History of Economic Thought. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Free library / Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

History of Economic Thought. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. BACKGROUND OF THE ECONOMIC THOUGHT OF THE ANCIENT EAST

In the countries of the Ancient East, early manifestations of economic thought are noted, which is explained by favorable economic conditions and a warm climate.

The basis of the economy of that period was agriculture. Gradually, stable human settlements arose, improved agricultural methods, harvests increased, irrigation systems were built. As a result, it became possible to accumulate material wealth.

The countries of the Ancient East very early experienced an economic upsurge, the process of political unification and cultural flourishing. Already in the IV millennium BC. e. the slave-owning system, the state, was born in them, and in the depths of the dominant natural economy, commodity-money relations developed over time. Community, state and private forms of ownership interact.

Economic thought tried to solve the emerging acute problems, it was reflected in economic legislation, and in the economic demands of the masses, philosophical systems, and even in special writings.

One of the most important contradictions economic system of the Ancient East was the incompleteness of the process destruction of the peasant community. The community maintained its position in the fields of agriculture, water distribution, and canal repairs. Against the threat of enslavement as unpaid debtors, peasants fought to preserve the community. The enslavement of foreigners, and even more so of local residents, met with great resistance (slave uprisings found support among the poor, the states were in a state of permanent civil war).

The expansion of debt slavery led to a reduction in the social reserves of despotism and to the intensification of popular uprisings; slave-owning states often disintegrated (in Egypt, the centralized state disintegrated several times).

Since its inception, the state has played an exceptionally important role in economic history. The large-scale participation of the state in economic life (regulation of irrigation, etc.) determined the specifics of the Asian mode of production. The problems of its development are reflected in a number of written sources that have come down to us. In particular, irrigation systems were observed by a government official, the distribution of water was controlled by the pharaoh, sovereign or king. The despotic and intrusive interference of the state disrupted the economy, infringed on the interests of both the masters and the middle strata of the population. For the first time in the history of economic thought, the difficult problem of defining the limits of state intervention into the economic life of the country.

The economy of the states of the Ancient East was mainly natural, but trade has already received significant development (when trade arises, then production becomes commercial). Thus, a topic for debate appears in economic thought - about the advantages of natural and commercial farming.

The main problems, which stood before the early economic thought of the Ancient East:

1) slavery;

2) community;

3) the state;

4) natural and commodity production.

2. ANCIENT EGYPT AND BABYLONIA

On the territory of ancient Asia, large centers of civilization were formed, slave ownership reached significant development, and the first slave-owning states arose. Numerous historical monuments allow us to judge the origin and development of economic ideas.

In the example ancient egypt humanity has the earliest monuments of economic thought in the history of self-organization within the framework of state formations. The most important is considered "Instruction of the Heracleopolis king to his son Merikar" (XXI century BC) и “The Speech of Ipuser” (beginning of the 18th century BC). The first monument reflects the economic functions of the state, the “rules” of public administration, and methods of economic management, the mastery of which is as important for the ruler as any other sphere of art. The “Speech of Ipuser” describes the social revolution (“the common people of the country became rich”), the destruction of the centralized control system and the consequences of this. The main idea of this speech is to prevent the uncontrolled growth of loan operations, debt slavery and usury in order to avoid the enrichment of commoners and the outbreak of civil war in the country.

For the first time in world history, the author proves that social inequality is quite natural, since people are unequal by nature. Delivering his speech allegedly before the king of Egypt, he was indignant at the fact that as a result of the coup, the slaves began to "own their mouths", the poor received the property of the rich and the latter had to work.

In Babylonia - an ancient eastern state located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the most famous are two collections:

1 )laws of King Eshnunna (XX century BC), in which economic issues were interpreted;

2) laws king of the first Babylonian dynasty Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), or code of laws, which operated in this country in the 18th century. BC e. In accordance with it, in order to avoid the destruction of natural-economic relations and a threat to the country's sovereignty (due to the weakening of state structures and the army from reduced tax revenues to the treasury), extremely strict legal norms were introduced. The most interesting for characterizing the economic thought of Babylonia are the articles that reflect the protection of citizens’ property, the rules of rent, hiring and usury, so that “the strong do not oppress the weak,” and provide for various forms of state regulation and control of the economic activities of the population.

Some examples of legislative guidelines in the code of Hammurabi:

1) anyone who encroaches on someone else’s private property, including a slave, is punishable by slavery or the death penalty;

2) for untimely payment of debts, neither the tsarist soldiers nor other citizens are no longer deprived of their land;

3) the period of debt slavery (of a wife, son, daughter, father) should not exceed 3 years, and the debt itself is canceled after serving the sentence;

4) the limit of a cash loan cannot exceed 20%, in kind - 33% of its initial amount. Trade is treated as a normal phenomenon. Many articles were devoted to its regulation, the hiring of artisans and the slave trade are allowed.

3. ECONOMIC THOUGHT OF ANCIENT INDIA

The economic thought of ancient India was embodied in the most ancient monuments - Vedas, which are a collection of prayers, hymns, spells (1st millennium BC). The appearance of such works of ancient Indian epic containing economic ideas as "Mahab Harata" и "Ramayana". The first tells about the wars of the Bharata tribe, the second - about the exploits of Rama.

The development of economic thought was reflected in literary and religious monuments. Among them are famous "Laws of Manu", which contain rich material about the socio-economic conditions of India in the 3rd millennium BC. e., express through the lips of priests (Brahmins) the economic views of slave owners. They established the forms of turning a free person into a slave (dasa), and consolidated his powerless position in society. The "Laws of Manu" reflected the existence of hereditary castes. The Brahmanical concept of economic policy substantiated in them assigned a significant role to the state, which was entrusted with providing income, regulating economic activity, exploiting the free population, etc.

An outstanding monument to the history of economic thought in ancient India is the treatise "Arthashastra" (author - brahmin Kautilya (late IV - early III centuries BC)). "Arthashastra" characterizes the socio-economic and political structure of the country.

The treatise tells about social inequality, justifies and consolidates it, confirming the legitimacy of slavery, the division of society into castes. The basis of the country's population was the Aryans, divided into four castes: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins and kshatriyas enjoyed the greatest privileges.

The treatise is devoted to artha - material gain: the acquisition of land, the receipt of taxes, trade profits, interest, etc. It describes in detail the state of the country's economy, the main occupations of the population. Agriculture was the main industry, along with crafts and trade. The treatise assigned a large role to the construction and maintenance of irrigation systems. Attention is focused on the royal economy and the economic policy of the sovereign. The goal of good governance is the growth of state wealth, which is made up of the results of the labor of the population, therefore it should be spent on public needs: maintaining irrigation facilities, building roads, etc. Slavery is recognized as a natural phenomenon for the "accumulation of wealth." The treatise pays great attention to the regulation of slavery, which retained the features of the patriarchal system. The main goals of state policy are to replenish the treasury with the help of taxes and to combat the theft of state property. The sovereign must fight commercial speculation and usury. "Arthashastra" contains rich information about the social division of labor and exchange, an integral part of the whole doctrine of the conduct of the national economy is the doctrine of trade. "Arthashastra" paid great attention to the interpretation of the economic role of the state. It carried out the idea of the active intervention of the state in economic life, in the regulation of social relations.

4. ECONOMIC THOUGHT IN ANCIENT CHINA

The most mature in the history of the Ancient East was the economic thought of China. Economic contradictions reached great severity in China, which led to a whole series of reforms and political upheavals.

An important place in the history of economic thought of ancient China is occupied by Confucianism - ancient Chinese teaching Confucius (Kunzi) (551-479 BC). During the time of Confucius, significant changes took place in the country's economy associated with the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the establishment of slavery. Agriculture fell into decline, community ties were destroyed, property differentiation increased, and the position of private slaveholding farms strengthened.

Confucius one of the first created the doctrine of natural law, on which his philosophical and socio-economic concept was based. He proceeded from the fact that the social structure is based on the divine principle. It determines the fate of man and the social order. The division of society into "noble" (upper class) and "common people" ("low"), whose lot is physical labor, Confucius considered natural. He did not reduce relations between slave owners and slaves only to coercion and called for instilling "trust" of slaves in the exploiters, he advised the "noble" to seek the loyalty of the slaves.

Confucius believed that labor increases the wealth of both the people and the sovereign, supported by the peasant community and the patriarchal family. The regulation of patriarchal family relations is the basis for the stability of the social system. The authorities should take care of the even distribution of wealth, the regulation of agricultural work, the limitation of taxes and the moral improvement of people.

Confucianism found its development in the views Mencius (372-289 BC), which linked social inequality with the “heavenly will” and justified the opposition between mental and physical labor. At the same time Mencius was against the tightening of slaveholding oppression, advocated the restoration of communal land ownership, advocated for the community, the economic interests of the peasants.

Confucianism was criticized Mo-tzu and his supporters (Mohists). They preached the natural equality of people, denied class, the privileges of the nobility.

Mohists substantiated the need for the all-round development of production to meet the needs of the entire population, the general participation of people in physical labor, the development of the free initiative of small producers.

One of the significant monuments of the history of economic ideas in China is treatise "Guanzi" (IV-III centuries BC). Showing concern for the peasantry, the authors proposed limiting their compulsory labor service and protecting them from speculators and moneylenders. In order to strengthen the economic position of the peasants, the authors of the treatise proposed changing the tax system and increasing bread prices. They placed the concern for improving the well-being of the people on the state, which had to actively intervene in economic affairs, eliminate the reasons that interfere with the well-being of the people, create grain reserves to stabilize prices, take measures to overcome unfavorable natural conditions, etc.

5. ECONOMIC THOUGHT IN ANCIENT ROME

Successes Ancient Rome in the multiplication of material wealth based on slave labor. The main area of application of slave labor in ancient Rome was agriculture, which left its mark on the nature of economic thought, which mainly solved agrarian problems.

For the Roman patricians, commerce, crafts, production, in addition to occupations related to land, agriculture, were considered unworthy. The main attention was drawn to the issues of the practice of economic activity, the organization of the management of the land latifundia.

Cato. In the 3rd century. BC e. The Roman state rose, in which, along with large latifundia, there were slave-holding farms closely connected with the market. The latter was defended by Cato. His main work is "Agriculture". Cato is a military leader, quaestor, consul in Spain, a talented orator and an observant historian; he had a thorough knowledge of agriculture.

Cato's views:

1) of all types of economic activity, he valued occupations related to agriculture above all;

2) considered profit as an excess over value, which he erroneously reduced to production costs;

3) was against the use of hired labor, he sought to provide income from slaves and paid much attention to the organization of their labor;

4) demanded the maximum load and regulation of the working day of slaves. Fearing harmony among them, Cato demanded that quarrels be maintained between them and exhaust them with labor.

"However, slave labor in agriculture was unproductive, and Cato subsequently advocated pasture farming, and then began to justify trade and usury.

Gracchi (Tiberius and Gaius). In centuries BC uh. An economic and political crisis began to develop in the Roman state. An attempt to stop it was made by the Gracchi brothers, who put forward agrarian reform project.

They demanded:

1) limit large land ownership;

2) to strengthen the position of the ruined peasants.

But in their struggle against the big slave owners, the Gracchi perished.

Varro. sought to strengthen the latifundia Varro - scientist, agronomist, archaeologist and historian. Considering the growth of commercial agriculture, Varro made it his task to substantiate the receipt of sustainable crops in the country and argued the need for a union between agriculture and animal husbandry.

Varro spoke out for the maximum exploitation of slaves (his main work is treatise "On Agriculture").

Columella. In connection with the intensification of the crisis of the slave latifundia, a criticism of the mistreatment of slaves.

Columella's views:

1) pointed out the lack of reasonable firmness towards slaves;

2) expressed the need to strive for an intensive economy by using the scientific achievements of his time;

3) called for the production of goods for the market, and not to be content with the consumption of goods produced in one's own household;

4) defended the need to increase the productivity of slaves and the division of labor between them.

6. TEACHINGS OF XENOPHON

Xenophon (444-356 BC) - Greek thinker, contemporary Plato, predecessor Aristotle. In his political views, he acted as a supporter of aristocratic Sparta and an opponent of Athenian democracy. In a short essay "The Lacedaemonian State"

Xenophon gave a vivid description of the socio-economic structure of Sparta - a program of action for the Greek slave owners.

Economic views are reflected in "Domostroy" ("Economykos"). It is from the title of this work that the name of the science comes - economy (from Gr. oiKonomikc - "art of the household"), although in the time of Xenophon it was understood only housekeeping rules.

Defining the subject of home economics, he characterized it as the science of managing and enriching the economy. The main branch of the slave economy Xenophon considered agriculture, which he qualified as the most worthy occupation. He saw the main goal of economic activity in ensuring the production of useful things, i.e., use values.

to crafts Xenophon belonged negatively, considered them an occupation suitable only for slaves. Trade was not included in the category of worthy activities of a free Greek. At the same time, in the interests of the slave-owning economy Xenophon allowed the use of commodity-money relations.

"Domostroy" contained numerous advice to slave owners in the field of economic activity. Their lot was managing the farm, exploiting slaves, but in no case physical labor.

Xenophon expressed contempt for physical labor, qualifying it as the occupation of slaves. Giving advice on the rational management of the economy and the exploitation of slaves, he taught how to treat slaves like animals.

Xenophon one of the first thinkers of antiquity paid great attention to the issues division of labor, considering it as a natural phenomenon, as an important condition for increasing the production of use values. He came close to the principle of manufacturing division of labor.

Xenophon first pointed out the relationship between the development of the division of labor and the market. In his opinion, the division of professions depended on the size of the market.

Xenophon - the ideologist, first of all, of a subsistence slave-owning economy. At the same time, he considered the development of trade and money circulation useful for this economy. I saw them as one of the sources of enrichment and advised me to use them to my advantage.

Xenophon recognized money as a necessary medium of exchange and a concentrated form of wealth. Condemning money as trading and usurious capital, he recommended hoarding it as treasure.

У Xenophon understanding dual purpose things: as use value, on the one hand, and exchange value, on the other. As an ideologist of natural economy, he did not attach much importance to exchange value. The value of a thing was made dependent on utility, and the price was directly explained by the movement of supply and demand.

7. THE TEACHINGS OF PLATO

Economic ideas occupied a significant place in the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427-347 BC)

Summary a task teachings Plato - a way out of the crisis of the slave-owning state.

His projects were a new phenomenon in the history of Greek economic thought.

Their meaning is as follows:

1) exaggeration of the role of the state - the state can completely regulate all relations of economic and political life by its prescriptions;

2) saving classes - some must work, others - to fight, others - to manage, and the situation cannot change;

3) the social system of Sparta is the primary and most pure.

His best known work "Politics or State". Plato's socio-economic concept received concentrated expression in the project ideal state. Plato considered the state as a community of people generated by nature itself, for the first time expressing the idea of the inevitability of dividing the state (city) into two parts: rich and poor.

Plato paid great attention to the problem division of labor, considering it as a natural phenomenon. His concept substantiated the innate inequality of people. He interpreted the division into free and slave as a normal state given by nature itself. Slaves were seen as the main productive force, and their exploitation as a means of enriching slave owners. Only Greeks could be free citizens. Barbarians and foreigners turned into slaves.

The main branch of the economy Plato considered agriculture, but he also approved of crafts. He saw the economic basis of the state in a subsistence economy based on the exploitation of slaves. With natural division of labor Plato bound the need sharing. He allowed small trade, which was designed to serve the division of labor. However, in general, to trade, especially large ones, to trading profits Plato was very negative. In his opinion, trade should be mainly carried out by foreigners, slaves. For a free Greek, he considered trade unworthy and even shameful.

In an ideal state Plato free people were divided into three estates:

1) philosophers called upon to govern the state;

2) warriors whose duty is to protect the people;

3) landowners, artisans and small merchants, whose duty is the material production of goods necessary for the whole society. They cannot do without a personal interest in the results of their labor, and they are allowed to have private property.

Slaves were not included in any of these classes. They were equated with inventory, were considered as talking tools of production. Philosophers and warriors made up the highest part of society, about which Plato showed special concern. He intended to provide them with socialized consumption, which gave rise to interpret this as a kind of "aristocratic communism."

Project Plato, set out in "Politics and the State", has undergone an unsuccessful attempt at implementation.

8. ARISTOTLE'S TEACHINGS

The largest figure representing the economic thought of the ancient world is Aristotle.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) - the son of a court physician, in Athens he was a student Plato, after the death of the teacher, spent three years in Asia Minor, in 343 he became a teacher A. Makedonsky, after his death he was accused of atheism.

Aristotle much more than other contemporaries delved into specific economic problems. In his work "Nikamah Ethics" he developed a project of an ideal state in which he considered and recognized the need division of society into free and slave and the division of labor into mental and physical. He is dismissive of the craft and believes that it is low for people to engage in crafts.

Considering the activity of people, he refers one side of their activity to the natural sphere of the economy, and the other side to the unnatural sphere - chrematistics.

Economy in reasoning Aristotle It is represented by the most important and honorable activity of people of agriculture, those who are engaged in crafts and petty trade.

Its purpose - meet the vital needs of a person, and therefore it should be the object of public administration.

Chrematistics the thinker compares with the careless art of making a fortune through large trade transactions and usurious operations, its goal is limitless, since the main thing in this area is the possession of money.

В concepts about economics and chrematistics the position of Aristotle as a supporter of natural economy is visible. Idealizing the model of a slave-owning state system, he artificially simplifies the most important elements of economic life.

К costs of Aristotle's concept a dual characteristic of the exchange should be attributed. In one case, the exchange is regarded as an act of satisfaction of needs and allows us to interpret the use value of the goods as a category of economic spheres. And in another case, the exchange symbolizes an act of profit and gives grounds to consider exchange value as a category of chrematistics.

From the standpoint of this concept Aristotle demonstrates his aversion to large trade and lending transactions. He attributes such forms of trade as direct commodity exchange and commodity exchange through money to the sphere of chrematistics.

Aristotle said that usury rightfully causes hatred and is against nature, it makes banknotes an object of property, they lose the purpose for which they were created.

Considering education as a means of strengthening the state system, Aristotle believed that schools should be only public and in them all citizens, with the exception of slaves, should receive the same education, accustoming them to the state order.

Economic views Aristotle not separated from his philosophical teachings, they are woven into the general fabric of reasoning about the foundations of ethics and politics (the science of the state, managing people). In his treatises, one can feel the desire to isolate and understand certain categories and connections that later became the subject of political economy as a science.

9. MEDIEVAL DOCTRINES OF WESTERN EUROPE. SALIC TRUTH

Medieval European thought was strongly influenced by Antiquity.

Feature of medieval teachings participated in their creation catholic church, who became a large feudal lord, owning lands and peasants. The issues of effective land management and income generation have become as important for the church as for any other economic entity. Monks began to take part in the search for answers to economic questions - canons (canonists), church lawyers, one of the most educated people of their time.

Characteristics of the economic thought of the Middle Ages:

1) economic thought was hidden behind theological texts of intricate content;

2) there was a reflection of the struggle between the peasant community and the feudal estate (colonate, latifundia, villa). The feudal estates achieved only the subjugation of the community, and not its elimination. Community meadows, forests, swamps, and pastures have been preserved. Their preservation is one of the demands of the peasant uprisings. This is the basis of the conflict between communal property and private property;

3) the presence of large-scale production due to the concentration of peasants;

4) there was an expansion of cities with their trade, industry;

5) the economic policy of the feudal estate occupied a special place in the development of economic thought.

Salic truth (according to the exact name - "Salic Law" - Lex Salica) is judicial officer - a collection of ancient judicial customs of the Franks, recorded during VI-IX centuries.

The legal customs recorded in the Salic Truth relate mainly to the life and way of life of an ordinary Frankish village.

Particular attention in the Salic truth is given to allod.

Allodium - among the Germanic tribes and in the early feudal states of Western Europe - freely alienable individual-family land property. With the development of feudal relations, most of the small allods turned into dependent peasant holdings, and the allods of large and medium-sized landowners into benefices and fiefs. As a relic, allodial property also existed under developed feudalism. In Salic Truth, articles about allods mainly concern its inheritance.

Salic truth testifies that the Franks had a wide variety of industry - animal husbandry, beekeeping, horticulture, viticulture, as well as hunting and fishing. However, the main role in the economy of the Franks was played by agriculture. They sowed grain crops, flax, and had vegetable gardens where they grew beans, peas, cabbage, and turnips. The Franks were well acquainted with the plow and harrow. Plowing was done with oxen. Damage to a plowed field was punishable by a fine. The grain harvests were rich. The Franks carried the harvest from the fields on carts to which horses were harnessed. Every free Frankish peasant's house had outbuildings. The resulting harvest was stored in barns and barns. Water mills were not uncommon in the Frankish economy.

10. SOCIO-ECONOMIC VIEWS OF IBN KHALDUN

In the economic literature, among the most significant representatives of medieval economic thought in the East, as a rule, a prominent ideologist of the Arab states is mentioned. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406). He lived in the North African country of the Maghreb. The state had a large fund of land and replenished the treasury with taxes.

Ibn Khaldun merit belongs interpretation of society as a collection of people, united on the basis of labor, on the basis of the production of material goods.

His life and work are connected with the Arab countries in northern Africa, where, in the spirit of the Asian mode of production, the state retained the right to own and dispose of significant land, collect burdensome taxes from the incomes of the population for the needs of the treasury. And since the early 7th century. Meccan merchant Muhammad - the first preacher of the Koran - informed the Muslim world about the new (Islamic) religious ideology, it seemed that nothing could weaken the "omnipotence" of anti-market postulates.

faith in the inviolability of class differentiation of society, i.e., in the fact that Allah gave an advantage to some people over others, as well as in the godliness of essentially barter trade, at all stages of the evolution of society from “primitiveness” to “civilization”, he tried to strengthen in the souls of all believers and Ibn Khaldun. To this end, he put forward the concept of a certain "social physics". At the same time, the latter is not devoid of individual instructive ideas and historical-economic generalizations, such as the need for an exalted attitude towards work, condemnation of stinginess, greed and wastefulness, understanding of the objective nature of progressive structural changes in economic spheres, thanks to which long-standing economic The concerns of people in agriculture and cattle breeding were supplemented by relatively new occupations in handicraft production and trade.

The transition to civilization and, accordingly, the excess production of material goods, will, according to Ibn Khaldun, repeatedly increase national wealth, and over time, each person will be able to gain greater wealth, including luxury goods, but at the same time, general social and property equality will never come and the division of society into “layers” (estates) according to property and the principle of “leadership” will never disappear.

The thinker points to the conditionality of the problem of prosperity and lack of material goods in society, primarily by the size of cities, more precisely, by the degree of their population, and makes the following findings:

1) with the growth of the city, the supply of “necessary” and “unnecessary” items increases, leading to a decrease in prices for the first and an increase in prices for the second and at the same time indicating the prosperity of the city;

2) the small population of the city is the cause of the shortage and high cost of all material goods necessary for its population;

3) the flourishing of the city (as well as society as a whole) is real in the face of declining taxes, including duties and requisitions of rulers in city markets.

11. THE TEACHINGS OF THOMAS AQINA

Major works Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) are "Suma Against the Pagans" и "The Bag of Theology".

He was the finisher of the views canonists, lived at a time when the feudal system and feudal classes had already taken shape, feudal wealth grew and commodity-money relations reached a significant development.

The most important and widespread idea was doctrine of "just price". According to ancient tradition, it was understood as a price equal to the labor costs for the manufacture of any thing. Failure to comply with this rule, based on justice, creates evil in society and leads it to decline. Usury and appropriation of trade profits were also considered evil. Meanwhile, these phenomena were spreading more and more widely, and the church began to take part in trade and usury operations.

The contradiction between morality and economics was removed Thomas Aquinas - a consistent ideologue of the feudal class. He considered social division of labor How natural phenomenon and believed that it underlies the division of society into classes, argued that people are born different in nature.

Some should cultivate the land, others build houses, and some people will be free from worldly concerns and should devote themselves to spiritual work in the name of saving the rest.

He concludes: serfs were created for physical labor, while the privileged estates must devote themselves to spiritual activity, engage in mental labor.

As an ideologue of the feudal class Thomas Aquinas sought to justify wealth. It is the result of human activity in the same way as the right of private property.

Important place in learning Thomas Aquinas which usually takes "fair price" theory. He considered a fair price to be one that:

1) takes into account the labor expended on the production of goods;

2) enables the seller to live according to his social position.

The "fair price" theory aims to justify estate privileges and reflects the interests of the feudal class and the merchant class.

Thomas Aquinas justified the receipt of land rent.

Labor - a charitable deed necessary for the maintenance of life. Labor makes it possible to distribute alms, but the feudal lord may not work, receiving rent.

Thomas Aquinas was supporter of subsistence farming, since it is the basis of human well-being.

Some types of trade, from his point of view, are "fair" trade, in particular, the importation of basic necessities into the country. The profit received by the merchants does not contradict Christian virtue (this is payment for labor).

Thomas Aquinas condemned usury, but allowed cases where interest may be charged:

1) when the debtor used the money lent to him for the purpose of making a profit;

2) when the creditor experiences difficulties caused by the delay of money from the debtor;

3) if the creditor does not receive a possible income from this money.

Interest should be considered as a payment for the risk associated with the provision of a loan.

12. "RUSSIAN TRUTH"

Russian Truth was the first Russian written source that has come down to us customary law. Her various lists are known.

Several editions of this monument have come down to us: the most famous are - short and lengthy. The short edition constitutes the original authentic package of Pravda (Yaroslav's truth). This Truth was based on customs of the Slavic tribesadapted to the conditions of feudal relations. The lengthy edition is nothing more than the Pravda of Yaroslav, modified and supplemented by subsequent princes, which received the name Pravda Yaroslavich. Both of these editions bear the common name Court of Yaroslav Vladimirovich.

The last edition of the lengthy Truth falls on the great reign Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) and his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132). At this time, the socio-economic development of the country reached a high level, but the state was already on the verge of feudal fragmentation. The main branches of law are reflected in Russian Pravda.

feudal property becomes on the ground differentiated, since it belongs to several feudal lords standing at different levels of the feudal ladder. The lands received for serving the prince were assigned to the boyars and servants and became hereditary. And these lands began to be called fiefdoms.

The lands that were given in conditional possession for service and under the condition of service were called estates. The princes became large land owners. The growth of exploitation of the dependent population became the reason for the first class uprisings against the feudal lords.

In Russkaya Pravda there are no decrees on determining the methods of acquiring, the volume and procedure for transferring land property rights, with the exception of the estate, but there are punitive decrees on violating the boundaries of land ownership.

The land was the collective property of the community. The Russian community was made up of residents of villages or villages, who jointly owned the land belonging to the village.

Law of Obligations. Civil obligations were allowed only between free persons and arose either from a contract or from a tort (offence).

Of contractual obligations sale, loan, hire and luggage are mentioned.

For a legal purchase, it was required to purchase a thing for money from its owner, and make a contract in the presence of 2 free witnesses.

The Loan Ordinances distinguish between interest-bearing and non-interest-bearing loans.

Loan with interest, exceeding 3 hryvnia, required witnesses to certify the contract in the event of a dispute. In loans up to 3 hryvnia, the defendant cleared himself with an oath.

Inheritance, called the remainder in Russian Pravda, was opened at the time of the death of the father of the family and passed to the heirs either by will or by law. The father had the right to divide his estate among his children and allocate a part of it to his wife at his discretion. The mother could transfer her property to any of her sons whom she recognized as the most worthy.

Court and process. According to the Russian Truth, the court in all worldly matters was concentrated in the hands of the prince as the supreme legislator, ruler and judge. The prince administered justice personally or entrusted this matter to the governor.

13. T. MORA'S SOCIAL UTOPIA

A specific sign of utopia lies in its speculativeness, separation from reality, impracticability in the ways proposed by the authors of the projects.

Social utopias express the protest of the masses of the people against the dying feudalism and emerging capitalism. The remnants of serfdom and despotic absolutism choked the peasants, and capitalism, replacing the old system, meant landlessness, expropriation. Capitalism increased the ranks of hired workers in manufactories, becoming hard labor for them. It is for this reason that utopias were anti-feudal and anti-capitalist in nature. Once again, the idea of the community is gaining ground.

Under such conditions, there utopian doctrine, the founder of which was Thomas More. He comes from a wealthy family of hereditary citizens of London. The main creation Thomas More has become "Utopia" (1516).

The main ideas of "Utopia".

1. Criticism of feudal and early capitalist society.

More exposes the parasitism of the aristocracy, the clergy, the army of servants, the mercenary troops and the unbridled desire of the upper classes for luxury with a complete lack of concern for workers. He sees the solution to the problem of crime in the abolition of social contrasts, caring for workers, protecting their land allotments, providing work for the landless, etc.

More puts forward ideas, innovative for his time, that punishment should re-educate, not frighten; on the proportionality of crime and punishment; on the replacement of the death penalty by forced labor.

Mop sharply criticizes feudal rulers who see their vocation in conquest, and not in public improvement. Mor sees the root of social injustice in private property.

2. Ideal social and government system.

On the island of Utopia there is no private property, no money circulation, full equality. The basis of society is the family and work collective. Work is obligatory for everyone. All citizens master some kind of craft and take turns doing agricultural work, moving to the countryside for two years to do this. To prevent the development of possessive instincts, families regularly exchange houses. Collectivism is also fostered by sharing meals between citizens.

However, the backwardness of the technical base forces Mora make some compromise with the principle of equality. To perform unpleasant work, the Utopians resort to slave labor. True, the number of slaves is small. They become prisoners of war, citizens of Utopia, convicted of crimes (the death penalty is prohibited on the island).

The political system of Utopia is imbued with the principles of democracy and is based on election of all officials.

The main concern of the state - organization of production and distribution. Along with this, it fights crime, ensures the protection of the country from aggression and pursues a foreign policy aimed at ensuring peace. However, this does not prevent the Utopians from providing armed assistance to their friends in the name of defending justice.

14. MERCANTILISM AND ITS FEATURES

В XV century. the first school in the history of economic thought arose - mercantilism (from English merchent - "merchant", "merchant").

Supporters This theory believed that a nation would be richer the more gold and silver it had. The accumulation occurs in the process of foreign trade or in the course of the extraction of precious metals. Hence, only labor in the mining of precious metals is productive. In matters of economic policy, supporters of this theory make recommendations for increasing the flow of gold and silver into the country. There are early and late mercantilism.

Representatives of early mercantilism relied on administrative measures to retain precious metals in the country (export ban). Foreign merchants had to spend the proceeds on the territory of the country. This hindered the development of foreign trade relations.

Supporters of late mercantilism believed that it was necessary to ensure an increase in precious metals in the country not by administrative, but by economic means. These means include all means that lead to achieving a trade surplus (exports are greater than imports). These tools are described in detail T. Mann (1571-1641) , an influential English merchant and famous representative of late mercantilism. He wrote that there was no other way to get money except trade, and when the value of exported goods exceeded the value of annual imports of goods, the country's monetary fund would increase.

Economic policyproposed T. Mann, called politics protectionism, or national market protection policies. It comes down to limiting imports and encouraging exports.

T. Mann proposed the following: the introduction of protectionist tariffs on imported goods, quotas, export subsidies and tax incentives for exporters (this is still applied at the present time), etc. Since these measures are implemented with the help of the state, representatives of both early and late mercantilism took for granted active state intervention in economic processes.

Distinctive features of mercantilism:

1) exclusive attention to the sphere of circulation;

2) consideration of money as an absolute form of wealth;

3) classifying as productive only labor for the extraction of gold and silver;

4) substantiation of the economic role of the state;

5) convinceеthat the excess of exports over imports is an indicator of the economic well-being of the country.

The policy of mercantilism was carried out all over Europe in the XV-XVIII centuries. and consisted of the following directionsKeywords: accumulation of money, protectionism and state regulation of the economy. This policy could not have been different in the period of the formation of absolutist states, the creation of national economies. Accelerated capitalist development was possible only within the national framework and largely depended on state power, which promoted the accumulation of capital and thus economic growth. With their views, the mercantilists expressed the true patterns and needs of economic development.

15. FRENCH MERCANTILISM

More durable mercantilism rooted in France, which turned out to be economically better prepared for its perception and implementation thanks to:

1) more progressive forms of quitrents (rather than corvée);

2) the development of manufactories;

3) absolutism as a political force that could implement the policy of mercantilism.

French mercantilism receives industrial direction, frees itself from monetarism, focuses on achieving an active trade balance, and accelerates the economic development of France.

XVII century. becomes the classic era of French mercantilism.

Already policy of Henry IV was of a mercantile nature and led to broad patronage of foreign trade, the conclusion of trade agreements with England, Genoa, Spain, a ban on the export of valuable raw materials (silk, wool) and the import of textile goods. The colonization of Canada is encouraged, and with the help of privileges and subsidies, the manufacture of silk fabrics, tapestries, faience dishes, glass, mirrors, fine linen is planted.

During the time of Richelieu (1624-1642) these events are supported, and the famous Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683), the great French statesman, who was in charge of managing the French economy for almost a quarter of a century, made them a system and gave it a name.

Colbert was not involved in economic theory, but was a practical executor of mercantilist ideas, and French mercantilism is called Colbertism.

The main ideas of J. B. Colbert:

1) active planting of manufactories: inviting foreign craftsmen; issuing government loans to industrialists; all sorts of benefits from exemption from conscription to the right to believe in any god;

2) the creation of colonial companies (East India), the promotion of colonization;

3) according to Colbert, only foreign trade is able to provide abundance to subjects and give satisfaction to sovereigns, "trade is a constant war";

4) the power and greatness of the state are determined by the amount of money;

5) the capacity of the international market is a constant value, and therefore, in order to expand the rights of France, it is necessary to press the rest - England and Holland. In general, protectionism contributed to the development of industry, although not always in a capitalist form.

The growth of industry was at the expense of agriculture, which Colbert regarded as a source of funds for the state. Most major flaw in politics Colbert was that it left intact feudal relations, and they fettered the economic and social development of the country. Maybe the effort Colbert would have been a great success if the royal power had not set before him one main task: to squeeze out money at any cost for the war, which he waged endlessly Louis XIV, and for his yard.

Industrially strong French mercantilism did not give its program a complete theoretical justification. Despite the rich practice of mercantilism, there is practically no literature on French mercantilism.

16. FEATURES OF RUSSIAN MERCANTILISM

К XNUMXth century Russia finally established as single state: a single market, commodity-money relations have been formed, shopping centers are emerging, cities and industrial villages are being built.

Main economic problems: development of industry, agriculture, trade; the creation of a merchant fleet, water and land routes of communication.

The development of Russian mercantilism took several stages, each of which has its own features.

1. The most prominent representative of economic thought XVII century... was Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordin-Nashchokin (1605-1680), who wrote "New trade charter" in 1667 Trade is considered by him as the most important source of income for the Russian state. Trade policy should adhere to the idea of an excess of exports of goods over imports, which will contribute to the accumulation of national capital.

Also A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin propagated:

1) active trade balance;

2) attraction of noble metals;

3) prohibition or restriction of the export of gold and silver from Russia.

These are elements of early mercantilism associated with monetarism.

2. Second half of the 1618th century. Yuri Krizhanich (1683-XNUMX). He lived in Russia for a long time, wrote a work "Political Dumas" ("Politics") in the 60s. XVII century. in Siberian exile, in which he substantiated that:

1) it is necessary to export more and import less, especially those goods that are produced in the country or the production of which can be established in the country;

2) the purchase of luxury goods abroad - a direct deduction from income from foreign trade;

3) the development of productive forces in industry, agriculture, handicrafts - a source of state revenue, more durable than the accumulation of gold and silver from foreign trade.

Y. Krizhanich - an opponent of the active trading activities of foreign merchants in Russia. He believed that foreign trade should be in the hands of the king in order to prevent "dishonest", "bad", "greedy" ways of enrichment. State trade must be subordinated to the common good of the whole people.

3. Late 1652th - early 1726th centuries Ivan Tikhonovich Pososhkov (XNUMX-XNUMX) wrote a number of works for the king Peter I. Among them is a book "On Poverty and Wealth" (9 chapters), which he wrote for 20 years.

The main ideas of I. T. Pososhkov:

1) demanded to limit the arbitrariness of landowners;

2) being a supporter of unlimited autocracy, he did not approve of the whole system, since he saw in it the reasons for maintaining poverty;

3) the main idea is to eliminate poverty and increase wealth in Russia;

4) regulation of labor in industry and agriculture, determination of labor duties;

5) respect for nature;

6) honest attitude of officials and judges to their duties;

7) active foreign trade based on handicraft production, which should be developed;

8) money should cost "nominal value", this is established by the royal power;

9) taxes from income from land and industry are paid by everyone except the clergy.

17. ECONOMIC REFORM OF PETER I

In the Petrine era The Russian economy, and above all industry, has made a giant leap forward. Politics Peter I (1682-1725) in relation to economic life was characterized by a high degree of application command and protectionist methods.

In agriculture opportunities for improvement were drawn from the further development of fertile lands, the cultivation of industrial crops that provided raw materials for industry, the development of animal husbandry, the advancement of agriculture to the east and south, as well as the more intensive exploitation of the peasants.

In the Petrine era, there is a sharp delimitation of the country into two zones of feudal economy - the lean north, where the feudal lords transferred their peasants to rent, often letting them go to the city and other agricultural areas to earn money, and the fertile south, where landowning nobles sought to expand the corvée.

Also intensified state duties of peasants. With their efforts, cities were built (40 thousand peasants worked on the construction of St. Petersburg), manufactories, bridges, roads; annual recruitment drives were carried out, old levies were increased and new ones were introduced.

In industry, there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and handicraft farms to manufactories. When Petre at least 200 new manufactories were founded, he strongly encouraged their creation. State policy was also aimed at protecting the young Russian industry from competition from Western Europe by imposing very high customs duties. (Customs Charter 1724).

Protectionist policy of Peter led to the emergence of manufactories in various industries, often appearing in Russia for the first time.

The main were the ones that worked for the army and navy: metallurgical, weapons, shipbuilding, cloth, linen, leather, etc.

Entrepreneurship was encouraged, preferential conditions were created for people who opened new manufactories or rented state ones.

By the end of the reign Petra in Russia there was a developed diversified industry with centers in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the Urals.

largest enterprises were: Admiralty shipyards, Arsenal, St. Petersburg powder factories, metallurgical plants of the Urals, boorish yard in Moscow. There was a strengthening of the all-Russian market, the accumulation of capital thanks to the mercantilist policy of the state. Russia supplied competitive goods to world markets: iron, linen, yuft, potash, furs, caviar.

Thousands of Russians were trained in Europe in various specialties, and, in turn, foreigners - weapons engineers, metallurgists, locksmiths - were hired into the Russian service. Thanks to this, Russia was enriched with the most advanced technologies in Europe.

As a result of Peter's policy in the economic field in an ultra-short period of time a powerful industry was created, capable of fully meeting military and state needs and not dependent on imports in any way.

18. V. I. TATISCHEV AND THE CREATION OF THE RUSSIAN SCHOOL

V. I. Tatishchev (1686-1750) - Russian historian, economist, geographer, belonged to an ancient noble family. In developing the problems of the state economy Tatischev was the forerunner Lomonosov, he is credited with creating the foundations of the Russian school in the history of economic thought.

Tatischev appeared in the history of economic thought as rationalist, who connected the economic process with the development of social consciousness. At the same time, he initially considered the state to be a problem for economic development.

The formation of the Russian school in economic thought by Tatishchev was influenced by:

1) recognition of the most important postulates such as the paramount importance of domestic industry, the development of domestic trade, the prevention of the dominance of foreign merchants in domestic markets, the development of agriculture, the creation of conditions for the economic independence of the country and the strengthening of its authority in foreign relations;

2) previous achievements of Russian economic thought (Ordina-Nashchokina, Pososhkova, Peter I);

3) economic thought and national economies of European countries, which he was able to get acquainted with during his visit to Europe.

Faithful to the traditions of the Russian school, Tatischev focused on raw materials countries, on the need for the rational use of local raw materials and the organization of their processing.

Tatischev He paid the main attention to the development of industrial production, especially the development of the mining industry in the Urals.

Progressiveness views Tatishcheva manifested itself in caring for the implementation new technical achievements, in the understanding that each machine can replace hundreds of workers. He considered large industry to be the economic support of the state.

Tatischev advocated commodity balance systems. To do this, he intended to export domestically produced products abroad. At the same time, within the country he considered it necessary to prohibit merchants from retail trade, and to allow only large-scale wholesale sales of goods from Iran and Western European countries. For the successful development of trade, he proposed to free merchants from military quarters, to stop the arbitrariness of local authorities oppressing merchants, and considered it necessary to protect small and medium-sized merchants from large ones.

Peasantry he considered unable to effectively manage the economy without the help and guidance of the landowners. Peasants who could not provide the landowner with high incomes were offered to be given as laborers to more efficient owners.

Money and money circulation considered important for the development of trade and the economy of the country. To expand the commodity economy Tatischev proposed to raise the value of the silver ruble by increasing the weight content of the metal and increasing its fineness. Paper money, their advantages and virtues were not understood Tatishchev, he was alarmed by the abuses in bill circulation that took place in the country.

Credit for merchants was also in the spotlight Tatishcheva. He advocated the creation of more favorable conditions for the commercial and industrial activities of merchants, artisans and peasants.

19. THE ORIGIN OF THE MERCHANT ECONOMIC SCHOOL IN RUSSIA

The development of the Russian economy in the second half XVIII century. expressed in the growing role social division of labor, expansion of commodity-money relations. Some merchants began to switch to industrial entrepreneurship. The number of manufactories based on wage labor increased.

The growth of market relations in the context of the preservation of serfdom posed old questions to economists and raised new ones. The complex of these questions in its content was more complicated than those that were characteristic of the previous period. The Free Economic Society (founded by decree of Catherine II in 1765) called this time economic age.

P. I. Rynkov (1712-1777) - Russian historian, economist. By recommendation M. V. Lomonosov he was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences, was a member of the Free Economic Society. Wrote a number essays: “The history of Orenburg on the establishment of the Orenburg province”, “Topography of Orenburg, i.e. a detailed description of the Orenburg province”, “Correspondence between two friends about commerce” and others, in which he expressed his basic economic thoughts.

To strengthen the power of Russia, proposed to develop manufactures, foreign trade, maintain a trade surplus, ban export of raw materials and semi-finished products, increasing the export of high quality finished products, develop credit activities. For the accelerated development of agriculture, he considered it necessary concern for improving the situation of peasants. For this purpose, he proposed limit their use within reasonable limits, to establish three corvée days a week, three days of work for oneself, and Sunday as a day off.

Rynkov was a supporter state regulation of the economy, the creation of a guild system for organizing crafts, the formation of merchant companies.

Markets was the first Russian author to give an outline of the history of commerce and a brief description of the development of Russian commerce. He showed how the market developed on the basis of the growth of the social division of labor.

M. D. Chulkov (1743-1793) - Russian writer, historian, ethnographer, economist. Published a satirical magazine "And this and that" and others. He held approximately the same views on the development of Russia as Markets.

Unlike Rychkova argued that inside the country, commercial and industrial entrepreneurs should work without state regulations, freely, on their own initiative. Posted by "Economic Notes", "Historical Description of Russian Commerce" (published from 1781 to 1788).

This huge work contains original documents, reasoning, descriptions, statements of decrees, information about plants, factories, manufactories, water and "land" routes of communication, foreign and domestic trade, coins, etc.

Chulkov was the voice of the Russian merchant class, to whose works he devoted his compositions. His attitude to the role of industry in foreign trade was traditional for the Russian school. In his opinion, foreign trade should be under close government supervision. He recognized the great importance of foreign trade for replenishing government revenues.

20. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF M. V. LOMONOSOV

Economic views of Lomonosov M.V. (1711-1765) have a number of important points, which were proven by him not only in special scientific works, but throughout his creativity.

There are two main problems that can be identified:

1) Lomonosov pointed to a special path to the economic power of Russia, corresponding to the majesty of the Fatherland. The main force in achieving this task should be a strong state pursuing a consistent economic policy;

2) Lomonosov developed questions concerning the detailed implementation of ways to strengthen the economic potential of the country, while he spoke from the point of view of state influence on the economy.

Prosperity of the state Lomonosov associated with the taming of the autocracy and the expansion of the economic functions of the state.

Lomonosov highlights main economic problems to be developed:

1) on the reproduction and preservation of the Russian people;

2) about the best state economy;

3) about the correction of morals and about the greater enlightenment of the people;

4) on the improvement of agriculture;

5) on the improvement and reproduction of handicrafts and arts;

6) about the best benefits of the merchants;

7) about the extermination of idleness. The sequence of these economic problems indicates that Lomonosov in the first place puts the conditions necessary for the development of production. Among them, he highlights labor as the most important factor of production.

Lomonosov believed that for Russia, which had a large amount of undeveloped land, the boon is population increase, his enlightenment. That's why he suggested:

1) increase in birth rate;

2) preventing the escape of peasants abroad, as well as ways to attract labor from abroad.

The main sources of wealth Lomonosov sees in the multiplication of "internal abundance" in agriculture and the development of industry.

Lomonosov belongs the idea of creating an institution for agricultural issues.

Among the economic issues considered Lomonosov, an important place is given to the development of domestic production, domestic and foreign trade, mining and metallurgy.

great job Lomonosov spent on creation of a system for collecting the necessary information in the country. He began compiling an economic guide called "Economic lexicon of Russian products".

In this reference book Lomonosov приводит the following data:

1) place of manufacture of the goods;

2) its quantity and quality;

3) local consumption;

4) sales to other places and abroad;

5) transport routes.

Lomonosov created civil program for the development of the Russian economy. Although in economic positions Lomonosov certain elements of mercantilism can be traced (this was expressed mainly in the defense of the idea of an active trade balance), but the ideas Lomonosov in many ways and differed from mercantilism.

Differences between Lomonosov's ideas and mercantilism:

1) the wealth of the nation Lomonosov saw primarily in the development of domestic production, and not in trade, as the mercantilists claimed;

2) the role of the state in the economy was not limited to carrying out a protectionist policy.

21. CLASSICAL SCHOOL

The decay of mercantilism was intensified by the growing tendency to limit direct government control over economic life. As a result, prevailed free private enterprise, which led to complete non-interference of the state in business life. A new direction of economic thought has emerged - classical political economy (CPE).

Representatives KPI refuted mercantilism and the protectionist policy promoted by it in the economy, putting forward an alternative concept economic liberalism.

Classic Economy arose when entrepreneurial activity, following the sphere of trade, money circulation and lending operations, spread to many industries.

Stages of evolution of classical political economy:

1 toend of the 17th - first half of the 18th centuries. The stage of expanding the sphere of market relations, refuting the ideas of mercantilism and its complete debunking.

Representatives - William Petty (1623-1687) и Pierre Baugillier - were the first in the history of economic thought to put forward the labor theory of value, according to which the source and measure of value is the amount of labor expended on the production of a particular product. They saw the basis of the wealth of the state in the sphere of production;

2) second half of the 18th century. School physiocrats, which has become widespread in France. The leading authors of this school are François Quesnay (1694-1774) и Jacques Turgot (1727-1781) - decisive importance, along with labor, was attached to the land. They delved into the analysis of the sphere of production and market relations and moved away from the analysis of the sphere of circulation;

3) end of the 18th century. This stage involves work Adam Smith (1723-1790). He believed that economic laws operate independently of people's consciousness, therefore government bodies should not interfere in the economy. He discovered the law of division of labor and the growth of its productivity. In his works Smith considered the concept of a commodity and its growth, profit, capital, production and non-production labor;

4) first half of the 19th century. At this time, the industrial revolution took place in a number of developed countries. Students Adam Smith rethought the main ideas of his concept, enriched the school with fundamentally new and significant theoretical provisions.

Representatives this stage are:

a) Jean Baptiste Say (1767-1832) for the first time introduced into the framework of economic research the problem of balance between supply and demand, the implementation of the total social product depending on market conditions;

b) David Ricardo (1772-1823) most criticized the doctrine A. Smith. He was the first to put forward the pattern of the tendency of the rate of profit to decrease, and developed the economic theory of land rent;

at) Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), who came up with the idea of the influence of the number and rate of population growth on the well-being of society. He substantiated the real participation in the creation and distribution of the total social product of not only production, but also non-production layers of society;

5) second half of the 19th century. Representatives - John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) и Karl Marx (1818-1883) - summarized the best achievements of the school.

22. ECONOMIC VIEWS W. PETTY

Along with the emergence of mercantilism, the prerequisites for a powerful economic doctrine arise. - classical political economy. The founder of this area of economic science is the English economist W. Petty (1623-1687).

The main ideas of classical political economy in the views of Petty:

1) research not into the circulation process, but directly into the production process;

2) a critical attitude towards unproductive classes (merchant) who do not create any product;

3) attributing material production labor to productive labor.

The wealth of the nation is created in all spheres of material production.

Labor - the basis of wealth.

Wealth Criteria: the richest will be the period in which each participant in the division (provided that the money is divided equally) will be able to hire more workers.

Influenced by mercantilists W. Petty singled out foreign trade, which, in his opinion, contributes to the increase of wealth to a greater extent than other industries. He formulated fundamentals of the labor theory of value (the basis of the equality of exchange of goods is the equality of costs). Value is created by the labor that is spent on the production of gold and silver (this shows the influence of the mercantilists).

The value of the products of labor in other branches of production is determined only as a result of their exchange for precious metals.

Surpassing the physiocrats, W. Petty suggested that surplus product is equal to the difference between the cost of the product and the costs.

rent considered not a gift of the land, but a product of labor, which has greater productivity on lands of better quality.

Fifth introduced the concept differential rent (the cause of which is the difference in fertility and location of the land). Having analyzed the rent and defined it as the net income from the land, W. Petty raises the question of land price (defining it as the sum of a certain number of annuities).

Percent defined as compensation for the inconvenience that the creditor creates for himself by suing money.

"Natural" rate of interest is equal to the rent on as much land as could be bought with the money lent (here also an allusion to the opportunity cost doctrine). All economic ideas are presented in the form of conjectures and do not represent a complete theory.

W. Petty went down in history as an inventor Statistics. He created an analysis of meager data, described methods for indirectly determining the values of certain indicators, in particular the sampling method. Using these methods, Fifth first calculated the national income and national wealth of England.

National income defines as the sum of consumer spending of the population, neglecting the share of national income going to accumulation.

National Treasure Petty defines as material wealth and includes there the monetary value of the population itself.

The birth of classical political economy is associated with the name of Petty, and its creators were A. Smith и D. Ricardo.

23. THE TEACHING OF ADAM SMITH

Adam Smith (1723-1790) - An eminent English scientist-economist. He developed theory of reproduction and distribution, the actions of these categories are analyzed on historical material and their application in economic policy.

On A. Smith, the economy of a weak country increases the wealth of the people not because this wealth is money, but because it must be seen in the material resources that make up everyone’s annual labor.

Smith condemns mercantilism. He says that the nature of wealth is exclusively labor. Only technological progress is the basis for the growth of wealth of any country. In his opinion, it is not trade and other branches of the sphere of circulation, but the sphere of production that is the main source of wealth.

Central to research methodology A. Smith It has concept of economic liberalism, which is based on market economic relations. He says: "Market laws can best influence the economy when private interest is higher than public interest, that is, when the interests of society are considered as the sum of the interests of its constituent individuals."

In the development of this idea Smith introduces concepts such as "economic man" и "invisible hand" "The essence of economic man is that it is not from the benevolence of the butcher or the shopkeeper that we expect to receive our dinner, but from the observance of their own interests. We appeal not to their humanity, but to their selfishness, and we never tell them about our needs, but about their benefits.

Meaning of "invisible hand" consists in promoting such social conditions and rules under which, through the free competition of entrepreneurs and through their private interests, the market economy will best solve social problems and lead to the harmony of individual and collective will with the greatest possible benefit to everyone.

According to him, market mechanism of management - this is an obvious and simple system of natural freedom, it will always automatically balance due to the "invisible hand".

State, in his opinion, should fulfill three important responsibilities:

1) costs of public works;

2) costs that ensure military security;

3) the costs of administering justice. Considering the structure Trade, Smith he put domestic trade first, foreign trade second, and transit trade third.

Fifth book in "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" directly devoted to the analysis of the state budget and public debt.

Problem government spending and taxes smith interpreted from the standpoint of the ideologist of the progressive bourgeoisie. He justified only those expenses of the state that are made in the interests of the whole society. He put forward the thesis of a "cheap state", which was accepted by all subsequent representatives of classical bourgeois political economy.

Smith laid the theoretical fundamentals of the tax policy of a bourgeois state. He wrote that taxes should correspond to the “strength and abilities of citizens”, be determined for each capable person, and levying a tax should be as cheap as possible.

24. THE TEACHING OF T. MALTHUS

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was born in the countryside near London to a landowner's family. From 1793 he began to teach at the college. At the same time, he devoted all his free time to researching the problems of the relationship between economic processes and natural phenomena.

T. Malthus entered the history of economic thought as a man of one idea, one law, the "Law of Population" (1798). His views are characterized by inconsistency and incorrect premises.

The essence of the law of population: the population is growing exponentially, and the means of subsistence - in arithmetic. The biological ability to reproduce in humans exceeds its ability to increase food processes.

This very ability to reproduce is limited by the available food resources. As data to confirm your law Malthus took the rate of population growth in North America, where the population grew due to immigration, and not due to natural factors. Book Malthus was a success. In work Malthus shows rigid dependence of the population on the food resources of society and thus justifies wage theorydetermined by the cost of living.

Cause of poverty, in his opinion, is that population growth lags behind food growth. This formed the basis for the corresponding economic policy. Salary must be determined living wage. The subsistence level is understood as the minimum amount of money to maintain physical existence.

In his opinion, if wages, due to the growth in demand for labor, increase, i.e., exceed the subsistence level, "immoderate propensity to reproduce" will lead to population growth, labor supply will increase and wages will return to their original level. The miserable standard of living of workers is determined not by social conditions, but by natural, biological laws.

Malthus opposed the "poor law" and wage increases. He argued that it is impossible to increase the means of subsistence at the same rate that is characteristic of population growth, since, firstly, resources are limited; secondly, additional investments of labor and capital will provide an ever smaller increase, since with the growth of the population land of poorer quality is involved in cultivation ("the theory of diminishing fertility" is a prototype of the theory of "decreasing marginal productivity").

Malthus' theory of overproduction is this: aggregate demand is insufficient to purchase the entire mass of commodities at cost-recovering prices, since workers will not be able to buy the product they create, and entrepreneurs (thrifty and hoarders) will not help solve this problem. This can mitigate the unproductive consumption of landowners.

Merit Malthus lies in the fact that he raised the question of the problems of implementing the created product.

25. THE DOCTRINE OF D. RICARDO

David Ricardo (1771-1823) - English economist.

Ricardo is a supporter of the concept of economic liberalism, which does not allow any state intervention in the economy and involves free enterprise, free trade and other "economic freedoms".

The paper "The beginning of political economy and taxation" he formulated the main task of political economy - determination of the laws governing the distribution of the created product. Value is determined by labor, "the determination of value by labor time is an absolute, universal law" (exceptions - for non-reproducible goods - are works of art, wine of a special taste, the value of which is determined by their rarity).

Salary change (without changing labor productivity) does not affect the price, but only changes the distribution of the value of the created product between the entrepreneur and the worker, i.e., changes the ratio of wages and profits. This is an inverse relationship, so the theory Ricardo called the system of discord and enmity between classes.

Based on the labor theory of value Ricardo created and rent theory, in which the source of rent is not the special bounty of nature, but the labor applied. The cost of agricultural products is determined by labor costs in relatively poor areas, in modern terminology - marginal areas where maximum capital investments are made. The surplus of products obtained from the best areas represents rent, paid to the owner of the land. High rent payments are a consequence of high prices for agricultural products, which forces land of poorer quality into circulation. The theory of rent was a special case of the theory of marginal values, which are the basis of modern microeconomic analysis.

Developing views A. Smith, Ricardo claimed that salary reduced to the cost of the livelihood of the worker and his family. However, unlike Smith he believed that wages were kept within the rigid limits of the physical minimum by virtue of natural law. Here for the views Ricardo influenced by the position Malthus.

D. Ricardo formulated theory of comparative advantage, which regulates, in particular, foreign trade.

He proved that specialization is beneficial even to a country that does not have absolute advantages, provided that it has a comparative advantage in the production of any product. Unlike him Smith proved that a country should specialize in those products where it has an absolute advantage, i.e., the cost of it is less than in other countries.

Ricardo supporter quantity theory of money. He associated the depreciation of money with the result of its excessive issue. The stability of monetary circulation (a prerequisite for the economy) can only be ensured by a monetary system based on gold (gold must be freely exchanged back for banknotes at a fixed rate).

Ricardo considered an ideologue "gold standard".

26. PHYSIOCRATS

Physiocracy (from gr. physis + kratos - "power of nature" - the direction of classical political economy in France, which assigned a central role in the economy to agricultural production. Physiocrats criticized mercantilism, believing that the attention of production should be paid not to the development of trade and the accumulation of money, but to the creation of an abundance of “products of the earth,” which, in their opinion, lies the true prosperity of the nation.

François Quesnay (1694-1774) - the founder of Physiocratism, the head of this school. He not only laid the foundations of the physiocratic school, but also formulated its theoretical and political program.

F. Quesnay - author "Economic table", which shows how the total annual product created in agriculture is distributed between classes: productive (persons employed in agriculture - farmers and rural workers); barren (persons employed in industry, as well as merchants) and owners (persons receiving rent - landowners and the king).

His research was continued by a prominent statesman of France second half of the 1727th century Jacques Turgot (1781-XNUMX) . Promoters of the ideas of physio-ocratism were also Dupont de Nemours, d'Alembert, V. Mirabeau, G. Letron and more

Physiocratism expressed the interests of a large capitalist farming.

The central ideas of the theory of physiocracy:

1) economic laws are natural, and deviation from them leads to disruption of the production process;"

2) source of wealth - sphere of production of material goods - agriculture. Only agricultural labor is productive, since it is nature and the earth that work;

3) industry was considered by the Physiocrats as a barren, unproductive sphere;

4) under pure product the difference between the sum of all goods and the costs of producing a product. This excess (pure product) is a unique gift of nature. Industrial labor only changes its form without increasing the size of the net product. Commercial activity was also considered fruitless.

Physiocrats analyzed the material components of capital, distinguishing between "annual advances", annual costs and "primary advances", representing a fund for organizing agricultural farming and spent immediately for many years to come.

"Initial advances" (expenses for agricultural equipment) correspond to fixed capital, and "annual advances" (annual expenditures for agricultural production) correspond to working capital.

Money were not assigned to any of the types of advances. For the Physiocrats, there was no concept of money capital, they argued that money in itself is sterile and recognized only one function of money as a means of exchange. The accumulation of money was considered harmful, since it withdraws money from circulation and deprives them of their only useful function - to serve as an exchange of goods.

Physiocrats gave definitions "initial advances" (fixed capital) is the cost of agricultural equipment and "annual advances" (working capital) is the annual cost of agricultural production.

27. F. Quesnay's teaching

In the 17th century France, despite the significant development of industry, continued to remain an agricultural country. The oppression of feudal duties intensified. The decline of agriculture has reached its limit. The productive forces came into deep conflict with feudal relations of production. In the struggle against the feudal system, the bourgeoisie put forward its ideologists. One of the first places was taken François Quesnay (1694-1774) - founder and head of the school physiocrats.

The Physiocrats came out with a strong criticism of mercantilism. In contrast to the mercantilists, who concentrated their attention on the analysis of phenomena in the sphere of circulation, the physiocrats made a turn from the analysis of circulation to production analysis.

They moved the study of the issue about the origin of the surplus product from the sphere of circulation to production sector. This is the main scientific merit of the physiocrats. But they limited the scope of production only to Agriculture.

The central place in the economic system of the physiocrats was occupied by doctrine of "pure product", by which Quesnay understood the difference between the total social product and production costs, or, in other words, the excess of product over production costs.

Quesnay argued that a "pure product" is created only in agriculture, where, under the influence of the forces of nature, the number of consumer values increases. In industry, he believed, only use values are combined in various ways, in the process of labor the form of the substance created in agriculture is modified, but its quantity does not increase, and therefore the "pure product" does not arise, and wealth is not created.

It is the merit of the physiocrats that they give within the limits of the bourgeois outlook capital analysis. TO material elements of capitalused in agriculture, Quesnay attributed: agricultural tools and implements, livestock, seeds, livelihoods of workers, etc.

In contrast to the mercantilists, who identified capital with money, he believed that money does not exist on its own, but the means of production acquired with it are capital. However, he considered these material elements of capital as simple elements of the labor process in general, in isolation from the social form in which they function in capitalist production. Thus, capital was portrayed as an eternal, ahistorical category.

Quesnay made the first attempt in the history of political economy to present the process of reproduction and circulation of the total social product as a whole. This process is schematically depicted in "Economic table", which shows how the finished product produced in the country is distributed through circulation, as a result of which the preconditions are created for the resumption of production on the previous scale. Only simple reproduction is considered here.

"Economic Table", being an outstanding work, also has serious shortcomings due to the shortcomings of the physiocratic theory itself as a whole, created Quesnay.

28. ACTIVITIES OF J. TURGO

Jacques Turgot (1727-1781) occupies a special place among physiocrats. His economic theory reflects the process of the birth capitalist society within the framework of feudalism.

J. Turgot was born in France and, according to family tradition, graduated from the theological faculty of the Sorbonne, but became interested in economics.

Louis XV, having ascended the throne, appointed Turgot general controller of finance (August 1774). A staunch supporter of strong monarchical power, Turgot he was sure that with the support of the king he would be able to put his ideas into practice. He released Edict of Free Trade in Grain (September 13, 1774), which abolished restrictions in this area.

Turgot insisted on the abolition of the monopoly and privileges in the important French wine trade. He liquidated workshops, associations of artisans, which fettered the development of production; at the same time, unions of apprentices and workers were also prohibited.

They created a system of regular postal services and transportation. He also reformed taxation: road corvee was replaced by a cash collection, laid out for all classes.

Turgot planned to replace the old taxes with a general land tax. To distribute taxes locally, he was going to create a system of elected provincial assemblies.

Significant achievements of Turgot in the position of minister were the introduction of trade in grain and flour within the country; free import and duty-free export of grain from the kingdom; the abolition of craft workshops and guilds, etc.

Innovations Turgot accepted not all estates of France. They were rejected by the nobility and clergy (Turgot encroached on their privileges), as well as the poor, who suffered from speculation and a rise in the price of bread.

Main labor J. Turgot - "Reflections on the creation and distribution of wealth". In this book, following Quesnay and other physiocrats, he defended the principle of freedom of economic activity and shared their view of agriculture as the only source of surplus product. For the first time he singled out within the "agricultural class" and the "class of artisans" entrepreneurs and employees.

J. Turgot first formulated the so-called law of diminishing returns of soil, which reads: “Each additional investment of capital and labor in land produces a smaller effect compared to the previous investment, and after a certain limit, any additional effect becomes impossible.”

In general, teaching J. Turgot coincides with the teachings of the physiocrats. However, the following stand out: ideas:

1) income from capital is divided into costs for creating products and profit on capital (wages of the owner of capital, business income and land rent);

2) the exchange is mutually beneficial for both commodity owners, and therefore there is an equalization of the values of the exchanged goods;

3) the payment of loan interest is justified by the loss of income of the lender when granting a loan;

4) current prices in the market are formed taking into account supply and demand, being a criterion by which one can judge the excess or lack of capital.

12 May 1776 Turgot was dismissed and the reforms cancelled. His ideas were realized 15 years later during the French Revolution.

29. THE TEACHING OF J. B. SEY

Jean Baptiste Say (1767-1832) - French economist. He owns the theory of value, the doctrine of the three factors of production and the theory of implementation.

1. Say's theory of value. This He argued that "to produce objects that have some utility means to produce wealth, since the utility of objects is the first basis of their value, and value is wealth."

Sei also believed that:

1) item price is the measure of its value, and value is the measure of its usefulness;

2) exchange value, or the price of an article serves only as a sure indicator of the utility which people recognize in the article.

This determined the value of the goods "production costs" capital, land and labour. And he determined these costs by supply and demand.

This He rejected the internal value inherent in goods and believed that the value of a product arises in the process of comparing two goods.

2. Teaching Saying about the three factors of production. This I thought that three factors of production - labor, capital and land - correspond three main incomes: labor creates wages, capital creates interest, land creates rent. The sum of these three incomes determines the value of the product, each of the owners of one or another factor of production receives the income created by the corresponding factor of production as a certain share of the cost of the product.

3. Say's realization theory. This argued that by giving value to his products, the manufacturer hopes that his product will be appreciated and sold to those people who have the means to buy it.

“These funds consist of other values, of other products, of the fruits of industry, of their capitals.

The thesis "cannot be sold because there is not enough money"

This opposes another thesis - "cannot be sold because there are few other products."

This argued that there is always enough money to serve the circulation and mutual exchange of other values, if only these values really exist.

This believed that sellers only strive to obtain the value of their goods with such products that they need for consumption, that sellers do not look for money at all and have no need for it, and if they want to have it, then only in order to turn them into objects of their own consumption. From the assertion that the purchase of any product cannot be made except for the value of another product, This made several conclusions:

1) than more in every state manufacturers and the more numerous industries, the easier, more varied and extensive the marketing of products. The presence of sometimes a large number of goods that clutter up circulation, because they do not find buyers, This explains by the fact that these goods exceed the sum of the needs for them, and also because other industries have given goods less than necessary;

2) everyone is interested in well-being of all, and the prosperity of one branch of industry is always favorable to the prosperity of all others;

3) import of foreign goods favors the sale of domestic products, because we cannot buy foreign commodities except with the products of our industry, our lands and our capitals, which, consequently, sales bring into trade.

30. THE ECONOMIC VIEWS OF JOHN STUART MILL

On economic views John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), an English philosopher and economist, was quite strongly influenced by the views D. Ricardo.

Treatise "Fundamentals of Political Economy and Some Aspects of Their Application to Social Philosophy" (1848) is a guide to political economy.

The main sections of the book: production, distribution, exchange, the progress of capitalism and the role of the state in the economy. Like Ricardo, who believed that the main task of political economy is to determine laws that govern the distribution of the product between classes Mill assigns a central place to the analysis of these laws.

The difference between the views of Mill and D. Ricardo lies in the fact that Mill shares the laws of production and distribution, believing that the latter are governed by the laws and customs of a given society and are the result of human relations. This premise was the basis of his idea of the possibility of reforming distribution relations on the basis of private capitalist property. The distribution does not interact with price processes, being a product of historical chance.

Under cost (value) of goods he understands its purchasing power in relation to other goods.

The exchange value and price of a commodity are established at the point where demand and supply are equal. This statement is true in a situation with perfectly elastic supply.

Ideas Mill about the functional relationships between market price, supply and demand resulted in a study of the category "price elasticity".

But in matters of productive labor, the factors of capital accumulation, wages, money, and rent, he entirely stands on the positions of classical political economy.

Like Ricardoand Say, Mill I thought that under capitalism, crisis-free production is possible: population growth will lead to an increase in prices for agricultural products, an increase in rent and a decrease in profits. The latter will lead to economic stagnation. To avoid this, it is necessary technical progress and export of capital to other countries. The possibility of economic progress lies in the confrontation between technological progress and the diminishing returns of agriculture. The salary depends on the demand and supply of labor.

Mill considered aggregate demand (ratio between population and capital) labor force inelastic.

Mill did not disregard the theory of interest of the English economist Nassau William Senior (1790-1864). Senior considered percentage as a reward for the "sacrifice" to the capitalist, which consists in the fact that the capitalist refrains from consuming the current income from property, turning it into means of production. Developing this position Mill argues that labor has no right to the full product, since the "supply price of abstinence" in society is a positive value. Profit is measured by the current interest rate under the most favorable security. BUT interest rate determined by the comparative value attributed to the present and future in a given society.

31. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF SIMONDI SIMOND DE JEAN CHARLES LEONARD

Sismondi Simond de Jean Charles Leonard (1773-1842) - Swiss economist and historian. He was the first to scientifically criticize the economic system of capitalism, opponent of many ideas of classical political economy.

In political economy Sismondi saw not the science of wealth and ways to increase it, but the science of improving the social mechanism. Increasing the production of goods is not an end in itself, and is not itself an indicator of wealth if in the process of its distribution the majority receives pitiful crumbs.

At the center of Sismondi's economic theory were problems of markets and sales of the created product. In contrast to supporters of classical political economy (aggregate demand automatically adapts to aggregate supply, and therefore a general crisis of production is not possible), Sismondi put forward thesis about the persistence of crises of overproduction in a capitalist economy. The argument is the prevailing position in economic literature that workers' wages tend to the subsistence level.

Unlike Malthus Sismondi he sees the reason for this not in the "natural" laws of nature, but in specific capitalist relations, in the striving of the capitalists to squeeze as much profit as possible out of their workers. Here Sismondi считает profit deducted from the product of the labor of the worker, like Ricardo.

Possibility of minimizing wages Sismondi associated with the process of displacement of labor by machines, i.e. with rising unemployment, which forces workers to be hired for lower wages. A decrease in workers' income reduces aggregate demand, since machines, without knowing, according to the expression Sismondi, “no needs”, do not present any demand. Entrepreneurs accumulate the income they receive, i.e., the economy’s ability to produce more and more goods encounters insufficient demand from the main productive classes.

In this regard, Sismondi в 1819 BC in "New beginnings of political economy" expresses an idea that is absurd for representatives of classical political economy: “People can go bankrupt not only because they spend too much, but also because they spend too little.”. After all, according to Smith и Ricardo it is frugality and accumulation that are the key to the wealth of a nation.

The paradox is thatwhat a view Sismondi about permanent crises of overproduction under capitalism follows from the provisions of classical political economy (the provisions A. Smith): the annual product of a nation is the sum of profit, wages, and rent that is spent on consumer goods.

After Smith Sismondi ignores the fact that the annual product includes the means of production. Moreover, with the growth of capital accumulation, the needs of the economy in the means of production create a special market, to a certain extent independent of the market for consumer goods. It was this mistake that led to the conclusion Sismondi about the inevitability of constant crises of overproduction under capitalism, where he sees salvation from them in the existence intermediate populations, primarily small commodity producers who have significant demand for the created product, and in expansion of foreign markets.

32. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF P. J. PROUDON

Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) - a bright representative of the petty-bourgeois criticism of capitalism. AT 1840 BC his work comes out "What is property?". In it he gives the answer: “Property is theft.” IN 1846 BC labor comes out "The system of economic contradictions, or the philosophy of poverty". It contains program for the peaceful reconstruction of capitalism.

Proudhon - a representative of the petty bourgeoisie - protests against the big bourgeoisie and the oppression of the state.

Proudhon tried to explain the wrongness and injustice of the system by unequal exchange, which violates the law of labor value and allows the big bourgeoisie to rob the working people and the petty bourgeoisie.

Economic ideas of Proudhon:

1) property has positive and negative sides.

Negative side of ownership - Violation of equality between people.

Polishing - Independence, autonomy and freedom. Small property has more positive qualities, large property has more "negativity". Small property must be preserved and large property must be abolished;

2) the most important in his teachings is theory of value. He calls the value of a commodity recognized by the market constituted. In order to avoid crises, it is necessary to establish value in advance, that is, not to produce unnecessary goods. A sale is not equal to a new purchase, since part of the money is saved in the form of savings, and therefore does not participate in commodity-money relations, thus reducing the money supply in relation to the commodity supply.

In order for all goods to find their buyer, it is necessary to make sure that there is nothing to accumulate, i.e. cancel money. To prevent crises it is necessary replace money relations with barter. An example of a constituted commodity is gold and silver;

3) cause of the crisis of overproduction Proudhon considers the discrepancy between wages and the cost of the commodity mass. The commodity mass is greater than the main consumers - workers - can spend on it. Wages cannot provide sufficient demand, since the bourgeoisie adds to the cost of goods the interest that it must pay to the banker for providing a loan. The solution is to organize National Bank, which would issue a free loan. Such reforms would lead to the establishment of a new system. Everyone would work, exchange equal amounts of labor, and economic equality would be established. And if the industrialist had abandoned the political struggle, a new system would have been established;

4) in 1845-1847 an idea appears "progressive association"where to economic ideas Proudhon the idea of renunciation of state power is added. All management functions are performed voluntary associations of workersbuilt on the principles of democracy. For the idea of complete rejection of the state Proudhon received a title in history "father of anarchy".

5) Proudhon's main idea: not to destroy capitalism and its basis - commodity production, but to cleanse this basis of abuses; not to destroy exchange and exchange value, but, on the contrary, to constitute it, to make it universal, absolute, fair, devoid of fluctuations, crises.

33. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF M. M. SPERANSKY

The main representative of the noble economic thought of Russia at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. was Mikhail Mikhailovin Speransky (1772-1839). The most complete financial and economic problems of Russia M. M. Speransky outlined in work "Finance Plan".

Methodological basis of views M. M. Speransky was labor value theory, put forward by the classics of political economy A. Smith и D. Ricardo.

M. M. SperanskyAs D. Ricardo, I thought that “the wealth of the state is formed and increases through labor”. He rightly argued that metallic money was unable to satisfy all the needs of “private and public affairs,” and therefore advocated banknotes and credit papers.

The "Finance Plan" called for "strong measures and important donations." These strong measures were:

1) withdrawal of banknotes from circulation and formation of capital for their redemption;

2) to reduce the income of all government departments;

3) establishing strict control over public spending;

4) the device of the monetary system;

5) development of trade (both internal and external);

6) establishment of new taxes.

Speransky managed to implement that part of the project, which involved cost reduction.

Special redemption capital, necessary to cover the banknotes that were declared public debt, was created through the sale of state property into private ownership (state forests, rental estates, etc.)

A duty on distillation was introduced, a new census was carried out, which revealed a clear number of taxpayers.

M. M. Speransky saw a powerful driving force of the economy in loan, based on commercial principles and being repayable. Enterprises were allowed to lend each other their available funds.

An important measure to stabilize the financial condition was establishing taxes on noble estatespreviously exempt from taxes.

Later Speransky took up a position bargaining chip. Was adopted as the main monetary unit silver ruble. Measures were taken to increase the number of small silver coins, which the reformer intended to replace with copper ones. In this way, he tried to restore confidence in banknotes, making it easier to exchange them for coin.

В "Note on monetary circulation" M. M. Speransky explained in detail the reason for the cheapening of silver.

M. M. Speransky was one of the first to justify the creation central bank and deployment of credit operations. His plan included the following actions:

1) the creation of such an organization of the bank’s activities that would free the bank from excessive dependence on the government, as was the case when the bank served as a source of covering the constant budget deficit;

2) providing the necessary assistance to the creation of private banks.

Results ideas Speransky in practice were:

1) the state budget deficit has decreased;

2) incomes have increased;

3) taxes provided the means to at least reduce the deficit and helped the government solve political problems.

34. ECONOMIC THOUGHTS OF A. N. RADISCHEV

Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802) was the first in Russian literature to give a systematic and comprehensive criticism of the economic foundations of serfdom. Revolutionary Radishcheva, the democracy of his views was expressed both in the method of solving the main problem - the elimination of serfdom and autocracy through a popular revolution, and in the forms of economic transformation of society proposed by him in the interests of the people.

Radishchev was one of the first Russian economists who turned to production analysis. He proceeded from the idea of labor as a source of social wealth and constantly linked the problem of labor productivity with its social form.

The main question of all the works of Radishchev was the question of the need to abolish serfdom. Analyzing serf production, Radishchev saw the economic harm from the enslavement of man by man primarily in the low productivity of serfs. The peasants were deprived of interest in their labor in the manor's field. Neither the main means of labor (land) nor the products of labor belonged to the serf.

Radishchev believed that the poverty of the country comes from the fact that the land is seized by the landowners and agriculture is not in the interests of the people. According to Radishcheva, only the farmer, the peasant should have ownership of the land. He thought the right to property is the most important right of a citizen - a public person.

Radishchev recognized the need for freedom of internal trade. He wrote that trade does not tolerate any barriers and spontaneously, like a water flow, bypassing all legalizations and prohibitions, will make its way, once production has already become commercial.

Foreign trade Radishchev, like many of his contemporaries, did not consider it an important source of state wealth. Even for Siberia, the main occupation of whose inhabitants was hunting fur-bearing animals and where the welfare of fur traders depended on the sale of hunting products, Radishchev did not consider foreign trade to be the basis of economic prosperity.

Radishchev considered money is primarily a means of exchange, eliminating the inconvenience of barter trade. For the first time in the history of world economic science, he gave a clear definition of paper and showed their fundamental difference from metallic money. He believed that paper money and small change perform their functions in circulation as signs of gold, its representatives. Therefore, the excessive issue of paper money leads to a disorder in the circulation of money, to a general rise in prices.

According to Radishchev, the problem of taxes is one of the central problems of economic policy. He believed that only on the basis of a thorough study of the state of production in individual regions of the country, it was possible to establish a firm position on taxes that would not burden the people, but would contribute to the further economic development of the country. At the same time, it is necessary to ensure that the people know well how much someone should pay in order to be able to better protect their interests and resist illegal extortions and harassment.

35. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF THE DECABRISTS

The most famous economic views P. I. Pestel, N. I. Turgenev and M. F. Orlov.

1. Pavel Ivanovich Pestel (1793-1826) - author "Russian Truth". It outlined an order to the future government to radically transform the Russian economy. He condemned the activities of the English and French bourgeoisie.

Pestel opposed the assertion of Western economists that the formation of peasant wealth is a sign of people's well-being.

The cause of social evil in society is private ownership of the means of production. Possessing other people as property is evil. But he was not opposed to private property in general. He believed that it was necessary to rationally combine all types of property. Peasants must become free farmers.

Pestel's agrarian program included the following provisions:

1) abolition of serfdom;

2) liquidation of privileges;

3) giving everyone the right to engage in activities that bring profit;

4) all the land must be divided into parts and half transferred to the peasants.

Pestel believed that in Russia there should be industrial development, despite the fact that he was a supporter of the development of agriculture.

Pestel advocated protectionism.

Foreign trade needs to be regulated, protect the national commodity producer from foreign competitors.

In the field of finance, it is necessary to introduce equal taxation for all segments of the population, eliminate the privileges of the nobles.

2. Nikolai Ivanovich Turgenev (1789-1871) - one of the founders "Prosperity Union" и "Northern Society" . In his views, he is close to liberals.

His main works: "On the new structure of the peasants", "Russia and the Russians", "Experience in the theory of taxes". In the first two works, he pays attention to the development of agriculture. It is impossible without abolition of serfdom, which will lead to capitalist development of agriculture, this is beneficial for everyone. The land should remain only the property of the landowners.

Turgenev developed several land distribution options:

1) leave the peasants without land on the initiative of the emperor;

2) to carry out the liberation of the peasants with a small plot of land. Peasants will be hired workers.

Turgenev spoke against protectionism, supported the theory of free trade. He condemned the poll tax, the personal dependence and conscription of peasants, and the unpaid labor of peasants for landowners.

В areas of taxes there should be equality before the state, everyone should pay the same taxes, they should be moderate. He advocated for regulation of the issuance of paper money to cover the budget deficit, was a supporter of the use of government loans.

3. Mikhail Fedorovich Orlov (1788-1842) - Decembrist.

Main labor - "Experience in the theory of state credit". For the first time in Russian economic thought, it substantiated the need for state lending to the economy.

Credit is an ingenious way to share. He distinguished between private and public credit: the owner of a private credit takes care of both its return and the return of interest; government credit is only intended to get the money back.

36. ORIGIN OF MARXISM AS AN ECONOMIC DOCTRINE

Marxism arose in the 19th century. as a reflection of processes in the social life of Europe at the end of the 18th century. At this time, industrial revolutions took place (the transition from manufactories to factories). The emergence of Marxist political economy was the most outstanding event in the history of world economic thought in the 19th century.

The founders of Marxism made revolution in economic thought:

1) in understanding the subject and method of research;

2) in the interpretation of the categories of capitalism;

3) in understanding the social nature of capitalism. This coup was revolutionary. Outstanding representatives of Marxism - Karl Marx (1818-1883) и Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). Formation of Marxism was prepared by the entire course of historical development, which created the necessary prerequisites for this event. They were diverse and matured under the influence of heterogeneous factors:

1) were important historical conditions, inextricably linked with the collapse of feudalism and the establishment of capitalism.

First stage the formation of Marxist doctrine refers to 40s XIX century., when feudalism was replaced by capitalism in the advanced countries of the world. This process was accompanied and accelerated by the intensification of the class struggle and revolutionary upheavals. Thus, the prerequisites were created for the emergence of the Marxist doctrine of socio-economic formations and their change as the essential content of the world-historical process, the basis of its periodization. This doctrine was developed K. Marx и F. Engels also in 1840s. and then began to play an extremely important role in the development of Marxism, making it possible to separate bourgeois political economy from the anti-historicism and determine the historical place of the communal system, slavery, feudalism, capitalism. It became obvious that capitalism is also transitory and will eventually give way to socialism;

2) in the formation of the economic prerequisites for Marxism, an important role was played by industrial revolution in England. Started in the 70s. XVIII century, it developed quite intensively and was basically completed by 1825. Since 1825, economic crises of overproduction began to recur periodically in England. This indicated that its economy had become capitalist;

3) in 1840s industrial revolution intensively developed in the USA and France, affected Germany, Russia, was brewing in Japan. A different economic situation arose than in the days of A. Smith и D. Ricardo. The necessary prerequisites have emerged for a deep and comprehensive analysis of capitalism.

Assessing the consequences of the Industrial Revolution in England has become an important topic of economic research Marx и Engels. The English factory system brought about an unprecedented development of the productive forces.

The progressiveness of capitalism has become obvious, the determining importance of productive forces for the development of capitalist society was clearly revealed, namely: 1) production relations;

2) class structure;

3) political system;

4) ideological superstructure.

37. "CAPITAL" KARL MARX

BOOK "Capital" - main job K. Marx, consisting of four volumes. The first volume of Capital was published in May 1867 BC thanks to significant financial support F. Engels. Marx did not have time to complete and prepare for publication the second and third volumes; they were published after his death under the editorship of F. Engels (in 1885 and 1894). Included in "Capital" as fourth volume also include manuscripts "Theories of surplus value" (1861-1863), dedicated to the criticism of bourgeois political economy.

1. The first volume of "Capital" consists of seven sections and twenty-five chapters.

Subject of study the first volume - the process of accumulation of capital. The first section is devoted to the analysis commodity and its properties.

The second section analyzes conditions for the transformation of money into capital. In him K. Marx introduces the concept of such a product as work force. Next, the concept is revealed surplus value and it is proved that the exchange of labor power for capital occurs through the exchange of equivalents. The worker creates value greater than the value of labor power.

Departments three through five are dedicated to theory of surplus value. The sixth section reflects the author's views on wages as a converted form of the value and price of labor power.

In the seventh division Marx formulates the universal law of capitalist accumulation: capital accumulation is the result of an increase in the size of enterprises in the course of competition and an increase in the absolute value of unemployment. Eventually, K. Marx leads to the idea of the natural death of capitalism and the victory of the working class.

2. Second volume consists of three departments.

In the first department the author gives a description concepts of capital. Here K. Marx, Unlike A. Smith и D. Ricardo (who saw a material form in capital), defines it as a form of expression of class relations of production.

Second department raises questions capital turnover rate. The basis for dividing capital into fixed and circulating capital, according to Marx, serves the dual nature of labor. The constituent elements of capital transfer their value to a commodity with specific labor, but at the same time some of them transfer their value completely during the cycle - this is working capital, and others gradually, participating in several production cycles, are main capital.

Third department dedicated to the process of reproduction. At simple reproduction process the quantity of means of production produced in one department must match the volume of consumption in another department. At expanded reproduction the output of the first division is greater than the consumption of the second division.

3. Third volume dedicated to the process capitalist production. The tendency of the rate of profit to decrease is explained. The growth of capital leads to a decrease in the share of variable capital that creates surplus value. A decrease in the rate of surplus value reduces the rate of profit.

Surplus value may perform in the following forms: entrepreneurial income, trading profit, interest and rent.

4. In fourth volume the history of the development of economic theory is studied, criticism of the views of the physiocrats is given, A. Smith, D. Ricardo and other economists.

38. K. MARKS ABOUT THE PRODUCT AND ITS PROPERTIES. MONEY AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

K. Marx analyzed the commodity and its properties in the first volume of Capital. The wealth of modern society consists of goods.

Product is a product of labor produced not for the producer's own consumption or those associated with him, but for the purpose of exchanging it for other products. Consequently, it is not the natural, but the social features of the product that make it a commodity.

Marx distinguishes two factors of the commodity:

1) use value. A product is an external object (thing) that satisfies any human needs due to its properties. The commodity body is use value, or good. Use value occurs only in use or consumption.

Exchange value represented as a quantitative ratio, as proportions in which use-values of one kind are exchanged for use-values of another kind. As use-values, commodities differ primarily qualitatively; as exchange-values, they can only have quantitative differences; consequently, a commodity does not contain a use-value. Socially necessary labor time is that labor time which is required for the production of some use-value under socially normal conditions of production and at an average level of skill and intensity of labor in the given society;

2) cost (substance of value, magnitude of value). The magnitude of the value of use-value is determined solely by the amount of labor or the amount of labor time socially necessary for its production. A thing can be a use-value and not be a value. This happens when its usefulness to a person is not mediated by labor (air). He who satisfies his own need with the product of his labor creates use-value, but not a commodity.

Money according to Marx emerged from commodity circulation historically. At first, the exchange was of a random nature, then it became a constant phenomenon, and then one began to stand out from the total mass of goods as universal equivalent. Gradually, the role of the universal equivalent was assigned to gold (or silver), which became money.

Money functions:

1) money like measure of value. Gold - a universal measure of value and therefore becomes money.

Money - a necessary form of manifestation of a measure of value immanent in goods - working time. The expression of the value of a commodity in terms of gold is the monetary form of the commodity, or its price;

2) money like medium of exchange. The process of exchange of goods takes place in the form shape change: goods - money - goods. Commodity - money - the first metamorphosis of the commodity, or sale. Money - goods - the second (final) metamorphosis - purchase. The final metamorphosis of one commodity forms the sum of the first metamorphoses of other commodities.

Money functions as a means of purchase. The movement of money is only the movement of the commodity's own form;

3) money like treasure formation;

4) money like instrument of payment;

5) world money.

39. K. MARKS ON THE CONSTANT AND VARIABLE CAPITAL AND SURPLUS VALUE

K. Marx singled out two components of capital:

1) constant part of capital. That part of capital that turns into means of production, i.e. into raw material, auxiliary materials and means of labor in the production process, does not change the value of its value.

2) variable capital. That part of capital that is converted into labor force, in production changes its value. It reproduces its own equivalent and, moreover, its excess, surplus value, which in turn can change, be larger or smaller. From a constant value, this part of capital continuously turns into a variable (variable capital).

The ratio of constant capital to variable K. Marx calls organic composition of capital and connects with it the dynamics of employment, the movement of the rate of profit and a number of other phenomena.

Since the organic composition of capital rises as a result of technological progress, the demand for labor grows more slowly than the amount of capital. From here, by Marx, the inevitability of the growth of the army of the unemployed, and consequently - the deterioration of the position of the working class as capitalist production develops.

Concept "surplus value" is central to the theory Marx. Added value, according to Marx, is the value of the product of unpaid labor of workers. The introduction of this concept made it possible to show how, without violating the law of value, the worker receives only part of the payment for his labor.

The interest of the capitalist is to increase as much as possible the surplus value which constitutes his profit.

He gets it all the way tricks, the analysis of which constitutes one of the parts of Marxist teaching and which can be reduced to two points:

1) lengthen the working day as much as possibleto increase the number of hours of surplus labor. If, for example, the owner can lengthen the working day to 12 hours, his surplus value will consist of 7 hours instead of 5;

2) reduce the number of hours devoted to the reproduction of the worker’s means of subsistence. If it is possible to reduce it from 5 to 3 hours, then it is obvious that by this method, although the opposite of the previous one, the surplus value of the capitalist rises in the same way from 5 to 7 hours. But such a reduction occurs spontaneously, only as a result of all industrial improvements or some organizations seeking to reduce the cost of living, for example consumer cooperatives. But the capitalist can also assist him by opening imaginary philanthropic factory shops or using the labor of women and children, whose maintenance requires less means of subsistence than adult workers.

Surplus value subdivided into two forms:

1) absolute. Produced under unchanged technical working conditions by increasing the working hours;

2) relative. It is produced under constant working hours and improving technical working conditions, which is characteristic of mature capitalism.

40. K. MARX'S VIEWS ON LAND RENT

Views K. Marx on rent theory coincide with the views D. Ricardo. Merit K. Marx consists in recognizing "absolute" rent. “Absolute” rent refers to rent from lands of worse quality (fertility) or more distant from markets. Developing the Ricardian theory of rent, K. Marx proves the existence, along with differential rent associated with differences in fertility and location of plots, also absolute rent, due to the very fact of land ownership, representing by and large a monopoly.

The theory of rent by K. Marx is as follows:

1) there is a “differential rent” that follows, like D. Ricardo, from differences in fertility and location of land plots of various categories. If the price of production of an individual capitalist is lower than the average price of production of a product, then he will receive a surplus product, which in magnitude will be higher than the average norm, if we assume demand high enough for this capitalist to be able to enter the market with his goods;

2) there may be "absolute rent" - something that is absent from D. Ricardo, - due to the fact that agriculture deals with capital, the organic structure of which is below the social average. As a result, the “value” of agricultural products exceeds their “production price.” In a normal case, the flow of capital would cause the rate of profit in agriculture to fall to the average level. But since there is private ownership of land, the landowner has the opportunity to burden the tenant with an additional rent payment equivalent to the excess profits received in agriculture.

K. Marx carefully avoids claiming that the organic composition of capital in agriculture is indeed below average. This, in his opinion, "is a question that only statistics can solve." If this is not the case, then absolute rent falls away and all rent remains differential.

Marxist theory of absolute rent has no force outside the framework of his theory of surplus value and the resulting need for the transformation of value into price. Therefore, it is necessary to note only one conclusion arising from this theory: absolute rent is negative if the agricultural sector is characterized by a higher capital intensity compared to other sectors of the economy, as was actually the case in the USA and Great Britain after 1930.

Discussion differential rent у K. Marx more detailed than D. Ricardo, but less comprehensive.

Marx didn't understand the theory D. Ricardo, according to which there must be cultivated land for which rent is not charged. In other words, he did not understand that there is a limit to both intensive and extensive farming. This is a serious misunderstanding if we remember that the introduced D. Ricardo the concept of marginal intensity became the beginning of all subsequent marginalist thought.

41. HISTORICAL SCHOOL OF GERMANY

The beginning of economic science in Germany was laid Friedrich List (1789-1846), a famous scientist and patriot who repeatedly had to sacrifice his career and well-being for the right to defend the idea of unifying the country (which happened in 1871). Germany 1830-1860s gave the history of economic teachings the first example of open criticism of the ideas of the classical school.

The core of views F. Liszt served theory of "national economy", developed in the work "A National System of Political Economy" (1842).

He claimed that the economy of each specific country develops according to its own laws, which depend on its history, traditions, legislation. Therefore, each country should create its own “national economy”. This theory differed from the political economy of the classical school, whose representatives believed that it was pointless to look for economic laws that were universal for each country. Representatives of the classical historical school, in essence, transferred the conclusions drawn from the experience of England to the whole world and declared these conclusions to be “universal economic laws.”

Their positions were also opposite on the issue role of the state in the economy. Representatives of the historical school considered active state policy a necessary condition for economic progress, in contrast to the non-intervention of the state in the economy among the “classics.” This reflected the historical characteristics of Germany in the 19th century, where the state served as the “locomotive” of economic progress. The discrepancy also concerned the exchange rate foreign economic policy: if the classics defended free trade, then the “historians” were supporters of the policy of protectionism (protection, creation of favorable conditions for their own producers).

The peak of popularity of the tradition of German economic science was reached during the period of activity "new historical school" Herbert Schmoller (1838-1917), Luyo Brentano (1844-1931).

Their supporters and followers in 60-80 XIX century. almost monopolized the departments of Europe. This period is often characterized as crisis of economic science. This is not without reason, since the traditions of the historical school are nihilism in relation to any theoretical generalizations and abstractions, without which science is unthinkable.

More or less successful options have become an interesting area of research for the historical school. periodization of general economic history.

F. List singled out five stages in economic history:

1) stage of wildness;

2) the shepherd's stage;

3) agricultural stage;

4) agricultural and manufacturing stage;

5) agricultural-manufactory-commercial stage.

The merit of the historical school is that:

1) representatives of this school were the first to point out significant differences in economic systems;

2) emphasized the humanitarian nature of economic science;

3) at the same time, they denied economic science as a science, since they did not strive to explain and foresee the tendencies of economic development (as classics), but only to describe, accumulate facts, leaving history to draw conclusions.

42. WESTERN EUROPEAN UTOPIAN SOCIALISM

Ideas of social reconstruction as a vision of a better, just society, exist in any society among classes whose position does not suit their representatives, but they reach a special number of adherents in times of economic trouble and crises.

France at the beginning of the 19th century. represented an ideal ground for the spread of socialist theories.

1. ancestor - Claude Henri Saint-Simon (1760-1825). In 1823-1824. he writes the main work - "Catechism of Industrialists (Industrialists)". He is working on the question of what an industrialist is.

Industrialk is a person who works to produce or deliver to different members of society one or more material goods that satisfy their needs or physical needs (manufacturers, merchants, cabmen, sailors of the merchant fleet).

The industrial class must take first place, since it is the most important and can do without the other classes. But no one can do without him, since he exists by his own strength and his own labor (the working owner).

Saint-Simon He believed that industrialists should manage the state, and they would successfully cope with this, because they were most interested in saving state income, in limiting arbitrariness. They are the best administrators, as evidenced by the success of their private ventures.

Industrial Mode there is a regime that can give people the greatest measure of general and individual freedom.

The transition to a new society of industrialists and industrialists, which will replace capitalism, must take place peacefully through the reform of the monetary system by the bankers. At Saint Simon there is no doubt that capitalism is not the last system in economic history and that a new social order will come to replace it.

2. The second "great utopian" of France was Fourier (1777-1837). In 1829 BC his work was published, in which the provisions of the future society were outlined - "The New Economic and Societary World" (1829).

The history of mankind goes through three periods:

1) the period preceding production activity (primitive society, which is characterized by savagery and inactivity);

2) fragmented, deceitful, repulsive production:

a) patriarchy (small production);

b) barbarism (average production);

c) civilization (large-scale production);

3) societal, truthful, attractive production:

a) harmonism (semi-association);

b) socialism (simple association);

c) harmonism (complex association).

Capitalism will be replaced by a new system, and this third system at the highest point of development will be called harmony.

Basis new system will phalanx - a semblance of a community, a labor association with a greater share of agriculture. In this phalanx there is a universality of labor. In order for communities to exist, funds are needed. Fourier proposes to create an association of shareholders. They can buy their shares or earn money through labor.

43. R. Owen's Utopian Dreams

Utopia Robert Owen (1771-1858) distinguished by realism and practicality. He dreamed of a society where, along with a huge increase in production and wealth, man himself would develop harmoniously, where the value of the human person.

The purpose of his experiments: find out the decisive influence of the environment on the formation of a person's character. under the word "Wednesday" he understood the entire spectrum of human life conditions - from material conditions to the moral climate. He believed that it was possible to create a good moral climate in society through the education of people by an enlightened and humane leader.

At the heart of the views Owen lies the labor theory of value D. Ricardo. But unlike him Owen considers that, in fact, under capitalism, exchange is not carried out according to labor.

labor exchange assumes that the worker receives the full value of the goods produced by him.

Economic views Owen were associated with his plan for a radical transformation of society, including industrial relations. Fair exchange at labor cost requires liquidation of the capitalist system. Only in society no private property the worker will give his labor "at full value".

cell of communist society Owen is a small cooperative community with a desirable number of members from 800 to 1200. Private property and classes in the communities are completely absent, everyone works together, without capitalist employers. The only difference may be in age and experience.

In 1800 Owen became a co-owner of a spinning and weaving enterprise in Scotland. IN 1802 Owen moves on to solving social problems:

1) called on everyone to discipline, cleanliness, order, and organization. All offenses were punished only by administrative and moral measures (public discussion and condemnation), there were no punitive measures;

2) created elementary human conditions of work and life for workers and received a return both in the form of increased labor productivity and in the form of social improvement. There appeared organizational and social activity of workers, elements of self-government;

3) real per capita income has become higher than in other settlements; wages were paid even during the period of forced shutdown of the enterprise due to the crisis;

4) shortened working day from 13-14 h (as everywhere else at that time) to 10,5 h;

5) introduced pensions for the elderly, organized mutual aid funds;

6) built tolerable dwellings for workers and rented them out for a reduced fee;

7) organized fair retail trade at discounted prices;

8) created many schools for children, facilitating their work in the factory.

Owen became a preacher communist model for the whole world. He was also organizer first British trade unions.

В 1832 BC he organized Fair Labor Exchange.

В 1833-1834 Owen led an attempt creation of the first general national trade union, which united up to half a million members.

Many of his ideas were embodied only in the XNUMXth century. (for example, social engineering and paternalism).

44. NEW HISTORICAL SCHOOL OF GERMANY

After merging Germany в 1871 BC there new historical school. If the old historical school fought against the classics, then the new school fights against Marxism.

General characteristics of the school:

1) there are no certain historical laws. There are no traditions, customs in the economy and repeated connections.

L. Brentano believes that there is no law by which you can determine the salary. It will be different in different places.

G. Schmoller says that in an attempt to find the law of pricing in German conditions, you will stumble upon baronial anti-Semitism, which makes German barons overpay for goods, but not buy them in Jewish shops;

2) an attempt to find local features of development. The new historical school has two directions. In 1872 BC was created in Germany "Union of Social Policy".

The main task and prerequisites were formulated Gustav Schmoller (1838-1917): the dissension that has penetrated the social system, separating the entrepreneurs from the workers, the propertied classes from the have-nots, may turn into a sharp class struggle. The task is to reform the system.

1. Right wing is presented Schmoller. The power of the state and its intervention in social and economic life must be exercised by a wise and firm government.

The right wing program was called katedr-socialism.

Its main provisions:

1) state regulation of the labor of children and women;

2) state insurance of workers;

3) payment of pensions through deductions from wages;

4) compulsory primary education;

5) formation of workers' cooperatives (housing and consumer cooperatives);

6) conflicts between workers and capitalists must be resolved by third parties appointed by the state;

7) Schmoller offers to slightly reform the system from above, to make some concessions.

2. Left wing "Union of Social Policy" represented Luyo Brentano (1844-1931). the main objective left - class world, but obtained not by reform from above, but by unification from below. Two volume book Brentano written on the basis of the rich experience of trade unions in England.

Brentano makes conclusion: enlightened workers' organizations can change the order.

Other features of the left wing:

1) the main theory is "Theory of labor-commodity". Labor is a special commodity. Feature: it is inseparable from the seller. The worker is compelled to follow his labor-commodity. Migrations of workers in search of favorable conditions for the sale of goods lead to a deterioration in demand. The situation can be improved if trade unions take the place of one worker. Thanks to the trade unions, the harmful influence of labor as a commodity, and of the worker as a seller, is eliminated;

2) defends wage increases and reduced working hours. This is an attempt to eliminate the economic backwardness of Germany;

3) it is in the largest enterprises that there is a planned production, which prevents the occurrence of crises.

Cartels - the essence of the union of producers who are trying to systematically equate production with demand in order to avoid overproduction and all the consequences associated with it (falling prices, depreciation of capital, unemployment);

4) in agriculture, Brentano protects small peasant production.

45. A. MARSHALL - LEADER OF THE CAMBRIDGE SCHOOL OF MARGINALISTS

The theory of the Cambridge school is represented by research Alfred Marshall (1842-1924), Francis Edgeworth (1845-1926), Arthur Cecil Pigou (1877-1959).

1. The most significant contribution was made by A. Marshall, one of the largest bourgeois scientists in the history of economic thought. His theory, the foundations of which are outlined in "Principles of Political Economy", became not only a systematization and generalization of the provisions of post-Recardian English political economy and other movements. It marked the beginning of a new direction in modern economic science - neoclassical political economy.

The focus of Cambridge School economists was mechanism of market price formation. Marshall believed that, on the one hand, the market mechanism, acting in conditions of unlimited competition, establishes the dependence of supply and demand on price. On the other hand, the market system works in the opposite direction, determining the price movement by supply and demand. According to A. Marshall this is an ideal picture of market interaction, when supply and demand equally affect the price change. However, it varies greatly depending on the duration of the considered time intervals. When a short-term period is studied, some patterns appear, when a long-term perspective is analyzed, others. Equality disappears: either demand or supply takes on the role of the main price regulator.

Research of interest A. Marshall problems of demand for individual goods, more precisely, developed by him elasticity of demand concept.

Marshall put demand for a particular product in dependence on three main factors - marginal utility, market price and money income used for consumption, with a special place given to the first of them.

Since marginal utility equal to the maximum price that the buyer is still willing to pay for this product, it becomes the upper limit of the market price fluctuation.

Maximum price, argued A. Marshall, is an autonomous demand price, independent of the market, and is determined only by the need for the product and its stock. If we now look at the market process through the eyes of the buyer (consumer), it turns out that it is from here, from the point of demand price, that the market price, driven by supply and demand, begins its path towards market equilibrium.

In the Cambridge School created by economists supply theory the leading role belongs to the concept marginal cost, which refers to the cost of production of the last unit of a particular product. Proceeding in the same way as in demand research, A. Marshall identified marginal costs with the minimum price (offer price) at which the entrepreneur is still ready to supply his product to the market.

The theorists of the Cambridge school saw in the marginal cost the amount of income accruing to the owners of certain factors of production. These included wages, interest on money capital and entrepreneurial income.

46. TEACHING OF K. MENGER

Carl Menger (1840-1921) - scientist-economist, head of the Austrian school marginalism. The most famous economic work is "Fundamentals of Political Economy".

"Fundamentals of Political Economy"

K. Menger contributed to the fact that throughout the first stage of the "marginal revolution" of the three well-known founders of marginal economic theory, it was he who had the greatest recognition. This is due to the fact that, in contrast to the methodology W. Jevons и L. Walras Mengerian methodology research has kept certain key positions of the methodology of the classics:

1) the absence of mathematics and geometric illustrations in economic analysis;

2) the use of the principle of the original (base) category, which is considered the cost (value) with the only difference that the latter, according to Menger, should be determined not in connection with the measurement of production costs (or labor costs), but in connection with a subjective characteristic - marginal utility;

3) unlike the classics K. Menger considers primary not the sphere of production, but the sphere of circulation, that is, consumption, demand.

The main element in the methods of K. Menger is microeconomic analysis, or individualism. On the one hand, this made it possible to contrast the teachings of the classics about economic relations between classes of society with an analysis of economic relations and indicators at the level of an individual economic entity (in terminology K. Menger - "Robinson's farm"). On the other hand, this made it possible to get carried away by the preconceived notion that it is possible to identify and solve economic problems by considering them only at the level of the individual, at the micro level, taking into account the phenomenon of property and human egoism due to the relative scarcity of goods.

New methodological and theoretical constructions of K. Menger in "Foundations ..." are introduced by him almost in the style of the leading representatives of classical political economy. In particular, he says that, as in all other sciences, so in ours, it is necessary to investigate the objects of our scientific observation through their causal relationship and the laws that govern them.

However, the external similarity of Menger's terminology with the "classical" terminology, the tendency to consider "causation and laws" sent scientific research K. Menger in a completely different way, as can be seen from the problems of the very first chapter of the "Foundations ...", where we are talking about the division of economic goods into orders and substantiating the principle of complementarity (complementarity) of productive goods.

K. Menger seriously criticism of the wage theory of the "classics", at which the price of simple labor tends to a minimum, but at the same time it must “feed” the worker and his family. According to the leader of the Austrian school, this approach is incorrect, since the idea of wages as a source of “sustaining life” will always lead to an increase in the number of workers and a decrease in the price of labor to the previous (minimum) level.

47. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF E. BEM-BAWERK

Eigen von Böhm-Bawerk (1851-1914) - Professor at the University of Vienna, one of the founders of the Austrian School of Economics. Among his writings - "Fundamentals of the theory of the value of economic goods" (1886); "Capital and interest" (1884-1889); "The theory of Karl Marx and its criticism" (1896), in which he developed the concept of "marginal utility", studied periods of circulation of capital, interest.

В "Fundamentals of the theory of the value of economic goods" they were given the main task - substantiate "the law of magnitude of the value of a thing", for the solution of which the “simplest formula” is indicated in the following interpretation: value of a thing measured by the marginal utility of that thing. In accordance with this formula, in his opinion, it can be assumed that the magnitude of the value of a material good is determined by the importance of a specific (or partial) need, which occupies the last place in the series of needs satisfied by the available stock of material goods of this kind. That's why basis of value serves the least benefit that allows, under specific economic conditions, to use this thing in a rational way.

The first part of the work Böhm-Bawerka "Capital and interest" contained a detailed historical review and critique of previous theories of capital and interest. He clearly imagined the place that capital and interest occupy among social problems.

Capital Böhm-Bawerk considered only material goods and did not include rights and intangible values in this concept. He tried to distinguish between capital as means of production and capital as pure income.

In theory Böhm-Bawerk percentage played a more important role than capital. He developed a formal model that assumed that the means of production were always fully utilized, always reproduced, and continuously accumulated. Percent setting Böhm-Bawerk viewed as a matter of imputation of value in the process of pricing. He subdivided various theories of interest into several categories: "productivity", "use", "abstinence", "labor" and "exploitation".

Capital can be productive, however what it creates is not a percentage. What really creates capital is the certain forms and shapes of materials.

Percentbeing cost category, can only arise during the circulation process.

In the theory of interest Böhm-Bawerka there are references to what he called the exchange, or agio. His theory was mainly based on the assertion that current goods are valued somewhat higher than future goods, and therefore the rejection of current goods requires a certain reward. Myself percentage simply serves as a measure of the difference between the present and the future.

Böhm-Bawerk counted the percentage too much in the sense that the cost of production exceeds the cost of its production.

The central idea of E. Böhm-Bawerk - "expectancy theory" - the emergence of profit (interest) on capital. His main contribution to world science is the idea that the ever-existing difference between the value of a product and the total production costs (ie, profit) determined by its value depends on the length of the production period.

48. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF F. WIESER

Friedrich von Wieser (1851-1926) - no less eminent representative of the Austrian school, one of the closest associates Carl Menger. Baron F. VizerHaving received a university education, he devoted himself almost entirely to research and teaching.

Propaganda, improvement and popularization of the teachings of the Austrian school were carried out F. Wieser in all his publications, including such as "On the Origin and Basic Laws of Economic Value", "Natural Value" и "Theory of Social Economy".

To a notable contribution Vizera economic science should include the introduction into scientific circulation of the terms "Gossen's laws", "marginal utility", "imputation".

In general, views Vizera largely repeat the judgments of his colleagues in the Austrian school, but there are concepts and judgments. Among them are:

1) method for determining total utility.

In his opinion, each unit of stock should be valued on the basis of marginal utility. So the total value of the stock will be calculated by simply multiplying marginal utility by the total number of like units. This method of determining total utility is usually called multiplicative;

2) his judgment that the sum of all income shares attributed to a given combination of factors of production should be no more and no less than the value of the product itself. In other words, there must be a perfectly proportional distribution;

3) the study of extremely important issues within its "income imputation theory". In connection with this problem, he focuses on characterizing the category of "private property" and questions of private organization of the economy.

F. Vizer comes to the conclusion that private property draws its meaning from the logic of management. At the same time, as three arguments in favor of such a judgment are called:

a) the need for a careful attitude to the expenditure of economic benefits in order to protect their property from other applicants;

b) the importance of the question of "mine" and "yours";

c) legal guarantees for the economic use of the property.

private property F. Vizer considers in close connection with the problem of private organization of the economy. According to him, private economic order - the only historically justified form of a large social economic union, the experience of centuries has proven more successful social interaction than with general subordination by order. Therefore, recognizing the legitimacy of only the private economy, he believes that society should not reject the rights of private ownership, otherwise, very soon the state would become the sole owner of all means of production, which, however, should by no means happen, since it does not able to manage these means of production as efficiently as private individuals do;

4) the judgment that the political and social climate that affects personal distribution can change the order of income distribution, consistent with functional theory.

49. AUSTRIAN SCHOOL: THE THEORY OF MARGINAL UTILITY AS A THEORY OF PRICING

As the basis for pricing, the supporters of the Austrian school put forward subjective usefulness. The ancestor is Carl Menger (1840-1921) , professor at the University of Vienna. Trying to solve the paradox A. Smith about water and diamond, Menger formulated principle of diminishing utility. The value of any good is determined by the least utility that the last unit of the supply has, i.e.

Menger directly related the utility and scarcity of commodities. Ideas Menger developed E. Böhm-Bawerk (1851-1919), who introduced the concept of subjective and objective value.

subjective value he defined as a personal assessment of the goods by the consumer and the seller (determined by the lowest marginal utility of the item in stock, and the marginal utility depends on the following factors: the amount of goods and the intensity of consumption).

Objective cost he defines as exchange proportions (prices) that are formed in the course of competition in the market. The objective price is the result of a collision in the markets of subjective assessments of sellers and buyers, while the level of the market price is determined by the level of subjective assessments of the goods by two marginal pairs.

Disadvantages of the theory:

1) absolute inelasticity of supply (the stock of goods is specified as a fixed value);

2) the mechanism of equalization of marginal utility in the process of exchange occurs under the assumption of the available price and given incomes of the consumer.

This means that the subjective assessments themselves are determined by the level of price and the amount of income, and outside the price system there is no quantitative definition of utility.

Впервые law of marginal utility formulated Hermann HeinrichGossen (1810-1858), German economist, author of the work "The Development of the Laws of Social Exchange and the Consequent Rules of Human Activity" (1854), where the laws of rational consumption by an individual of a limited amount of goods are formulated, which later became known as the first and second laws Gossen.

Gossen's first law: the value of satisfaction from each additional unit of a given good in one continuous act of consumption steadily decreases and is equal to zero at saturation. It's nothing but diminishing marginal utility theory.

Gossen's second law: In order to obtain the maximum utility from the consumption of a given set of goods over a certain period of time, it is necessary to consume them in such quantities that the marginal utility of all consumed goods would be equal to the same value. This law can be interpreted as law of equal marginal utilities per unit of income. The consumption of each commodity continues until the marginal utility per unit of income becomes exactly equal to the marginal utility per ruble spent on any other commodity.

Utility Maximization Methodology, proposed by Gossen, entered economic science as a classical logic of decision making.

50. AUSTRIAN SCHOOL: THE THEORY OF PRODUCTION COSTS

The only factor, which determines the proportions of exchange of goods and prices, is their marginal utility. Hence the conclusion that productive (capital) goods have no value, since they do not directly satisfy human needs, that is, they do not have direct utility.

In the real economy productive goods have value, and their price forms the cost of production. The problem of costs within the framework of the ideas of the Austrian school is solved as follows.

The theory of production costs is divided into two theories: the theory of objective costs and the theory of subjective costs.

Objective cost theory characteristic of the classical school, which derived from the so-called natural rates of remuneration the prices of factors of production, and the levels were determined by separate theories.

ground rent defined as the differential surplus over the marginal cost of cultivating the land, salary - the long-term cost of the worker's livelihood, and rate of return was the residual value.

Within the framework of the classical school, the reality of production costs was not questioned. But it is no coincidence that the Austrian school is called the subjective-psychological school. She announced that real costs are nothing more than an ancient delusion, and one of the representatives of the Austrian school Wieser developed subjective cost theory. The assumptions for the theory are two provisions:

1) productive goods are future, potential benefits, their value is derivative in nature and depends on the value of the final product, which brings immediate satisfaction;

2) supply is the opposite side of demand, the demand of those who possess the goods. At sufficiently low prices, manufacturers themselves will show demand for their products. This proposal is driven not by actual costs, but by the costs of forgoing other uses, including use by the manufacturer itself. In other words, costs are nothing more than the necessary payment for diverting resources from other uses.

By the author "opportunity cost concepts" can be considered Werner. It follows from this concept that the value of productive goods is of a potential nature, being the value of those commodities that we have sacrificed for the production of these goods. And, consequently, each productive factor must be credited with a corresponding part of the consumer goods that are produced by these factors.

This provision is a combination of the concept J. B. Seya about the three factors of production with the theory of marginal utility. But even if we accept this position, it remains open question: "What part of the value of commodities should be attributed to this or that productive good?" The representatives of the Austrian school have no answer to this question. Nevertheless, the proposition that the value of the means of production is of a derivative nature has entered the modern course of economics as a proposition about the derivative nature of the demand for production factors, which depends on the demand for final products.

51. THE THEORY OF LIMITED PRODUCTIVITY J. CLARK

The Austrian school considers the value of productive goods to be equal to the value of the goods sacrificed to them. (opportunity cost concept) - the theory of three factors of production J. B. Seya. A variant answer to the question of how the share of this factor in the cost of created products is determined was given John Bates Clark (1847-1938) in "Distribution of Wealth" (1899).

Taking as a basis the theory of Say's three factors of production, the works Ricardo и Malthus, Clark circulated his formulation law of diminishing soil fertility on all other factors of production, formulating in general terms the law "diminishing marginal utility". The law states that in conditions when at least one factor of production remains unchanged, an additional increase in other factors gives a smaller and smaller increase in production. In other words, the marginal product of a variable factor is constantly decreasing.

In determining the size of the contribution of production factors to the creation of a product and, accordingly, the share of remuneration of each factor Clark borrowed Ricardo principle (in the theory of land rent Ricardo used the principle of marginal increments to illustrate that the share of a fixed factor (land) achieves a residual profit determined by the difference between the average and marginal product of a variable factor).

By using these provisions, Clark tried to pinpoint the proportions that can be attributed to the specific productivity of labor and capital.

В capital theory each factor of production is characterized by a specific productivity and generates income. Moreover, each owner receives his share of income, which is created by the factor belonging to him.

Based on the law of diminishing marginal productivity Clark concluded that with a constant amount of capital, each additional worker produces less output than the previously accepted one. Labor productivity last employee called marginal productivity of labor. According to Clark, only the product that is created by the marginal worker can be attributed to labor and considered a product of labor, while the rest of the product, i.e., the difference between “products of industry and products of labor,” is a product of capital.

marginal product in monetary terms determines the fair, natural rate of return paid to each factor.

Salary is determined by the marginal productivity of labor (the marginal productivity of the last worker), so it is easy to explain the low wages in developing countries, since in conditions of an excess supply of labor in relation to the total capital of society, the marginal product of the last unit of social labor will tend to a minimum.

Assertion that a factor is rewarded according to its marginal product Clark extends to other factors of production. In particular, in his theory percentage value as a product of capital is determined by the unit of capital that yields the smallest increase in product.

52. INSTITUTIONALISM

Institutionalism - a direction in economic thought, proceeding from the postulate that social customs regulate economic activity. The determining role belongs to group psychology, not to individuals.

The rise of institutionalism associated with the name of the American economist Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929). At the research center Veblen is not a "rational", but a "living" person and attempts to find out what determines human behavior.

"Economic Man" - a person with independent preferences, striving to maximize their own benefit.

Veblen proved that in a market economy, consumers are subjected to all kinds of social pressure, forcing them to make unreasonable decisions.

Veblen introduced the concept "conspicuous consumption" ("Veblen effect"). He concludes that the market economy is characterized not by efficiency and expediency, but by waste, envious comparison, and a deliberate reduction in productivity.

Driving Motives of Human Behavior - not the maximization of profit, but the instinct of mastery, idle curiosity.

Veblen demanded to apply the data of social psychology to economic theory. He is the founder of science "economic sociology".

The main contradiction of capitalism - the contradiction between "business" and "industry", material production and the system of private enterprise aimed at making a profit.

This contradiction is aggravated, as the financial oligarchy receives more and more of its income through operations with fictitious capital, and not through the growth of production, increasing its efficiency.

The development of the industry leads to the need for transformation and predicts the establishment of the power of the technical intelligentsia in the future - "technocracy", not profit.

These ideas Veblen were picked up and developed by an American economist and sociologist John Kenneth Galbraith. In work "New Industrial Society" (1969) Galbraith claims that purpose of the technostructure is a constant economic growth, which only ensures the growth of official salaries and stability. However, the interests of economic growth, the necessary condition for which is the growth of consumption, lead to further pressure on consumers from manufacturers. There is a hypertrophied growth of individual needs, but social needs, to which Galbraith attributed and investment in human capital by expanding the education system, are falling into disrepair.

Technostructure Goals come into conflict with the interests of society. It lies not only in the intensification of consumer psychosis, but also in the fact that the result of the dominance of the technostructure is the waste of natural resources, inflation, and unemployment. These negative processes are the result of conciliatory technostructure policieswho wishes to live in peace with all sectors of society.

Effects: wage growth outstripping labor productivity growth, inflation.

Galbraith concludes about the need for social control over the economy by the state.

53. TECHNOCRATIC IDEAS OF D. GALBRATE

Major writings of John Kenneth Galbraith are: "American Capitalism: The Concept of Balancing Forces" (1952); "The Affluent Society" (1958); "The New Industrial Society" (1967); "Economic theories and goals of society" (1973); "Money. Where it comes from and where it goes" (1975).

Central to Galbraith's theory is the notion "industrial system", this is that part of the economy that is characterized by the presence of large corporations.

In the history of the American corporation Galbraith noted several stages:

1) entrepreneurial corporation (entrepreneur himself, manager, and engineer);

2) a managing corporation (the corporation becomes a management corporation);

3) technostructure corporation. Production becomes so complicated that not a single manager understands it. He only signs the papers that are prepared by specialists representing the techno-structure. This is a broad social group (design bureaus, scientists, engineers, economists, psychologists, craftsmen, individual skilled workers).

Technostructure in powerBy Galbraith, does not set as its goal obtaining maximum profit, which, in his opinion, determines the fundamental difference between a “mature corporation” and an entrepreneurial one.

Material incentives for technostructure is carried out through salaries, promotions, and this is achievable as the scale of production expands.

Galbraith emphasizes the peaceful nature of the techno-structure. It goes towards other layers and groups. Shareholders get higher dividends, workers get higher wages.

Galbraith believes that the technostructure embodies "organized activities", the "brain of the corporation" and, thus, rightfully possesses the most scarce factor of production - knowledge.

Galbraith denies the contradiction of capitalism and believes that within the industrial system the interests of the workers are increasingly consistent with the interests of the corporation, and class conflicts are only the object of a passionate dream of old-fashioned revolutionaries.

Developing a "scenario of the future" Galbraith is transition to "new socialism", including three main links:

1) comprehensive support for the “market system”;

2) the bourgeois nationalization of individual corporations and the expansion of the state sector in the economy;

3) creation of a system of "national planning". concept "socialism" he uses it as a corrective measure where there is a general low level of development, and as a means of controlling hypertrophied development.

Galbraith's New Socialism Scenario Implementation Program presupposes the influence of the modern bourgeois state on two main objects:

1) market system;

2) planning system.

He proposes different strategies for these two sectors of the capitalist economy. In his opinion, the state should treat the market system as a backward sector of the economy and provide it with comprehensive assistance.

Actually Galbraith's bourgeois-reformist concept means the implementation of a number of measures aimed at the further development of state-monopoly capitalism.

54. R. HEILBRONER ON THE FUTURE OF CAPITALISM

Various predictions about the future of capitalism are put forward by a prominent representative modern institutionalism, famous American economist, sociologist, professor at the New School for Social Research in New York Robert Heilbroner.

He presents his concepts in books: "The Limits of American Capitalism and Socialism"; "Between capitalism and socialism"; "A Look at the Future of Humanity"; "The Decline of Business Civilization". Heilbroner is one of the ideologists of the widespread in the USA ecological current.

In his work, he describes many negative aspects of capitalist reality: unemployment, inflation, etc.

The reasons These phenomena, he considers, first of all, the spontaneous nature of the capitalist market, the competitive struggle.

The modern stage of development of capitalism - state-monopoly, he considers a qualitatively new stage based on the use of technology in the production process. In interpretations heilbroner reached state of the art defines the main features of both capitalist and socialist society. It is with this that he connects the possible convergence of the two systems.

root cause source of the Hale-Broner controversy sees in the clash of the scientific and technological revolution (NTR) and the elements of the capitalist market. Science and its representatives, scientific and technological revolution and its bearers are the forces that, in Heilbroner's view, "crush" capitalism.

Science as such and its bearers personify the germ of a new social system, which supposedly is already growing in the bowels of capitalism. Representatives of the technocracy form the privileged group that will lead the future society, designed to replace capitalism.

К elite groups Heilbroner refers the scientific and technical intelligentsia:

1) “professional experts”;

2) representatives of the academic world in the field of both social and natural sciences;

3) government administration, the growth of which is caused by the expansion of the public sector in the economy.

heilbroner calls representatives of the scientific and technical intelligentsia "the vanguard of the future society", who are now forced to be under the "auspices of businessmen", but will later get rid of it.

heilbroner does not concretize his model of the new system, his ideas about the future society are outlined rather vaguely. His scenario can be described as a technocratic variant in a highly vague way.

Modern society is undergoing a process of deep renewal, which is reflected in bourgeois economic thought, where one can single out two main processes:

1) growing attention to the problems of changing capitalism - imperfect competition, monopoly and oligopoly, the role of the state and its economic prerogatives, goals and methods of state intervention in economic and social processes, in general, to the reforms of the economic system;

2) deepening differentiation of political economy, the formation of the main directions that define it today.

55. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF J. SCHUMPETER

Joseph Schumpeter (1883-1950) - Economist and sociologist. His views combine both elements of institutionalism and premises of classical political economy.

Schumpeter gained fame for his work "The Theory of Economic Development" (1912).

He developed theory of economic development, placing at the center of the analysis those internal factors that cause the economic development of the system. Such factors are new production combinations, they determine the dynamic changes in the economy.

These new combinations are:

1) creation of a new product;

2) use of new production technology;

3) the use of a new organization of production;

4) opening of new sales markets and sources of raw materials. New combinations are associated with an entrepreneur who, by overcoming technological and financial difficulties, discovers new ways to make a profit.

In the concept of economic development Schumpeter assigns a particularly important role to the entrepreneur.

Entrepreneurship - a special gift, a property of a human character that does not depend on class, social affiliation.

Entrepreneurship is characterized by the following features:

1) self-reliance;

2) risk preference;

3) the value of one's own independence;

4) orientation to one's own opinion;

5) the need to achieve success despite the fact that the very value of money for him is not great;

6) the desire for innovation.

В static state Schumpeter highlights entrepreneurial motives дactivities based on rational behavior (maximum utility, benefit), in dynamic model - the motive of irrationality, the main motives are self-development of the personality, success, creativity.

Schumpeter introduced concepts "effective competition" и "effective monopoly", linking them with the process of innovation, which is the core of a new type of competition. The innovator receives profit, which is an incentive and reward for his inventions, so the monopoly, which is a consequence of innovation, Schumpeter call effective monopoly and recognized it as a natural element of economic development.

Banks are a special phenomenon of development, which, speaking on behalf of the national economy, issue the authority to implement new production combinations.

Schumpeter infers existence economic qiкfishing of the periods of introduction of inventions, carried out by jerks, one invention pulls a bunch of innovations (economic cycles). Also in this work he singles out and establishes relationship between loop types - long, classic and short.

The cause of economic crises Schumpeter saw in the panic associated with the termination of the economic boom, highlighting the psychological motive as central to explaining this phenomenon.

The basis of the existence of capitalism he saw in the private enterprise system of the classical type, based on small and medium-sized property. With the accumulation of wealth in corporations, the culture and the nature of thinking change, since the corporation is managed by managers, and they have no desire for innovation, there is no consistency in decision-making at all levels, but there is only a desire for a career, i.e., the possibility of economic development disappears.

56. ANALYSIS OF THE PROCESS OF MONOPOLIZATION OF THE ECONOMY

An analysis of the process of monopolization of the economy was carried out representatives of the historical school (the last third of the XNUMXth century), who drew attention to the strengthening of monopolization, and called this stage imperialism. Marxists also analyzed the process of monopolization of the economy. These schools noted the characteristic feature of imperialism - the seizure of colonies - and considered it as a political phenomenon.

Schumpeter - representative of institutionalism - did not agree with this in the work "Sociology of Imperialism", in which he argues that capitalism and aggression are incompatible, since commodity relations form a type of person who seeks to solve problems peacefully, to obtain the necessary benefit through a fair deal, and not violence.

imperialist politics cannot be deduced from the economic relations of capitalism, but must be based on the irrationality of man, habits, customs, psychology, inherited by man from feudalism.

The theory of "organized capitalism" (historical school) considers the charitable role of industrial and banking monopolies as factors in streamlining production, eliminating crises of overproduction.

V.I. Lenin in "Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism" (1916) notes that the basis of the development of society is the development of productive forces.

The basis of monopolization is a series of major discoveries of the last third of the XNUMXth century, which led to change in the structure of the national economy:

1) the basis of the economy has become heavy industry, in which the concentration of capital production is higher than in light industry;

2) production is concentrated in several large enterprises, and there are opportunities for an agreement between them;

3) the process of concentration takes place in the banking sector, banking monopolies arise;

4) financial capital and a financial oligarchy are formed (the result of the merging of banking and industrial capital), which strive for world domination, hence the struggle for the redivision of the world. Changes that have taken place in the economic and political sphere, Lenin withdraws from the process of monopolization of the economy.

Monopolization - the result of the concentration of production, which makes it possible to receive monopolistically high profits on the basis of monopolistically high prices.

A. Smith assumed that monopolization arises on a natural (for example, the irreproducibility of production conditions) or legal basis (granting privileges).

Smith monopoly price regarded as the highest price that can be obtained, in contrast to the natural price (the free market price), which represents the lowest price that can be settled. Here the monopoly price Smith interprets it as the demand price, and the natural price as the supply price.

Research pricing processes in a monopolized economy served two published simultaneously work - "The Theory of Monopolistic Competition" (1933) by E. Chamberlin и "The Economic Theory of Imperfect Competition" (1933) by J. Robinson.

57. THE THEORY OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION E. CHAMBERLIN

Edward Hastings Chamberlin (1899-1967) introduced the concept "monopolistic competition", which, in his opinion, follows from the existence of a monopoly on product differentiation.

Monopoly on product differentiation assumes a situation where, by producing a certain product, different from the products of other firms, the firm has partial power in the market. This means that an increase in the price of its products will not necessarily lead to the loss of all buyers (which would be theoretically true under perfect competition).

The product is differentiated not only by the various properties of the product, but also by the conditions of sale, as well as the services accompanying the sale, and spatial location. If we interpret monopoly in this way, then we can recognize that monopoly exists in the entire system of market prices.

In other words, where the product is differentiated, the seller is both a competitor and a monopolist. The limits of power of this group of monopolists are limited, since the control over the supply of goods is partial due to the existence of substitute goods and the possible high price elasticity of demand.

Monopoly due to product differentiation, means that commercial success depends not only on the price and consumer quality of the product, but also on whether the seller will be able to put himself in a privileged position in the market, that is, monopolistic profit can arise where, with certain protection from the invasion of competitors, it can be created and increased existing demand for certain products.

Chamberlin's demand problem puts in a new way. In his model, the volume of demand and its elasticity act as parameters that the monopolist can influence through the formation of the tastes and preferences of buyers. Here the thesis is confirmed that practically all needs are social, that is, they are generated by public opinion. From here chamberlin concludes that price - not a decisive instrument of competition, since in creating demand the main emphasis is on advertising, product quality, and customer service. This means that under conditions of monopolistic competition, the price elasticity of demand decreases as the quality elasticity of demand increases.

chamberlin characterizes new approach to price and cost. His model involves searching for the optimal production volume and, accordingly, the price level that provides the company with maximum profit.

chamberlin assumes that under conditions of monopolistic competition firms maximize profits at a volume of production less than that which would provide the highest technological efficiency. This is because in order to sell additional products, the firm will either have to lower the price or increase the cost of sales promotion.

It is no coincidence that in his price theory Chamberlin introduces the concept of "selling costs", which he considers as the costs of adjusting demand to the product, in contrast to traditional production costs, considered by him as the costs of adapting the product to demand.

58. JOAN ROBINSON ECONOMIC GROWTH MODEL

Author "The Economics of Imperfect Competition" by Joan Violet Robinson (1903-1983) graduated from the University of Cambridge, becoming one of the prominent representatives and continuers of the teachings of the school A. Marshall. She is one of those authors in economic science to whom the work written at the very beginning of her creative career brought world fame.

The main idea of the book consists in identifying the market aspects of the functioning of monopolies, competition in the conditions of the existence of which and between which, in connection with the imbalance in the economy, is, in her opinion, imperfect.

First of all, as E. Chamberlin, J. Robinson puts in front of original problem - find out the mechanism for setting prices in a situation where the manufacturer acts as a monopoly owner of his own products, i.e. why the price has exactly this value and why the buyer agrees to buy the product at the price set by the seller, which brings him a monopoly profit.

But the further reasoning of the author in many respects diverges from the logical constructions E. Chamberlin. In particular, if the latter linked monopolistic competition with one of the characteristics of the natural state of the market in equilibrium, then J. Robinson, talking about imperfect competition, saw in it, first of all, a violation and loss of the normal equilibrium state of a competitive economic system.

In the content "Economic theory of imperfect competition" the essence of monopoly is viewed negatively as a factor that destabilizes the socio-economic relations of the market environment.

Therefore, in this work we can single out the following provisions:

1) by conviction J. Robinson, in conditions of perfect competition, entrepreneurs are less interested in monopolizing production than in conditions of an imperfect market, in which individual firms cannot reach optimal sizes, operate inefficiently, and therefore the monopolist has the opportunity not only to increase prices for its products, limiting output, but also to reduce production costs by improving the organization of production in the industry;

2) as he thinks J. RobinsonIn addition to the fact that a monopoly requires a noticeable separation of products from “substitute goods” or, in other words, differentiation, an additional condition is necessary, according to which the monopolist firm must be characterized by a size exceeding the optimal one;

3) in a monopolized market with its imperfect competition, a situation is possible that requires finding out what the quantity of purchased products will be if we consider a market consisting not of an infinite number of buyers competing with each other, but of a single association of buyers.

This situation of concentration of demand, when there are a lot of small sellers and a single buyer, she called monopsony, i.e., a monopoly of buyers.

59. WELFARE ECONOMIC THEORY V. PARETO. "OPTIMUM PARETO"

Economic theory of welfare V. Pareto found its origins in utilitarianism - ethical theory, recognizing the usefulness of an act as a criterion of its morality.

Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) believed that political economy should explore the mechanism of the established balance between the needs of people and the limited means of satisfying them.

V. Pareto contributed to the development theories of consumer behavior, introducing ordinal concepts instead of the quantitative concept of subjective utility, which meant the transition from cardinalist to ordinalist version of marginal utility theory.

Instead of comparing the ordinal utility of individual goods Pareto offered a comparison of their sets, where equal preferred sets were described by indifference curves. These principles formed the basis of modern theories of consumer behavior.

Famous Pareto principle of optimality, which underlies welfare economics.

original premise Pareto theorems steel views Bentham and other early representatives of utilitarianism among economists that the criteria for happiness (considered as pleasure or utility) of different people are comparable and additive, that is, they can be summed up in some general happiness for all. By Pareto, optimality criterion is not the general maximization of utility, but its maximization for each "separate individual within the limits of possession of a certain initial stock of goods.

The firm in the production of products uses a set of production possibilities that provides it with the maximum difference between gross revenue and gross costs. The consumer seeks to purchase such a set of goods that brings him maximum utility.

The equilibrium state of the system assumes optimization of objective functions (the consumer has maximum utility, the entrepreneur has maximum profit), while the equilibrium state is considered to be such a state in which it would be impossible to improve the position of any of the participants in the exchange without worsening the position of at least one of the others, and such a state can be achieved within the competitive equilibrium model.

The essence of Pareto's views can be reduced to two statements:

1) any competitive equilibrium is optimal (direct theorem);

2) the optimum can be achieved by competitive equilibrium, which means that the optimum selected based on certain criteria is best achieved through the market mechanism (the inverse theorem).

Optimum state of objective functions ensures balance in all markets.

Optimization of target functionsBy Pareto, means choosing the best alternative from all possible by all participants in the economic process. The choice depends on prices and the initial volume of goods that the subject has, and by varying the initial distribution of goods, we change both the equilibrium distribution and prices.

Market equilibrium is the best position within the already formed distribution system, and the model Pareto presupposes society's immunity to inequality.

60. THE THEORY OF ECONOMIC WELFARE A. PIGOU

Arthur Cecil Pigou (1877-1959) - English economist representative of the Cambridge school. In work "Welfare Economics" (1924) developed a practical toolkit for well-being based on premises of neoclassical theory: the theory of diminishing marginal utility, subjective and psychological approaches to the evaluation of goods and the principles of utilitarianism.

Based on these messages Pigou displays theory of taxation and subsidies, where the main principle of taxation is the principle of the least total sacrifice, i.e. equality of marginal sacrifices for all members of society. Based Pigou's theory of diminishing marginal utility justifies the need for progressive taxation, since, under the condition of diminishing marginal utility of money, transfer income from the rich to the poor would increase the general welfare.

Wealth maximizationBy Pigou, involves not only a system of progressive income taxation, but also the measurement of so-called external effects and the organization of income redistribution through the mechanism of the state budget.

Pigou notes that GNP does not accurately reflect the level of general well-being, since the state of the environment, the nature of work, and forms of leisure are real welfare factors. Therefore, situations of growth in the level of general well-being are possible while the level of economic well-being remains unchanged.

Pigou analyzes in detail the situations when the activities of the enterprise and consumers have "externalities", which do not have a monetary measure, but have a real impact on well-being. One can give an example of negative “external effects” - environmental pollution as a result of industrial activities of enterprises. Depending on the sign of externalities, public costs and benefits can be either greater or less than private ones.

RџSЂRё welfare calculation the discrepancy between marginal private net product and marginal social net product must be taken into account. The negative side effects of economic activity should be taxed, which was later called "taxation in the spirit of Pigou".

Interested in welfare theories Pigou and the conclusion he draws from the recognition of the theory of interest developed Boehm-Bawerkom, котор� �й с� � ит� � л, � � то percentage is a reward for waiting in the conditions of preference for current goods in the future. Recognizing that our gift of foresight is not perfect and we evaluate future blessings on a decreasing scale, Pigou concludes about the difficulties of implementing large-scale investment projects with a long payback period (including investments in education) and wastefulness in the use of natural resources.

He concludes that the state should not only to ensure the maximization of social welfare through the mechanism of income redistribution and taking into account "external effects", but also to ensure the development of fundamental science, education, and implement environmental projects, protecting the "interests of the future".

61. DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC THOUGHT IN RUSSIA (SECOND HALF XIX - EARLY XX CENTURIES)

The development of economic views in Russia took place under the influence of practice in close connection with the general movement of science in other countries.

The works and developments of famous Russian scientists are, as a rule, original; many conclusions and justifications have not only national, but also wider significance.

Features of the development of economic thought in Russia:

1) organic connection of theoretical analysis with current, very pressing problems development of productive forces, reform of socio-economic relations. This is reflected in the works of the following Russian scientists and economists:

a) Ivan Tikhonovich Pososhkov (original work "The Book of Poverty and Wealth");

b) Pavel Ivanovich Pestel (1793-1826) (program of revolutionary transformations);

at) Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) ("The Theory of the Political Economy of the Working People and the Works of the Bourgeois Liberals")

d) Ivan Vasilyevich Vernadsky (1821-1884);

d) Alexander Ivanovich Chuprov (1842-1908);

f) theorists of the social direction: Nikolai Ivanovich Sieber (1844-1888), Mikhail Ivanovich Tugan-Baranovsky (1865-1919) (the book "Socialism as a positive doctrine");

2) for a long time, the peasant question remained in the focus of attention of Russian economists, problem of agrarian reforms. Discussions were about the problems of communal land ownership, about increasing the efficiency of agricultural labor, about ways to involve the village in the system of market relations. The approaches of scientists to these issues were different. Economists addressing these issues included:

a) Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky (1772-1839);

b) Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802);

at) Peter Arkadyevich Stolypin (1862-1911) .

Not only professional economists, but also representatives of other fields of knowledge, publicists, and practitioners actively participated in the promotion and substantiation of original ideas:

1) with plans for economic reforms, implementation monetary reform were:

a) statesman M. M. Speransky;

b) Sergei Yulievich Witte (1849-1915) - Minister of Finance, author of theoretical works. He was the initiator and conductor of innovations in economic policy, the transfer of the ruble to the "gold" basis, the introduction of a wine monopoly;

2) wrote about the inevitable necessity and complete naturalness of past and future gradual changes in industry and agriculture, in other types of economic life and management in "Treasured Thoughts"

Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907);

3) many revolutionary figures were not professionals in the field of economics, for example, an encyclopedist and researcher of social relations in the countryside, the peculiarities of the development of the peasant community, the first Russian Marxist Georgy Valentinovich Plekhanov (1856-1918). Representatives of the historical school played a certain role in the formation of Russian economic thought, including the authors of studies and works on the history of economic doctrines - V. V. Svyatlovsky (1869-1927), A. I. Chuprov, M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky.

62. ECONOMIC PROGRAM OF POPULARITY. M. A. Bakunin, P. L. Lavrov, P. N. Tkachev

Populism as an independent direction in Russian economic thought developed in Russia after the reform 1861 BC, when the arbitrariness of the autocracy, the preserved privileges of the nobility, as well as the growth of capitalist industry and the beginning of the formation of the kulaks in the countryside led to an aggravation of class antagonism.

Populism - the ideology and movement of the raznochintsy intelligentsia - combined the ideas of utopian socialism and the desire of the peasantry to free themselves from landlord exploitation.

Ideologists of the main directions of revolutionary populism were M. A. Bakunin, P. L. Lavrov, P. N. Tkachev.

1. M. A. Bakunin (1814-1876) - revolutionary democrat. Main works: "People's business: Romanov, Pugachev, Pestel", “Our Program”, etc. A large place in the works Bakunin occupied criticism of capitalismwhich was progressive in nature. Views Bakunin on own were predetermined by his theory of the abolition of the right to inherit. The source of national wealth is people's labor. Bakunin's trend in populism had an anarchist tinge. Hatred for the tsarist monarchy and the bourgeois states of Western Europe Bakunin transferred to the state in general, declaring that any power generates exploitation.

2. P. L. Lavrov (1823-1900) - went through three stages of economic views. IN 1840-1850s. acted from liberal reformist positions.

В 1860-1870s. he took revolutionary-democratic, populist positions, maintained contacts with Chernyshevsky.

Thanks to participation in the Paris Commune, acquaintance with K. Marx и F. Engels, constant participation in the Western European labor movement in the views Lavrova socialist elements appear, populist economic views evolve and combine with the recognition of the historical role of economic doctrine Marx. The exploitation of the peasantry by landowners, manufacturers, as well as the government itself is clearly shown Lavrov in the works "The Martyrdom of the Russian People", "The Russian People and Its Parasites".

As a preacher of ideas Chernyshevsky, he advocated transfer of undivided communal land to peasants. He believed that private property leads to the fragmentation of the land and the emergence of a proletariat, to the creation of the same economic conditions that exist in Western Europe. Speaking as a revolutionary democrat, Lavrov saw communal landownership as an institution that could develop along the socialist path.

3. P. N. Tkachev (1844-1885) hoped for a social revolution through the seizure of power, political upheaval and the establishment of the dictatorship of the "revolutionary minority". He said that the peasantry could not play an active role in the social revolution, subjected to crushing criticism the economic backwardness of feudal Russia.

Tkachev correctly stated the inevitability of capitalism in Russia, he continued to look for ways of non-capitalist development.

Tkachev considered economic factor the most important condition for the development of society and attached great importance to the economic struggle of individual classes.

63. THE PLACE OF N. G. CHERNYSHEVSKY IN THE HISTORY OF RUSSIAN AND WORLD ECONOMIC THOUGHT

Proceedings N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) occupy a special place among the works of nineteenth-century economists. His work had a huge impact on his contemporaries and subsequent generations of revolutionaries.

Chernyshevsky defended the interests of the working people, especially the peasantry. In his works he criticized serfdom, as well as capitalism and Western political economy.

Chernyshevsky created a new economic theory - "the political economy of the working people", developed and substantiated the socialist doctrine.

Chernyshevsky wrote many works, but the most important economic work were written in the 1860s, including: "Capital and Labour", "Remarks on the book D. Mill "Foundations of Political Economy", "Essays from Political Economy on Millu", "Letter without an address."

Agrarian program of Chernyshevsky:

1) complete liquidation of landownership;

2) land - state property;

3) transfer of land for use by peasant communities;

4) in the future, the transition to large-scale collective farms, which are able to ensure the progress of production based on the wide application of the achievements of science and technology.

A lot of attention Chernyshevsky gave peasant community. Considering the preservation of the peasant community in Russia, Chernyshevsky considered it necessary to use it in socio-economic transformations and assigned it an important place in the structure of the agrarian system that was to be established after the abolition of serfdom. He believed that a system of land tenure and land use should be built on the basis of the community.

The Political Economy of the Working People dealt with all the fundamental questions of economic theory. Chernyshevsky rejected the definition of the subject of political economy as the subject of wealth. He called it the science of the material well-being of a person, of how much it depends on things and conditions produced by labor.

Chernyshevsky recognized merit Smith и D. Ricardo in the development of the labor theory of value. However, from the position of workers from the labor theory of value, it was concluded that the product must belong to the one whose labor it was created.

"Political Economy of the Working People" not like Western economists, she interpreted the problem of labor, its sale and purchase.

Chernyshevsky proceeded from the fact that labor is not a product, but represents a productive force, its source. And he concludes that, therefore, labor cannot be traded.

Chernyshevsky also did not limit himself to the position of the classics of Western political economy in relation to capital. He did different conclusion: since capital is the product of labor, it must belong to those who created it.

"Political Economy of the Working People" made a significant step forward in the interpretation of land rent.

Chernyshevsky defined rent as an excess of profit and criticized the "law" of diminishing soil fertility. He believed that there is rent from the worst plots, that is, absolute land rent.

64. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF M. I. TUGAN-BARANOVSKY

Liberal-reformist direction of Marxism in Russia ("legal Marxism") developed M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky, P. B. Struve, S. N. Bulgakov.

M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky (1865-1919) was one of the most popular, recognized in the country and abroad economists of the late XIX - early XX centuries. This was due to both the versatility of his scientific activity and the significance of the problems he developed. In his first book "Industrial Crises in England" (1894) he followed the ideas of the second volume of "Capital" K. Marx, but also noted that the mechanism of crises lies in the lack of banking resources.

He championed the idea the need for the development of capitalism in Russia, rejected the thesis of the populists about the strength of the peasant community, the usefulness of its preservation through the redistribution of land. Considering the economic evolution of England, Tugan-Baranovsky in contrast to the Narodniks, he asserts the thesis of the real existence and rapid growth of Russian capitalism.

The result of the study of Russian capitalism was the book "Russian Factory Past and Present" (1898). The handicraft industry, despite its widespread development in Russia, inevitably goes through various stages of subordination to capital. The capitalist factory is a higher form of organization of production.

Already after the 1890s. Tugan-Baranovsky departs from the orthodox perception of ideas Marx and one of the first to put forward the idea of combining the labor theory of value with the theory of marginal utility ("Theoretical Foundations of Marxism" 1905). He argued that the marginal utilities of freely reproduced economic goods are proportional to their labor costs. This ratio is called "Tugan-Baranovsky theorem".

labor cost - determining factor, usefulness of a good - determined factor.

Public demand Tugan-Baranovsky regarded as a manifestation of social need, public offer - as a result of the division of labor in various industries and spheres of production. Thus, the scientist singled out the objective and subjective factors underlying the price.

Tugan-Baranovsky built the concept of different levels of prices and values (values) and their methodological incompatibility with the theory of distribution ("The Social Theory of Distribution" 1913). He modified Marx's schemes of reproduction by introducing three subdivisions of social production and criticized Marx's "law of the tendency of the rate of profit to fall".

The paper "Socialism as a positive doctrine" Tugan-Baranovsky considers the system of state socialism as one of the forms of social organization. He believes that elements of coercion persist until the person himself learns to subordinate his interests to the public.

Social ideal, according to the scientist, is not “social equality, but social freedom.

A society of completely free people - this is the ultimate goal of social progress. "However, the social ideal" will never be fully achieved," approaching it "consists the entire historical progress of mankind."

65. ECONOMIC IDEAS OF G. V. PLEKHANOV

The formation of Marxism as a trend in Russian economic thought was associated with the translation into Russian of the works K. Marx и F. Engels, as well as the works of the largest representatives of the English school of political economy and with the dissemination of their ideas in Russian scientific circles and among practical economists.

The first Russian Marxist who played an exceptionally important role in the development of the Marxist trend in Russia was Georgy Valentinovich Plekhanov (1756-1918). His views are reflected in his works “Socialism and political struggle”, “Our differences”, etc..

Plekhanov came to the conclusion, that extreme opposition between Russia and the West is unjustified and attention should not be focused only on the peculiarities of the historical and economic development of the Russian state, since passion for specifics prevents us from seeing patterns common to all countries.

So he went on to say that Russian history - this is a continuous struggle of statehood with autonomous aspirations and personality. He believed that if in Western Europe the main driving force of development is class struggle, then in Russia she brake on historical progress, since Russia, by the nature of its state structure, is an eastern despotism and follows the Asian type of evolution.

В 1880s Plekhanov, analyzing a large statistical material of the facts of the economic life of Russia, came to the conclusion that capitalism is already developing in the country, that the fact of the destruction of the community is real, and the Narodniks’ hopes for the community as a means of escaping the capitalist structure are thus untenable.

He believed that the internal, fundamental reason for the destruction of the community is the development of a commodity economy.

Plekhanov described the stages of the transformation of a natural economy into a commodity economy, showed the process of the emergence of classes in capitalist society - capitalists and wage workers, and opposed the then widespread theory of the classlessness of Russian society.

Plekhanov studied the position of workers in Russia and their role in socio-economic life. He claimed that proletariat represents the most powerful force in the historical development of the country.

Simultaneously Plekhanov he denied the revolutionary potential of the peasantry, spoke of its reactionary nature and did not identify the peasants engaged in outdoor activities with the workers.

The pinnacle of all previous foreign economic thought, he considered the works D. Ricardo. Plekhanov praised his methodology and praised his theory of value.

G. V. Plekhanov claimed that cost is determined not by the natural properties of the thing, but by the labor expended on production.

surplus value he understood as the difference between the newly created value and the wages of the worker. But he criticized Ricardo for his ahistorical approach to economic phenomena, disagreeing that capitalism - this is the eternal order, capital is all the means of production.

Plekhanov developed market problem, arguing that capitalism creates its own market. He was also interested in the problem of economic crises of overproduction.

66. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF V. I. LENIN

Radical direction of Russian Marxism led V. I. Lenin (1870-1924). His numerous works are permeated with the idea of the inevitability of the movement of Russian capitalism towards the proletarian revolution and the possibility of building socialism in Russia, despite its economic backwardness from the West.

All questions of the transformation of society Lenin solved with the help of revolutionary violence carried out by the proletariat led by the Marxist party.

V.I. Lenin wrote several works on economic topics, but the largest among them was the book "The Development of Capitalism in Russia" (1899), in which Marxist theory was applied to the analysis of Russian economic development. Lenin, using official statistics, described the development of the national market as a result of the strengthening of the social division of labor. Industry is moving to a machine-factory basis, in agriculture the peasantry is being split into wealthy (kulaks) and poor (proletarianizing) producers, landowner farms are becoming increasingly commercial in nature. Cities and urban populations are growing. All this characterizes the transformation of the feudal system of Russia into a capitalist one, which means that the country does not have any special path of development. It is moving in the general mainstream of world progress - towards developed capitalism, and then towards socialism.

important work Lenin in the analysis of contemporary society was the work "Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism" (1916).

In her Lenin defines the characteristic features of capitalism in the late XIX - early XX centuries. and formulates the main tendencies of the capitalist economy. In his opinion, imperialism is decaying, parasitic and dying capitalism. It has entered an era of deep aggravation of all its contradictions, which means nothing less than a general crisis of capitalism. At this stage, complete preparations for the socialist revolution take place.

Followers of this concept Marx и Lenin continued until the 90s. XX century, when socialism fell into a general crisis and its collapse occurred.

The doctrine of socialism Lenin initially developed in accordance with the principles of the "Manifesto of the Communist Party" K. Marx и F. Engels. He stood on positions:

1) complete elimination of private property and transition to public ownership;

2) liquidation of market relations;

3) nationalization of the entire economy;

4) implementation of centralized management of the economy.

However, the complete collapse of the Russian economy and social protest against the policy of the Bolsheviks forced Lenin develop the principles of a new economic policy. There was a revival of private property, the market, money, entrepreneurship, but with the preservation of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Lenin tried to find a way gradual transformation of capitalism into socialism through economic calculation and cooperation. However, these ideas turned out to be utopian. All elements of market relations and economic democracy were destroyed in the 1930s. through mass terror.

67. ECONOMIC AND MATHEMATICAL SCHOOL IN RUSSIA

The use of mathematics in economics demonstrates the symbiosis of sciences.

Physiocrats They used mathematics and statistics to prove their assumptions. Works have appeared in Russia that consider the application of mathematical methods.

This trend appeared in the middle of the XNUMXth century. and consisted of two approaches:

1) research by professional mathematicians who applied their knowledge to analyze economic phenomena;

2) studies of professional economists who used the mathematical apparatus for their economic doctrines.

Among the first such scientists are V. K. Dmitriev, E. E. Slutsky.

He paid special attention to mathematics in economics. V. K. Dmitriev. is he tried to combine Ricardo's theory of production costs with the theory of marginal utility. The price is determined simultaneously by the conditions of production and the conditions of consumption. Evidence of the unity of the theory Ricardo and marginal utility, he expressed using two mathematical models of prices.

В first model he compiled a system of equations that is sufficient to determine the prices of all goods, based on the theory of production costs. In the second model Dmitriev tried to reduce all production costs to labor costs as a primary factor.

Dmitriev's model was built taking into account the elements of capital.

In this way, Dmitriev tried to connect mathematics with economics, and this connection made it possible to do the following findings:

1) the main provisions of the theory are fulfilled only in the absence of economies of scale;

2) if the position of the theory is not met, then prices depend on demand, and it is impossible to find an equilibrium price. Demand affects the price.

Dmitriev applied mathematics to define the concept of "potential and actual productivity".

Actual Performance - this is the productivity that produces at the moment, potential - which can be obtained with given opportunities.

The theory of consumer behavior by E. E. Slutsky.

work E. E. Slutsky (1880-1948) according to the mathematical interpretation of consumer behavior are considered classical.

Slutsky used a mathematical apparatus to study the dependence of the demand for a certain good both on its price and on the price of other goods, as well as the relationship between changes in prices and incomes. When analyzing demand, he distinguishes two components: a change in relative prices with a stable real income of the consumer and a change in income with price stability.

First component describes a situation in which the consumer remains on the same indifference curve; There is a "substitution effect" here.

Second component reflects the situation in which the consumer moves from one level of indifference to another. Assumed Slutsk mathematical expression "substitution effect" widely used by modern science. Also recognized were those put forward Slutsky "integrability conditions", used to empirically test the utility function.

Slutsky I thought that utility category It is formed under the influence of price and income categories, which also form the system of consumer preferences.

68. ORGANIZATIONAL AND PRODUCTION SCHOOL OF A. V. CHAYANOV

Organizational and production school (A. V. Chayanov, N. P. Makarov, A. N. Minin, A. A. Rybnikov etc.) arose in the pre-revolutionary period in connection with the rapid growth of peasant cooperatives.

The leader of this school was a major Russian economist Alexander Vasilievich Chayanov (1888-1937). Main works: “Organization of Peasant Farming” (1925), “Short Course in Cooperation” (1925).

The greatest interest for Chayanov represented family-labor peasant farmaimed at meeting the needs of family members. First of all Chayanov interested in the natural-consumer features of this economy and, to a lesser extent, its commodity-market features. The main concepts here are the organizational plan and the labor-consumer balance of the peasant economy.

Organizational planBy Chayanov, is the peasant’s subjective reflection of the system of goals and means of economic activity. It includes the choice of the direction of the economy, the combination of its industries, the linking of labor resources and volumes of work, the division of products consumed and sold on the market, the balance of cash receipts and expenses.

The concept of labor balance proceeded from the fact that the peasant does not strive for the maximum net profit, but for the growth of total income, respectively, production and consumption, the balance of production and natural factors, the even distribution of labor and income throughout the year.

Chayanov singled out six types of farms:

1) capitalist;

2) semi-labor;

3) wealthy family-labor workers;

4) poor family and labor;

5) semi-proletarian;

6) proletarian.

Chayanov believed that improve the efficiency of the agricultural sector is possible only in the case of a massive expansion of cooperation, which should have an anti-capitalist and anti-bureaucratic orientation.

According to Chayanov, the benefits of cooperation are in relatively low product prices and in the additional income of its members. Chayanov opposed the nationalization of cooperatives.

According to Chayanov, individual peasant farms are able to carry out efficient tillage and animal husbandry, while other types of activity are subject to gradual and voluntary cooperation, since their technical optimum exceeds the capabilities of an individual peasant economy.

Chayanov created theory of differential optima of agricultural enterprises.

The optimum exists where, other things being equal, the cost of the products obtained will be the lowest. The optimum depends on natural-climatic, geographical conditions, biological processes.

All cost elements in agriculture Chayanov divided into three groups:

1) decreasing with the consolidation of farms (administrative expenses, costs of using machines, buildings);

2) increasing with the enlargement of farms (transport costs, losses from the deterioration of control over the quality of labor);

3) not dependent on the size of farms (the cost of seeds, fertilizers, loading and unloading). The optimum comes down to finding the point at which the sum of all costs per unit of output will be minimal.

69. DOMESTIC ECONOMIC THOUGHT IN 20-90s. XX CENTURY

The development of economic thought can be divided into the following stages.

1. October 1917 - spring 1921 - the period of the first transformations and "war communism". This period is represented by the following economists and statesmen:

1) Mensheviks: G. V. Plekhanov, P. P. Maslov (criticism of the economic transformations of the Soviet government; evolutionary path of development, with private ownership of the means of production; demilitarization of labor);

2) Bolsheviks: L. D. Trotsky (the concept of labor militarization), E. A. Preobrazhensky (the book "The ABC of Communism" together with N. I. Bukharin);

2. 1921-1927 - the period of the new economic policy (NEP):

1) V.I. Lenin (concept of NEP);

2) E. A. Preobrazhensky (book "Economics in Transition");

3. Stage c 1928-1950s. in turn is divided into several periods:

1) 1928-1941 - the transition and formation of the administrative-command system;

2) 1941-1945 - the period of the war economy;

3) 1945 - mid-1950s. the rise of the administrative command system.

Represented by the following economists:

1) V. A. Bazarov (combination of genetic and teleological principles of economic planning);

2) A. V. Chayanov (organizational and industrial school);

3) N. D. Kondratiev (the theory of large cycles of the conjuncture; economic and mathematical direction; the concept of intersectoral balance of the national economy);

4) G. A. Feldman (scheme of expanded reproduction);

5) L. V. Kantorovich (linear programming);

6) V. V. Novozhilov (methods for measuring national economic efficiency);

7) SC Nemchinov ("Economic and mathematical methods and models"; the concept of self-supporting planning; the system of optimal functioning of the economy (SOFE))

4. Stage from 1950-1980s. divided by periods:

1) late 1950 - mid-1960s. - attempt at reforms;

2) the end of 1960 - the first half of the 1980s. - the period of "stagnation".

Submitted by economists:

1) E. Lieberman (the concept of the reform of the Soviet economy, its transfer to economic methods of regulation);

2) N. A. Tsagolov, N. V. Hessin, N. S. Malyshev and others (a concept that denied the existence of commodity production and the operation of the law of value under socialism);

3) A. Lurie, V. V. Novozhilov, A. I. Notkin, S. G. Khachaturov (development of problems of efficiency of capital investments);

4) M.V. Kolganov, V.V. Venediktov, P. A. Skipetrov, A. V. Koshelev, N. D. Kolesov (development of problems of ownership and convergence of its forms);

5) V. D. Kamaev, K. I. Klimenko, L. M. Gatovsky, A. I. Anchishkin (development of the problems of scientific and technical progress as an integral system "science - technology - production" and methods for determining the effectiveness of scientific and technological progress);

6) G. Lisichkin, N. Petrakov, O. Latsis (proposals and justifications for structural, institutional and political transformations of the economy and society);

5. Second half of the 1980s. - an attempt to transition to market relations under socialism:

1) A. Aganbegyan, L. Abalkin, P. Bunich, S. Shatalin (strategy "acceleration");

2) S. Shatalin, L. Abalkin (the concept of "perestroika");

6. Early 1990s. - transition to market relations in a transition economy:

1) program G. Yavlinsky"500 days";

2) E. Gaidar (monetarist way of reform in the shock version).

70. JOHN KEYNS. INTELLECTUAL BIOGRAPHY

John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) was born in Cambridge. After graduating from the university, in 1908 he became a professor at the Department of Political Economy.

Keynes was chairman of a large insurance company, manager of an investment company, owner of the Nation weekly. For many years (1911-1945) he was the editor of the most important theoretical body of English economists, the Economic Journal.

Theoretical studies Keynes were closely associated with his public service and political activities. Immediately after graduation Keynes He worked for two years at the Ministry of Finance in the Department of Indian Affairs. This activity of his did not go unnoticed. 1913 BC he publishes his first major economic work "Indian monetary system and finance".

During the First World War Keynes becomes an economic adviser at the Ministry of Finance. As a representative of this ministry, he takes part in the Paris Peace Conference, where the Treaty of Versailles was signed. While Keynes strongly criticized this treaty. He saw in him a threat to the post-war development of capitalism in Europe and, in protest, even resigned as an adviser to the British delegation. His thoughts on the Treaty of Versailles and the post-war development of Europe Keynes writes in two articles that brought him great fame: "Economic Consequences of the Treaty of Versailles" and "Revision of the Peace Treaty" (1919).

В 1920s Keynes more and more attention is paid to the problems money circulation, developing the idea of replacing the gold standard with a regulated currency ("Treatise on monetary reform", 1923).

In November 1926 BC, when the crash on the New York Stock Exchange had already heralded the beginning of the global economic crisis, he became a member of the British government's Committee on Finance and Industry. Just at this time his solid two-volume work was published "Treatise on Money" (1930), which summarized his views on the functioning of the monetary system of capitalism.

With the outbreak of World War II, with great influence and authority, Keynes becomes an adviser to the Treasury, as well as one of the directors of the Bank of England. During this period, he pays attention to a number of cardinal practical problems of British imperialism: military finance - at the beginning of the war and social security and employment - at the end of it. However, the most important during this period was his role in developing the post-war foundations of international monetary relations, which were fixed Bretton Woods Conference (1944) and led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

So the biography John M. Keynes largely determined by practical and political activities. It was she who played the most important role in the reassessment of values \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbthat he produced with his work. "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money".

71. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY J. KEYNS

Innovation of the economic doctrine of J. Keynes methodologically, it was revealed:

1) in preference for macroeconomic analysis microeconomic approach, which made him the founder of macroeconomics as an independent branch of economic theory;

2) in justification concepts about the so-called effective demand.

J. Keynes set the task of achieving economic proportions between national income, savings, investment and aggregate demand. The starting point is the conviction that the dynamics of the production of national income and the level of employment are determined by the factors of demand that ensure the realization of these resources.

In Keynesian theory, the sum of consumer spending and investment was called effective demand. The level of employment and national income, according to Keynes, is determined dynamics of effective demand. A reduction in wages will not lead to an increase in employment, but to a redistribution of income in favor of entrepreneurs. When real wages decrease, the employed do not quit their jobs, and the unemployed do not reduce the supply of labor, therefore, wages depend on the demand for labor. An excess of labor supply over demand gives rise to involuntary unemployment. Full employment occurs when the level of consumption and the level of investment are in some correspondence. By pushing part of the economically active population into the ranks of the unemployed, balance is achieved in the economic system. In Keynes's theory, it is possible to achieve equilibrium even with part-time employment.

J. Keynes pushed new category - "investment multiplier". Mechanism of "investment multiplier" next: investment in any industry causes an expansion of production and employment in that industry. As a result, there is an additional expansion of demand for consumer goods, which causes an expansion of their production in the respective industries. The latter will present an additional demand for the means of production, etc.

Through investment, there is an increase in aggregate demand, employment and income. The state must influence the economy if the volume of aggregate demand is insufficient. As tools of state regulation Keynes singled out monetary and budgetary policy.

Monetary Policy affects the increase in demand through lowering the interest rate, while facilitating the investment process. The impact of fiscal policy is clear.

J. Keynes developed principles of organization of the international financial system, which served as the basis for the creation of the International Monetary Fund.

The ideas are: the creation of a clearing union between states, which, according to Keynes, must ensure that money received from the sale of goods of one country can be used to purchase goods in any other country; Creation international quasi-currency - opening accounts for all central banks of the allied countries to cover their external deficit; the value of the quasi-currency depends on the size of the country's quota in foreign trade.

72. MAIN PROVISIONS J. KEYNS IN THE "GENERAL THEORY OF EMPLOYMENT, INTEREST AND MONEY"

"The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" is the main job J. Keynes.

Basic position general theory of employment is as follows.

J. Keynes He argued that with an increase in employment, national income increases and, consequently, consumption increases. But consumption is growing more slowly than incomes, because as incomes rise, people's "desire to save" intensifies. According to Keynes, the psychology of people is such that an increase in income leads to an increase in savings and a relative reduction in consumption. The latter, in turn, is expressed in a decrease in effective (actually presented, and not potentially possible) demand, and demand affects the size of production and thus the level of employment.

The insufficient development of consumer demand can be compensated by an increase in the cost of new investments, i.e., an increase in production consumption, an increase in demand for means of production.

Total investment plays a decisive role in determining the size of employment. According to J. Keynes, the volume of investment depends on the incentive to invest. The entrepreneur expands investment until the declining "entrepreneurial efficiency" of capital (profitability as measured by the rate of return) falls to the level of interest.

Source of difficulty is that, according to J. Keynes, the return on capital is declining, and the level of interest remains stable. This creates narrow margins for new investment and therefore for employment growth.

Reducing the "marginal efficiency of capital" J. Keynes explained by the increase in the mass of capital, as well as the psychology of capitalist entrepreneurs, their "tendency" to lose faith in future income. According to the theory Keynes total employment is determined not by the movement of wages, but by the level of production of "national income", that is, by the effective aggregate demand for consumer and capital goods. The latter tends to lag behind, to be unbalanced, which makes full employment under capitalism an exceptional phenomenon.

J. Keynes worked hard to prove the fallacy of using wages as a way to cure unemployment.

J. Keynes argues that reducing wages, even if it can be done, cannot reduce unemployment. "Murderous" output Keynesian theory lies in the fact that under capitalism there is not a single mechanism that would guarantee full employment.

J. Keynes argues that the economy can be balanced, i.e., it can achieve equilibrium in total output with high unemployment and inflation.

J. Keynes acknowledges that unemployment - a phenomenon organically characteristic of capitalism, which “inevitably accompanies modern capitalist individualism” and is determined by the organic shortcomings of the free competition system.

73. AMERICAN NEO-Keynesianism

The most detailed exposition of the American version of Keynesianism is given by professors at Harvard University:

1) E. Hansen (1887-1975) in writings: "Business Cycles and National Income", "Guide to Keynes' Theory";

2) S. Harris (1897-1974) in work "J. Keynes. Economist and politician".

Their developments are called "neo-Keynesianism", and subsequently "orthodox Keynesianism".

American Keynesians accepted Keynes' main points - his explanations of the causes of unemployment and the crisis, conclusions about the decisive role of state regulation of the capitalist economy, and the multiplier.

However, American Keynesianism has a number of specific features, due to the peculiarities of state-monopoly capitalism in the United States.

E. Hansen, in particular, supplemented Keynes' explanations of the causes of the crises of the so-called theory of stagnation, which was widespread in the United States in the late 1930s. and the years of World War II.

According to this theory the slowdown in the development of capitalism is explained by the weakening of its driving factors:

1) slowdown in population growth rates;

2) lack of free land;

3) slowdown in technical progress.

As practical measures of economic policy, the American Keynesians propose the introduction of government orders, an increase in taxes from the population, an increase in government loans, and moderate inflation.

American Keynesians supplemented the idea of the Keynesian multiplier the principle of acceleration. E. Hansen writes: "The numerical multiplier by which each dollar of incremental income increases investment is called the acceleration factor or simply the accelerator."

To justify this conclusion, they usually refer to the length of the equipment manufacturing period, due to which unsatisfied demand for it accumulates, which stimulates an excessive expansion of equipment production. If the multiplier reflects the increase in employment and income growth as a result of capital investment, then the accelerator reflects the upward impact of income growth (through increased demand) on capital investment.

American Keynesians based on the multiplier and accelerator developed scheme for continuous economic growth, the starting point of which is public investment.

They declared the state budget the main mechanism for regulating the capitalist economy and called it a built-in stabilizer, recognized as automatically responding to cyclical fluctuations, softening them.

К "built-in stabilizers" include income tax, social security payments, unemployment benefits, etc. According to E. Hansen, the total amount of taxes increases during booms and decreases during recessions. State payments, on the contrary, increase during a crisis and decrease during a recovery. In this way, the size of effective demand is automatically stabilized.

Along with "built-in stabilizers," American Keynesians advocate "compensatory countermeasures" method, which consist in regulating private investment and maneuvering government spending.

74. FRENCH DIRIGISM F. PERROU

Early 1940s. Keynesianism has permeated French economic thought, with some economists (G. Ardan, P. Mendes-France) accepted Keynes's theory without any amendments. Other (F. Perroux), approving the idea of government intervention in the economy, were critical of Keynes's theoretical scheme.

They opposed the regulation of interest rates, considering the method ineffective. Instead, French economists have proposed a move to economic planningto ensure not only an appropriate pace of development, but also a change in structure.

F. Perroux tries to combine state regulation with the private interests of monopoly capital. He put forward concept of "three economies". F. Perroux entered into a debate with the neoclassicists, who consider the modern economy to be free, market. In his opinion, the place of free market competition (competition) was taken by relations of domination, or dominance. That's why F. Perroux calls the modern economy "dominant force". Let's say there are four companies. There is a relationship and interdependence between them. But one firm is free to the maximum extent in relation to others and is able to impose its decisions on them. Thus, the first firm acts as a dominant force in relation to others, and there is no free enterprise here.

Scheme of interactions and relationships of firms F. Perroux considers it universal, since it describes the relationship between monopolies and outsiders, holding companies and subsidiaries, in the EEC - between more developed countries and the periphery. According to this scheme perroux interprets the modern French economy, where there is no free competition.

In this case, we are talking about bourgeois concept of imperialism. Perroux rightly criticizes those economists who present the modern capitalist economy as freely competitive. However, if R. Gilferding, V. I. Lenin the main contradiction was considered as a class one, then for Perroux it is the contradiction between the periphery and the center. This conflict is less deep and therefore can be resolved through regulation. If a first economy - "dominant force" - not harmonized (each component block pulls the blanket over itself), then second economy Perra calls harmonized. This is a polarized system, where each constituent unit carries out its own policies, there is no unity between them, and hence instability arises.

The main proposal of F. Perroux: we need to create a global dominant force that would stimulate growth. This force is the state. To do this, we need to introduce indicative economic planning.

third economy called F. Perroux global. He talks here about the need to harmonize social relations. He sees the global conflict of modern society between those who receive income from labor and those who receive income from capital, from property. To resolve conflicts, Perroux proposes to make capitalists employees, so that the income of capital owners would become income from social activities.

75. EVOLUTION OF THE QUANTITY THEORY OF MONEY. BASIC POSTULATES OF MONETARISM

The modern version of neoclassical theory is presented in the form of a theory monetarism, which got its name due to the fact that its main ideas are based on quantity theory of money, one of the oldest economic doctrines, the origin of which dates back to the 16th century, to the time of the formation of the first economic school - the school of mercantilists.

Quantity Theory money acted as a kind of reaction to the basic postulates of mercantilism, in particular to the doctrine characteristic of mercantilists that money speeds up trade, increasing the speed of circulation and thereby have a beneficial effect on production.

The most rigid version of the quantity theory of money was put forward by an American economist I. Fischer (1867-1977), which is in progress "The Purchasing Power of Money" (1911) derived his famous equation, which is based on a twofold expression of commodity transactions:

1) as the product of the mass of means of payment and the speed of their circulation;

2) as the product of the price level by the quantity of goods sold.

The Fisher equation has the form:

M x V = P x Q,

where M is the volume of means of payment;

M x V - the sum of all payments;

P - weighted average price level;

P x Q is the sum of the prices of all goods. According to the formula Fisher the price level is directly proportional to the quantity of money and the velocity of its circulation, and inversely proportional to the volume of trade.

Fisher accepts the premise of neoclassical theory, as follows: production is at the point of maximum possible volume and the velocity of circulation is constant.

Among European economists, a popular variant of the quantity theory of money is Cambridge version, or cash balance theory. Proponents of this theory believe that cash balances - this is nothing more than a part of the income that a person wishes to keep in cash form.

Cambridge equation, authored by an English economist A. Pigou, as follows:

M = K x R x P,

where M is the number of monetary units;

K is the part of the GGR product that people prefer to keep in the form of money; R is the total value of production in physical terms;

P - the price of manufactured products.

Unlike the Fisher equation this option puts the focus not on the movement of the money supply, but on the savings in the cash desks of enterprises and individuals. The factors on which the demand for cash balances depends are investigated, and two motives for accumulation are singled out: the formation of a fund of circulation funds and the formation of reserves to cover unforeseen needs. Particular attention in the analysis of the movement of the money supply is paid to the principles of income distribution, where the criterion is, on the one hand, the convenience of accumulated cash balances, on the other hand, the assessment of the victim of lost profits.

Monetarism theory, like all variants of the quantity theory of money, will be based on the following parcels:

1) the amount of money in circulation is determined autonomously;

2) the velocity of circulation is rigidly fixed;

3) a change in the quantity of money has an equal and mechanical effect on the prices of all commodities;

4) the possibility of the influence of the monetary sphere on the real process of reproduction is excluded.

76. ECONOMIC VIEWS OF M. FRIEDMAN. FRIEDMAN'S EQUATION

Milton Friedman - professor at the University of Chicago, born in 1912. Acquired fame with the release of the book "A Study in the Quantity Theory of Money" (1956).

M. Friedman is an adherent of the classical school, namely the thesis of non-intervention of the state in the economy. At the same time, he makes an argument - the market acts as a guarantor of freedom of choice, and it is freedom of choice that is a condition for the effectiveness and viability of the system. The mechanism that ensures the realization of economic freedom and the interconnection of the actions of free individuals is price mechanism.

Prices comply three functions:

1) informational (changes in supply and demand);

2) stimulating (the best way is to encourage the use of resources);

3) distributive (since prices are also incomes).

Prices participate in the distribution of income.

State intervention can take place in forms that least restrict a person's freedom, including the freedom to spend money. Hence Friedman's recommendations to provide benefits to the poor in cash rather than in kind and to introduce a system of negative taxes instead of direct assistance.

Friedman opposed the expansion of the provision of social benefits, believed that this gives rise to the so-called institutional unemployment and new poverty.

World fame brought Friedman development modern version of the quantity theory of money. It is close to neoclassical, since it assumes price flexibility, and wages and production volume tend to the maximum. Friedman set his task to find a stable demand function for money with a constant velocity of circulation.

money demand function is close to the Cambridge version and has the form:

M = f(Y,...x),

where Y - nominal income; x- other factors.

Ceteris paribus, the demand for money (the money supply desired by the population) is a stable share of nominal GNP, in contrast to the Keynesian model, where the demand for money is unstable due to the existence of speculative moments (liquidity preference).

Another the fundamental difference between the views of Friedman and Keynes that he is convinced that the level of the interest rate does not depend on the size of the money supply (in the long run). The conditions for the long-term equilibrium of the money market, where the rate of interest has no place, is expressed by a well-known equation called Friedman's equation:

M \uXNUMXd Y + P,

where M is the long-term growth rate of the money supply; Y is the long-term average annual rate of change in real (at constant prices) total income;

P is the price level at which the money market is in a state of short-term equilibrium. Thus, in the long run, the growth of the money supply will not affect the real volume of production and will be expressed only in an inflationary rise in prices, which is quite consistent with the quantity theory of money and, more broadly, corresponds to the ideas of the neoclassical direction of economic theory.

77. KEYNSIANISM AND MONETARISM

The most common directions in regulating the economy of the state are Keynesianism and monetarism.

The main postulates of the concepts of the monetarist school are the following:

1) the market is capable of self-regulation;

2) the economy itself will establish the level of production and employment;

3) money supply - the reason for the rise in prices and changes in the market situation;

4) the main problem is inflation;

5) a stable monetary policy is needed;

6) budget deficit - the cause of inflation;

7) monetarism - the theory of economic equilibrium. Keynesianism entered life in the 30s. XNUMXth century, when an Englishman J. Keynes published a book "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money". Theory Keynes brought the United States out of the crisis and resumed economic growth.

Keynes proceeded from the fact that the free market system lacks an internal mechanism that ensures macroeconomic equilibrium. The imbalance between savings and expected investments causes a decrease in business activity, which in turn intensifies inflationary processes and affects the unemployment rate. According to this theory, changes in aggregate inventories of consumer and investment goods mainly affect the level of production and employment. Therefore, Keynesianism proclaims active government intervention in the economy through fiscal policy (flexible changes in tax rates and government spending).

The main postulates of the concepts of the Keynesian school are the following:

1) the need for government intervention;

2) employment depends on aggregate demand;

3) the money supply is neutral to production;

4) the main problem is unemployment;

5) the need for a flexible monetary policy;

6) budget deficit - a way to stimulate demand;

7) Keynesianism - the theory of economic growth.

Monetarists believe that the market system is able to automatically achieve macroeconomic equilibrium. Flexibility in prices and wage rates ensures that changes in aggregate spending will affect the prices of goods and resources rather than output and employment levels.

The essence of monetary policy - in regulating the volume of money supply to stabilize the national market.

Monetarists announce government regulation harmful for the development of entrepreneurial initiative, destabilizing the economy and initially bureaucratic. Therefore, they call for minimizing state intervention in the economy, allowing only the implementation of fiscal policy.

However, it would be wrong to draw a sharp line between these two approaches to the problem of economic regulation. Both theories are constructed in relation to the conditions, first of all, of a market economy. To a certain extent, they complement each other, making up the theory of determining the total income.

Keynes justifies quantitative dependence of income on expenses, Friedman - dependence of income on money. However, there are significant differences between the approaches of Keynes and Friedman.

Each of these methods has its pros and cons, so the specific choice depends on the system of scientific and methodological preferences chosen by the respective governments. There is no universal rule for regulating the economy.

78. NEOLIBERALISM

Neoliberalism rooted in economics A. Smith. It was his principle of "invisible hand", confidence that the realization of a self-serving person in the field of economic activity will lead to public welfare, and the requirement arising from this point of view government intervention in the economy formed the basis of the concept of representatives of neoliberalism. The origin of this theory is L. Mises (1881-1973), professor at the University of Vienna. His most famous work "Socialism" (1922).

Mises criticizes the central link of the socialist system - planning. Under socialism, where there is no mechanism for competitive bidding for resources and where the buyer does not have to pay the cost of the best alternative to use them, resources will be used inefficiently and thoughtlessly.

Under socialism, a system of arbitrary assessments dominates, which gave rise to Mises call socialism a system of planned chaos.

The strengthening of the role of the state will inevitably lead to the strengthening of the role of the bureaucracy.

The negative consequences of bureaucracy are:

1) corruption, decreased efficiency of social production;

2) the emergence of a certain type of person for whom "following the usual and outdated is the main of all virtues", and the "suffocation" of innovators who are the only carriers of economic progress.

The free market corresponds to democratic principles, here the consumer is the center of the economic system, "voting" with his money income for a particular product, thereby determining the structure of social production, and only under these conditions do economic entities maximize their well-being, having the freedom to choose alternative opportunities.

Development of ideas Mises continued by his follower F. Hayek.

F. Hayek (1899-1988) - Austrian economist and sociologist. He considered market not as a human invention and not as a mechanism for the realization of justice and the optimal allocation of resources, but as a spontaneous economic order that simply connects competing goals, but does not guarantee which of these goals will be achieved in the first place.

Market effect is to increase the ability of all of us to achieve our own goals. This is due to the most important function of the market - dissemination of knowledge.

Keynesian direction in economic theory considers competition as imperfect and extremely costly economic mechanism achieving balance.

Neoclassical direction regards the competition as a fast and efficient way to optimally allocate resources.

Hayek sees competition as a "discovery procedure," a way of discovering new products and technologies that, without recourse to it, would remain unknown. It is competition that forces the entrepreneur to look for new products in search of high profits, to use new markets for raw materials, to look for precisely those very new combinations of production that ensure the dynamic development of the economic system. This belief of Hayek is another argument against central planning.

79. MAIN PROVISIONS OF THE THEORY OF SOCIAL MARKET ECONOMY (SRH)

The concept of SRS was put into practice in West Germany in 1940. A significant contribution to the development and practical implementation of this model was made by Ludwig Erhard, Alfred Müller-Armac, Wilhelm Repke and others. Walter Eucken, considered the spiritual father of the "social market economy" and the most significant German economist of this century.

At its core, SRS is a specific version of the liberal model of the "free market economy" with its inherent features:

1) guaranteeing individual freedoms and private property rights;

2) decentralization of economic decisions;

3) free pricing and free competition;

4) openness of the internal market to the outside.

The main distinguishing features of the social market economy as the theoretical basis of the socio-economic program:

1) special role of the state. In contrast to classical liberalism, the founders of the concept of “social market economy” did not envisage the self-elimination of the state in matters of economic and social policy. According to Eucken, the economic order is not established on its own, is not imposed by economic reality itself. The state must be able to establish this economic order. At the same time, the activities of the state should be aimed exclusively at creating forms of economic order, and not at regulating the economic process;

2) special social policy.

L. Erhard's views on social policy:

a) the market system allows a person to take the initiative, to liberate creative energy. Sociality is inherent in the market in the sense that it is characterized by competitiveness, which ensures economic progress and allows mainly the consumer, that is, the whole people, to enjoy the benefits of higher labor productivity;

b) the effectiveness of the social policy of the state is not determined by the amount of social charity and redistribution. Most of the income should remain in the hands of the recipients, and not withdrawn in the form of taxes for social needs;

c) the state must guarantee everyone the opportunity to get an education, a profession, the opportunity to save money, having gained independence from "social guardianship";

d) as the wealth of society and the living standards of its citizens grow, the need for a system of social welfare will disappear. The state should help only the poor who cannot secure a living wage;

3) competition - the most important element of the social market economy.

Oyken was deeply convinced that only such an economy based on competition would ensure the freedom and dignity of a person, although in reality pure, perfect competition is unattainable. The development of competition requires certain institutional prerequisites. These prerequisites are supported by combating monopoly, promoting small and medium-sized businesses, creating conditions for each person to display their abilities and creative potentials.

80. NEOLIBERALISM 1940-1950s. V. EUKEN AND HIS CONCEPT OF "ECONOMIC ORDER"

The most complete embodiment of economic theory and practice neoliberalism found in Germany. Especially after the collapse of the Third Reich, neoliberalism experienced a rebirth and found successful practical application in West Germany. Here starting from 1948 BC these ideas have acquired the status of the state doctrine of the government Adenaura - Erhard.

In Germany, the neoliberal trend was introduced Freiburg School (its leaders are V. Eucken, V. Repke, A. Ryustov and etc.). Founder of the school Walter Eucken, among the theorists of market economics, stood out for his desire to overcome the stereotypes of established concepts.

Walter Eucken (1891-1950). Born in Jena, received a good education.

The main issues raised Euken, are set out in two works: "Fundamentals of the National Economy" (1940) и "Basic Principles of Economic Policy" (1950).

Oyken and his allies set themselves the goal of developing a theory of such an economic order that would guarantee the rights, freedoms and dignity of every person who would be in essence anti-totalitarian.

First major work Eucken - "Fundamentals of the National Economy" - marked the beginning of the turn of German economic science from the “historical school” to the neoclassical direction. This work sets out the main provisions of his theory, called "theory of economic order".

economic order - these are the real forms in which the activities of firms, organizations, individual participants take place.

Oyken believes that political, economic, social and legal orders are interdependent. Any particular economy consists of the same set of elements (division of labor, credit, profit, interest, wages, etc.), but these elements are combined each time in a new way, depending on the dominant principle (decentralization or centralization), and as well as historical circumstances.

In the second work "Basic principles of economic policy" considers the "policy of order", the policy of regulating the economic process. The most extensive field of activity for economic policy is the "legal and social order".

Economic policy, emphasized Oyken, should not be opportunistic, carried out for the sake of solving immediate problems and violating the reality of the price system.

Oyken believes that prices play the role of a kind of "instrument" that measures the level of scarcity of resources and products and signals this to all participants in the market process.

Oyken was categorically against planning at the level of the national economy (but not at the enterprise, where it is even necessary, and where it can cover the entire process). Criticizing planning, as well as Keynesian methods of intervention in the economy, Oyken opposed the free market of the XIX century. The scientist was well aware that competition does not appear and is not reproduced automatically, but is ousted by monopoly, and therefore needs special protection.

81. ECONOMIC MERITS OF L. V. KANTOROVICH

Leonid Kantorovich (1912-1985) was born in St. Petersburg in the family of a doctor, was a child prodigy. He graduated from the Faculty of Mathematics of Leningrad State University several years ahead of schedule (at the age of 18) and received the title of professor four years later. Since 1938 interests L. V. Kantorovich were inextricably linked with economic research and the solution of economic problems. His largest discovery is the introduction to mathematical and economic sciences of the concept "linear programming" (1939). For the development of this method Kantorovich - the only one of the Soviet economists - was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1975 BC

Linear programming is a universal mathematical model of the optimal functioning of economic systems. main merit L. V. Kantorovich is to develop a unified approach to a wide range of economic problems on the best use of resources based on linear programming.

They were introduced "dual estimates" resources (self L. V. Kantorovich called them objectively determined estimates), showing the degree of value of these resources for society. Dual estimates have received a variety of interpretations depending on the range of problems under consideration in the works of L. V. Kantorovich, his followers in the USSR and Western scientists (who independently discovered linear programming in the mid-1940s).

If the so-called shadow prices for resources are the most popular in Western literature, then the favorite brainchild of L. V. Kantorovich became based on dual estimates differential rent theory. Rent valuations make it possible to measure the cost of using natural resources, in particular land, water, air, etc. This idea was far ahead of its time, anticipating modern research on economic and environmental problems. Myself L. V. Kantorovich considered the theory he created as having the most important practical significance for the planned socialist economy, the scientific basis for the entire system of national economic accounts.

In this regard, since 1939, he completely switched to economic research and, in 1942 BC finishes his main work "Economic calculation of the best use of resources". In a very short period of time L. V. Kantorovich managed to build a branched economic theory based on linear programming, as well as to develop foundations of mathematical theory. But Kantorovich continued the development of both particular problems and general questions of the application of the mathematical method in economics. Of the particular tasks, first of all, it is necessary to single out the transport task.

Then Kantorovich moved on to the study of optimization problems at the level of the national economy. In fact, the scientist suggested a new system of changes in the economy, based on taking into account limited resources, although he did not explicitly deny the need to build a price based on value.

Its odds is the objectively significant price of each factor of production in relation to the conditions of a fully competitive market.

82. ECONOMIC THEORY OF N. D. KONDRATIEVA

N. D. Kondratiev (1892-1938) - an outstanding Russian economist. Brought worldwide fame N. D. Kondratiev theory he developed large business cycles, known as Kondratieff's theory of "long waves".

Kondratiev conducted the processing of time series of the most important economic indicators (commodity prices, interest on capital, wages, foreign trade turnover, etc.) for four countries (England, Germany, USA, France) over a period of approximately 140 years.

As a result of data processing, he revealed a trend showing the existence of large periodic cycles duration from 48 to 55 years old. These cycles included a boom phase and a bust phase. Kondratiev believes that long cycle time is determined by the average life of production and infrastructure facilities (approximately 50 years), which are one of the main elements of capital goods of society. At the same time, the renewal of “basic capital goods” does not occur smoothly, but in spurts, and scientific and technical inventions and innovations play a decisive role in this.

In the dynamics of economic cycles, Kondratyev identified some regularities. So, "upward" phase of a large cycle (rise phase) occurs, in his opinion, following conditions:

1) high intensity of savings;

2) the relative abundance of supply and cheapness of loan capital;

3) its accumulation at the disposal of powerful financial and business centers;

4) the low level of commodity prices, which stimulates savings and long-term investment of capital. If these conditions are met, then sooner or later a moment comes when a significant investment in large facilities, causing radical changes in the conditions of production, becomes quite profitable. A period of relatively grandiose new construction begins, when the accumulated technical inventions find their wide application, when new productive forces are created. Thus, the intensive accumulation of capital is not only a prerequisite for the economy to enter a phase of a long recovery, but also a condition for the development of this phase.

The impulse for the transition to the "downward" phase (decline phase) is the lack of loan capital, leading to an increase in loan interest, and ultimately to the curtailment of economic activity and falling prices. At the same time, the depressive state of economic life is pushing for the search for new ways to reduce the cost of production, namely, technical inventions. However, these inventions will be used already in the next "upward" wave, when the abundance of free money capital and its cheapness will make radical changes in production profitable again.

In this case, Kondratiev emphasizes that free money capital and low interest are a necessary but not sufficient condition for the transition to the "upward" phase of the cycle. It is not the accumulation of money capital in itself that brings the economy out of depression, but its activation of the scientific and technological potential of society.

83. V. LEONTIEV: ECONOMIC MODEL "INPUTS - OUTPUT"

One of the prominent economists, the developer of the system of intersectoral "input-output" balances used in the practice of modeling national and world economies, Wassily Leontiev (1906-1999) was born in St. Petersburg, studied at Petrograd University, worked in China, Germany.

W. Mitchell invited him to the USA, to Harvard University. long time Leontiev He headed the Harvard Economic Research Institute that he founded. Later he organized and worked as director of the Institute for Economic Analysis at New York University.

V. Leontiev entered the history of economic science as the developer of a method called “input-output”. He set out to “anatomize” the system of interdependencies in the economy as one whole. The tool for intersectoral analysis is balance table, dividing the economy into several dozen industries.

Balance table is a mathematical model that allows you to understand how much resources are used to produce final products, for example, how much electricity, metal, rubber, glass, fabrics, plastics is required to produce one car.

Material requirements (or costs per dollar value) are calculated using both direct and indirect supplies. To simplify the table and not make it too cumbersome, “products” are combined into larger groups. "The interconnection of sectors is analyzed through system of equations, the parameters of which are production cost coefficients. The products of one sector, for example industry, are divided into parts, one of which is used for the production of goods from other sectors (intermediate products), the other - for the production of final products (final consumption). An input-output model helps you understand how changes in one sector affect production in other sectors.

Forecasts Leontiev often proved to be more reasoned because, unlike other publications, they took into account the consequences of cross-industry relationships.

The theoretical input-output model served as the basis for constructing diversified model of the US economy. The development of dynamic input-output models has been used to analyze the consequences of various economic policy options. The Roosevelt government attracted V. Leontieva to the development systems of balance relationships, which, in particular, made it possible to quite clearly regulate the mass production of weapons during the Second World War.

Input-output tables are used to compare the structural properties of two economies, or to compare the structure of one country's economy over different periods of time.

A distinctive feature of the work Leontiev is a close combination of theoretical analysis with the use of actual data. As stated Leontiev, the theory of general economic equilibrium "is the core of modern economic theory."

84. CHICAGO SCHOOL: FRANK NIGHT

The Chicago school is represented primarily by its head - the theorist of monetarism Milton Friedman, and its founder is considered an economist, philosopher and sociologist Frank Knight (1885-1972), who recognized the priority importance of a “competitive economy”. Economists of this school study not so much general as individual problems of economic science (behavior theory, information theory, etc.).

According to the views F. Knight the laws of economic science are derived on the basis of logical reasoning, intuitively formulated starting points. Economic theory is designed to consider purely economic processes, abstracting from technological, social, and structural elements.

Knight believed that economic theory is always abstract, it is forced to rely on intuitive knowledge.

Main labor F. Knight "Risk, Uncertainty and Profit" (1921). It examines the process of profit generation.

Profit, according to Knight, this is not just income for the management services of an entrepreneur. In a stationary economy, there is no profit. It is formed only in specific conditions; it is received by those entrepreneurs who are able to foresee unexpected changes in the sphere of production and exchange and are ready to take risks.

F. Knight associates profit with the factor of uncertainty. It is one thing - the foreseeable uncertainty, the probability of which can be calculated (fire, crop failure), it is insured and included in the costs. Another thing - "unique uncertainty", associated, for example, with unexpected market fluctuations.

Not everyone can accurately predict in advance fluctuations in demand, real production volumes, falling or rising prices, changes in the exchange rate.

Anyone who is able to assess uncertainty, guess the optimal price level, take an unmeasurable risk, he can have income that exceeds costs. Operating in conditions of genuine uncertainty, the entrepreneur, in the event of a successful development of events, will receive a profit.

According to Knight, the formation of profit is associated with an uncertainty factor. If the future were known, then profit would be impossible.

Profit - this is the result of risk, intuition, luck; a kind of reward for a risky venture.

Profits arise in the face of uncertainty about what will happen tomorrow. Under normal circumstances, revenue covers all opportunity costs; there is no profit, it is equal to zero.

As a student and successor J. Clark, F. Knight argued with him, arguing that profit is not just factor income. Under normal conditions, the entrepreneur, as the owner of capital, receives a percentage (and not a profit).

Many economists contributed to the development of profit theory: J. Schumpeter substantiated the theory of the innovator who makes a profit for innovations. Some authors associate profit with the function of organizing production (A. Marshall), with the function of adapting to change. Each approach is not exhaustive; rather, they complement each other.

Followers Knight developed his approach. One of the successors of the ideas of "competitive economy" is M. Friedman.

85. ECONOMIC THEORY OF SUPPLY

In contrast to Keynesianism, this economic theory favors supply as a growth factor.

Supply Economy - this is not a holistic concept, not a complete and interconnected system of views, methods of theoretical analysis, but mainly a system of econometric calculations on which practical proposals and recommendations are based.

Supply-side economics covers a range of practical issues aimed at stimulating production, investment and employment. Among them one can highlight:

1) proposals in the field of tax policy;

2) the policy of privatization of state enterprises;

3) improvement of the budget;

4) reducing spending on social needs. Supply-side economics was developed mainly by American economists. Among them - A. Laffer (Professor of Economics at the University of South Carolina) M. Feldstein (Harvard University), R. Regan (former US Treasury Secretary). Together with the monetarist school, this direction is referred to as conservative wing of neoclassicals.

According to supply-side economists, market represents not only the most efficient, but also the only "normal" way of organizing the economy. They oppose government regulation of the economy.

Regulation - an inevitable evil leading to a decrease in efficiency and binding the initiative of economic activity participants. The views of the supporters of this concept are reminiscent of the starting points of economic philosophy. Hayek, his concept of "spontaneous order".

The basic idea of supply-side economics composed:

1) in the rejection of Keynesian methods of stimulating demand;

2) in the transfer of efforts to support the factors that determine the supply. The causes of inflation are seen in high tax rates, in the financial policy of the state, which provokes an increase in costs.

Price increase - the reaction of manufacturers to undesirable turns of economic policy and unstable market conditions.

The main recommendations of this "school":

1) tax cuts to stimulate investment. An increase in the tax burden creates a budget deficit and hinders economic growth. A proposal is being put forward to abandon progressive taxation, to reduce tax rates, primarily the so-called marginal rates on income, capital, as well as on wages and dividends;

2) privatization of state enterprises.

Privatization - a measure aimed at reducing state participation in economic activity. It will make it possible to obtain additional financial resources and reduce the size of the public debt. The efficiency of enterprises transferred to private hands will increase; competition will intensify; the quality and competitiveness of national products will increase;

3) budget recovery. Supply-side theorists oppose budget deficits. Unlike monetarists, they believe that the budget should not be considered as an instrument of monetary policy;

4) "freezing" of social programs.

86. THEORY OF RATIONAL EXPECTATIONS

Expectations - these are the ideas of economic agents (participants in economic activity) about what will happen or how the economic situation will develop in the future. The theory of expectations focuses on the behavior, actions, aspirations of people, which must be taken into account when developing economic policy. This is a theory of the effectiveness of economic policy, its effectiveness, the real impact on the state of the economy.

Expectations - this is primarily the expectations of prices, inflation rates. Usually they are based on what changes and trends have been in the past. Consumers and businesses extrapolate past price movements to what will happen tomorrow. In other words, the picture of this year is transferred to the expected processes in the next year.

The Problem of Expectations very multifaceted and quite controversial. Economic agents not only follow the information, not only receive it, but also evaluate and process this information, learn on its basis. Occupying a certain social position, having experience, skills, people react ambiguously to ongoing external events and expected changes.

Hypothesis rational expectations leads to the conclusion that the government's ability to influence the economy has significantly narrowed. Short-term demand management policies are increasingly ineffective. In the long run, the level of employment and production indicators are determined by structural shifts.

The reaction to decisions and turns of economic policy depends not only on assumed rational expectations. It is determined by the degree of impact on income, by the extent to which the decisions made affect the interests of people.

It should not be assumed that all participants in events - firms and individuals - have sufficient information and conduct a rigorous assessment of upcoming economic events. Important information is withheld. Information costs money, it is an expensive commodity, it is not available to everyone. Nonetheless rational expectations hypothesis On the whole, he fairly notes the changes taking place in the formation of the mechanism of expectations.

During major changes, the participants in the events often act in a very coordinated manner. When there was a sharp jump in oil prices (1973), its importers acted according to the scenario of rational expectations. A "maladaptive" process of gradual adaptation to the new situation has taken place in the behavior of oil consumers. Buyers reacted immediately; they acted on a model of rational behavior, without adjustment for historical data on oil prices.

According to the hypothesis of rational expectations, all participants in the events are aware of what the model of future development will be. And when the state, for example, increases the money supply, entrepreneurs, trade unions, and the population immediately try to compensate for the consequences of such a step. Expectations are based not on the past, but on the true model.

One of the recipes of rational expectations theorists - use of unexpected, unforeseen solutions (for example, the policy of "inflationary shock"). But even in the case of the adoption of "shock" measures, the possible consequences should be calculated.

87. EXTERNAL EFFECTS AND RONALD COASE'S THEOREM

External effects - these are costs and benefits that apply to people who do not directly carry out material or monetary costs, but use the by-products of the activities of others (or bear additional costs).

These effects cost nothing to the user. But the gain or, on the contrary, the loss they receive is undeniable.

Ronald Coase (b. 1910, Nobel laureate 1991) believes that the state is not able to effectively solve the problem of externalities. It cannot correctly assess the size of external costs (for example, in the case of building a railway, environmental pollution, etc.), compare losses and benefits, and agree on the interests of the parties.

Funds redistributed by the state often do not go to those who need to compensate for the costs incurred or make up for unforeseen losses. The participation of the state in solving such issues requires considerable costs and thereby increases external costs.

The meaning of the conclusionWhat Coase came to is the following: the presence of externalities cannot serve as a basis for government intervention.

Whenever externalities occur, the problem can be resolved by agreement between the parties concerned. At the same time, external effects turn into internal ones and prerequisites are created for achieving the desired efficiency.

Coase formulated the conclusion: "Direct government regulation does not always give better results than simply leaving the problem to the will of the market or firm." This conclusion is called Coase theorem.

Coase argues that the parties can negotiate among themselves and resolve the problem of externalities without outside arbitrage.

They can come to an agreement if they have two conditions:

1) property rights must be clearly defined - the rights of ownership and use, management and alienation, protection and liability;

2) the cost of the agreement (agreement) to be concluded should be relatively low. If the size of the negative effects is very significant (for example, during the construction of a large enterprise with hazardous production), then in this case it is advisable to involve the state. As noted Coase, the problem of side effects can be solved by agreement of interested parties. Such an agreement is desirable and advisable, but not always possible.

If property rights are established and delimited, it is relatively easy for the parties to arrive at the desired result. Reaching agreement does not depend on which of the two parties is the owner. They are able to independently resolve controversial issues, as a rule, without state intervention.

But the theorem put forward Coase, is not always applicable. An agreement cannot be reached without external intervention if a significant number of people are involved in the dispute, and the set of negative effects is very large.

88. PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY (CTO) by JAMES M. BUCHANAN

James M. Buchanan (b. 1919) - American economist neo-institutionalism. He received international recognition for his research in areas that traditionally belonged to political science, but thanks to him have now become closely linked to economic sciences. Thus, in the TOV he developed, the behavior of individuals (private persons) in the political sphere, i.e., their political roles (voters, lobbyists, members of political parties, government officials, etc.), is associated with results that are manifested in their economic roles ( buyers and sellers, businesses and workers).

The purpose of his analysis was a study not of the concepts of "nation", "state", "party", but the ability of these individuals to make various decisions leading to their common economic benefit and at the same time affecting the political image of the whole society, including the image of the "nation", " states", etc.

WHO IN Buchanan went through the study of a range of problems, to one degree or another related to government functions in the field of economic policy. Even in early work "Prices, income and public policy", "Public principles of public debt" And other Buchanan showed that over the past 150 years of American history, the balance of government revenues and expenditures has been reduced to a negative balance, mainly during periods of wars and economic crises. In the first case, this was caused by an increase in military appropriations, and in the second, by a short-term decrease in tax revenues to the state treasury. In peacetime and favorable economic conditions, the budget balance turned out, as a rule, to be positive, and the surplus of financial resources was used to pay off the state debt.

Buchanan analyzed the question of How can you survive with a huge national debt?, directing surplus financial resources from tax revenues not to repay the debt, but to the development of various social programs, increasing government spending on social budget items that meet the political interests of various types of activities for the sake of new elections.

In his TOV researched:

1) how competition between politicians for votes leads to increased government intervention in the economy;

2) how through state programs there is a redistribution of income from the poorest and richest strata of the population to the middle classes;

3) how small but closely knit political groups can win over a broad but amorphous majority.

On Buchanan, public choice can be compared to the choices people make in any game. First they choose the rules of the game, then they determine the strategy of the game within these rules. Everyday political action is the outcome of the game, striving for an "optimal level" within constitutional rules. And just as the rules of the game determine its probable outcome, constitutional rules establish the results of policy, political action, or make it difficult to achieve them.

89. POST-INDUSTRIALISM AND THE "THIRD WAVE" SOCIETY OF D. BELL AND A. TOFFLER

Economists and sociologists are thinking about what the society of the future will be like, how the spread of new information technology will affect various aspects of life.

Machine processing of data in a small space at a relatively low cost and a high degree of reliability is revolutionizing the manufacturing and non-manufacturing industries. Microelectronic technology is becoming not only an auxiliary tool, but also a qualitatively new tool for increasing the efficiency of work of a worker, engineer, designer, and manager.

An attempt to predict probable structural shifts was made, in particular, by the theorist of post-industrial society Daniel Bell and author "third wave" concepts Alvin Toffler.

Both of them are striving to understand in what direction the transformation of capitalist society is going, what structural changes are taking place in it.

D. Bell argues that a post-industrial society means a movement from an industrial economy to an economy dominated by the service sector. An increasing part of the workers will be employed not in industry, not in the production of goods, but in the creation of various services - in the field of science, education, medicine, culture, recreation, tourism, entertainment.

Economic power will pass from the owners to the bearers of knowledge, the owners of information. Instead of "standard production, it will have a specialized, individual character. A decisive role in the society that will replace the industrial one will be played by a change in goals, interests, incentives for activity, human psychology, the nature of his beliefs and passions.

Society is built in roughly the same way. E. Toffler. Technological revolution he sees it as "third waved" in the history of economic revolutions.

In his opinion, "first wave" there was an agrarian revolution; it was replaced by the industrial revolution ("second wave").

Information society is not a replacement, but a further development of the system of machines - engines, machine tools, vehicles, machine tools for processing information, computer programs, laser installations. There are changes in the socio-economic structure of society. The system and structure of consumption is changing, new conditions are being created for the development of the individual, the flourishing of individuals (although this is a moot point).

Transition to a new information society is seen not as a strengthening, but as a gradual transformation of the former system. The changes are progressive in nature, they cover heterogeneous, to a certain extent interrelated factors.

Transformation smooths out contradictions. Capitalism is "leaving" commodity relations, moving towards more harmonious and humane relations.

The paradox is that the market "ideal" our reformers are striving for is not an ideal at all. It's kind of "intermediate station", from which it is time to move towards a more advanced, but not yet clearly outlined model.

90. NOBEL PRIZE LAUREATES IN ECONOMICS

At the beginning of the XX century. The Swedish National Bank established a special commemorative plaque for the Swedish Academy of Sciences Alfred Nobel Prize and laid the foundation for a worldwide tradition - to annually evaluate the achievements of the best scientists as the pinnacle of modern scientific knowledge and achievements. AT 1968 BC established the Nobel Prize in Economics, and 1969 BC began its direct award.

The first winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics became two economists-mathematicians - a Dutchman Jan Tinbergen and Norwegian Ragnar Frisch - for the development of mathematical methods for the analysis of economic processes. Over the next 30 years, more than 40 scientists have been awarded worldwide recognition for their services to humanity. Among scientists-economists, this award was received by L. V. Kantorovich, Simon Kuznets and Vasily Leontiev.

Paul Anthony Samuelson (1915) - American economist, Nobel laureate in economics 1970 BC, professor at the University of Massachusetts, president of the Economic Society (1951), American Economic Association, International Economic Association (1965-1968), White House economic adviser (1961-1968), member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

His famous textbook "Economics" appeared in 1948 BC, went through 13 editions and became essentially an economics textbook.

The uniqueness of the book "Economics" is that it includes the best achievements of modern economic thought of the socio-institutional and neoclassical directions. Consistency and analyticity of presentation, illustration of key provisions of economic theory using mathematics, and the use of a historical and economic approach have made the textbook one of the most popular in the world.

Vasily Vasilievich Leontiev (1906-1999) - one of the leading American economists of Russian origin, director of the US National Bureau of Economic Research (1948), president of the American Economic Association, Nobel Prize laureate in economics (1973).

In 1973 for the development predictive economic analysis method "input-output" he was awarded the title of Nobel Prize laureate in economics. "Input-output analysis" (input-industry balance) created Leontiev in the 30-40s, was one of the most important achievements of economic science in the XNUMXth century.

Leontiev for the first time he gave a static content to the input-output balance model, created methods for mathematical processing of this material and applied the results for empirical analysis and forecasting of specific economic processes and values.

Milton Friedman (b. 1912) ) - American economist, professor at the University of Chicago, winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics 1976 BC, awarded for research in the field of consumption, history and theory of money. In modern economic theory M. Friedman known as the leader of the Chicago Monetary School and the main opponent of the Keynesian concept of state regulation of the economy.

Author: Tatarnikov E.A.

We recommend interesting articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets:

▪ Conflictology. Crib

▪ EU law. Crib

▪ History of world and domestic culture. Crib

See other articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets.

Read and write useful comments on this article.

<< Back

Latest news of science and technology, new electronics:

Artificial leather for touch emulation 15.04.2024

In a modern technology world where distance is becoming increasingly commonplace, maintaining connection and a sense of closeness is important. Recent developments in artificial skin by German scientists from Saarland University represent a new era in virtual interactions. German researchers from Saarland University have developed ultra-thin films that can transmit the sensation of touch over a distance. This cutting-edge technology provides new opportunities for virtual communication, especially for those who find themselves far from their loved ones. The ultra-thin films developed by the researchers, just 50 micrometers thick, can be integrated into textiles and worn like a second skin. These films act as sensors that recognize tactile signals from mom or dad, and as actuators that transmit these movements to the baby. Parents' touch to the fabric activates sensors that react to pressure and deform the ultra-thin film. This ... >>

Petgugu Global cat litter 15.04.2024

Taking care of pets can often be a challenge, especially when it comes to keeping your home clean. A new interesting solution from the Petgugu Global startup has been presented, which will make life easier for cat owners and help them keep their home perfectly clean and tidy. Startup Petgugu Global has unveiled a unique cat toilet that can automatically flush feces, keeping your home clean and fresh. This innovative device is equipped with various smart sensors that monitor your pet's toilet activity and activate to automatically clean after use. The device connects to the sewer system and ensures efficient waste removal without the need for intervention from the owner. Additionally, the toilet has a large flushable storage capacity, making it ideal for multi-cat households. The Petgugu cat litter bowl is designed for use with water-soluble litters and offers a range of additional ... >>

The attractiveness of caring men 14.04.2024

The stereotype that women prefer "bad boys" has long been widespread. However, recent research conducted by British scientists from Monash University offers a new perspective on this issue. They looked at how women responded to men's emotional responsibility and willingness to help others. The study's findings could change our understanding of what makes men attractive to women. A study conducted by scientists from Monash University leads to new findings about men's attractiveness to women. In the experiment, women were shown photographs of men with brief stories about their behavior in various situations, including their reaction to an encounter with a homeless person. Some of the men ignored the homeless man, while others helped him, such as buying him food. A study found that men who showed empathy and kindness were more attractive to women compared to men who showed empathy and kindness. ... >>

Random news from the Archive

Anthropocentrism 24.01.2016

The term "Anthropocene" came into general use in 2000 thanks to the Dutch chemist and Nobel Prize winner Paul Crutzen and the American biologist Eugene Stoermer. This term refers to a geological era with a level of human activity that plays a significant role in the Earth's ecosystem. Unlike other segments of the stratigraphic scale with similar names (such as the Pleistocene Ice Age), the Anthropocene is not an officially recognized concept.

However, the impact of human activity on the Earth became so obvious that the International Commission on Stratigraphy, which is part of the International Union of Geological Sciences, created a working group on the study of the Anthropocene within the framework of the subcommittee on Quaternary stratigraphy. The group recently published an interim report that concludes that the Anthropocene era has indeed arrived, as human impacts on the environment will be detected by our descendants in sediments and rocks millions of years from now.

However, in order to make the Anthropocene part of a formal classification, several more questions need to be resolved - for example, when did a new era begin. Some members of the working group believe that the countdown should be from the 1950s, when the so-called. "Great acceleration" - a sharp increase in the population of the Earth and consumption of resources. It coincided with the widespread use of "technomaterials" - aluminum, concrete and plastic. In addition, in this decade, thanks to the testing of thermonuclear weapons, radioactive elements scattered around the world, and their presence will be obvious to the observer in hundreds of millions of years.

In addition, in order to empirically confirm the new era, it is necessary to drill test wells that would show, for example, that the sedimentary rocks of lakes and oceans contain signs of environmental pollution in the form of soot from the combustion of fossil fuels. Since the collected samples must reflect global, and not just local traces of human activity, it can take many years to drill wells and collect samples.

Other interesting news:

▪ Sharp 4K TV Recorder

▪ Vapors contain toxic metals

▪ Weave networks from nanotubes

▪ Unused stock of fossil rodent nuts

▪ Nearby Share data service

News feed of science and technology, new electronics

Interesting materials of the Free Technical Library:

▪ section of the site Household electrical appliances. Selection of articles

▪ article Puskach - micromotor. Tips for a modeler

▪ article Where and why two million people lined up in a chain 600 km long? Detailed answer

▪ shoe shine article. Job description

▪ article Conducting materials. Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering

▪ article Charging unit for a powerful capacitor bank. Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering

Leave your comment on this article:

All languages of this page

Home page | Library | Articles | Website map | Site Reviews