Criminology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Criminology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. THE CONCEPT AND CONTENT OF CRIMINOLOGY AS A SUBJECT

Criminology - academic discipline, studying crimes, their causes, types of their relationship with various phenomena and processes, the effectiveness of measures taken in the fight against crime.

Criminology studies and analyzes normative acts that form the legal basis for responding to crime and for preventing crime. This includes:

1) criminal legislation, which includes norms of criminal and penal law;

2) criminological legislation regulating activities not related to the use of criminal repression that prevent the commission of crimes.

Academic discipline studied:

1) the subject of criminology - a set of phenomena, processes and patterns studied by criminology, which includes 4 elements:

a) crime;

b) the identity of the offender;

c) causes and conditions of crime;

d) crime prevention;

2) the object of criminology - social relations that are associated with crime and solving the problems of overcoming it;

3) a crime is an object of criminological study, which is analyzed:

a) simultaneously in the context of the conditions of the external environment for a person and the characteristics of the person himself;

b) not as a momentary act, but as a process unfolding in space and time.

Criminology studies:

1) the causes and conditions of the crime,

2) features of the characteristics of the person committing the crime,

3) the consequences of criminal behavior.

The system of criminology includes:

1) the general part - the concept, subject, method, goals, tasks, functions, history of development, basic research, crime, the identity of the offender and the mechanism of crime;

2) a special part - the criminological characteristics of certain groups of crimes and a list of preventive measures aimed at combating them.

Goals of criminology:

1) theoretical - involves the knowledge of patterns and the development on this basis of scientific theories of crime, concepts and hypotheses;

2) practical - develops scientific recommendations and constructive proposals to improve the effectiveness of the fight against crime;

3) promising - sets the goal of creating a crime prevention system that will neutralize and overcome criminogenic factors;

4) the next - is aimed at the implementation of daily work to combat crime.

Tasks of criminology:

1) the study of objective and subjective factors affecting the state, level, structure and dynamics of crime;

2) studying the personality of the criminal, identifying the mechanism for committing a specific crime, classifying the types of criminal manifestations and personality types of the criminal.

Criminological theories:

1) anthropological approach;

2) the theory of "pure reason";

3) Freudian;

4) the theory of constitutional predisposition;

5) racial;

6) the concept of a dangerous state;

7) clinical;

8) hereditary.

2. SUBJECT AND METHODS OF STUDYING CRIMINOLOGY

Subject of criminology - a range of issues that are studied by criminologists, based on various indicators, on facts and on historical experience.

Subject of criminology - the study of patterns, laws, principles and properties of the development of social relations that make up the object of criminology.

The subject of criminology consists of four main elements:

1) crime - a social and criminal legal phenomenon in society, representing the totality of all crimes committed in a given state over a certain period of time. Crime is measured by the following qualitative and quantitative indicators: level, structure and dynamics;

2) the identity of the criminal, his place and role in antisocial manifestations. Data on the personal properties of crime subjects contain information about the causes of crimes;

3) causes and conditions of crime - a system of negative economic, demographic, psychological, political, organizational and managerial phenomena and processes that generate and cause crime;

4) crime prevention - a system of state measures aimed at eliminating, neutralizing or weakening the causes and conditions of crime, deterring crime and correcting the behavior of offenders. Guided by this statement, criminology selects certain methods (means, ways, ways) of research and study of this phenomenon.

Method of criminology - a set of techniques and methods used to find, collect, analyze, evaluate and apply information about crime in general and its individual components, about the identity of the offender in order to create effective measures to combat crime and prevent crime.

Criminology study methods:

1) watching - direct perception of the phenomenon under study by a researcher-criminologist. The objects of observation can be individuals or their group and specific phenomena that are of interest to criminologists;

2) experiment - it is carried out in cases when it is necessary to introduce into practice new methods of crime prevention, to test certain theoretical assumptions and ideas;

3) interview - a method of collecting information, in which the interviewed persons find out information of interest to criminologists about objective processes and phenomena.

The reliability of the information obtained during the survey depends on objective (place and time of the survey) and subjective factors (interest of the interviewed person in this or that information);

4) analysis of documentary sources of information of criminological research - the necessary information is collected from various documentary sources (certificates, contracts, criminal cases, video, audio cassettes and other items intended for storing and transmitting information);

5) modeling - a way to study processes or systems of objects by building and studying models in order to obtain new information.

3. INTERRELATIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY WITH LEGAL AND NON-LEGAL SCIENCES (DISCIPLINES)

There are many legal sciences, one way or another contributing to the fight against crime, they can be divided into indirect and special.

Indirect sciences are engaged consideration of the problem of crime superficially, without delving into it.

These include:

1) constitutional law - establishes the general principles for all activities of law enforcement agencies, the provisions on which all Russian legislation is built;

2) civil law - provides for civil liability, for example, for violation of copyright, for causing harm to a person in the framework of civil law relations, etc.;

3) land law;

4) administrative law;

5) environmental law;

6) family law;

7) labor law, etc.

The special sciences are:

1) criminal law;

2) criminal procedure law;

3) penitentiary law;

4) criminalistics;

5) criminology - includes various ideas about measures to combat crime, measures to influence the offender, methods, tactics for investigating specific types of crimes, etc. Criminology directly interacts with all of the listed sciences.

Initially connection of criminology with criminal law manifested itself in the fact that issues related to the subject of criminology were previously included in the course of criminal law, since criminology itself was recognized as only a part of this science.

Criminal law is the science with which criminology is most closely connected. Thus, the criminal law theory gives a legal description of crimes, the criminal, which are also used by criminology. The latter provides the science of criminal law with information about the level of crime, the effectiveness of crime prevention, the dynamics of the development of crime, forecasts for the future about the development and change of various negative social phenomena and other social phenomena.

Area of scientific activity criminology and criminal procedure is the law enforcement activity of law enforcement agencies aimed at eliminating the causes and conditions conducive to the development of crime.

Criminal executive law, interacting with criminology, examines issues directly about the process and order of serving a sentence, the adaptation of convicts in society, the effectiveness of the application of punishment, etc. Criminal executive law and criminology jointly develop recommendations for preventing relapse of crimes and increasing the efficiency of correction of convicts.

Forensic science deals with issues related to the methodology, tactics and techniques of investigating specific types of crimes. At the same time, criminology is entrusted with the duty to determine the direction of this forensic activity, based on information about the general trends in the development of crime and the increase in certain types of crimes, etc.

4. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRIMINOLOGY IN RUSSIA

Criminology in Russia developed in stages:

1) before 1917 (pre-revolutionary Russia). A. N. Radishchev was the first in Russia to identify indicators characterizing both the types of crimes and the persons who committed them, the motives and reasons for their crimes. A. I. Herzen, N. A. Dobrolyubov, V. G. Belinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky criticized the social system of Russia and crime as a product of this system. At the beginning of the 20th century. a classical direction in criminal law was formed. Some issues of criminology were also reflected in the works of scientists;

2) this stage can be conditionally divided into two periods:

a) 1917 - early 1930s. Criminological problems were studied within the framework of the general part of criminal law, i.e., as a branch of criminal law. In 1922, the office of criminological anthropology and forensic medical examination was created for the first time in Saratov under the Administration of Prisons. In 1923, rooms for studying the personality of a criminal appeared in Moscow, and then in Kyiv, Kharkov, and Odessa. In 1925, the Institute for the Study of Crime and the Criminal under the NKVD was created. In 1929, criminology as a science ceased to exist, there were political reasons for this (it was believed that socialism does not have its own causes of crime and therefore criminological research is not needed);

b) early 1930s - early 1990s. In 1930-1940 Criminological research was semi-secret in nature, continued on individual problems in the fight against crime and was organized by law enforcement agencies. In 1963, the first criminology course in Russia was taught at the Faculty of Law of Moscow State University, and since 1964 it has become mandatory for everyone. The view of criminology as an independent science, the founder of which was A. B. Sakharov, was developed. In the 1970-1990s. the problems of the causes of crime, the mechanism of criminal behavior and the personality of the criminal, victimology, forecasting and planning the fight against crime, crime prevention, juvenile delinquency, organized and violent crime, recidivism, economic and other acquisitive crimes, careless crime were intensively studied;

3) since the early 1990s. until today. During this period, such private criminological theories as regional criminology, family criminology, mass communication criminology, military criminology, etc. were formed. Scientific criminological developments are based on new economic relations. The long-term experience of foreign countries in the fight against crime is analyzed. The alienation of domestic criminology from the world began to be overcome, which made it possible to consider criminology as a global problem. This stage was marked by the creation of the Russian Criminological Association and the Union of Criminologists and Criminologists. Today there are centers for the study of organized crime in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Vladivostok, Yekaterinburg, and Irkutsk.

5. STATISTICS IN CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Criminal statistics - a system of provisions and techniques of the general theory of statistics applied to the study of criminal law and criminological phenomena in order to fulfill their laws and develop measures to counteract crime.

Tasks of criminal statistics:

1) a digital description of the state and dynamics of crime in absolute and relative terms, as well as an assessment of the practice of combating crime;

2) obtaining reliable information about the registration of crimes and measures to combat them;

3) determination of trends in crime and its recurrence;

4) identifying the pros and cons in the fight against crime.

Methods of criminal statistics:

1) statistical observation;

2) summary and grouping of the collected material;

3) calculation of generalized data;

4) qualitative analysis of social phenomena.

Statistical observation - organizational collection of information about mass processes and phenomena related to criminological research.

Statistical information about crime depends on what is taken into account and how. The main task of statistical observation in the field of crime is the registration of each detected crime and the person who committed it, acting as units of its totality in the relevant accounting documents.

Statistical summary - scientific processing of statistical observation materials, bringing together individual units into various aggregates in order to obtain a generalized description of the phenomenon under study in terms of a number of signs that are essential for it.

Statistical grouping - the distribution of population units into homogeneous, qualitatively different groups according to one or another feature that is essential for this study.

The main task of groupings in criminological research is to give the most complete and comprehensive quantitative description of crime, the personality of criminals, victims of crimes, the causes and conditions of crimes and the reaction of society to them.

Depending on the objectives of the study, there are:

1) typological groupings - the division of the studied phenomena into homogeneous groups, types according to an essential feature (for example, by gender, the presence of a criminal record);

2) variation groupings - distribution of typically homogeneous groups according to quantitative characteristics, which can change. With their help, they study the composition of criminals by age, education, number of convictions, terms of imprisonment and other quantitative characteristics.

3) analytical groupings - distribution by dependence, the relationship between two or more heterogeneous groups.

Generalized characteristics can be expressed:

1) in absolute (total) values;

2) in relative terms, for example, the ratio of a part to a whole;

3) in average values, when a generalized characteristic of the totality of the phenomenon under study is attributed to some quantitative attribute.

6. CRIMINOLOGICAL FORECASTING: CONCEPT, TYPES AND OBJECTIVES

Criminological Crime Prediction - necessary for proper planning of the activities of investigators, operatives and other subjects of law enforcement. Criminological forecasting and long-term planning of the work of law enforcement and other bodies is an integral part of their professional activities.

Prediction - the process of developing a probable judgment about the state of a phenomenon in the future.

Prediction - a probable judgment about the development of a particular situation, the course of an event.

In criminology, there are 2 types of predictions:

1) the movement of crime in general and certain types of crime;

2) the possible behavior of an individual.

Crime forecasting should be built solely on the basis of a deep study of the causes and conditions that contribute to the development of crime. In this case, the influence of not only criminogenic, but also positive factors that reduce the level of crime should be taken into account.

Criminological forecasting is subject to its goals, which are usually divided into:

1) common goals:

a) establishing the most general indicators characterizing the development (change) of crime in the future;

b) identifying undesirable trends and patterns and, on this basis, finding ways to change these trends and patterns in the right direction;

2) basic goals:

a) ensuring the circumstances that are essential for the development of long-term plans;

b) adoption of prolonged management decisions;

c) establishing possible changes in the state, level, structure and dynamics of crime in the future;

d) determination of the possibilities for the emergence of new types of crimes and the disappearance of existing ones, as well as the identification of factors and circumstances that can affect this;

e) establishing the possibility of the emergence of new categories of criminals, etc.

Criminological forecasting has its own sources of information, which may include specific statistics from law enforcement agencies, economic, social, demographic statistics, as well as the knowledge of individuals.

Criminological forecasting does not always have reliable and verified information (difficulties in collecting and processing statistical data, as well as the presence of latent crime, shortcomings in accounting for the registration of criminal manifestations prevent this), which is reflected in its results.

In the specialized literature, criminological forecasting is proposed to be divided into:

1) short term - forecasting for up to 1 year;

2) medium term - for up to 5 years;

3) long term - for a period of 10 to 20 years;

4) extra-long-term - for a period of 20 years or more, which is practically impossible to do at present.

In practice, the most commonly used are short-term forecasts of the development of crime.

7. CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH: TYPES, GOALS AND TASKS

Criminological research - study and knowledge of the laws and patterns of development of such a complex negative social process as crime; the causes and conditions of its occurrence and development, the place and role of the personality of the offender in this process, the development of optimal solutions for prevention and prevention.

The task of criminological research - obtaining representative material based on the discovery of deep, backbone links between social relations.

Subject of criminological research:

1) crime in general as a social phenomenon;

2) certain categories and types of crimes;

3) causes and conditions of crimes at various levels;

4) the identity of the offender;

5) the problem of crime prevention;

6) the problem of criminological forecasting and planning.

Object of criminological research - territorial units.

The limits of research are determined by the range of tasks in connection with the fight against crime.

The structure of any study is divided into methodological and organizational blocks.

In criminological research, there is a collection, analysis, processing, interpretation of the information received. When interpreting materials, the human factor has a great influence.

The methodological block of the program includes:

1) formulation of the problem.

Problem - lack of information, a feeling of need for information.

The most urgent problems of crime are drug addiction, power and crime, corruption;

2) definition of the object and subject of research;

3) definition of the goals and objectives of the study.

Objectives, present in any criminological research, are: reforming the organizational structure; requirement for financing of any group of activities; lawmaking, etc. The goals, in turn, are divided. For example, the purpose of the study is to improve legislation, and it is divided into administrative, criminal, criminal procedural, criminal executive and other branches of law;

4) clarification of concepts;

5) formulation of hypotheses - suggests what we can expect from the study. The hypothesis allows you to avoid getting banal information;

6) development of tools - implementation of methods (surveys, documentary studies, observation, experiment).

The organization of criminological research consists of the following stages:

1) creation of a group of authors - a preparatory stage, which includes:

a) study of literature and regulatory legal acts;

b) development of tools;

c) collection of information;

d) study of statistics;

e) use of foreign experience;

2) analysis of the collected information - research stage;

3) implementation of the results obtained into practice - the final stage, which includes:

a) speeches at conferences, forums;

b) legislative activity;

c) change in the organizational structure.

8. CONCEPT OF THE CAUSE OF A PARTICULAR CRIME

Cause of a particular crime - the interaction of the negative moral and psychological properties of the personality, formed under the influence of unfavorable conditions for the moral formation of the individual, with external objective circumstances that give rise to intention and determination.

The concept of the causes of a particular crime includes features of personality formation, social and psychological status, activities and a complex of objectively existing external circumstances in which it functions that are uncharacteristic for persons with law-abiding behavior, but typical for criminals.

Crime - manifestation in behavior of the features of life position, personality traits associated with disharmony or deformation of needs, interests, value orientations. In interaction with the characteristics of the environment in which a person functions, these characteristics determine the motives of criminal behavior, the choice and implementation of its goals and methods.

Criminogenic personality traits - the result of a long process of its distorted development in an unfavorable environment. This process develops through a system of direct and feedback links.

Causes of a specific crime:

1) an environment that forms disharmony or deformation of the needs, interests, value orientations of a particular individual, which become the basis of criminogenic motivation;

2) criminogenic motivation;

3) situations in which a person finds himself in the process of formation, life activity and directly in the process of committing a crime and which contribute to the emergence and implementation of criminogenic motivation in behavior (conditions conducive to a specific crime);

4) psychophysiological and psychological characteristics of the individual, increasing his sensitivity to criminogenic influences from the outside and stimulating their transformation into an internal position.

Mechanism of criminal behavior - the interaction of mental processes and states of the individual with the external environment, which determines the choice and implementation of a criminal variant of behavior from several possible ones.

Motive is the central link in this chain. Needs serve as the basis for the formation of a motive. Through the prism of needs, the external situation is perceived, and the needs themselves are the product of a person's connection with the external environment.

The choice of ways and means to satisfy the motive is carried out in relation to a specific life situation. It enables the subject to make a motivational choice, which manifests itself in the formation of a specific goal. The latter looks like an image of the future result of the person's actions.

Will is an essential element of the mechanism of criminal behavior.

Will - conscious regulation by a person of his actions and deeds that require overcoming internal and external difficulties.

The volitional properties of a person are manifested in purposefulness, determination, perseverance, endurance, independence, etc.

The chain ends with the decision to commit a crime and its implementation in a specific criminal act.

9. CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE CAUSAL FACTORS OF CRIME, THE NATURE OF THEIR RELATIONS

Causative factors - socio-psychological determinants that directly generate and reproduce crime and crimes as their natural consequence.

Subjective factors are characterized by such concepts of social psychology as:

1) immorality - the cause of the causes of crime, when the laws of the moral sphere are denied:

a) drunkenness - in a state of intoxication, people lose control over their behavior;

b) drug addiction - has a socio-psychological nature.

Drug addiction is more severe than alcohol addiction, and at the moment these problems are the most relevant, their solution is put in the foreground.

Moral - attitude to social values, family, honesty, decency. In the 1980-1990s. in Russia, mass psychology was shaken by various sects. With their help, the technology of influencing mass consciousness through the media was tested. Under the influence of sectarianism, a person can become dangerous to society, his consciousness becomes controlled, his behavior becomes inadequate;

2) ideology of crime - strengthening of selfish motives. Now the ideology is preached by both criminal communities and the state. It is believed that a person succeeds only when he has a lot of money, regardless of how it was obtained, i.e. success is measured by the amount of money;

3) nationalism.

Objective factors:

1) political - expressed in relation to the authorities to the implementation of their functions and the attitude of the population.

The criminalization of power is associated with the economic factor, currently there is a breakthrough of criminals in power. The authorities establish contacts with criminal circles and criminal rules. Political instability in modern society is aggravated by the fact that the new emerging social forces are not yet able to manifest themselves from the creative side;

2) economic - there is a significant criminalization of the economy. The state relies on shadow businessmen, legalizes the shadow economy;

3) social - any imbalances towards reducing the role and significance of the human factor in the content and working conditions can have a criminogenic impact.

Subjective factors - are inextricably linked with objective ones, since the corpus delicti necessarily contains the object and subject of the crime, the subjective and objective sides.

Crimes are divided into:

1) intentional and careless;

2) minor, moderate, severe and especially severe;

3) with and without motivation;

4) urban and rural crime;

5) crimes in industry, trade;

6) by object;

7) by subject;

8) by age;

9) by the number of participants.

The structure of crimes can be multilevel.

Crime is defined the share of the most dangerous crimes in the structure of crime or the characteristics of the personality of those who commit crimes.

10. CRIMINOLOGICAL VICTIMOLOGY: GOALS AND OBJECTIVES, DIRECTIONS OF VICTIMOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE

Criminological victimology - a branch of criminology, a general theory, the doctrine of the victim, which has the victim of a crime as the subject of research.

Along with the term "victim" generally applicable in criminology, criminological victimology operates with the term "victim" denoting the direct victim of a crime.

Objectives of victimology - studying the personality of crime victims, their interpersonal connections with the criminal before, during and after the crime.

Subject of study of victimology - persons who have been physically, morally or materially harmed by a crime, including criminals; their behavior associated with the crime (including behavior after it); the relationship that connected the perpetrator and the victim until the moment the crime was committed; situations in which harm occurred, etc.

Knowledge of the victims of violence or theft, analysis and generalization of data about them, along with the study of the personality of the offender, can help to better determine the direction of preventive measures, identify groups of people most often exposed to one or another socially dangerous attack, i.e., identify risk groups and work with them.

Criminological victimology studies:

1) social, psychological, legal, moral and other characteristics of crime victims - in order to find out why, by virtue of what emotional, volitional, moral qualities, what socially conditioned orientation a person turned out to be a victim;

2) the relationship connecting the offender and the victim (victim) - to answer the question to what extent these relationships are significant for creating the prerequisites for the crime, how they affect the plot of the crime, the motives of the criminal's actions;

3) situations that precede the crime, as well as situations of the crime itself - to answer the question of how in these situations, in interaction with the behavior of the offender, the behavior (action or inaction) of the victim (victim) is criminologically significant;

4) post-criminal behavior of the victim (victim) - to answer the question of what he is doing to restore his right, whether he resorts to the protection of law enforcement agencies, the court, hinders or assists them in establishing the truth. This also includes a system of preventive measures that take into account and use the protective capabilities of both potential victims and real victims;

5) ways, possibilities, methods of compensation for the harm caused by the crime, and, first of all, the physical rehabilitation of the victim (victim). Victimology studies various issues related to harm. First of all, she refers to the personal qualities and behavior of the victims, to a greater or lesser extent determining the criminal actions of the perpetrators of harm, to situations fraught with the danger of causing violence.

11. PERSONAL (ANTHROPOLOGICAL) VICTIMINITY. TYPES OF VICTIM BEHAVIOR

Personal (anthropological) victimization - the predisposition of a person to become, under certain circumstances, a victim of a crime or the inability to avoid a danger where it was preventable.

Victimization consists from the individual and the situation. Moreover, the characteristics of the individual depend on the situation.

Personal victimization - the state of vulnerability of a person, arising from his interaction with external factors and consisting in the realization or non-realization of his inherent qualities in the course of committing a crime against him.

Personal victimization depends from subjective and objective predispositions and acts as an inability to resist the criminal. Its nature is determined by the number of victims of crimes and the characteristics of the persons against whom the crimes are committed.

Victimology studies the personal qualities and behavior of victims.

Victim - an individual who has suffered physical, moral or material harm due to a crime. Any victim or victim of a crime, both potential and actual, has qualities that make him vulnerable.

Victims of crime are classified:

1) according to the content of the subjective side - victims of intentional or careless crime;

2) according to the direction of the criminal encroachment - victims of crimes of a homogeneous object and certain types of crimes;

3) by the nature of the harm caused - material, moral and physical;

4) according to the degree of awareness of the onset of the consequences - aware and in the dark;

5) by type of relationship with the offender - random, indefinite and definite;

6) according to the role of the victim - neutral, accomplices, provocateurs;

7) according to psychological criteria - with pronounced moral and psychological characteristics and with deviations in the psyche;

8) according to biophysical characteristics, i.e. gender, age, state at the time of the crime;

9) victims of crimes - potential, real and latent.

Personal victimization includes: motives, goals, intent or negligence of the victim, determining his contribution to the mechanism of causing harm, perception, awareness and attitude to the results of victimization.

Types of victim behavior:

1) active - the behavior of the victim provoked the crime;

2) intensive - the victim's action is positive, but led to a crime;

3) passive - the victim does not resist.

Depending on the behavior of the victim, criminal situations are:

1) inching nature - the victim provokes the offender to commit a crime, which is expressed in attack, insult, infliction of offense, humiliation, incitement, threat;

2) inching nature - in this case, the behavior of the victim is not provocative, but is associated with the violent actions of the criminal turning towards him;

3) not jerky - in which the behavior of the victim creates the possibility of committing a crime, although it does not act as an impetus;

4) closed - when the actions of the victim are aimed at causing harm to themselves without the intervention of another person.

12. CONCEPT AND TYPES OF CRIMINOLOGICAL VICTIMITY

Criminological victimization - increased ability of a person, due to a number of subjective and objective circumstances, to become an object for criminal encroachments.

Quantitative indicators of victimization:

1) volume - expressed in absolute figures, the number of crimes that caused harm to individuals and legal entities; the number of victims of these crimes in a certain territory for a certain period;

2) level - the total number of recorded crimes that caused harm to individuals and legal entities; the number of victims of these crimes, as well as cases of harm caused by crimes in a certain territory for a certain period. The nature of victimization is determined by the number of victims of the most dangerous crimes in the structure of victimization, as well as by the characteristics of the personalities of those against whom the crimes are committed.

Types of criminological victimization:

1) individual - this is the potential, as well as the realized increased ability of a person to become a victim of a criminal assault, provided that objectively this could have been avoided. Individual victimization is made up of personal and situational components, and the qualitative characteristics of the first one are systemically dependent on the second one.

Individual victimization - this is a state of vulnerability of an individual caused by the presence of crime, which arose as a result of his interaction with external factors and consists in the possibility of realizing (or not realizing) the qualities inherent in him during the commission of a crime against him. This vulnerability depends on subjective and objective predispositions and acts as an inability to resist the criminal;

2) massive - people who have similar, similar or different moral, psychological, biophysical and social qualities that determine the degree of vulnerability from crime constitute a mass in which an individual with his individual victimization acts only as an element of the aggregate.

Mass victimization depending on the implementation of certain personal and situational factors expressed in various forms:

1) group - victimization of certain groups of the population, categories of people similar in parameters of victimization;

2) object-specific - victimhood as a prerequisite and consequence of various types of crimes;

3) subject-species - victimhood as a prerequisite and consequence of crimes committed by various categories of criminals.

Mass victimization is expressed in the aggregate of all victims and acts of causing harm by crimes to individuals in a certain territory in a certain period of time and the potentials of vulnerability common to the population and its individual groups, which are realized in a mass of diverse individual victim manifestations, to varying degrees determining the commission of crimes and causing harm.

13. THE CONCEPT OF THE CRIMINOLOGICAL PERSONALITY OF THE CRIMINAL AND ITS STUDY

The identity of the culprit - a set of properties inherent in a person who commits or has committed a crime, constituting his personality. Criminologists study this set of properties in order to determine on their basis the factors that influence the commission of a particular crime, which can be used in the process of investigating and considering a criminal case, as well as in creating the foundations and methods of individual prevention.

The personality of the perpetrator is different its public danger, the degree of which depends on the depth of deformation of its moral and psychological qualities.

The classification of criminals can be built on various grounds, among which it is worth highlighting 2 large groups of signs:

1) sociological (socio-demographic) - gender, age, level of education, level of material security, social status, family, etc.;

2) legal - the nature, severity of the crimes committed, the commission of crimes for the first time or repeatedly, in a group or alone, the duration of criminal activity, the object of criminal encroachment, the form of guilt, etc.

The main stimulus of human activity is motive - a subjective phenomenon associated with the individual characteristics and attitudes of the individual, but at the same time including its socio-psychological features.

Offender personality types:

1) selfish - this type unites all persons who have committed crimes based on personal enrichment (thefts, robberies, robberies, thefts, fraud, a number of malfeasance);

2) violent - the motives for violent crimes (murder, bodily harm, rape and hooliganism) are quite diverse. It is wrong to call violence a motive, because only mentally ill, insane people can commit violent acts for their own sake. The concept of violence largely reflects the external nature of the action, and not just its internal content.

According to the degree of their public danger, criminogenic infection, its severity and activity distinguish types of personality of the offender:

1) especially dangerous (active antisocial) - repeatedly convicted recidivists, whose stable criminal activity is in the nature of active opposition to society;

2) desocialized dangerous (passive, asocial) - persons who have fallen out of the system of normal connections and communication, leading a parasitic, often homeless, existence for a long time (tramps, beggars, alcoholics);

3) unstable - persons who commit crimes not due to persistent antisocial tendencies, but due to their involvement in the life of certain groups with a negative orientation;

4) situational - persons whose social danger to their personality is expressed insignificantly in their behavior, but nevertheless exists and manifests itself in appropriate situations.

14. CRIMINOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERSONALITY OF THE CRIMINAL

The structure of the offender's personality - the totality of its socially significant properties that have developed in the process of various interactions with other people and in turn make it the subject of activity, cognition and communication.

A number of sublevels are distinguished in the structure of the offender's personality:

1) material security;

2) mental development;

3) moral orientation and aspirations of the individual. All substructures are in certain relationships and interconnections and form the whole personality of the offender.

There is another version of the criminal personality structure, which includes the following elements:

1) socio-demographic:

a) gender;

b) age;

c) social status and occupation;

d) marital status;

e) place of residence (in the city, rural areas);

f) material and living conditions. Grouping by age allows you to establish the causes and age groups covered by criminal manifestations, and the social status and occupation (worker, peasant, student, unemployed, pensioner, etc.) - in which social groups crime is most common; Social status and occupation (worker, peasant, student, unemployed, pensioner, etc.) makes it possible to find out in which social groups crime is most common and to establish its causes;

2) educational and cultural - testify to his interests and needs;

3) functional-relational - belonging to a particular social group, interactions and relationships with other people and institutions, his internal attitude to these functions and life plans;

4) moral and psychological:

a) value orientation of the individual - attitude to social and moral values and various aspects of reality;

b) attitude to law enforcement standards and requirements;

c) a system of needs, interests, claims;

d) the chosen ways of satisfying them.

In this situation, it should be noted that any scheme will not ideally reflect and contain any specific features inherent in the personality of the criminal, because it differs from the personality in general not by the absence or presence of any components of its structure, but, first of all, by the content, orientation of certain components of this structure.

Directivity - the leading element in the psychological structure of the personality, it has a decisive influence on such elements as the amount of knowledge, the nature of the manifestation of biologically determined properties (temperament, inclinations).

Directivity - is crucial for determining the social type of personality. The fact that the choice of criminal behavior is generated by a certain originality of the personality itself is due to many criminological studies. This orientation determines the person's choice of the appropriate variant of criminal behavior.

A generalized personality characteristic can be used for planning and carrying out preventive work at the level of general social and special measures, as well as for planning an investigation.

15. FORMATION OF NEGATIVE MORAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERSONALITY OF THE CRIMINAL

The process of forming the identity of the offender lasts not all life, but for the time necessary for the formation of the individual as a person.

The process of personality formation characterized by the active role of society, which is a kind of supplier of information necessary for perception, a set of norms, roles, attitudes that are imprinted in the mind and to a certain extent influence the future development of either the personality of a criminal or a respectable citizen.

The fundamental role in this case is played by the so-called primary socialization, which is characterized by the fact that it occurs at the level of the child’s subconscious.

The family, being the environment for primary socialization, plays an important role in the process of personality development. There are cases when a child and a teenager have the necessary emotional connections with their parents, but the latter show him a disdainful attitude towards moral and legal prohibitions, examples of illegal behavior.

In Russia, there are objective circumstances that create a high level of unfavorable personality development:

1) significant stratification of society due to different levels of material security;

2) social tension between people;

3) loss of people's habitual life orientations and ideological values, some weakening of kinship, family and other ties, social control;

4) a gradual increase in the number of those who cannot find a place in modern production. Another school on the path of personality formation is the upbringing of a child in the circle of his peers. The influence of the group is significant insofar as this person values his participation in its life.

The identity of the perpetrator is formed not only under the influence of the microenvironment (family, other small social groups), but also broad, macrosocial phenomena and processes.

Studying and taking into account the criminological characteristics of a person makes it possible to establish the differences between criminals and non-criminals, to identify factors that influence the commission of crimes.

Selective criminological studies, statistical data indicate that:

1) there are significantly more men among criminals than women;

2) the age characteristic of criminals makes it possible to draw conclusions about criminogenic activity and the characteristics of criminal behavior of representatives of different age groups;

3) marital status and, especially, upbringing influence the formation of personal qualities;

4) special attention must be paid to labor activity before the commission of a crime (this is characterized by frequent changes in the place of work and study, long breaks in work, etc.);

5) the level of education of criminals, as a rule, is lower than that of law-abiding citizens;

6) among the characteristics of the personality of criminals, such features as the nature and duration of criminal activity deserve special attention.

16. THE ROLE OF BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS IN THE DETERMINATION OF A PARTICULAR CRIME. CONCEPTS OF REASONS

Biological factors of crime determination - such psychological states as needs, drives, emotions, interests, value orientations.

Needs - a reflection of dependence on the outside world, but not every human need is a source of negative criminal behavior of a person. Most often, the source of motivation for crime is material, sexual, ideological needs and the need for social communication.

Attractions and emotions - practically unregulated manifestation of personal qualities of a biological nature. A large number of crimes are committed at the peak of or under the influence of an acute mental or psychological state. Such states can be fear, cowardice, envy, anger, desire for revenge, anger, etc. The extreme degree of emotional stress can be a physiological or pathological affect.

Personal values - the level of morality and legal consciousness of the individual. In criminals, both of these elements are weakened and deformed. In cases where a person's life position is characterized by a focus on personal gain or authoritarian suppression of others, it is impossible to expect correct and positive adherence to value principles.

social factor - human society, social environment.

In the criminological study of the social environment, the social environment of different levels is delimited:

1) metaenvironment - the specific originality of the complex of social relations at this stage of the existence of human society as a whole. This is the social environment on Earth in the unity of its material and spiritual components, in the interaction of the social environment of different states, peoples, races with the material conditions of their existence and culture;

2) social-state environment - a special phenomenon that depends on the state of historical features of the development of a given state, its economy, politics, spiritual foundation, even its geopolitical position;

3) medium level environment - regional environment, i.e. the social environment of a certain territory with the originality of the complex of its economic, political, social and spiritual characteristics.

Midrange environment - social group environment. Representatives of different social groups are characterized by different criminal activity. It is unprecedentedly high among people without a certain occupation (income) and place of residence;

4) microenvironment - mediates the influence of the wider social environment. The behavior of the individual, its formation depend on the family, the environment of its direct communication (friends, comrades, acquaintances, neighbors).

There is a triple mechanism of social determination of crime by:

1) a certain social formation of the personality;

2) giving her prescriptions of an unlawful or contradictory nature;

3) placing a person in situations that force or facilitate the choice of a criminal behavior.

17. THE CONCEPT OF CRIME AND ITS SIGNS

Crime is a negative phenomenon. The consequences of criminal activity extend to various spheres of social relations: the economy, industry, ecology, public and state security.

Crime - the phenomenon of a class society is relatively mass, historically changeable, social, having a criminal law nature, consisting of the totality of crimes committed in the corresponding state in a certain period of time.

Crime - a social phenomenon, because its subjects, like the persons whose interests and relationships are being encroached upon, are members of society. Crime is also social because it is based on socio-economic laws, determined by the totality of existing production relations and the nature of production forces. Crime is generated by reasons and conditions that are social in nature.

Crime is most obvious through a mass of crimes, such a sign of crime as compared with a separate crime, such as mass character, is emphasized. As a rule, one speaks of the mass when the number of some phenomena (in this case, crimes) is subject to statistical analysis, in which certain statistical patterns are revealed.

That is why, when it comes to crime simply as a multitude, a mass of crimes, attention is focused on the statistical analysis of data about it, the state, structure and dynamics of crime are studied.

It is not just about the multiplicity of crimes that are not related to each other, but about their complex system.

In criminology, the most common groups of crimes based on:

1) on criminal law characteristics: murders (including intentional and careless), destruction and damage to property (including intentional and careless), etc.;

2) on the signs characterizing the subject of the crime:

a) gender: male and female crime;

b) age: delinquency of minors, youth, persons of mature age;

c) social status: criminality of employees, entrepreneurs, students;

3) on signs reflecting the specifics of the sphere of life in which crimes are committed (political, economic), or a more specific area of activity;

4) proceeding from the analysis of the motives of criminal acts: mercenary, violent, etc.

Crime characteristics include the following:

1) mass character;

2) a quantitative sign (expressed in the state and dynamics of crime);

3) a qualitative sign (characterized by the structure of the crimes committed);

4) intensity (this is a quantitative and qualitative parameter of the criminological situation in a certain territory, indicating the level of crime, its growth rate and the degree of danger);

5) the nature of crime (focuses on the types of crimes), etc.

18. CONCEPT OF THE CAUSES OF CRIME AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Causes of crime - such phenomena of social life that give rise to crime, support its existence, cause its growth or decrease.

Causality - an objective, universal genetic (producing, generative) connection between two phenomena: cause and effect.

The variety of manifestations of crime and its connection with many aspects of social life necessitate the classification of its causes.

The correct choice of classification features is of great scientific and practical importance.

The problem of the causes of crime, its essence and place in the fight against crime must be considered at different levels:

1) individual - considering the identity of the offender, examining the mechanism of criminal behavior, it is possible to establish the relevant circumstances, factors that push a person to commit a crime;

2) sociological - here it is necessary to address directly to the society itself, to such spheres as social, economic, political, spiritual. These areas influence the formation of the personality of the future criminal, the motivation of his actions and the implementation of his plan;

3) philosophical - the most common cause of crime in any society can be considered objectively existing social contradictions (always exists, but not always formally, a dominant, economically strong class and its opposite).

Grounds for classifying the causes of crime:

1) according to the mechanism of action: harmful traditions, mores, attitudes, habits functioning at the level of society, group or individuals (socio-psychological determinant);

2) according to the level of functioning: general causes of crime in general and the causes of certain types of crimes (or groups) and individual crimes;

3) by content: economic, ideological, political, social, cultural, organizational reasons;

4) by nature: objective, objective-subjective and subjective reasons.

5) by proximity to the event of the crime or to a certain combination of them: nearest, distant, immediate, mediated;

6) according to sources: internal and external.

The immediate causes of crime and crimes are phenomena of a socio-psychological nature, namely, a criminogenically deformed social and individual psychology, which contradicts the generally accepted principles of international, constitutional and criminal law.

Reasons that affect crime can also be:

1) general - a system of all circumstances, under the totality of which an investigation occurs. We are talking about the totality of all phenomena and factors that give rise to crime, and all the conditions that determine it;

2) specific - part of the common cause, the presence of which, under a certain situation (certain conditions), leads to a crime.

It cannot be said that these causes of crime appeared today. They have always existed, because social contradictions are eternal - they will be where there is society.

19. METHODS FOR STUDYING THE CAUSES OF CRIME

Methods for studying the causes of crime - methods and techniques by which crime is studied for its further prevention.

Methods of study:

1) analysis - decomposition of unity into many, whole - into parts, complex - into components;

2) synthesis - the combination of various phenomena, substances and qualities into a unity, in which opposites are smoothed out or removed;

3) hypothesis - a well-thought-out assumption that deserves verification;

4) induction - the method of movement of knowledge from the individual and particular to the universal and natural;

5) deduction - transition from the general to the particular or from the particular to the general;

6) system - consideration of an object as a system that contains a certain number of interrelated elements;

7) system-structural analysis - using mathematical methods;

8) historical method - the study of crime in the historical context and movement;

9) comparison - comparison of crime in different states, criminals of different sex and age;

10) dynamic и statistical methods;

11) private scientific - surveys in the form of questionnaires and interviews;

12) peer review method - receiving and processing opinions and judgments that are presented on a particular issue;

13) documentary - collection and analysis of data from various kinds of documents;

14) experiment - the study of situations that have changed as a result of changing certain conditions while maintaining others.

Basic study methods:

1) watching - direct perception by the researcher and direct recording of facts that relate to the observed objects;

2) documentary study - the study of documents that contain the necessary information of interest in criminological research. The disadvantage of this method is that the documents are not designed for further research;

3) indirect observation - a survey that has 2 forms:

a) full-time - interview;

b) correspondence - questioning;

4) questioning - conducted anonymously. The questionnaire should contain up to thirty questions, which are arranged in different versions;

5) testing - psychological diagnostics, which uses standardized questions and tasks that have a certain scale of values;

6) sociological dimension - measurement of socio-psychological ties between people;

7) experiment - scientifically delivered experience that determines the characteristics of the functioning of an object in given conditions in order to obtain new information about it;

8) peer review method - used to predict social phenomena;

9) statistical method - research into quantitative and qualitative indicators of crime and the personality of offenders.

10) statistical analysis uses methods:

a) approximations - replacement of some mathematical objects with simpler ones, but close to the original ones;

b) extrapolations - distribution of conclusions obtained from observation of one part of the phenomenon to another part of it.

20. METHODS OF STUDYING THE CAUSES, CONDITIONS OF A PARTICULAR CRIME

Methodology for studying the causes and conditions of a particular crime - a certain algorithm of actions, by performing which a person will be able to obtain information on the following issues:

1) what criminogenic qualities of a person caused a certain crime or offense (or may lead to a crime or offense);

2) what are the reasons for their formation and development;

3) what are the conditions for their stability;

4) what circumstances impede lawful conduct;

5) what circumstances make it possible to commit various crimes.

The methodology for studying the causes and conditions of a crime shows:

1) what information should be obtained for criminological analysis;

2) how and how to do it.

The second aspect of the methodology of the causes and conditions of crime covers the study methods:

1) personality;

2) conditions for the formation of personality;

3) conditions of human life.

The knowledge of the motive and purpose of the crime during the investigation is proposed to be carried out:

1) according to objective indicators of criminal behavior by deciphering their semantic connections and content;

2) according to the individual characteristics of the motivation of the crime by collecting information about its formation and direct detection by the person during, before and after the commission of the crime;

3) according to information about the motive and purpose of the crime received from the accused person.

You can investigate the causes and conditions of the crime:

1) retrospectively - analysis of the causes of the already committed crime;

2) promising - in order to predict what negative circumstances can lead to a crime.

Considering the issue of crime within Russia, it is necessary to solve the problem of the direct causes of crime, which are the primary source of all illegal acts. The successful solution of this problem will have a significant impact on the development of preventive and prophylactic measures and on the fight against crime in general.

Based on significant experience in conducting criminological research in Russia, the problem of the causes of crime and its development must be solved taking into account various circumstances. There are actually many such circumstances in life that give rise to various crimes. An example is economic contradictions between different segments of the population.

Given the current situation in the country, favorable conditions are being created for the economically strong and stable part of the population to become more and more enriched, while the part of the population that needs social and material support continues to die from poverty. In the latter case, there is a danger of the emergence of the belief that one can only get rich through crime.

Domestic criminology in the study of crime does not stop only at the methods of studying the causes of crime used in the Russian Federation, it goes further, borrowing experience in methods for studying the causes of crime in other countries.

21. INDICATORS OF CRIME AND METHODS OF THEIR DETERMINATION

The main indicators of crime are:

1) state of crime - the number of crimes and the persons who committed them in a certain territory for a certain time;

2) coefficient, or level, of crime - the total number of registered crimes for a certain time and in a certain territory.

K \uXNUMXd (P / N) BW,

where K is the crime rate; P - number of crimes; N - the number of people who have reached the age of criminal responsibility living in the territory for which the coefficient is calculated; B - coefficient (usually 100,000);

3) crime structure - is revealed through its internal content - the ratio in the total array of crimes and criminals, their various types and categories, identified on various legal, criminological grounds.

From this point of view crimes are divided into: intentional and reckless; severe, less severe, etc.; with and without motivation; urban and rural crime; in industry, trade, etc.; by object; by subject; according to the age; by the number of participants, etc. Structuring can have a multi-level character (for example, rural male crime).

4) crime dynamics - changes in crime (state, level, structure, etc.) over time. Determining the dynamics of crime has the following goals:

1) establish patterns inherent in crime;

2) most accurately predict the state of crime in the future.

The dynamics is influenced by social factors (revolutions, coups, etc.), legal factors (introduction of a new Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, etc.), organizational and legal changes (number of policemen, courts, judicial practice). None of the above factors is self-sufficient, they are all studied together.

Additional indicators of crime are:

1) volume of crime - the absolute number of crimes committed in a certain territory for a certain period;

2) nature of crime - is determined by what is the share of the most dangerous crimes in the structure of crime or what is the characteristic of the personality of those who commit crimes. He also points to the social danger of crime. A direct indicator of public danger is the severity of the average crime, and an indirect indicator is the criminal record index.

D=di/p,

where D is the severity of the average crime; d. - the sum of all values of the amount of punishment assigned to an individual convicted person; p is the total number of people sentenced to criminal penalties for the year;

Ip=p x 105/N;

where Ip is the criminal record index;

p is the number of persons convicted by sentences that have entered into legal force to suspended sentences for a certain period and in a certain territory;

N is the number of the population aged 14 living in the given territory;

3) geography of crime - the difference in the characteristics of crime, due to the social and economic conditions of different regions;

4) crime timekeeping - some crimes increase in certain seasons, time of day.

22. LATENT CRIME, ITS TYPES AND METHODS OF DETERMINATION

Latent crime - real, but hidden or unregistered part of actually committed crimes. The difference between recorded crime and actual crime is what constitutes latent crime.

According to the mechanism of formation, latent crime is divided into 3 components:

1) unreported crimes - were committed, but the victims, witnesses and other citizens in respect of whom they were committed, of whom they were eyewitnesses or of whom they were aware, did not report this to law enforcement agencies;

2) unrecorded crimes - about which law enforcement agencies were aware (had reasons and grounds for registering a crime and initiating a criminal case), but they did not register and did not investigate them;

3) unspecified crimes - were declared, registered, investigated, but due to the negligence or insufficient desire of operational and investigative workers, their poor professional training, erroneous criminal law qualifications and other reasons, no event or corpus delicti was established in the actual deed.

It is believed that the more serious the category of crimes, the lower the latency coefficient for it. Such dependence exists, but it is not absolute. An example is the most serious crimes - premeditated murders, hidden under accidents, natural death, missing people and in other ways.

Unreported crimes are related to the distrust of citizens and victims of crimes in law enforcement agencies with distrust in their ability to solve the crime and protect the complainant; with unwillingness to contact the police; with fear of revenge from criminals; with unwillingness to publicize the fact of assault, such as rape; with the conclusion of a compromise deal with the criminal; with the fact that the person is not fully aware of himself as a victim of a crime, and other reasons.

The scale of latent crime is still unknown to criminology. There are numerous disputes between criminologists regarding the definition of quantitative indicators of latent crime. In this case, various sociological, statistical, analytical methods are used:

1) comparative analysis of interrelated indicators of criminal statistics;

2) study of information contained in various documents. These are criminal records, records of various offenses (administrative, disciplinary), citizens' complaints, data on admission to medical institutions of persons with injuries of varying severity, possibly of a criminal nature (gunshot wounds, etc.), etc.;

3) surveys of citizens, convicts and prisoners. The reliability of this information still needs to be verified (especially for convicts, prisoners, and victims);

4) expert assessments of specialists.

Specialists - persons who have special knowledge in this area and who are generally recognized experts in their field.

23. THE CONCEPT OF PREVENTION OF CRIME (CRIMES)

The activities of various law enforcement agencies play a decisive role in the fight against crime. This activity can be described as crime prevention.

Criminology is closely related to crime prevention activities. It develops preventive methods at the theoretical level, based on scientific research, based on the experience of other countries. Directly law enforcement and other bodies put into practice the methods of crime prevention created by the efforts of criminologists, reveal their effectiveness. This issue can be considered the most significant of those that are affected by criminology. This is explained by the fact that this work is ultimately decisive in organizing the fight against crime in general and with its individual types.

Crime (crime) prevention - legalized activity, i.e., fixed by the legislator in a regulatory legal act. The subject structure in this case will not be limited exclusively to law enforcement agencies. This also includes various public organizations, institutions, specific citizens and other persons directly or indirectly performing preventive functions.

crime prevention - the activities of these entities, enshrined in legislation and aimed at eliminating or reducing the causes and conditions that affect the commission of offenses.

Crime prevention is carried out by the necessary measures:

1) detection;

2) suppression;

3) exposure, punishment of the guilty and their correction;

4) prevention of crimes at the general social and specifically criminological levels. Activities related to the prevention of crime, like any other activity, must satisfy the principle of legality. The subjects of the activity under consideration must follow the letter of the law and in no case exceed their official powers. Along with the rule of law, the principles of openness, justice, humanity, and democracy must be respected.

The activity under consideration has a fairly wide range of preventive measures. However, it can be distinguished main warning directions:

1) organized crime;

2) economic crime;

3) delinquency of minors and youth;

4) violent crimes against a person and hooligan manifestations;

5) crimes committed by law enforcement officials;

6) crimes committed by women. In carrying out this work, it must be borne in mind that women's crime differs from men's both quantitatively and qualitatively;

7) careless crime;

8) crimes committed in places of deprivation of liberty is of increased relevance. Crime prevention in a general social way is also carried out through such significant measures that are carried out with the aim of making changes in the development of society, individual social relations (economic, political, social, etc.)

24. CRIME AS AN OBJECT OF CRIMINOLOGICAL STUDY

Mechanism of criminal behavior - consists of: formation of motivation, decision-making to commit a crime, execution of the decision, post-criminal behavior.

The motive of behavior - an internal impulse to action, a desire determined by needs, interests, feelings that have arisen and aggravated under the influence of the external environment and a specific situation. Following the motive, the goal is formed as the foreseeable and desired result of a certain act.

Organized criminal activity - a system of interrelated organized criminal acts of a subject (one person or a group of persons).

The logic of the development of organized criminal activity leads to the fact that the subject of a crime can be not one person, but a collective subject.

Crime - a historically changeable, social and criminal law phenomenon, which is a system of crimes committed in a certain region for the corresponding period.

Crime is considered as a product of the interaction of certain types of environment and personality types.

In this interaction, two major substructures of crime can be distinguished:

1) stable - in the origin of which the leading role is played by personal characteristics;

2) situational - the genesis of which is determined by a stronger influence of the environment than personal characteristics, a complex situation of criminal behavior.

Organized crime - the organization of criminal formations with their large-scale criminal activity and the creation of the most favorable conditions for such activity, using both its own structures with managerial and other functions to service these formations, their activities and external interactions, and the state structure, civil society institutions.

Criminological study of crime reveals:

1) the degree of its prevalence and public danger in specific conditions of place and time in order to assess its condition and trends, determine the directions for combating crime;

2) social characteristics of crime, indicating the features of its generation and functioning in order to develop specific preventive measures;

3) own, internal characteristics of crime (stability, activity, organization) in order to improve law enforcement and measures to prevent the recurrence of crimes, to strengthen organized principles in crime.

In the process of cognition, the researcher receives actual data on crime, reflected in the system of indicators (the total number of crimes, the number of identified criminals, etc.).

Evaluation means correlating new information with previous knowledge, ideas, hypotheses.

It is important to ensure the purposefulness of analytical activity, correctly define its tasks, formulate initial hypotheses, give this analysis a certain program character and remain ready to receive new, sometimes unexpected, non-programmed data.

25. GENERAL SOCIAL CRIME PREVENTION

In criminology, crime prevention is divided into:

1) general social;

2) special (criminological).

In this case, it is the public that plays the leading role. After all, most of his time a person is in contact with society. At the same time, many conflict situations, various deviations in behavior that can lead to offenses are eliminated in the team. The collective and its public organizations have the opportunity to carry out earlier prevention of offenses than, for example, law enforcement agencies.

Crime prevention in a general social way is also carried out through such significant events that are carried out in order to make changes in the development of society, individual social relations (economic, political, social, etc.). In this case, there is no purposeful impact on the causes and conditions of crime. This work is carried out as if at the same time, that is, indirectly. The main goal of these measures is to improve various areas of public life, thereby creating the prerequisites for eliminating crime, suppressing or weakening the effect of the general causes and conditions of crime, its individual types and specific crimes.

Crime prevention at the general social level has its own mechanism, including the following activities:

1) preservation and creation of new jobs in order to reduce unemployment and expand employment opportunities for graduates of educational institutions;

2) a decrease in domestic crime, motivationally conditioned by moods of hopelessness;

3) restriction of criminal forms of social protest (riots, etc.);

4) activation of state control over cases of reducing economic and official crime, criminal violations of the interests of the service of commercial and non-profit organizations;

5) restriction of opportunities for the sale of criminally acquired funds and other property;

6) implementation of measures to ensure the timely payment of wages, benefits, pensions;

7) implementation of general social measures aimed at determining the subsistence minimum in accordance with realities;

8) implementation of financial stabilization;

9) ensuring the collection of taxes and other obligatory payments;

10) creation of conditions for the full, unhindered exercise by citizens and their associations of their subjective rights.

These events, designed to create and maintain an atmosphere of stability and civic activity in society, stimulate the population's confidence in the authorities and their readiness to support its efforts to protect law and order. Equally important for the prevention of crime are general social measures to support the development of education and culture in society, the preservation and development of spiritual and moral heritage. A clear relationship between the educational and cultural level of people, their upbringing and the risk of committing crimes has been reliably established.

26. SPECIAL CRIME PREVENTION

This type of crime prevention is characterized by the following features:

1) the focus of special measures directly on the prevention of crime and specific crimes;

2) activities for the use of preventive special means are based on the interaction of managerial, general educational, social, legal measures designed to influence the prevention and non-admission of specific crimes;

3) the subjects of special crime prevention are organizational structures for which the fight against crime is the main function or is highlighted in the list of functions. Special crime prevention measures have 3 objects of influence:

1) measures aimed at the prevention of social pathologies, i.e. such processes in which the form of behavior of certain groups of persons that are the determinant of the growth of crime is expressed;

2) special warning measures, in their direction, have an impact and impact on the entire set of causes and conditions, with an emphasis on individual and special cases. Such phenomena include offenses provided for by law, which directly create motivations and situations for committing crimes;

3) the object of special crime prevention are certain organized, professional, recurrent types of crime.

Types of special preventive measures:

1) depending on the volume, the number of objects on which the impact is directed, there are:

a) affecting the totality of circumstances, situations, persons with an indefinite number;

b) influencing a certain small group of phenomena, situations, persons with certain characteristics;

c) affecting groups of situations, phenomena, persons aimed at committing certain crimes;

2) depending on the direction. Such measures are aimed at limiting criminal manifestations in relation to types of crime and types of criminals, to criminogenic elements characteristic of individual social relations. Stand out:

a) educational and legal measures to prevent violence;

b) operational-investigative and control-auditing measures to prevent and suppress the legalization of funds;

c) measures to combat and prevent illegal arms trafficking in the country;

3) on the territory to which apply:

a) on the territory of the Russian Federation;

b) on the territory of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation;

c) on a local territory, including a settlement, locality;

4) depending on the mechanism of implementation and application:

a) educational;

b) measures of social support and provision of citizens belonging to the risk group;

c) forbidding;

d) measures of legal influence;

e) technical;

5) depending on the object:

a) general preventive measures of a special nature that do not have a specific object;

b) special - revealing the impact of a particular object, which makes it possible to predict the commission of a crime.

27. CRIMINOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES

Criminology in the process of studying crime is faced with various types of crimes. In the process of developing preventive measures, it becomes necessary to classify these crimes for the most profound knowledge of each of them and develop appropriate preventive measures.

The classification of crimes can be based on:

1) the object of the crime - the state system, private property, life, health, sexual integrity, security, etc.);

2) public legal relations within which the offense was committed (political crimes, economic, environmental, etc.);

3) causes and conditions conducive to the commission of crimes (for example, crimes committed in a state of alcoholic or drug intoxication);

4) motivation (acquisitive crimes, motivated by jealousy, revenge);

5) personality traits of the offender, etc. Based on the above grounds such crimes can be distinguishedAs:

1) political;

2) economic,

3) environmental;

4) corrupt;

5) selfish;

6) organized;

7) violent;

8) environmental;

9) intentional;

10) careless;

11) crimes committed by minors;

12) crimes committed by women;

13) crimes committed by servicemen.

The classification of crimes cannot be given once and for all. The boundaries between different categories of crimes are conditional: the conjuncture of crime is changing rapidly, as are the nature and degree of social danger of various torts. Therefore, the classification of crimes should be periodically updated, since it is important for solving problems of a criminological nature (on the classification of criminals).

The category of the crime is taken into account when establishing dangerous and especially dangerous recidivism; the death penalty and life imprisonment are imposed only for especially grave crimes that encroach on life; when imposing punishment for a combination of crimes, depending on their categories, either the application of the principle of absorbing a less severe punishment by a more severe one is either allowed or excluded; criminal liability arises for preparation only for a grave or especially grave crime; the significance of a circumstance mitigating punishment may take place when committing for the first time, as a result of an accidental combination of circumstances, only a crime of little gravity.

Dividing crimes into types on certain grounds helps to understand the essence of the issues being studied and their connection with each other. The classification of crimes is also necessary to understand the interaction, influence (or lack thereof) of some types of crimes on other types. Another advantage of the classification of crimes in this case is the fact that it organizes the issues studied by criminology, and this in turn facilitates the process of cognition.

28. TYPES AND FORMS OF CRIME PREVENTION

When classifying preventive measures on such a basis as the level of preventive activity, preventive measures are distinguished:

1) in the general social direction;

2) in a special criminological direction.

When classifying preventive measures according to the scale of preventive activities, the named measures are distinguished within the framework of:

1) the whole society;

2) individual social groups or a certain circle of persons;

3) individual prevention.

Depending on the territory of crime prevention activities, there are:

1) nationwide;

2) regional;

3) local;

4) local preventive measures.

Preventive measures are divided depending on the nature of the impact on relationships:

1) economic and economic;

2) actually economic;

3) socio-political;

4) ideological;

5) organizational and managerial;

6) technical;

7) legal.

Forms of crime prevention consist in the implementation of relevant activities by various subjects:

1) the leading role in the elimination of negative processes and phenomena that adversely affect the state of crime, as well as the formation of a person in moral terms, belongs directly to labor collectives and the public. This is explained by the fact that most of his time a person is at work, in a team and its public organizations;

2) public authorities in the case of crime prevention play the role of coordinators and determine the main direction of this activity. Through rule-making (publication of federal laws, laws, by-laws and other regulatory legal acts), the competence of other subjects of preventive and preventive work is established; various programs and plans for the prevention of crimes are being adopted, etc.;

3) local authorities, in accordance with the law, are obliged to ensure the observance of law and order in their territory. At the same time, this activity must be carried out within the framework established by the legislation of the federal level and the laws of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation;

4) the main volume of work on the prevention, prevention and suppression of crimes is assigned, of course, to law enforcement agencies (the prosecutor's office, the court, the police, etc.);

5) when carrying out their activities, the bodies of justice are called upon to ensure the organization of work on the legal education of the population. These activities should be carried out in direct cooperation with all law enforcement and other agencies.

These entities also carry out special measures to prevent and prevent offenses and crimes of various nature in the course of their economic activities, ensuring the protection of state, municipal, collective, individual and other types of property.

29. CRIMINOLOGICAL PREVENTION IN THE SYSTEM OF CRIME PREVENTION

Criminological prevention - the activity of the state and society directed against a possible, but not yet committed crime by a person. To do this, an environment is created that eliminates harmful influences on a person and provides the necessary moral formation of his personality, as well as the correction of offenders.

The objects of criminological prevention are:

1) economic, psychological, political processes and phenomena;

2) the activities of people, which must comply with the norms of law and social interaction;

3) the identity of the offender, accepted as a social process of formation of its criminogenically significant properties and qualities. Criminological crime prevention must meet principles:

1) legality - the existence of sufficient legal regulation at the level of laws and other regulations, tasks, methods, forms of prevention, rights and obligations of the subjects (participants) of this work, guarantees of the legitimate interests of persons in respect of whom it is carried out;

2) democracy - while prevention is carried out:

a) under the control of representative authorities of the appropriate level;

b) with the direct participation and under the control of public associations and formations;

3) humanism and justice - the persons in respect of whom it is carried out are considered as subjects of interaction with preventive authorities, and not as powerless objects:

a) the task is set to identify and prevent further development of criminogenic processes as early as possible in order to minimize damage to the individual, society and the state;

b) preventive impact begins with the most gentle measures, and only if they are insufficient, a transition to a more intensive impact is made;

4) scientificity - the presence and demand in the programming and planning of preventive activities, legal regulation and management of them, as well as in the direct application of preventive measures, the scientific concept of this activity, based on knowledge of its patterns and place in social systems:

a) support of all levels, stages, directions, types of preventive activities with scientific and methodological support based on the integrated use of scientific data in the fight against crime, united by criminology and criminal policy; the presence of a mechanism for the implementation of scientific recommendations after their objective assessment;

b) conducting criminological or comprehensive examinations of legislative and administrative acts related to the prevention of crime, in the process of their preparation.

For such measures to be effective, they must comply with a number of requirements:

1) must be legal - not violate the law and the rights of citizens;

2) timely - applied immediately after identifying the causes and conditions of crimes;

3) radical - such measures and in such quantity should be applied so that all the causes and conditions of the crime, and not their individual parts, are eliminated;

4) economically viable;

5) justified - apply when there is a reason for this.

30. CRIMINOLOGICAL SITUATION; CONCEPT, TYPES; GOALS, STUDY OBJECTIVES

Criminological situation - a set of circumstances that include the stage of formation of the offender's personality, no matter how distant it is from the event of the crime (personality-forming situation), the pre-criminal (life) situation immediately preceding the crime, the crime itself (criminal situation), as well as the post-criminal situation, considered as a single causal process.

Types of criminological situations:

1) by development over time:

a) one-fact - situations of a one-time nature;

b) multifactual - in which there are many episodes of behavior, a certain set of them;

2) by the nature of the interaction between the victim and the offender:

a) collision situations - the victim and the offender are in a conflict relationship, and their actions are realized in unilateral or mutual harm.

Collision situations can be:

▪ sequential - in which a collision occurs from the moment the situation arises;

▪ inconsistent - when initially the relationship and actions of the victim and the criminal are not of a conflict nature, but later acquire it;

b) cooperation situations - the actions of the victim and the perpetrator are aimed at achieving the same result, and they are not connected by conflict (illegal abortion, cohabitation with a person who has not reached puberty). These situations can be either sequential or inconsistent;

3) according to the degree and nature of understanding by the victims of the dynamics and prospects for the development of the situation:

a) closed - the victim has no idea what harm can be done to him, and does not allow such a possibility;

b) relatively closed - the victim admits the possibility of causing harm to him, but is mistaken about his nature or counts on causing harm, but not the one that actually turned out to be caused;

at) open - the victim foresees the possibility of causing harm to him and understands what this harm is;

d) open situations of arrogance - the victim understands what harm threatens him, but unreasonably expects to prevent it (an attempt by the victim to disarm the criminal based on knowledge of sambo techniques, if the overestimation of his capabilities led to harm);

4) from the attitude of the victim to the consequences of his actions and the actions of the offender:

a) negative - the victim, regardless of the purpose of his actions, does not want the onset of the harm that ultimately takes place;

b) positive - the victim wishes the onset of an objectively harmful result for him;

5) from the attitude of the victim to the initial circumstances of the situation:

a) selected - the victim is consciously included in the mechanism of the development of events, by his own will and by his behavior (jogging, passive or otherwise) creates the possibility of harming himself;

b) unselected - the victim, having no choice, gets in against his will and is forced to accept the entire sum of the circumstances that make up the situation that manifests his personal qualities in a certain behavior.

31. GENERAL AND SPECIAL PREVENTION OF CRIMINAL LEGAL PREVENTION

Criminal Law Warning - the preventive effect of criminal liability, punishment and other means of criminal law on certain criminogenic factors implemented in the special activities of its subjects (legislative and law enforcement agencies, scientific institutions, etc.).

Prevention (from lat. praevenio - "I'm ahead of", "I warn", "I prevent").

Preventive measures - any preventive and other actions aimed at preventing crimes and other offenses.

In legal theory, prevention is divided:

1) general prevention - prevention (prevention) of crimes under the influence of a criminal law prohibition and consists in achieving and providing stimulation of normatively fixed behavior.

By implementing the punishment, the state affects the consciousness of the offender. This influence consists in intimidation, proof of the inevitability of punishment and thus in the prevention of new offenses. Moreover, the preventive effect is not only on the offender himself, but also on those around him. Thus, a general prevention is achieved. General prevention - any preventive measures in relation to an indefinite circle of persons, meetings at which theorists and practitioners speak to explain certain norms of the law, new legislation, as well as lectures, discussions, speeches in the media, etc.

These activities are carried out with the aim of improving various spheres of public life (economic, social, political, spiritual, etc.), thereby creating the prerequisites for eliminating crime, suppressing or weakening the effect of general causes and conditions of crime, its individual types and specific crimes. Prevention of committing new crimes, or prevention, involves such an impact on the consciousness of the convicted person, as a result of which he loses the desire to commit new socially dangerous acts. This goal is directly related to the second goal - the correction of the convicted person. In this regard, we can talk about preventing the commission of new crimes by correcting the convicted person. This type of prevention is called special (a citizen who has served his sentence must not commit a crime again);

2) special prevention - prevention (prevention) of the commission of new criminal acts by persons who have already committed any crimes, which is achieved by applying criminal penalties to them, as well as coercive measures of a medical and educational nature, probation.

Special preventive measures include preventive measures aimed at preventing an offense by a single individual or business entity. Special prevention consists in the application of the actual measures of responsibility (social punitive impact) to the violator of the rule of law.

32. CRIMINOLOGICAL INFORMATION: CONCEPT, SOURCES, METHODS OF OBTAINING, REQUIREMENTS FOR CRIMINOLOGICAL INFORMATION

Criminological Information - information about crime and measures to prevent it. It is defined as content that eliminates the uncertainty of knowledge.

Criminological information meets three methodological requirements:

1) the completeness and comprehensiveness of information, non-compliance with this rule leads to a distorted view, serves as the basis for erroneous conclusions and recommendations.

Completeness of information - its complexity, sufficient for the analysis of crime and the results of the work of law enforcement agencies to strengthen the rule of law;

2) the timeliness of information is determined by the objectives of a particular study. Timely will be information coming from reporting data for the past period of time or obtained from studies of the previous fight against crime;

3) truth and reliability. Distortions of information during initial registration, during transmission for subsequent statistical processing, arising from a violation of the technological process of its processing, lead to incorrect judgments and practical conclusions.

Primary registration is carried out on cards that are uniform in form, the details of which contain a description of the event, fact, its general and special features. The person issuing the card fills in its details, fixing the information that is necessary for the subsequent analysis of primary accounting documents.

Control over the reliability of information is ensured at all stages of its collection, processing and analysis. It consists in a continuous or selective check of the filling of documents that duplicate the process of transferring information from them to machine media. Reliability is provided by unambiguity. To prevent adverse events in information processes, the terminology used in information collection documents is used.

The main sources of criminological information are:

1) statistical reporting on crime and the results of the fight against it;

2) the results of scientific criminological research.

Crime statistics are carried out:

1) the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation, which keeps records and statistical processing of data on registered crimes and all identified law enforcement officers who have committed crimes;

2) the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation - studies information about the progress of criminal cases and the main results of the work on the investigation of crimes;

3) The Ministry of Justice - maintains statistics on convicted law enforcement officers and on the results of the work of the judicial system. Criminal statistics contain information about the dynamics of crime, the composition of the perpetrators of crimes, and measures to combat crime. Statistics cover the facts of criminal manifestations, regular receipts of information, comparability over a long period of observation.

Statistical data are not enough to identify the causes of crime and develop measures to prevent it. Scientific criminological research allows to penetrate deeper into the subject of research, to develop specific recommendations for improving the effectiveness of measures to combat crime in the law enforcement system.

33. CRIMINOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RECURRENT CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION

Recidivism - part of the total set of repeated crimes, is one of the varieties of crime as a social phenomenon in society.

Features of recidivist crime are determined by the specifics of the personality of the offender, as well as the peculiarity of the contradiction between the personality of the recidivist and society and its legal guidelines.

Recidivism - the most complex and painful of social problems.

The problem of recidivism is complex in terms of socio-psychological and individual psychological aspects. Recidivist criminals in many cases are outstanding individuals with a strong character, possessing organizational skills, attracting other people to themselves with their qualities. However, the psychological atmosphere that develops around the recidivist is characterized by the fact that his personality sows fear around him, which literally suppresses and completely deprives the human dignity of people who are weak in character. The world of relapse is cruel, moral values are turned upside down in it, the price of life is negligible. Therefore, the crimes in which the recidivist is involved and directed are often cruel, characterized by boldness of intent and execution, prudence and foresight. After that, as a rule, either there is a lull, or the offender falls into the sphere of activity of law enforcement agencies for petty crimes.

In addition to the usual measures prevention of criminal relapse, taking into account the specificity of this type of crime, specific preventive measures are taken, which are closely linked to the causes and conditions conducive to the commission of repeated crimes. They are aimed at eliminating and localizing, first of all, social factors and phenomena that serve as the basis for the occurrence of relapse of crimes, preventing repeated crimes by the same persons.

A very important role in the prevention of repeated crimes should be played by correctional labor institutions to correct convicts, to eliminate their criminogenic personal characteristics and inclinations, to involve this category of persons in socially useful work, to prevent free communication of dangerous and especially dangerous recidivists with persons who have committed crimes. first time or minor crimes.

We are talking about a differentiated approach to the selection of measures for the correction of convicts, and after their release - about the means and ways of adapting persons released from places of deprivation of liberty. It is necessary to exclude the possibility of criminal influence of recidivists on other law-abiding citizens. In this regard, control over the behavior of persons under the open administrative supervision of the police should be strengthened.

The issues of crime prevention and prevention of recidivism are the most difficult.

Criminology can only offer some general directions and methods for the prevention of recidivism. The very work to prevent the recurrence of crime lies with law enforcement agencies and other authorities.

34. CRIMINOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FEMALE CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION

The criminal behavior of women differs from the criminal behavior of men in a causal complex, methods and tools, the scale and nature of the commission of crimes, the choice of a victim of a criminal attack, and other elements. These features are associated with the historically conditioned place of a woman in the system of social relations, her social roles and functions, her biological and psychological specifics.

The most common crimes of women are crimes of a mercenary orientation, i.e. female crime is more inherent in mercenary motivation than violently aggressive.

Violent crime among women is of a family nature. About a third of violent crimes are committed by women under the influence of alcohol or drugs. The number of women committing violent crimes outside the sphere of family relationships is increasing.

Causes of female crime depend on socio-economic and biological factors.

These include:

1) weakening of the state’s family policy and intra-family relationships (lack of special care for the children of working women);

2) the activation of women in public relations and the change in their social positions and roles (employment is associated with a large number of obstacles);

3) the crisis of socio-economic institutions (the family in the last decade is characterized by a higher degree of conflict in the relationship of spouses, the lack of a permanent place of residence);

4) an increase in the number of women who abuse alcohol and drugs.

Preventive action against female crime - is aimed at eliminating negative phenomena, under the influence of which the formation of criminogenic motivation takes place. The protection of women's culture and femininity should become a priority in state policy, ideology, and public opinion.

It is necessary to raise the level of moral and legal culture among girls leading an antisocial lifestyle, to provide them with free psychological and medical assistance, and to create rehabilitation centers for women who have lost social ties, housing, in which they could live and work.

Measures to prevent and prevent crimes committed by women:

1) long-term, associated with the need to develop a program on the status of women, aimed at improving all spheres of women's life and improving the moral microclimate of society;

2) development of a system of educational activities, taking into account the peculiarities of a woman's behavior;

3) analysis of the situation at work, in the family, everyday life in order to identify factors that provoke women to commit crimes;

4) measures aimed at preventing specific crimes committed by women;

5) measures aimed at preventing various offenses leading to the commission of crimes (drunkenness, drug addiction);

6) social adaptation of women after serving their sentence in a colony.

35. CRIMINOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PROFESSIONAL CRIME

Professional crime - a kind of criminal activity, which is a source of livelihood for the subject, requiring the necessary knowledge and skills to achieve the ultimate goal and causing certain contacts with the antisocial environment.

The structure of modern professional crime consists of two large groups of crimes:

1) crimes of a property nature (mercenary), which make up the bulk of professional crime;

2) mercenary-violent crimes, which, in quantitative terms and in terms of the scale of material damage caused, lag far behind the first group, but nevertheless represent an increased public danger due to the fact that, in the pursuit of material wealth, criminals harm the health of citizens and even deprive their lives.

A characteristic feature of modern professional crime - its stable character. Along with the old types of professional crime (theft, robbery, robbery, banditry, etc.), new types have appeared: kidnapping for ransom, buying and selling cultural and historical values, murder for hire, computer crimes, intellectual piracy.

Determining the negative trends of modern professional crime:

1) unfavorable dynamics of group crime;

2) a significant increase among professional criminals from among previously convicted persons who have committed serious crimes;

3) an increase in the proportion among professional criminals of previously convicted persons who have committed repeated property crimes in complicity;

4) active involvement in the number of criminal professionals of highly educated specialists in the field of the latest technologies, culture and art;

5) an increase in the time gap between the commission of crimes and subsequent punishment for it. On average, according to experts, one recidivist from among professional thieves and swindlers commits up to 140 crimes a year, for which they are not prosecuted;

6) the growth of a special recurrence. Thus, over the past 10 years, only the number of persons who have committed repeated crimes has increased by 44%. As for the special recidivism, among pickpockets, apartment thieves, and swindlers, it reaches 80%, 66,2%, and 80%, respectively;

7) professional crime is getting younger. Obviously, the stability of the criminal type of activity has become inherent in juvenile delinquents.

For professional crime, the most important and defining feature is the extraction of criminal income.

Professional crime - a form of crime, which is a source of livelihood for the criminal.

Professional crime - a relatively independent type of crime, including a set of crimes committed by professional criminals in order to extract the main or additional source of income.

36. THE CONCEPT OF ORGANIZED CRIME, ITS SIGNS

Organized crime - the most destructive element of crime for the state and society. It has a controlling effect on the development of its other structural elements, significantly affects not only economic, but also social, moral-psychological, socio-cultural processes in society. Various social strata of society are involved in organized crime.

Organized crime has enormous financial and economic opportunities that are not controlled by either the state or society. It has at its disposal its own system of internal management and opposition to the state in the interests of obtaining super profits by robbing the state and society. Within the framework of organized crime, combat formations, specific power structures, equipped with modern material and technical means, have been created. Criminal formations are able to contain specialists from various fields of economic and scientific activity, consultants on legal and other issues. Organized crime currently has a fairly strong and influential position in government agencies, including health care, a powerful apparatus for lobbying their interests in representative government.

Organized crime - a relatively new object of study for domestic criminology. It should be noted that it is impossible to define the numerous types of organized crime caused by various factors, including ethnic and economic ones, with one wording. However, in general, this phenomenon can be characterized as complex criminal activities carried out on a large scale by organizations and other groups with an internal structure, which receive financial profit and acquire power through the creation and exploitation of markets for illegal goods and services. These are crimes that often transcend state borders, involving not only public and political corruption, bribery or collusion, but also threats, intimidation and violence.

Organized crime is also defined as a process of rational reorganization of the underworld, similar to legitimate business activities in legitimate markets. However, criminal business activities, in pursuit of their goals, engage in such specific illegal activities as dealing in illegal goods and services, monopolizing the market, using corruption and intimidation against competitors and law enforcement agencies in order to reduce the risk of prosecution.

UN experts divide organized crime into several types:

1) mafia families - existing on the principle of hierarchy. They have their own internal rules of life, norms of behavior and are distinguished by a wide variety of illegal actions;

2) professionals - organizations of this kind are fickle and do not have such a rigid structure as organizations of the traditional type.

37. CRIMINOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CRIMES COMMITTED BY NEGLIGENCE

All crimes committed with a negligent form of guilt, in the absence of intent to commit them, are careless crimes.

Crime committed by negligence - an act committed through frivolity or negligence.

The crime is considered committed out of frivolityif a person foresaw the possibility of socially dangerous consequences of his actions (inaction), but without sufficient grounds, he arrogantly hoped to prevent these consequences.

The crime is considered committed by negligenceif a person did not foresee the possibility of socially dangerous consequences of his actions (inaction), although with the necessary care and forethought he should and could have foreseen these consequences.

Crimes committed by negligence are very diverse and affect various areas of public life and the economy, public safety and law and order, the individual and the health of the entire population.

Careless crimes, as a rule, are associated with a violation of the established rules of conduct in various areas of professional, official and household activities, which caused significant damage to the state, society or a particular individual. Careless criminal behavior can manifest itself in almost any area of human activity: in the operation of vehicles, other machines and various mechanisms in production, in construction, mining and explosive work, in the performance of official, professional and other activities, in the operation of sources of increased danger, in everyday life etc.

For prevention of crimes committed by negligence, it is required to carry out a number of organizational, technical and other general social activities.

These include:

1) improvement of labor protection and safety conditions;

2) mandatory briefing on these issues;

3) strengthening of production and technological discipline;

4) increased control;

5) fostering a sense of civil and professional responsibility;

6) increased demands on the selection and placement of professional personnel. It is also necessary to toughen the responsibility for the malicious violation of environmental and environmental legal norms; to intensify the role of various inspections in the prevention of technical malfunctions, mechanisms and other machines, in the implementation of the rules for operating sources of increased danger, the ability of service personnel to handle them and make the right decisions in critical situations.

It is necessary to start teaching the population the rules of fire safety and the handling of gas and household appliances with the issuance of appropriate certificates, not to sell hunting rifles to persons who do not know the rules for handling weapons. It is necessary to use the mass media in matters of prevention of crimes committed through negligence.

38. CRIMINOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VIOLENT CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION

This type of crime is mainly associated with infringements on the rights of the individual, its inviolability.

A characteristic feature of violent crime is physical violence or the threat of its use against a person, a violation of human rights to life, health, other interests protected by law.

To prevent crimes related to violence against a person, as well as to prevent crime in general, urgent measures are required for socio-economic and political transformations in the country.

It is necessary to revive such concepts as patriotism, friendship of peoples, internationalism, conscience, honor and dignity, modesty, respect for women, condemnation of promiscuity and suppression of permissiveness (not to be confused with the concept of democracy); promote a healthy lifestyle, respect for work and a negative attitude towards parasitic existence. Raise the issue of combating alcoholism and drug addiction. To stop television and radio programs promoting cruelty, violence, profit, negatively influencing the behavior and formation of the life views of young people.

It is necessary to increase the activity of the internal affairs bodies in identifying and separating criminal groups, especially among adolescents involved in criminal activities related to crimes against the person, in order to prevent the involvement of minors in criminal organized structures, and to suppress the facts of illegal possession of knives and firearms.

Preventive work to prevent violent crimes, hooliganism must be carried out comprehensively on:

1) general;

2) group;

3) individual levels.

All law enforcement agencies should be involved in this work, and in the internal affairs agencies - including the district police inspector.

It is necessary to improve the criminal law in terms of differentiating the impact on the correction of persons who commit intentional murders, infliction of grievous bodily harm, rape, robbery, robbery and hooliganism. In the current situation, when contract killings are spreading, cruelty is flourishing and organized crime threatens state stability, the abolition of the death penalty for certain especially serious crimes must be recognized as premature.

The prevention of violent crime and hooliganism should be considered a priority task in the work of all law enforcement agencies and its results should be properly questioned. Much is said at all levels about the need to strengthen the staff of law enforcement agencies, primarily the internal affairs agencies, the prosecutor's office and the courts, but little is being done in this regard. Until these bodies are staffed with knowledgeable, hard-working and honest highly qualified workers, there will be no law and order in the country. The situation also requires that the rule of law in the country, including the rule of law in the activities of the internal affairs bodies and the court, be restored to the highest prosecutorial supervision.

39. CRIMINOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VISITABLE CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION

Selfish and selfish-violent crime - the most common criminal manifestations in the world, having the highest quantitative indicators compared to other types of crimes.

The affiliation of such measures to a particular social sphere is also used as a criterion for classifying measures to combat acquisitive crime. Based on this criterion, the following measures are distinguished:

1) economic. Within this group there are general measures to combat acquisitive crime:

a) overcoming the economic crisis; b decrease in the level of real inflation, etc.;

special measures:

a) resource support for law enforcement agencies to combat crimes in the economic sphere;

b) creation of an economic basis for state off-budget funds providing for separate financing of programs for compensating damage to victims of economic crimes;

2) political:

a) general:

▪ ensuring the stability of limited state management of property and economic activities;

▪ maintaining a stable balance of public and private interests in the economy;

▪ limiting corruption in state and local government bodies in charge of state regulation of the economy;

b) special:

▪ development of a state strategy to combat acquisitive crime;

▪ defining the goals and objectives of the fight against crime in the economic sphere in the program documents of political parties and movements;

▪ ensuring state support for non-state institutions to combat crime in the economic sphere and its individual types;

3) legal:

a) general:

▪ elimination of contradictions in the legal regulation of property, economic activity and service in commercial and other organizations;

▪ filling gaps in the legal regulation of certain types of economic relations (for example, land ownership relations);

b) special:

▪ introducing amendments and additions to the criminal legislation in terms of improving the rules on liability for crimes against property in the field of economic activity;

▪ elimination of terminological inconsistency in civil, administrative, customs, tax, currency and criminal legislation;

4) psychological:

a) general:

▪ fostering respect for legislative provisions in the economic sphere;

▪ formation of ideals of honest entrepreneurship, etc.;

b) special:

▪ informing the population about the state of legal regulation of liability for acquisitive crimes;

▪ fostering the solidarity of the population with criminal law prohibitions regarding socially dangerous economic behavior, etc.;

5) organizational;

6) technical.

In planning the fight against crime, other approaches are also used to classify such measures, such as, for example, the characteristics of the type of object of encroachment, etc.

40. CRIMINOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINOR CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION

Juvenile delinquency - the totality of crimes committed by persons aged 14 to 18 years in a certain territory for a given period of time.

Juveniles cannot be the subjects of crimes if, within the meaning of the corpus delicti, only a person who has reached the age of 18 can bear responsibility for its violation (military, official and some other crimes - a special subject).

Under the influence of the family environment, children develop certain attitudes and habits, needs and ways to satisfy them are formed.

Now there is a tendency to reduce the authority of parents, due to their wrong behavior.

In the formation of personality The teenager should actively participate in the school. However, during the period of study, schoolchildren are not instilled with the necessary skills of self-assessment of their behavior, they are not fixed in their attitudes against antisocial influences and adverse life situations; the correct relationship between teachers and students is not established, as a result of which students withdraw into themselves, and then fall under the influence of an undesirable environment. The school does not deal with extracurricular activities, organization of children's leisure. The connection of the school with the families of teenagers is weak, especially with those who are considered disadvantaged.

It has become difficult to find employment for young people who have been released from places of deprivation of liberty, sentenced on probation or with a suspended sentence. This has led to the fact that today young people make up the bulk of the army of the unemployed.

The conditions conducive to juvenile delinquency can also include: neglect, impunity, shortcomings and omissions in the work of law enforcement agencies in organizing the prevention and suppression of offenses among adolescents, serious problems in the legal education of minors, high latency of crimes committed by these persons.

According to the leading representatives of world criminological thought, the center of any program for the prevention of juvenile delinquency should be, first of all, ensuring the well-being of young people from early childhood.

We are talking about the implementation of the main provisions of the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1959 and concerning the early prevention of crime, general prevention and prevention of recidivism among minors.

Early Prevention includes the activities of public education authorities, inspectorates and commissions on juvenile affairs, aimed at eliminating unfavorable conditions in the upbringing of adolescents and adjusting their pre-criminal behavior.

All preventive work should be reduced to one goal - to instill in students and other minors the necessary moral concepts, to develop skills to deal with difficult life situations, to teach how to respond correctly to negative pressure from other people who involve teenagers in various offenses, to instill respect for the law.

41. CRIMINOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZED CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION

Organized crime aims to make profits and super profits. Therefore, mercenary crimes are the main ones, and all the rest are additional, committed in order to approach the main goal of organized crime.

Signs of organized crime:

1) the stable and sustainable nature of the implementation of criminal activity, expressed in the repeated commission of crimes or prolonged involvement in criminal activity;

2) the hierarchy of the criminal organization and the distribution of roles and functions between the participants, which are implemented in the performance of specific tasks, duties or in role behavior;

3) a variety of criminal activities with the leading role of economic, mercenary crimes;

4) financial base for the expansion of criminal activity, bribery of officials;

5) dissemination of the norms and traditions of the criminal world, training and formation of criminal personnel;

6) corrupt relations with official state structures in order to neutralize their activities, obtain the necessary information, assistance and protection;

7) professional use of the main state and socio-economic institutions in order to create external legitimacy of their criminal activities;

8) the establishment of their own rules of conduct, providing for severe punishment for their violation, contributing to the maintenance of discipline and unquestioning obedience;

9) armament;

10) formation of criminal organizations on a national or clan basis.

The main activities of organized crime:

1) penetration into the sphere of the economy through: a rapid increase in capital; legalization of funds in promising sectors of the Russian economy; combinations of violent crime and commercial activities;

2) illegal circulation of drugs, weapons and ammunition;

3) organized criminal activity in the field of high technologies and computer crimes;

4) illegal export abroad and exploitation of women, children, trafficking in minors;

5) organized criminal activity in the field of illegal migration;

6) theft and smuggling of antiques;

7) illegal car business.

In February 1992, the Main Directorate for Organized Crime (GUOP) was formed in the system of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia. Its tasks: the fight against banditry, qualified extortion, corruption, criminal groups of general criminal and economic orientation, as well as leaders of the criminal environment.

It was supposed to create a committee to combat especially dangerous organized crime, which would carry out operational-search activities, inquiry and preliminary investigation of cases of such crimes as the creation or leadership of an organized criminal group, a criminal organization (community), terrorism, hostage-taking and others, if they are committed with the use of international relations, with the involvement of officials of federal government bodies.

42. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGAINST CRIME

International cooperation in the field of combating crime is carried out within the framework established by individual countries, on the basis of existing international agreements, national legislation, technical capabilities and, finally, the goodwill of all interested parties. It is an integral part of international relations. Even those states that do not have close political and economic contacts, as a rule, do not neglect contacts in the field of combating crime.

Forms of international cooperation in the field of combating crime are very diverse:

1) assistance in criminal, civil and family matters;

2) the conclusion and implementation of international treaties and agreements to combat crime, and above all transnational crime;

3) execution of decisions of foreign law enforcement agencies in criminal and civil cases;

4) regulation of criminal legal issues and individual rights in the field of law enforcement;

5) exchange of information of mutual interest to law enforcement agencies;

6) conducting joint scientific research and development in the field of combating crime;

7) exchange of experience in law enforcement work;

8) assistance in training and retraining of personnel;

9) mutual provision of logistical and advisory assistance. Strategic issues of international cooperation in the field of combating crime are being addressed United Nations. The UN develops basic standards, principles, recommendations, and formulates international norms for the protection of persons accused of crimes and persons deprived of their liberty.

Form of international cooperation in the fight against crime - regularly held meetings of the Ministers of Justice, police and security services. The meeting of these departments is being prepared by working groups of experts.

In September 1992, the Ministers of the Interior and Justice of the states of the European Community decided to create Europol - a police cooperation body headquartered in Strasbourg.

The main task of Europol - organization and coordination of interaction between national police systems in the fight against terrorism, control over the external borders of the European Community.

To combat criminal groups in Europe, a special group "Antimafia" was created, whose tasks include analyzing the activities of mafia groups, developing a pan-European strategy to counter the mafia.

Interpol, created on September 7, 1923, is not only a criminal police organization. Other law enforcement agencies also turn to its services. And the criminal police currently refers to functions, and not the system of organs itself.

International conferences, seminars, meetings of experts are held annually in Russia and other countries, where Russian legal problems are considered not by themselves, but in the context of pan-European problems of strengthening law and order.

Author: Selyanin A.V.

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3D glasses for TV without remote control 17.02.2014

Scientists have developed a prototype 3D glasses that can "adjust" to the image on different screens, and which can be useful for watching three-dimensional TV shows without using a remote control.

Russian physicists have developed a prototype of 3D glasses that can "adjust" to the image on different screens, and which can be useful for watching three-dimensional TV programs without using a TV remote control, the scientific information agency FIAN-Inform reports.

To obtain a three-dimensional image, stereoscopic glasses based on the so-called nematic liquid crystals (NLC) are currently widely used. But such glasses, due to the properties of the NLC, are inconvenient for the perception of a continuous television picture, moreover, an undesirable overlay of the "remainder" of the image, "intended" for one eye, on the image in the other eye is possible.

This problem can be eliminated by using liquid crystals of another type, smectics (SLC), as the basis for 3D glasses. This idea was proposed by a team of scientists from the Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (FIAN), the Prokhorov Institute of General Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Research Institute for System Research (NIISI) of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

The research results showed that due to the use of smectics in the liquid crystal cells that make up the LCD display, a clear color image can be obtained.

"This allows you to dream of creating a TV for the whole family. Frames of various TV programs can be mixed up on its screen, from which the father's glasses, for example, will "choose" the broadcast of a football match, the mother's glasses - a series, and the child - a cartoon. That is, each member of the family with their glasses and wireless headphones will see completely different programs on the same screen," the researchers explain.

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