production activities.

For these categories of exposed persons, three classes of standards are provided, including basic, permissible and control dose levels, established by the administration of the institution in agreement with the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision at a level below the permissible level.

Radiation accidents according to the scale are divided into three types:

1) local accident - an accident in which the radiation consequences are limited to one building;

2) local accident - radiation consequences are limited to the buildings and territory of the NPP;

3) general average - radiation consequences extend beyond the territory of the NPP.

The main damaging factors radiation accidents:

1) exposure to external radiation (gamma and x-ray radiation; beta and gamma radiation; gamma-neutron radiation, etc.);

2) internal exposure from radionuclides that have entered the human body (alpha and beta radiation);

3) radiation exposure due to both external radiation sources and internal exposure;

4) the combined effect of both radiation and non-radiation factors (mechanical injury, thermal injury, chemical burn, intoxication, etc.).

After an accident on a radioactive trail, the main source of radiation hazard is external exposure. Inhalation of radionuclides into the body is practically excluded with the correct and timely use of respiratory protection.

51. CHEMICALLY HAZARDOUS OBJECTS

Chemically hazardous objects - objects of the national economy that produce, store or use emergency and chemically hazardous substances (CCS), the release of which into the environment can occur during industrial and transport accidents, during natural disasters.

Causes of accidents in production using chemicals, there are violations of the rules of transportation and storage, non-compliance with safety regulations, failure of units, mechanisms, pipelines, malfunction of means of transportation, depressurization of storage tanks, excess of standard stocks.

Chemically hazardous objects include:

1) enterprises of the chemical, oil refining industry;

2) enterprises of the food, meat and dairy industry and others that have refrigeration units in which ammonia is used as a refrigerant;

3) water treatment and other treatment facilities using chlorine as a disinfectant;

4) railway stations with sludge tracks for rolling stock with potent toxic substances (SDYAV);

5) railway stations for unloading and loading SDYAV;

6) warehouses and bases with a stock of pesticides and other substances for disinfection, disinfestation and deratization.

The release of CW into the environment can occur during industrial and transport accidents, during natural disasters. The enterprise itself and the territory adjacent to it may be in the focus of chemical contamination or the zone of chemical contamination. In accordance with this, allocate four degrees of danger of chemical objects:

I degree - more than 75 people fall into the zone of possible infection;

II degree - 40-000 people fall into the zone of possible chemical contamination;

III degree - less than 40 people fall;

IV degree - the zone of possible chemical contamination does not go beyond the boundaries of the object.

The enterprise itself and the territory adjacent to it may be in the focus of chemical contamination or the zone of chemical contamination. The possibility of a more or less prolonged contamination of the area depends on the persistence and ability of the chemical to contaminate surfaces.

In terms of toxicity and danger chemicals are divided into: extremely hazardous, highly hazardous, moderately hazardous, low hazardous. From the standpoint of the duration and time of the onset of the damaging effect, they are divided into unstable ones with a fast onset or delayed action, as well as persistent ones with a fast onset or delayed effect.

52. FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDOUS OBJECTS

The complication of technological processes, the increase in the building areas of national economy facilities increase their fire hazard. Fires and explosions with subsequent fires are traditionally dangerous for the territory of Russia. Fires in buildings and structures for industrial, residential, social and cultural purposes remain the most common disaster.

According to explosive, explosion and fire hazard, objects are divided into categories A, B, C, D, D, F, K. K Category A include oil refineries, chemical plants, pipelines, oil product storage facilities; to Category B - workshops for the preparation and transportation of coal dust, wood flour, powdered sugar, flour mills; to category B - sawmills, woodworking, carpentry, furniture, timber industries. Objects of other categories are considered less dangerous.

Consequences of fires and explosions determined by damaging factors such as:

1) open fire and sparks;

2) increased temperature of the environment and objects;

3) toxic combustion products, smoke;

4) reduced oxygen concentration;

5) falling parts of building structures, units, installations, etc.

The damaging factors of the explosion are:

1) an air blast wave, the main parameter of which is the excess pressure in its front;

2) fragmentation fields created by flying fragments of exploding objects, the damaging effect of which is determined by the number of flying fragments and their kinetic energy and radius of expansion.

Principles of extinguishing a fire are based on an understanding of the main ways of stopping combustion: reducing the rate of heat release or increasing the rate of heat removal from the combustion reaction zone. The main condition for this is to reduce the combustion temperature below the temperature below the extinction temperature. This is achieved by following four principles:

1) cooling of the reactants with continuous or sprayed jets of water;

2) by isolating the reactants from the combustion zone with a layer of foam or explosion products, fire-retardant strips or creating a gap in the combustible substance, isolation with a layer of fire-extinguishing powder is possible;

3) dilution of reactants to non-combustible concentrations or concentrations that do not support combustion with water mist or gas-water jets, as well as with water or non-combustible vapors or gases;

4) chemical inhibition of the combustion reaction with fire extinguishing powder or halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons.

53. RADIATION INTELLIGENCE

Effective protection population, maintaining the working capacity of workers and employees in many respects depend on early detection radioactive contamination, objective evaluation the prevailing situation. It should be borne in mind that the process of the formation of a radioactive trace lasts several hours. During this time, the headquarters for civil defense and emergency situations (GO and ES) carry out the tasks of predicting radioactive contamination of the area. The forecast provides only approximate data on the size and degree of pollution.

Specific actions of the forces and means of the civil defense, the population, as well as the decision to carry out rescue operations, are carried out on the basis of an assessment of the situation according to data received from intelligence actually operating on the ground. Using this data, determined specific regimes of radiation protection of the population, the beginning and duration of the work of rescuers shifts in the contaminated area, and the issues of decontamination of equipment, transport, and food are resolved.

In the event of an accident at nuclear power plants, radioactive contamination of the area is local character. It is caused mainly by biologically active radionuclides. The radiation dose rate on the ground is hundreds or even thousands of times less than in the trace of the radioactive cloud of a nuclear explosion. Therefore, the main danger to people is not external, but internal radiation.

Radiation reconnaissance is carried out at predetermined points, including populated areas, i.e., where infection from an accidental release is possible. Intelligence measures the dose rate, takes soil and water samples, examines in detail settlements, trade facilities, checks the degree of contamination of food, fodder, and determines the possibility of their use. The bulk of the work in the first days after the accident is carried out by reconnaissance units of civil defense units and formations, as well as civilian intelligence formations.

Tasks to control the degree of radioactive contamination food, food, fodder and water are solved by institutions of the network of observation and laboratory control - these are SES laboratories, agrochemical, veterinary, which are equipped with special dosimetric and radiometric equipment. In populated radiation-contaminated areas, additional control is established in the system of trade and public catering, in markets, in educational institutions and preschool institutions.

54. STABILITY OF THE FUNCTIONING OF ECONOMIC OBJECTS AND TECHNICAL SYSTEMS IN EMERGENCIES

Ensuring the stable operation of economic facilities in an emergency situation in peacetime and wartime is one of the main tasks Russian system of warning and action in emergency situations.

Under sustainability of the functioning of the object of the economy or other structures understand their ability in emergency situations to withstand the effects of damaging factors in order to maintain product output in the planned volume and range; preventing or limiting the threat to the life and health of personnel, the population and material damage, as well as ensuring the restoration of disrupted production in the shortest possible time.

On the stability of the operation of objects in an emergency affect the following factors:

1) reliability of personnel protection;

2) the ability to withstand the damaging factors of fixed production assets;

3) technological equipment, energy supply systems, logistics and sales;

4) readiness to conduct rescue and other urgent work and work to restore production, as well as reliability and continuity of management.

The listed factors determine the basic requirements for the sustainable functioning of economic facilities, set out in the Design Standards for engineering and technical measures.

The assessment of resistance to the impact of damaging factors of various emergency situations consists in:

1) identifying the most likely emergency situations in the area;

2) analysis and assessment of damaging factors of emergency situations;

3) determining the characteristics of the object of the economy and its elements;

4) determining the maximum values of damaging parameters;

5) determination of the main measures to improve the stability of the operation of economic objects (appropriate increase in the stability limit).

The main criterion for sustainability is the limit of stability of the object of the economy to the parameters of the damaging factors of the emergency:

1) mechanical damaging parameters;

2) thermal (light) radiation;

3) chemical contamination (lesion);

4) radioactive contamination (irradiation). The definition of the most probable emergency situations is made on the basis of the type of economic object, the nature of the technological process and the characteristics of the geographical area. The maximum parameters of damaging factors are determined by calculation or are set by the headquarters of the Civil Defense Emergencies.

55. EMERGENCY AND RESCUE OPERATIONS AT CHEMICAL FACILITIES

Rescue work should begin immediately after the decision to carry out urgent work; be carried out using personal protective equipment for respiratory organs and skin, corresponding to the nature of the chemical situation, continuously day and night in any weather, in compliance with the mode of activity of rescuers appropriate to the situation until the work is completed.

Pre-conducted reconnaissance of the emergency facility and the contamination zone, the extent and boundaries of the contamination zone, clarification of the state of the emergency facility, determination of the type of emergency (ES).

When carrying out rescue operations medical assistance is provided to the injured, they are evacuated to medical centers; localization, suppression or reduction to the minimum possible level of impact of damaging factors arising during an accident is carried out. At the same time, search and rescue operations are carried out in the contaminated zone by a continuous visual inspection of the territory, buildings, structures, workshops, vehicles and other places where people could be at the time of the accident, as well as by interviewing eyewitnesses and using special devices in case of destruction and blockages .

Rescue work in the contaminated zone is being carried out with the mandatory use of personal protective equipment for skin and respiratory organs.

When rescuing the injured at chemically hazardous facilities are taken into account the nature, severity of the lesion, the location of the victim and the release of victims under the rubble of destroyed buildings and technological systems, as well as in damaged blocked premises; emergency termination of exposure to hazardous chemicals (OHS) on the body through the use of personal protective equipment and evacuation from the contaminated area; providing first aid to victims; evacuation of the injured to medical centers and institutions for the provision of medical care and further treatment.

Held localization of the emergency and the focus of the lesion by cessation of releases of OHV; creation of ascending heat flows in the direction of movement of the OHV cloud; dispersion and displacement of the OHV cloud by the gas-air flow; restrictions on the area of the strait and the intensity of OHV evaporation; collection (pumping) of OHV into reserve tanks; cooling the OHV strait with solid carbon dioxide or neutralizing substances; backfilling of the strait with bulk substances; thickening of the strait with special compounds, followed by neutralization and removal; burning the strait.

56. CIVIL DEFENSE

The presence of weapons in service with modern armies, major industrial accidents and disasters, the scale of damage from which is not inferior to weapons of mass destruction, forces us to pay the most serious attention to the problems of preserving the life and health of people under the influence of destructive weapons. The problem is aggravated by the increasing incidence of terrorist attacks using weapons of mass destruction (most often chemical and biological). To commit a terrorist act, criminals choose large infrastructure facilities with large crowds of people: metro stations, railway stations, supermarkets, indoor sports and concert halls, as well as city water supply systems, food shipments. Therefore, in modern conditions the main task of civil defense is the protection of the population with the help of a set of measures aimed at preventing the defeat of people or attenuating the impact of damaging factors. It begins with the preparation of the management team, forces and means, as well as the personnel of the facility for actions in emergency situations and is organized and carried out in accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation "On the procedure for preparing the population in the field of protection against emergency situations."

The main tasks of training:

1) teaching the population the rules of conduct and the basics of protection from emergencies, methods of providing first aid to victims, the rules for using protective structures and personal protective equipment;

2) training and retraining of managers and specialists of the facility and the development of skills for the preparation and management of forces and means for emergency response;

3) practical development by the management of the civil defense services of the facility, the personnel of the formations of their duties in emergency rescue and other urgent work and methods for their implementation;

4) notification of the population and informing about the rules of conduct;

5) medical prevention and first aid to victims.

The training of special non-military formations is carried out directly at the facility according to existing programs. At the facility, the training of the management staff, specialists, commanding officers and personnel of the formations is carried out in the classroom, training of the emergency committee, staff training, command and staff exercises and integrated exercises.

57. UNIFIED STATE SYSTEM FOR PREVENTION AND EMERGENCY RESPONSE

The Russian Federation has a unified state system for the prevention and elimination of emergencies, which has control bodies, forces and means in order to protect the population and national property from the impact of disasters, accidents, environmental and natural disasters or reduce their impact.

Its activities are based on:

1) recognition of the fact that it is impossible to exclude the risk of an emergency;

2) observance of the principle of preventive safety, which provides for a reduction in the likelihood of an emergency;

3) priority of preventive work; an integrated approach in the formation of the system, i.e. taking into account all types of emergencies, all stages of their development and a variety of consequences;

4) building a system on a legal basis with a delimitation of the rights and obligations of participants.

ESRC comprises territorial and functional subsystems and five levels (federal, regional, territorial, local, facility).

The forces and means of the RSChS system are divided into forces and means of observation and control, as well as forces and means of eliminating the consequences of emergencies.

Forces and means of observation and control include bodies, services, institutions exercising state supervision, inspection, monitoring and control of the state of the natural environment, hazardous objects, and human health.

Forces and means of liquidation of consequences Emergency Situations

consist of paramilitary and non-military firefighting, search and rescue and emergency recovery units of federal and other organizations (Ministry of Agriculture, Roshydromet, Ministry of Natural Resources, civil defense units, services of the Ministry of Emergency Situations, the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Industry and Energy, etc.). The RSChS system operates in three modes.

1. Daily activity mode - functioning of the system in peacetime under normal industrial, radiation, chemical, biological, hydrometeorological and seismic conditions.

2. High availability mode - the functioning of the system in case of deterioration of the situation and receiving forecasts about the possibility of an emergency, the threat of war.

3. emergency mode - the functioning of the system in the event of the occurrence and elimination of emergencies in peacetime, as well as in the case of the use of modern weapons.

The decision to introduce one of the regimes is made by the Government of the Russian Federation, the Ministry of Emergency Situations or the Commission for Emergency Situations.

The management of the entire RSChS system is carried out by the Ministry for Civil Defense, Emergency Situations and Elimination of Consequences of Natural Disasters (EMERCOM of Russia).

58. TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNICAL WORKERS TO COMPLY WITH LABOR SAFETY REGULATIONS

Training of engineering and technical workers (ITR) of all specialties on regulatory safety requirements is mandatory; created and operated equipment and technology are the main sources of traumatic and harmful factors acting in the environment.

Developing new technology, the engineer is obliged not only to ensure its functional perfection, manufacturability and acceptable economic indicators, but also to achieve the required levels of its environmental friendliness and safety in the technosphere. To this end, an engineer, when designing or before operating equipment, must identify all negative factors, establish their significance, develop and apply in the design of machines means of reducing negative factors to acceptable values, as well as means of preventing accidents and disasters using new technologies.

Since increasing the environmental friendliness of modern technical systems is often achieved by using eco-bioprotective technology, the engineer must know, be able to apply and create new means of protection, especially in the field of their professional activities. The engineer must understand that in the field of environmental protection, low-waste technologies and production cycles, including the receipt and processing of raw materials, production of products, recycling and disposal of waste, have the greatest protective effect, and in the field of safety - systems with high reliability, unmanned technologies and remote-controlled systems .

Solving the problems of the Belarusian Railways in the design and operation of technical systems is impossible without the engineer knowing the levels of permissible impacts of negative factors on humans and the environment, as well as knowing the negative consequences that arise when these regulatory requirements are violated.

This knowledge should be owned by specialists from all sectors of the economy, specialists in the field of energy, transport, metallurgy, chemistry and a number of other industries, specialists in monitoring the safety of the technosphere and the environmental friendliness of technical facilities, environmental monitoring in the regions, experts in assessing the safety of the technosphere and the environmental friendliness of technical objects, projects and plans; engineers - developers of eco-bioprotective systems and protective equipment. The main tasks of the activities of such specialists should be a comprehensive assessment of technical systems and industries from the standpoint of the Belarusian Railways, the development of new means and systems of eco-bioprotection, and management in the field of Belarusian Railways at the industrial and regional levels.

59. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Ensuring environmental safety on the territory of the Russian Federation, the formation and strengthening of environmental law and order are based on the operation since March 1992 of the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection" in combination with measures of organizational, legal, economic and educational impact. The law contains a set of rules for the protection of the natural environment in the new conditions of economic development and regulates environmental relations in the sphere of the entire natural environment, without singling out its individual objects, the protection of which is dedicated to special legislation.

Objectives of environmental legislation are: protection of the natural environment (through it and the protection of human health); prevention of the harmful effects of economic or other activities; improvement of the natural environment, improvement of its quality.

These tasks are implemented through three groups of norms:

1) environmental quality standards.

These include maximum allowable exposure standards (chemical, physical and biological): maximum allowable concentration of harmful substances, maximum allowable emission, MPD, radiation exposure standards, standards of residual chemicals in food, etc .;

2) environmental requirements to economic and other activities affecting the environment;

3) environmental protection and sanitary inspection authorities have the right to carry out environmental control and impose bans on the implementation of activities at all stages - design, placement, construction, commissioning of facilities, as well as bring the perpetrators to justice for environmental offenses. The organization of control over the state of the environment in the regions is entrusted to local authorities. At the same time, the state of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and soil near transport highways and enterprises is monitored by sanitary-industrial laboratories.

The mechanism for fulfilling these requirements is expressed in combination of economic methods of management with administrative and legal measures to ensure the quality of the natural environment.

economic mechanism environmental protection involves financing, lending, benefits for the introduction of environmentally friendly technologies in the calculation of taxes, which is a direct environmental incentive in the protection of the natural environment.

Decision goals environmental tasks are the rational use of natural resources, elimination of environmental pollution, environmental education and education of the entire public of the country.

60. REGULATORY AND TECHNICAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE BZD

The legal basis of legislation in the field of ensuring the safety of life is the Constitution - the main law of the state, where it is established that labor and health of people are protected in the Russian Federation; Everyone has the right to a healthy environment. Laws and other legal acts adopted in the Russian Federation must not contradict the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

These foundations include: environmental safety, labor protection and emergency situations.

1. Environmental Safety. Ensuring environmental safety on the territory of the Russian Federation, the formation and strengthening of environmental law and order are based on the Federal Law of 1992 “On Environmental Protection” in combination with measures of organizational, legal, economic and educational influence.

The law contains a set of rules for environmental protection in the new conditions of economic development and regulates environmental relations in the sphere of the entire natural environment, without singling out its individual objects, the protection of which is dedicated to special legislation. The objectives of this legislation are: protection of the natural environment, prevention of the harmful effects of economic or other activities, improvement of the natural environment, improvement of its quality.

The standards include MPC (chemical, physical, biological origin). Environmental requirements are imposed on all economic entities, regardless of ownership and subordination.

2. Occupational Safety and Health - this is a system for ensuring the safety of life and health of workers in the process of labor activity, including legal, socio-economic, organizational and technical, sanitary and hygienic, medical and preventive, rehabilitation and other measures.

The main directions of state policy in the field of labor protection:

1) recognition and provision of the priority of the life and health of employees in relation to the results of the production activities of enterprises;

2) establishment of uniform regulatory requirements for labor protection for enterprises of all forms of ownership, regardless of the scope of economic activity and departmental subordination;

3) protection of the interests of workers affected by accidents at work and others.

3. Emergencies. Since 1998, the Federal Law “On Civil Defense” has been in force. The law defines the tasks, the legal basis for their implementation and the powers of state authorities of the Russian Federation, constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local governments and organizations in the field of civil defense. Main tasks of Civil Defense:

1) teaching the population how to protect themselves from the dangers arising from the conduct of military operations or as a result of these operations;

2) informing the population about the dangers arising from the conduct of hostilities or as a result of these actions;

3) evacuation of the population, material and cultural values to safe areas;

4) provision of shelters and personal protective equipment to the population;

5) carrying out emergency rescue operations in case of danger to the population, etc.

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