Anthropology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Anthropology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. THE CONCEPT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropology (or anthropological science) in a broad sense is a field of knowledge, the subject of which is a person. The present time is characterized ambiguous understanding of content anthropology:

1) as a general science of man, combining the knowledge of various natural sciences and the humanities;

2) as a science that studies the biological diversity of man. Actually biological anthropology deals with the study of historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties (anthropological features).

The subject study biological (or physical) anthropology is the diversity of human biological characteristics in time and space.

Task biological anthropology - the identification and scientific description of the variability (polymorphism) of a number of human biological traits and systems of these (anthropological) traits, as well as the identification of the reasons for this diversity.

The levels of study of biological anthropology correspond to almost all levels of human organization.

Physical Anthropology has several main sections - areas of study of human biology. With a high degree of conventionality, we can talk about the existence of anthropology historical (explores the history and prehistory of human diversity) and geographical anthropology (explores the geographical variability of man).

As an independent scientific discipline, physical anthropology took shape in the second half of the XNUMXth century. Almost simultaneously in the countries of Western Europe and in Russia, the first scientific anthropological societies were established and the first special anthropological works began to be published. Among the founders of scientific anthropology are outstanding scientists of their time: P. Brock, P. Topinar, K. Baer, A. Bogdanov, D. Anuchin and others.

The period of formation of physical anthropology includes the development of general and particular anthropological methods, the formation of specific terminology and the very principles of research, the accumulation and systematization of materials relating to issues of origin, ethnic history, and racial diversity of man as a biological species.

Russian anthropological science by the beginning of the XNUMXth century. was an independent discipline and was based on a continuous scientific tradition of an integrated approach to the study of man.

2. ANTHROPOLOGY IN RUSSIA

Anthropology in Russia has become a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the diversity of its forms.

The official year of the "birth" of anthropology in Russia is 1864, when, on the initiative of the first Russian anthropologist A. Bogdanova (1834-1896) the Anthropological Department of the Society of Natural Science Lovers was organized (later renamed the Society of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography Lovers - OLEAE).

Background Anthropological research in Russia is associated with the names of V. Tatishchev, G. Miller and other participants and leaders of various expeditions (to Siberia, to the north, Alaska, etc.), accumulating anthropological characteristics of various peoples of the Russian Empire during the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries.

One of the greatest natural scientists of the 1792th century, the founder of modern embryology, an outstanding geographer and traveler, K. Baer (1876-1822) is also known as one of the greatest anthropologists of his time, as an organizer of anthropological and ethnographic research in Russia. In his work "On the Origin and Distribution of Human Tribes" (XNUMX), a view is developed about the origin of mankind from a common "root", that the differences between human races developed after their settlement from a common center, under the influence of various natural conditions in their habitats. .

The works of N. Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888) are of great importance. Being a zoologist by profession, he glorified Russian science not so much with his work in this area as with his research on the ethnography and anthropology of the peoples of New Guinea and other regions of the South Pacific.

The development of Russian anthropology in the 60s-70s. XNUMXth century called the "Bogdanov period". Professor of Moscow University A. Bogdanov was the initiator and organizer of the Society of Natural Science Lovers.

The most important task of the Society was to promote the development of natural science and the dissemination of natural history knowledge. The work program of the Anthropological Department included anthropological, ethnographic and archaeological research, which reflected the views of that time on anthropology as a complex science of the physical type of a person and his culture.

D. Anuchin made a great contribution to the development of Russian anthropology.

D. Anuchin's first major work (1874) was devoted to anthropomorphic apes and was a very valuable summary of the comparative anatomy of higher apes. A characteristic feature of all the activities of D. Anuchin was the desire to popularize science, while maintaining all the accuracy and rigor of scientific research. The beginning of the "Soviet period" of Russian anthropology is also associated with the activities of D. Anuchin.

3. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE OF THE DISCIPLINE "ANTHROPOLOGY"

common goal Anthropology can be formulated as the study of the origin and historical existence of man.

Anthropological knowledge, of course, is necessary for students of psychological, pedagogical, medical and social specialties and all specialists working in the field of human studies. They make it possible to deepen knowledge about the biological essence of a person and at the same time emphasize his features that distinguish a person from the system of the animal world - first of all, his spirituality, mental activity, social qualities, cultural aspects of his being, etc.

The task of discipline - trace the process of interaction between biological patterns of development and social patterns in human history, assess the degree of influence of natural and social factors; to study the polymorphism of human types, due to sex, age, physique (constitution), environmental conditions, etc.; trace the patterns and mechanisms of human interaction with his social and natural environment in a particular cultural system.

Upon completion of the course, students must master the basic concepts of anthropology, understand its place in the system of sciences and practice; to study anthropogenesis, its natural and social nature, the relationship and contradictions of natural and social factors in the process of human evolution; know the basics of constitutional and age anthropology and their role in social and socio-medical work; to master the concepts of racegenesis, ethnogenesis and to know the genetic problems of modern human populations; to know the basic needs, interests and values of a person, his psychophysical capabilities and connection with social activity, the system "man - personality - individuality" in its social development, as well as possible deviations, the basic concepts of deviant development, its social and natural factors, must be mastered, anthropological foundations of social and socio-medical work.

4. PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropology physical is a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the variety of its forms.

The diversity of a person in time and space is made up of manifestations of a large number of very different features and characteristics.

Anthropological sign - this is any feature that has a specific state (variant), according to which the similarity or difference between individuals is found.

Special sections of anthropology are devoted to the study of genetic, molecular, physiological systems of signs, morphology is studied at the level of organs and their systems, at the level of the individual. The variability of these characteristics is studied at the supra-individual - population level.

The tasks of physical anthropology are the scientific description of the biological diversity of modern man and the interpretation of the causes of this diversity.

Methods of research:

a) morphological;

b) genetic (especially population genetics);

at) demographic (connection of demography with population genetics);

d) physiological and morphophysiological (ecology and human adaptation);

d) psychological and neuropsychological (anthropology and the problem of the emergence of speech and thinking; racial psychology);

f) ethnological (primatology and the emergence of human society and the family);

g) mathematical (biological statistics and its role for all sections of anthropology).

Anthropology explores the historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties (anthropological features). In terms of its content, it belongs rather to the circle of historical disciplines, and in methodological terms - unambiguously to the field of biology.

Also historically, the division of physical anthropology into three relatively independent areas of study:

▪ anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) - an area that includes a wide range of issues related to the biological aspects of human origin. It is the morphology of man, considered in time, measured by the geological scale;

▪ racial science и ethnic anthropology, studying the similarities and differences between associations of human populations of different orders. Essentially, this is the same morphology, but considered on a scale of historical time and space, i.e., on the entire surface of the globe inhabited by humans;

▪ actual morphology, studying variations in the structure of individual human organs and their systems, age-related variability of the human body, its physical development and constitution.

5. POPULATION AND ITS TYPES

Under population (literally - population) is understood as an isolated set of individuals of the same species, characterized by a common origin, habitat and forming an integral genetic system.

According to a more detailed interpretation, a population is a minimal and at the same time quite numerous self-reproducing group of one species that inhabits a certain space over an evolutionarily long period of time. This group forms an independent genetic system and its own ecological hyperspace. Finally, this group for a large number of generations is isolated from other similar groups of individuals (individuals).

Basic population criteria - this:

▪ uniformity of habitat or geographic location (area);

▪ unity of origin of the group;

▪ relative isolation of this group from other similar groups (presence of interpopulation barriers);

▪ free crossing within the group and adherence to the principle of panmixia, i.e., equal probability of meeting all existing genotypes within the range (absence of significant intrapopulation barriers).

The ability to maintain for a number of generations such a number that is sufficient for the self-reproduction of the group.

All of these biological definitions are equally fair in relation to humans. But since anthropology has a twofold orientation - biological and historical, two important consequences can be deduced from the presented formulations:

▪ biological consequence: individuals belonging to a population should be characterized by somewhat greater similarity to each other than to individuals belonging to other similar groups. The degree of this similarity is determined by the unity of origin and territory occupied, the relative isolation of the population and the time of this isolation;

▪ historical consequence: the human population is a special category of populations that has its own characteristics. After all, this is a community of people, and population history is nothing more than the “fate” of an individual human community, which has its own traditions, social organization and cultural specifics. The vast majority of populations have a unique, rather complex and still undeveloped hierarchical structure, subdividing into a number of natural smaller units and at the same time being part of larger population systems (including ethno-territorial communities, racial groups, etc.) .

6. ANTHROPOGENESIS: BASIC THEORIES

Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) - the process of development of modern man, human paleontology; a science that studies the origin of man, the process of his development.

The complex of approaches to the study of the past of mankind includes:

1) biological sciences:

▪ human biology - morphology, physiology, cerebrology, human paleontology;

▪ Primatology - paleontology of primates;

▪ paleontology - vertebrate paleontology, palynology;

▪ general biology - embryology, genetics, molecular biology, comparative anatomy.

2) physical sciences:

▪ Geology - geomorphology, geophysics, stratigraphy, geochronology;

▪ chemistry;

▪ taphonomy (the science of burial of fossil remains);

▪ dating methods - decay of radioactive elements, radiocarbon, thermoluminescent, indirect dating methods;

3) Social sciencies:

▪ archeology - Paleolithic archeology, archeology of later times;

▪ ethnoarchaeology, comparative ethnology;

▪ psychology.

The number of theories about the origin of man is huge, but the main ones are two - evolutionist theories (derived from the theory of Darwin and Wallace) and creationism (derived from the Bible).

For about a century and a half, discussions between the supporters of these two different theories in biology and natural science have not subsided.

According to evolutionary theory, man evolved from apes. The place of man in the detachment of modern primates is as follows:

1) suborder of semi-monkeys: sections of lemuromorphs, lorymorphs, tarsiimorphs;

2) suborder of anthropoids:

a) section of broad-nosed monkeys: family of marmosets and capuchinids;

b) section of narrow-nosed monkeys:

▪ superfamily Cercopithecoidae, family Apeaceae (inferior narrow-nosed): subfamily Marmosetaceae and slender-bodied;

▪ superfamily of hominoids (higher narrow-nosed):

▪ gibbon family (gibbons, siamangs);

▪ Pongid family. Orangutan. African pongids (gorilla and chimpanzee) as the closest relatives of humans;

▪ Hominid family. Man is its only modern representative.

7. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 1

At present, the following main stages of human evolution are distinguished: dryopithecus - ramapithecus - australopithecine - skillful man - erectus man - Neanderthal man (paleoanthropist) - neoanthrope (this is already a man of the modern type, homo sapiens).

Driopithecus appeared 17-18 million years ago and became extinct about 8 million years ago, lived in tropical forests. These are early apes that probably originated in Africa and came to Europe during the drying up of the prehistoric Tethys Sea. Groups of these monkeys climbed trees and ate their fruits, since their molars, covered with a thin layer of enamel, were not suitable for chewing rough food. Perhaps the distant ancestor of man was ramapithecus (Rama is the hero of the Indian epic). Ramapithecines are thought to have appeared 14 million years ago and went extinct around 9 million years ago. Their existence became known from jaw fragments found in the Siwalik Mountains in India. It is not yet possible to establish whether these creatures were upright.

Australopithecus, who inhabited Africa 1,5-5,5 million years ago, were the link between the animal world and the first people. Australopithecines did not have such natural defenses as powerful jaws, fangs and sharp claws, and were inferior in physical strength to large animals. The use of natural objects as weapons for defense and attack allowed Australopithecines to defend themselves from enemies.

In the 60-70s. 650th century in Africa, the remains of creatures were discovered, the volume of the cranial cavity of which was XNUMX cm³ (significantly less than in humans). In the immediate vicinity of the find site, the most primitive pebble tools were found. Scientists have suggested that this creature can be assigned to the genus Homo, and gave it the name Homo habilis - skillful man, emphasizing his ability to make primitive tools. Judging by the remains found, dating from 2-1,5 million years ago, Homo habilis existed for more than half a million years, slowly evolving until it acquired significant similarities with Homo erectus.

One of the most remarkable was the discovery of the first Pithecanthropus, or Homo erectus (Homo erectus), discovered by the Dutch scientist E. Dubois in 1881. Homo erectus existed from approximately 1,6 million to 200 thousand years ago.

The most ancient people have similar features: a massive jaw with a sloping chin protrudes strongly forward, there is an supraorbital ridge on a low sloping forehead, the height of the skull is small compared to the skull of a modern person, but the volume of the brain varies between 800-1400 cm³. Along with obtaining plant food, pithecanthropes were engaged in hunting, as evidenced by the finds in the places of their life of the bones of small rodents, deer, bears, wild horses, and buffaloes.

8. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 2

Ancient people were replaced by ancient people - neanderthals (according to the place of their first discovery in the Neander river valley, Germany).

Neanderthals lived during the ice age from 200 to 30 thousand years ago. The wide distribution of ancient people not only in areas with a warm favorable climate, but also in the harsh conditions of Europe subjected to icing, testifies to their significant progress compared to the most ancient people: ancient people knew how not only to maintain, but also to make fire, they already knew speech, their volume brain is equal to the brain volume of a modern person, the development of thinking is evidenced by the tools of their labor, which were quite diverse in form and served for a variety of purposes - hunting animals, butchering carcasses, building a home.

The emergence of elementary social relationships among Neanderthals was revealed: care for the wounded or sick. Burials are found among Neanderthals for the first time.

Collective action already played a decisive role in the primitive herd of ancient people. In the struggle for existence, those groups that successfully hunted and better provided themselves with food, took care of each other, achieved lower mortality of children and adults, and better overcome the difficult conditions of existence, won. The ability to make tools, articulate speech, the ability to learn - these qualities turned out to be useful for the team as a whole. Natural selection ensured the further progressive development of many traits. As a result, the biological organization of ancient people improved. But the influence of social factors on the development of Neanderthals was becoming stronger.

The emergence of people of modern physical type (Homo sapiens), which replaced ancient people, happened relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago.

Fossil people of the modern type possessed all the complex of basic physical features that our contemporaries have.

9. EVOLUTION AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

An important and still unresolved issue in science is the coordination of evolution and the second law of thermodynamics. Is it possible to harmonize the theory of universal evolution from inanimate matter to the spontaneous generation of living matter and further through the gradual development of the simplest unicellular organisms into complex multicellular organisms and, ultimately, into a person in whom there is not only biological, but also spiritual life, consistent with the second law of thermodynamics, which is so universal that it is called the law of growth of entropy (disorder), which is valid in all closed systems, including the entire Universe?

So far, no one has been able to solve this fundamental problem. The existence of both universal evolution and the law of entropy growth as universal laws of the material Universe (as a closed system) is impossible, since they are incompatible.

At first glance, it is natural to assume that macroevolution can take place locally and temporarily (on Earth). A number of current evolutionists believe that the conflict between evolution and entropy is removed by the fact that the Earth is an open system and the energy coming from the Sun is quite enough to stimulate universal evolution over a vast geological time. But such an assumption ignores the obvious circumstance that the influx of thermal energy into an open system directly leads to an increase in entropy (and, consequently, to a decrease in functional information) in this system. And in order to prevent a huge increase in entropy due to the influx of a large amount of thermal solar energy into the terrestrial biosphere, the excess of which can only destroy, and not build organized systems, it is necessary to introduce additional hypotheses, for example, about such a biochemical information code that predetermines the course of the hypothetical macroevolution of the terrestrial biosphere, and about such a global most complex conversion mechanism for converting incoming energy into work on the self-emergence of the simplest reproducing cells and further movement from such cells to complex organic organisms, which are still unknown to science.

10. BACKGROUND OF EVOLUTIONISM AND CREATIONISM

Among the original premises of the doctrine evolutionism there are the following:

1) the hypothesis of universal evolution, or macroevolution (from inanimate matter to living matter). - Nothing confirmed;

2) spontaneous generation of the living in the inanimate. - Nothing confirmed;

3) such spontaneous generation occurred only once. - Nothing confirmed;

4) unicellular organisms gradually evolved into multicellular organisms. - Nothing confirmed;

5) there must be many transitional forms in the macro-evolutionary scheme (from fish to amphibians, from amphibians to reptiles, from reptiles to birds, from reptiles to mammals);

6) the similarity of living beings is a consequence of the "general law of evolution";

7) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology are considered as sufficient to explain the development from the simplest forms to highly developed ones (macroevolution);

8) geological processes are interpreted in terms of very long time periods (geological evolutionary uniformitarianism). - Highly controversial;

9) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of the gradual layering of fossil rows.

Relevant counter-premises of the doctrine creationism are also based on faith, but have a self-consistent and factual explanation:

1) the whole Universe, the Earth, the living world and man were created by God in the order described in the Bible (Gen. 1). This position is included in the basic premises of biblical theism;

2) God created, according to a reasonable plan, both unicellular and multicellular organisms, and in general all types of flora and fauna organisms, as well as the crown of creation - man;

3) the creation of living beings happened once, because they can continue to reproduce themselves;

4) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology (natural selection, spontaneous mutations) change only the existing basic types (microevolution), but cannot violate their boundaries;

5) the similarity of living beings is explained by the single plan of the Creator;

6) geological processes are interpreted in terms of short time periods (catastrophe theory);

7) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of a catastrophic model of origin.

The fundamental difference between the doctrines of creationism and evolutionism lies in the difference in worldview premises: what underlies life - a reasonable plan or blind chance? These different premises of both doctrines are equally unobservable and cannot be tested in scientific laboratories.

11. CONSTITUTIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY: BASIC CONCEPTS

Under a common The constitution is understood as an integral characteristic of the human body, its "total" property to react in a certain way to environmental influences, without violating the connection of individual features of the organism as a whole. This is a qualitative characteristic of all the individual characteristics of the subject, genetically fixed and capable of changing in the process of growth and development under the influence of environmental factors.

Under privately owned the constitution is understood as separate morphological and (or) functional complexes of the body that contribute to its prosperous existence. This concept includes habitus (appearance), somatic type, body type, features of the functioning of the humoral and endocrine systems, indicators of metabolic processes, etc.

Constitutional features are considered as a complex, i.e., they are characterized by functional unity. This set should include:

▪ morphological characteristics of the body (physique);

▪ physiological indicators;

▪ mental properties of the individual.

In anthropology, private morphological constitutions are most developed.

The work of a huge number of anthropologists, physicians and psychologists is devoted to the development of constitutional schemes. Among them are G. Viola, L. Manuvrier, K. Seago, I. Galant, V. Stefko and A. Ostrovsky, E. Kretschmer, V. Bunak, U Sheldon, B. Heath and L. Carter, V. Readers, M Utkina and N. Lutovinova, V. Deryabin and others.

Constitutional classifications can be further divided into two groups:

▪ morphological, or somatological, schemes, in which constitutional types are determined on the basis of external signs of the soma (body);

▪ functional diagrams, in which special attention is paid to the functional state of the body.

12. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEMES OF E. KRETSCHMER AND V. BUNAK

E. Kretschmer believed that heredity is the only source of morphological diversity.

It should be noted that his views were the basis for the creation of most of the later classifications. The types distinguished by him under other names can be recognized in many schemes, even if the principles of their construction are different. Obviously, this is a consequence of the reflection of the real diversity of people, noted by E. Kretschmer in the form of discrete types. However, this scheme is not without drawbacks: it has a specific practical purpose - a preliminary diagnosis of mental pathologies. E. Kretschmer identified three main constitutional types: leptosomal (or asthenic), pyknic and athletic.

Similar, but devoid of many of the shortcomings of the previous scheme, is the somatotypological classification developed by V. Bunak in 1941.

Its fundamental difference from the scheme of E. Kretschmer is a strict definition of the degree of importance of constitutional features. The scheme is built on two coordinates of physique - the degree of development of fat deposition and the degree of development of muscles. Additional features are the shape of the chest, abdominal region and back. V. Bunak's scheme is intended to determine the normal constitution only in adult men and is not applicable to women; body length, bone component, as well as anthropological features of the head are not taken into account in it.

The combination of two coordinates allows us to consider three main and four intermediate body types. Intermediate options combine the features of the main types. They were singled out by V. Bunak, since in practice the severity of the features underlying the scheme is very often not quite distinct and features of different types are often combined with each other. The author singled out two more body types as indefinite, although, in fact, they are also intermediate.

13. V. DERYABIN'S CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEME

After analyzing the entire range of existing constitutional schemes (and there are many more of them than was considered), the domestic anthropologist V. Deryabin identified two general approaches to solving the problem of continuity and discreteness in constitutional science:

▪ with an a priori approach, the author of the scheme, even before its creation, has his own idea of what body types there are. Based on this, he constructs his typology, focusing on those characteristics or their complexes that correspond to his a priori ideas about the patterns of morphological variability. This principle is used in the vast majority of constitutional schemes we have examined;

▪ the a posteriori approach involves not simply superimposing a scheme of individual morphological diversity on objectively existing variability - the constitutional system itself is built based on the fixed scale of variability, taking into account its patterns. With this approach, theoretically, objective patterns of morphofunctional connections and correlation of traits will be better taken into account. The subjectivity of the typology is also reduced to a minimum. In this case, the apparatus of multidimensional mathematical statistics is used.

Based on measurements of 6000 men and women aged 18 to 60, V. Deryabin identified three main vectors of somatic variability, which together represent a three-dimensional coordinate space:

▪ the first axis describes the variability of overall body size (overall skeletal dimensions) along the macro- and microsomia coordinate. One pole of it is people with small overall sizes (microsomia); the other is individuals with large body sizes (macrosomia);

▪ the second axis divides people according to the ratio of muscle and bone components (determining the shape of the musculoskeletal system) and has a variation from leptosomy (weakened development of the muscle component compared to the development of the skeleton) to brachysomy (inverse ratio of components);

▪ the third axis describes the variability in the amount of subcutaneous fat deposition in different body segments and has two extreme manifestations - from hypoadiposis (weak fat deposition) to hyperadiposis (strong fat deposition). The “constitutional space” is open on all sides, so any person can be characterized with its help - all existing constitutional variability fits into it. Practical application is carried out by calculating 6-7 typological indicators using regression equations for 12-13 anthropological dimensions. Regression equations are presented for women and men. Based on these indicators, the exact place of the individual in the three-dimensional space of the constitutional scheme is determined.

14. ONTOGENESIS

Ontogenesis (from the Greek ontos - being and genesis - origin), or life cycle - one of the key biological concepts. This is life before birth and after it, it is a continuous process of individual growth and development of the body, its age-related changes. The development of an organism should by no means be presented as a simple increase in size. The biological development of a person is a complex morphogenetic event, it is the result of numerous metabolic processes, cell division, an increase in their size, the process of differentiation, shaping of tissues, organs and their systems.

The growth of any multicellular organism, starting with just one cell (zygote), can be divided into four major stages:

1) hyperplasia (cell division) - an increase in the number of cells as a result of successive mitoses;

2) hypertrophy (cell growth) - an increase in cell size as a result of water absorption, protoplasm synthesis, etc.;

3) determination and differentiation of cells; determined cells are those that "choose" a program of further development. In the process of this development, cells are specialized to perform certain functions, i.e., they are differentiated into cell types;

4) morphogenesis - the end result of the mentioned processes is the formation of cell systems - tissues, as well as organs and organ systems.

Without exception, all stages of development are associated with biochemical activity. Changes occurring at the cellular level lead to a change in the shape, structure and function of cells, tissues, organs and, finally, in the whole organism. Even if there are no obvious quantitative changes (actual growth), qualitative changes are constantly taking place in the body at all levels of organization - from genetic (DNA activity) to phenotypic (the shape, structure and functions of organs, their systems and the body as a whole). Thus, it is during the growth and development of the organism that a unique hereditary program is realized under the influence and control of various and always unique environmental factors. The "appearance" of all types of variability of human biological characteristics, including those that were discussed earlier, is associated with the transformations that occur in the process of ontogenesis.

The study of ontogenesis is a kind of key to understanding the phenomenon of human biological variability. Various aspects of this phenomenon are studied by embryology and developmental biology, physiology and biochemistry, molecular biology and genetics, medicine, pediatrics, developmental psychology and other disciplines.

15. FEATURES OF HUMAN ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT

The ontogenetic development of a person can be characterized by a number of common features:

▪ continuity - the growth of individual organs and systems of the human body is not endless, it follows the so-called limited type. The final values of each trait are determined genetically, i.e., there is a reaction norm;

▪ gradualism and irreversibility; The continuous process of development can be divided into conditional stages - periods, or stages, of growth. It is impossible to skip any of these stages, just as it is impossible to return exactly to those structural features that were already evident at previous stages;

▪ cyclicality; Although ontogenesis is a continuous process, the pace of development (the rate of changes in characteristics) can vary significantly over time. A person has periods of growth activation and inhibition. There is a cyclicity associated with the seasons of the year (for example, an increase in body length occurs mainly in the summer months, and weight in the fall), as well as a daily cycle and a number of others;

▪ heterochrony, or multitemporality (the basis of allometricity) - unequal rates of maturation of different body systems and different traits within one system. Naturally, in the first stages of ontogenesis the most important, vital systems mature;

▪ sensitivity to endogenous and exogenous factors; growth rates are limited or activated under the influence of a wide range of exogenous environmental factors. But their influence does not take developmental processes beyond the boundaries of a broad norm of reaction determined hereditarily. Within these limits, the development process is maintained by endogenous regulatory mechanisms. In this regulation, a significant share belongs to the genetic control itself, implemented at the level of the organism due to the interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems (neuroendocrine regulation);

▪ sexual dimorphism is the most striking characteristic of human development, manifesting itself at all stages of its ontogenesis. Let us remind you once again that the differences caused by the “gender factor” are so significant that ignoring them in research practice neutralizes the significance of even the most interesting and promising works. Another fundamental characteristic of ontogenesis is the individuality of this process. The dynamics of ontogenetic development of an individual person is unique.

16. STAGES OF ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT

The process of ontogenetic development can be logically divided into two stages:

▪ period of prenatal development - the intrauterine stage, lasting from the moment of formation of the zygote as a result of fertilization until the moment of birth;

▪ postnatal development - a person’s earthly life from birth to death.

The maximum activation of body length growth in the postnatal period is observed in the first months of life (approximately 21-25 cm per year). In the period from 1 year to 4-5 years, the increase in body length gradually decreases (from 10 to 5,5 cm per year). From 5-8 years, a weak half-height jump is sometimes noted. At the age of 1013-13 years in girls and 15-8 years old in boys, there is a distinct acceleration of growth - a growth spurt: the growth rate of body length is about 10-7 cm per year for boys and 9-XNUMX cm per year for girls. Between these periods, a decrease in growth rates is recorded.

The maximum growth rate of the fetus is typical for the first four months of intrauterine development; body weight changes in the same way, with the difference that the maximum speed is noted more often at the 34th week.

The first two months of intrauterine development is the stage of embryogenesis, characterized by the processes of "regionalization" and histogenesis (differentiation of cells with the formation of specialized tissues). At the same time, due to the differential growth of cells and cellular migrations, parts of the body acquire a certain outline, structure and shape. This process - morphogenesis - actively goes up to the adult state and continues until old age. But its main results are already visible at the 8th week of intrauterine development. By this time, the embryo acquires the main characteristic features of a person.

By the time of birth (between 36 and 40 weeks), the growth rate of the fetus slows down, since by this time the uterine cavity is already completely filled. It is noteworthy that the growth of twins slows down even earlier - during the period when their total weight becomes equal to the weight of a single 36-week-old fetus. It is believed that if a genetically large child develops in the uterus of a woman of small stature, growth retardation mechanisms contribute to successful childbirth, but this does not always happen. The weight and dimensions of the body of a newborn are largely determined by the external environment, which in this case is the mother's body.

Body length at birth averages about 50,0-53,3 cm in boys and 49,7-52,2 in girls. Immediately after birth, the growth rate of body length increases again, especially in a genetically large child.

Currently, body length growth slows down significantly in girls aged 16-17 years and in boys aged 18-19 years, and up to 60 years, body length remains relatively stable. After about 60 years, there is a decrease in body length.

17. PERIODIZATION OF ONTOGENESIS

The oldest periodizations of ontogeny date back to antiquity:

Pythagoras (VI century BC) distinguished four periods of human life: spring (from birth to 20 years), summer (20-40 years), autumn (40-60 years) and winter (60-80 years). These periods correspond to the formation, youth, the prime of life and their extinction.

Hippocrates (V-IV centuries BC) divided the entire life path of a person from the moment of birth into 10 equal seven-year cycles-stages.

Russian statistician and demographer of the first half of the XNUMXth century.

A. Roslavsky-Petrovsky identified the following categories:

▪ the younger generation - minors (from birth to 5 years old) and children (6-15 years old);

▪ blooming generation - young (16-30 years old), mature (30-45 years old) and elderly (45-60 years old);

▪ fading generation - old (61-75 years old) and long-lived (75-100 years old and older).

A similar scheme was proposed by the German physiologist M. Rubner (1854-1932), who divided postnatal ontogeny into seven stages:

▪ infancy (from birth to 9 months);

▪ early childhood (from 10 months to 7 years);

▪ late childhood (from 8 to 13-14 years);

▪ adolescence (from 14-15 to 19-21 years);

▪ maturity (41-50 years);

▪ old age (50-70 years);

▪ honorable old age (over 70 years old).

Pedagogy often uses the division of childhood and adolescence into infancy (up to 1 year), pre-preschool age (1-3 years), preschool age (3-7 years), primary school age (from 7 to 11-12 years), secondary school age (up to 15 years old) and senior school age (up to 17-18 years old). In the systems of A. Nagorny, I. Arshavsky, V. Bunak, A. Tour, D. Gayer and other scientists, from 3 to 15 stages and periods are distinguished.

The pace of development can vary among representatives of different generations of the same population of people, and epoch-making changes in the pace of development have repeatedly occurred in the history of mankind.

For at least the last one and a half centuries, up to the last 2-4 decades, a process of epoch-making acceleration of development has been observed. Simply put, the children of each successive generation became larger, matured earlier, and the changes achieved were maintained at all ages. This amazing trend reached significant proportions and spread to many populations of modern man (although not all), and the dynamics of the resulting changes was surprisingly similar for completely different population groups.

Approximately from the second half of the XX century. At first, a slowdown in the rate of epoch-making growth was noted, and in the last one and a half to two decades, we are increasingly talking about stabilizing the pace of development, that is, stopping the process at the achieved level, and even about a new wave of retardation (deceleration).

18. DISCONNECTION

Under the term "race" refers to a system of human populations characterized by similarities in a set of certain hereditary biological traits (racial traits). It is important to emphasize that in the process of their emergence, these populations are associated with a certain geographical area and natural environment.

Race is a purely biological concept, as are the signs themselves, according to which racial classification is carried out.

Classic racial evidence include appearance features - the color and shape of the eyes, lips, nose, hair, skin color, the structure of the face as a whole, the shape of the head. People recognize each other mainly by facial features, which are also the most important racial features. As auxiliary signs of body structure are used - height, weight, physique, proportions. However, the signs of the structure of the body are much more variable within any group than the signs of the structure of the head and, moreover, often strongly depend on environmental conditions - both natural and artificial, and therefore cannot be used in racial science as an independent source.

The most important properties of racial traits:

▪ signs of physical structure;

▪ traits that are inherited;

▪ characters, the severity of which during ontogenesis depends little on environmental factors;

▪ signs associated with a specific habitat - distribution zone;

▪ characteristics that distinguish one territorial group of a person from another.

The unification of people on the basis of a common self-consciousness, self-determination is called ethnos (ethnic group). It is also produced on the basis of language, culture, traditions, religion, economic and cultural type.

Determining their belonging to a particular group, people talk about nationality. One of the simplest forms of social ethnic organization of people is a tribe. A higher level of social organization is called nationalities (or people), which unite into nations. Representatives of one tribe or other small ethnic group usually belong to the same anthropological type, since they are relatives to one degree or another. Representatives of one people can already differ markedly anthropologically, at the level of different small races, although, as a rule, within the same large race.

A nation unites people already absolutely regardless of their race, since it includes different peoples.

19. RACIAL CLASSIFICATIONS

There are a large number of racial classifications. They differ in the principles of construction and the data used, the groups included and the features underlying them. A variety of racial schemes can be divided into two large groups:

▪ created based on a limited set of characteristics;

▪ open, the number of features in which can be arbitrarily changed.

Many of the early systems belong to the first version of the classifications. These are the schemes: J. Cuvier (1800), who divided people into three races according to skin color;

▪ P. Topinard (1885), who also distinguished three races, but determined the width of the nose in addition to pigmentation;

▪ A. Retzius (1844), whose four races differed in a combination of chronological characteristics. One of the most developed schemes of this type is the classification of races created by the Polish anthropologist J. Czekanowski. However, the small number of features used and their composition inevitably lead to the conventionality of such schemes. At best they can reliably reflect only the most general racial divisions of humanity. In this case, very distant groups that differ sharply in many other characteristics can come together randomly.

Most of the racial schemes belong to the second version of the classifications. The most important principle of their creation is the geographical position of the races. First, the main ones (the so-called large races, or races of the first order) are singled out, occupying vast territories of the planet. Then, within these large races, differentiation is carried out according to various morphological characters, small races (or races of the second order) are distinguished. Sometimes races of lower levels are also distinguished (they are very unfortunately called the anthropological type).

Existing open type racial classifications can be divided into two groups:

1) schemes that distinguish a small number of basic types (large races);

2) schemes that distinguish a large number of basic types.

In the schemes of the 1st group, the number of main types ranges from two to five; in the schemes of the 2nd group, their number is 6-8 or more. It should be noted that in all these systems several variants are always repeated, and an increase in the number of variants depends on giving individual groups a higher or lower rank.

In almost all schemes, at least three general groups (three large races) are necessarily distinguished: Mongoloids, Negroids and Caucasians, although the names of these groups may change.

20. EQUATORIAL BIG RACE

The equatorial (or Australo-Negroid) large race is characterized by dark skin coloration, wavy or curly hair, a wide nose, a low average nose, a slightly protruding nose, a transverse nostril, a large oral fissure, and thick lips. Prior to the era of European colonization, the habitat of the representatives of the equatorial great race was located mainly south of the Tropic of Cancer in the Old World. The large equatorial race is divided into a number of small races:

1) Australian: dark skin, wavy hair, abundant development of tertiary hair on the face and body, very wide nose, relatively high bridge of the nose, average cheekbone diameter, above average height and tall;

2) veddoid: poor development of hairline, less wide nose, smaller head and face, smaller stature;

3) Melanesian (including Negritos types), unlike the two previous ones, is characterized by the presence of curly hair; in the abundant development of the tertiary hairline, strongly protruding superciliary ridges, some of its variants are very similar to the Australian race; in composition the Melanesian race is much more motley than the Negroid;

4) the Negroid race differs from the Australian and Vedoid (and to a much lesser extent from the Melanesian) by a very pronounced curly hair; it differs from the Melanesian in greater thickness of the lips, a lower nose bridge and flatter bridge of the nose, somewhat higher orbits of the eyes, little protruding brow ridges, and, in general, higher stature;

5) the Negril (Central African) race differs from the Negroid not only in its very short stature, but also in the more abundant development of the tertiary hairline, thinner lips, and a more sharply protruding nose;

6) the Bushman (South African) race differs from the Negroid not only in its very short stature, but also in its lighter skin, narrower nose, flatter face, very flattened nose bridge, small face size and steatopygia (deposition of fat in the gluteal region).

21. EURASIAN BIG RACE

The Eurasian (or Caucasoid) large race is characterized by a light or swarthy skin color, straight or wavy soft hair, abundant beard and mustache growth, a narrow, sharply protruding nose, high nose bridge, sagittal nostrils, a small oral fissure, thin lips.

Distribution area - Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, North India. The Caucasoid race is subdivided into a number of minor races:

1) Atlanto-Baltic: fair skin, fair hair and eyes, long nose, tall stature;

2) Central European: less light pigmentation of hair and eyes, somewhat smaller growth;

3) Indo-Mediterranean: dark coloration of hair and eyes, swarthy skin, wavy hair, even more elongated nose than in previous races, somewhat more convex bridge of the nose, very narrow face;

4) Balkan-Caucasian: dark hair, dark eyes, bulging nose, very abundant development of tertiary hairline, relatively short and very wide face, tall;

5) White Sea-Baltic: very light, but somewhat more pigmented than the Atlanto-Baltic, medium hair length, relatively short nose with a straight or concave back, small face and medium height.

22. ASIAN-AMERICAN RACE

The Asian-American (or Mongoloid) major race is distinguished by swarthy or light skin tones, straight, often coarse hair, little or very little beard and mustache growth, average nose width, low or medium nose bridge, slightly protruding nose in Asian races and strongly protruding in the American, average thickness of the lips, flattening of the face, strong protrusion of the cheekbones, large face size, the presence of epicanthus.

The range of the Asian-American race covers East Asia, Indonesia, Central Asia, Siberia, and America. The Asian-American race is subdivided into several minor races:

1) North Asian: lighter skin color, less dark hair and eyes, very little beard growth and thin lips, large size and strong flattening of the face. As part of the North Asian race, two very characteristic variants can be distinguished - Baikal and Central Asian, which differ significantly from each other.

The Baikal type is characterized by less coarse hair, light skin pigmentation, poor beard growth, low nose, and thin lips. The Central Asian type is presented in various variants, some of which are close to the Baikal type, others - to variants of the Arctic and Far Eastern races;

2) the Arctic (Eskimo) race differs from the North Asian in coarser hair, darker pigmentation of the skin and eyes, less frequency of the epicanthus, a somewhat smaller zygomatic width, a narrow pear-shaped nasal opening, a high nose bridge and a more protruding nose, thick lips;

3) the Far Eastern race, compared with the North Asian, is characterized by coarser hair, darker pigmentation of the skin, thicker lips, and a narrower face. She is characterized by a high skull height, but a small face;

4) the South Asian race is characterized by an even sharper expression of those features that distinguish the Far Eastern race from the North Asian - greater swarthyness, thicker lips. It differs from the Far Eastern race in having a less flattened face and smaller stature;

5) the American race, varying greatly in many characteristics, is on the whole closest to the Arctic, but possesses some of its features in an even more pronounced form. So, the epicanthus is almost absent, the nose protrudes very strongly, the skin is very dark. The American race is characterized by the large size of the face and its noticeably less flattening.

23. INTERMEDIATE RACES

Races intermediate between the three major races:

▪ Ethiopian (East African) the race occupies a middle position between the equatorial and Eurasian large races in skin and hair color. Skin color varies from light brown to dark chocolate, hair is more often curly, but less spirally curled than in Negroes. The growth of the beard is weak or medium, the lips are moderately thick. However, in terms of facial features, this race is closer to the Eurasian. So, the width of the nose in most cases varies from 35 to 37 mm, a flattened shape of the nose is rare, the face is narrow, growth is above average, an elongated type of body proportions is characteristic;

▪ South Indian the (Dravidian) race is in general very similar to the Ethiopian, but differs in a straighter form of hair and a somewhat shorter stature; the face is slightly smaller and slightly wider; the South Indian race occupies an intermediate position between the Veddoid and the Indo-Mediterranean races;

▪ Ural the race, in many ways, occupies a middle position between the White Sea-Baltic and North Asian races; a concave bridge of the nose is very characteristic of this race;

▪ South Siberian The (Turanian) race is also intermediate between the Eurasian and Asiatic American major races. A significant percentage of mixed races. However, despite the generally unsharp expression of Mongolian features, this race exhibits very large facial dimensions, but smaller than in some variants of the North Asian race; in addition, a convex or straight bridge of the nose, lips of medium thickness are characteristic;

▪ Polynesian the race occupies a neutral position according to many systematic features; she is characterized by wavy hair, light brown, yellowish skin, moderately developed tertiary hairline, moderately protruding nose, lips somewhat thicker than those of Europeans; rather strongly protruding cheekbones; very tall, large face, large absolute width of the nose, rather high nasal index, much smaller than that of Negroes, and larger than that of Europeans; Kuril The (Ainu) race, in its neutral position among the races of the globe, resembles the Polynesian; however, some features of the large races are more pronounced in it. In terms of a very strong development of the hairline, it occupies one of the first places in the world. On the other hand, it is characterized by a flattened face, a shallow canine fossa, and a rather large percentage of epicanthus; hair is coarse and significantly wavy; low growth.

24. HEREDITY AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

The diversity of people is explained by human biology - we are born with different genes. At the same time, human biology is the source of human diversity, because it is precisely this biology that determined both the possibility of human society and its necessity.

The external variability of a person is a product of society: gender and geographical, racial and ethnic differences take on social forms in society due to the development of the social division of labor and the distribution of types of labor among people according to "gentility", "property" or "abilities".

The successes of human genetics have led not only to unconditional achievements in understanding its nature, but also to errors caused by the absolutization of the role of genes in the development of the individual. The main difference between people from the point of view of genetics is the difference between the genotype ("program" of the evolution of the organism) and the phenotype (all manifestations of the organism, including its morphology, physiology and behavior, at specific moments of its life). Several mistakes lead to negative consequences in pedagogical practice. They boil down to statements like:

a) genes determine the phenotype;

b) genes determine the limits and at) genes determine predispositions.

It is erroneous to say that genes determine phenotype, i.e. that the genotype can accurately determine the phenotype of an organism. It is upbringing, the place and nature of work, and social experience that determine differences in phenotypes. It is also wrong to say that genes determine the limits of a person (organism). Metaphorically, this situation can be illustrated by the theory of "empty cells": the genotype determines the number and size of cells, and experience fills them with content. With this understanding, the environment can act only as "depleted" or "enriched" from the point of view of the possibility of filling the cells specified in advance at birth.

The provision that genotypes determine the predispositions of an organism (personality), is also quite erroneous. The idea of predisposition (for example, to be overweight or thin) suggests that the tendency is manifested under normal conditions. In relation to humans, "normal environmental conditions" look extremely vague, and even the average values for the population, taken as standards, do not help here.

25. THE THEORY OF DIVISION OF LABOR

There are several types of division of labor: physiological, technological, division of human labor, social and most importantly.

Under physiological division is understood as the natural distribution of types of labor among the population according to sex and age. The expressions "women's work", "men's work" speak for themselves. There are also areas of application of "child labour" (the list of the latter is usually regulated by state law).

Technological the division of labor is by its nature infinite. Today in Russia there are about 40 thousand specialties, the number of which is growing every year. In a general sense, the technological division of labor is the division of the general labor process aimed at the production of material, spiritual or social benefits into separate component parts due to the requirements of the technology for manufacturing the product.

Division of human labor means the division of labor of many people into physical and mental - society can support people engaged in mental work (doctors, people of science, teachers, clergy, etc.) only on the basis of increasing labor productivity in material production. Knowledge work (development of technologies, education, training of workers and their upbringing) is an ever-expanding sphere.

Public the division of labor is the distribution of types of labor (the results of the technological division of labor and the division of human labor) between the social groups of society. To which group and how this or that life "share" falls in the form of this or that set of types of labor, and consequently, living conditions - this question is answered by an analysis of the work of the mechanism of distribution of labor in society at a given time. Moreover, the very mechanism of such distribution continuously reproduces classes and social strata, functioning against the background of the objective movement of the technological division of labor.

Term "the main division of labor", first introduced into scientific circulation by A. Kurella. This concept denotes the process of acquiring a value characteristic through labor, divided into past and living. All past labor, concentrating in itself in an objectified form the strength, knowledge, abilities, skills of workers, comes into the sphere of possession, disposal and use of private individuals or organizations (cooperatives, joint-stock companies, the state) and acquires the status of property protected by the legal laws of the state. In this case, private property acts as a measure of ownership of the past labor of the entire society; its form, which brings surplus value, is called capital (financial, entrepreneurial). Living labor in the form of the ability to do it also acts as property, but in the form of labor power as a commodity.

26. SYSTEM OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS

The initial basic human need, according to A. Maslow, is the need for life itself, that is, the totality of physiological and sexual needs - for food, clothing, housing, procreation, etc. Satisfying these needs, or this basic need, strengthens and continues life, ensures the existence of the individual as a living organism, a biological being.

Security and safety - the next in ascending importance basic human need. Here and concern for guaranteed employment, interest in the stability of existing institutions, norms and ideals of society, and the desire to have a bank account, an insurance policy, there is no concern for personal security, and much more. One of the manifestations of this need is also the desire to have a religion or philosophy that would "bring into order" the world and determine our place in it.

Need for belonging (to this or that community), involvement and affection - the third basic human need, according to A. Maslow. This is love, and sympathy, and friendship, and other forms of proper human communication, personal intimacy; it is the need for simple human participation, the hope that suffering, grief, misfortune will be shared, and also, of course, the hope for success, joy, victory. The need for attachment and belonging is the other side of a person's openness or trust in being - both social and natural. An unmistakable indicator of the dissatisfaction of this need is a feeling of rejection, loneliness, abandonment, uselessness. Satisfying the need for communication-community (belonging, belonging, attachment) is very important for a fulfilling life.

The need for respect and self-respect is another basic human need. A person needs to be appreciated - for skill, competence, independence, responsibility, etc., to be seen and recognized for his achievements, successes, merits. Here considerations of prestige, reputation and status come to the fore. But recognition from others is still not enough - it is important to respect oneself, to have a sense of one's own dignity, to believe in one's uniqueness, indispensability, to feel that one is engaged in a necessary and useful business. Feelings of weakness, disappointment, helplessness are the surest evidence of the dissatisfaction of this need.

Self-expression, self-affirmation, self-realization - the last, final, according to A. Maslow, the basic human need. However, it is final only in terms of classification criteria. In reality, as the American psychologist believes, a truly human, humanistically self-sufficient development of a person begins with it. A person at this level asserts himself through creativity, the realization of all his abilities and talents. He strives to become all that he can and (according to his internal, free, but responsible motivation) should become. Man's work on himself is the main mechanism for satisfying the considered need.

27. SOCIO-CULTUROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ANTHROPOGENESIS

In the wide context synonymous with the word "culture" is "civilization". AT narrow sense of the word, this term refers to artistic, spiritual culture. In a sociological context, it is a way of life, thoughts, actions, a system of values and norms that is characteristic of a given society, a person. Culture unites people in integrity, society.

It is culture that regulates the behavior of people in society. Cultural norms regulate the conditions for satisfying human inclinations and motives that are harmful to society - aggressive inclinations, for example, are used in sports.

Some cultural norms that affect the vital interests of a social group, society, become moral norms. The entire social experience of mankind convinces us that moral norms are not invented, not established, but arise gradually from the daily life and social practice of people.

Culture as a phenomenon of consciousness is also a way, a method of value-based development of reality. The vigorous activity of a person, society to meet their needs requires a certain position. We must take into account the interests of other people and other communities, without this there is no conscious social action. This is a certain position of a person, a community, which is monitored in relation to the world, in the assessment of real phenomena, and is expressed in the mental mentality.

The foundation of culture is language. People, mastering the world around them, fix it in certain concepts and come to an agreement that a certain combination of sounds is given a certain meaning. Only a person is able to use symbols with the help of which he communicates, exchanges not only simple feelings, but also complex ideas and thoughts.

The functioning of culture as a social phenomenon has two main trends: development (modernization) and preservation (sustainability, continuity). The integrity of culture is ensured by social selection, social selection. Any culture retains only what corresponds to its logic, mentality. New cultural acquisitions - both their own and those of others - national culture always strives to give a national flavor. Culture actively resists alien elements. Relatively painlessly updating the peripheral, secondary elements, the culture shows a strong reaction of rejection when it comes to its core.

Any culture is capable of self-development. This explains the diversity of national cultures, national identity.

28. CULTURE OF MODERN SOCIETY

The culture of modern society is a combination of different layers of culture, i.e. the dominant culture, subcultures and even countercultures. In any society, high culture (elitist) and folk culture (folklore) can be distinguished. The development of mass media has led to the formation of the so-called mass culture, simplified in terms of meaning and art, technologically accessible to everyone. Mass culture, especially with its strong commercialization, is capable of displacing both high and folk culture.

The presence of subcultures is an indicator of the diversity of the culture of society, its ability to adapt and develop. There are military, medical, student, peasant, Cossack subcultures. We can talk about the presence of an urban subculture, its national specificity with its own system of values.

According to R. Williams, American and Russian cultures are characterized by:

▪ personal success, activity and hard work, efficiency and usefulness at work, owning things as a sign of well-being in life, a strong family, etc. (American culture);

▪ friendly relations, respect for neighbors and comrades, detente, escape from real life, tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities, the personality of a leader, director (Russian culture). Modern Russian culture is also characterized by a phenomenon that sociologists have called the Westernization of cultural needs and interests, primarily of youth groups. The values of national culture are being supplanted or replaced by examples of mass culture, focused on achieving the standards of the American way of life in its most primitive and simplified perception.

Many Russians, and especially young ones, are characterized by the absence of ethno-cultural or national self-identification, they cease to perceive themselves as Russians, lose their Russianness. The socialization of young people takes place either on the traditional Soviet or on the Western model of education, in any case, non-national. Most young people perceive Russian culture as an anachronism. The lack of national self-identification among Russian youth leads to an easier penetration of Westernized values into the youth environment.

29. SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Social work includes a set of means, techniques, methods and methods of human activity aimed at social protection of the population, at work with various social, sex and age, religious, ethnic groups, with individuals in need of social assistance and protection.

In the context of changing many ideas about the nature of social assistance to the population, great demands began to be made both on the content of the practice of social work and on the training of professional workers for the social sphere. Of great importance is knowledge in those areas that allow a specialist to consider the content of social work through its functions.

A social worker needs knowledge of an integration socio-anthropological, socio-medical, psychological and pedagogical direction, which allows him to provide practical assistance to needy, socially vulnerable segments of the population.

Social education forms the professional and moral qualities of a specialist on the basis of a body of scientific knowledge in such sections of the social sciences and humanities as social anthropology, psychology, pedagogy, social ecology, and social work. This series includes social medicine, social gerontology, rehabilitation and other sciences.

The most important part of social knowledge is the study of man himself and his relationship with nature and society. The human community as a complex system of relationships, subject, like all complex systems, to the probabilistic laws of development, needs an integrated approach in the study and analysis of all spheres of human life.

The training of specialists in the field of social work is impossible without broad social education, the correct prioritization of universal values, scientific justification of the concept of social work, taking into account the relationship between biological and social in a person, without scientific understanding and assessment of the nature of socialization, studying its constituent components, the structure and relationships of an integral system .

30. BIOCHEMICAL INDIVIDUALITY

Each person has a unique genotype, which in the process of growth and development is realized in the phenotype under the influence and in interaction with a unique combination of environmental factors. The result of this interaction is manifested not only in the variety of features of physique and other features that we have considered. Each person has a composition of biologically active substances and compounds peculiar only to him - proteins, hormones, the percentage of which and their activity change throughout life and demonstrate various kinds of cyclicity. In terms of the scale of variability, it is the biochemical individuality that is primary, while external manifestations are only a weak reflection of it.

The concept of biochemical individuality is based on similar data on the exceptional diversity of a person’s biochemical status and the role of this special aspect of variability in the vital processes of the body under normal conditions and in the development of various pathologies. The development of the problem largely owes to the activities of the school of the American biochemist R. Williams, and in Russia to the activities of E. Khrisanfova and her students. Biologically active substances determine many aspects of human life - the rhythm of cardiac activity, the intensity of digestion, resistance to certain environmental influences and even mood.

Based on the data of numerous studies, the possibility of using a biotypological (constitutional) approach to the study of human hormonal status has been established:

▪ the reality of the existence of individual endocrine types of a person is substantiated (a relatively small number of occurring models of the endocrine formula compared to their possible number);

▪ types of endocrine constitution have a fairly clear genetic basis;

▪ the most pronounced correlations between different systems of endocrine signs characterize extreme variants of hormonal secretion;

▪ these variants are quite clearly associated with extreme manifestations of morphological constitutional types (according to different schemes);

▪ Finally, the hormonal basis of different types of constitution was established.

31. MENTAL PECULIARITIES ACCORDING TO E. KRETSCHMER

According to the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, people suffering from manic-depressive psychosis have a picnic constitutional type: they often have increased fat deposition, a round figure, a wide face, etc. It was even noticed that they develop baldness early.

A directly opposite set of external signs is usually present in patients with schizophrenia. To the greatest extent, it corresponds to the asthenic constitutional type: a narrow thin body, a thin neck, long limbs and a narrow face. Sometimes people with schizophrenia have pronounced hormonal disturbances: men are eunuchoid, and women are muscular. Athletes are less common among such patients. E. Kretschmer, in addition, argued that the athletic body type corresponds to epileptic disorders.

The author identified similar relationships in healthy people. However, in healthy people they are much less pronounced, since they represent, as it were, the middle of the variability of the psyche (the norm), while patients occupy an extreme position in this series. In healthy people, tendencies towards one or another "edge" are expressed in the stable manifestation of schizothymic or cyclothymic traits of character or temperament (now we would rather call this phenomenon accentuations).

According to E. Kretschmer, mentally healthy picnics are cyclothymics. They, as it were, in a latent and smoothed form, show the features inherent in patients with manic-depressive psychosis.

These people are sociable, psychologically open, cheerful. Asthenics, on the other hand, show the opposite set of mental traits and are called schizotimics - accordingly, they have a tendency to character traits that resemble manifestations of schizophrenia. Schizothymics are unsociable, closed, self-absorbed. They are characterized by secrecy and a tendency to inner experiences. People of an athletic constitution are iksotimics, they are unhurried, calm, not very eager to communicate, but they do not avoid it either. In the understanding of E. Kretschmer, they are closest to the average health.

Various studies either confirmed or refuted the main conclusions of E. Kretschmer. The main disadvantages of his work are methodological oversights: the use of clinic orderlies as a “norm” does not at all reflect the morphological and mental realities existing in society, and the number of people examined by E. Kretschmer is too small, so the conclusions are statistically unreliable. In more carefully conducted studies, such obvious (unambiguous) links between mental characteristics and body characteristics were not found.

32. CHARACTERISTICS OF TEMPERAMENT ACCORDING TO W. SHELDON

Sufficiently rigid connections between morphology and temperament were described by W. Sheldon (1942). The work was done on a different methodological level and deserves more confidence. When describing temperament, the author used not a discrete type, but components, similar to how it was done in his constitutional system: 50 signs were divided by W. Sheldon into three categories, on the basis of which he singled out three components of temperament, each of which was characterized by 12 signs . Each attribute was evaluated on a seven-point scale, and the average score for 12 attributes determined the entire component (an analogy with the constitutional system is evident here). Sheldon identified three components of temperament: viscerotonia, somatotonia, and cerebrotonia. After examining 200 subjects, Sheldon compared them with data on somatotypes. While individual somatic and "mental" traits showed a weak relationship, constitutional types showed a high association with certain types of temperament. The author obtained a correlation coefficient of about 0,8 between viscerotonia and endomorphia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia, cerebrotonia and ectomorphia.

People with viscerotonic temperament are characterized by relaxed movements, sociability, and in many respects - psychological dependence on public opinion. They are open to others in their thoughts, feelings and actions and most often, according to W. Sheldon, they have an endomorphic constitutional type.

Somatotonic temperament is characterized primarily by energy, some coldness in communication, and a penchant for adventure. With sufficient sociability, people of this type are secretive in their feelings and emotions. Sheldon obtained a significant association of somatotonic temperament with mesomorphic constitutional type.

Continuing the trend towards a decrease in sociability, the cerebrotonic temperament is distinguished by secrecy in actions and emotions, a craving for loneliness, and stiffness in communicating with other people. According to Sheldon, such people most often have an ectomorphic constitutional type.

33. CONSTITUTIONAL FEATURES

Constitutional signs are divided into three main groups: morphological, physiological and psychological signs.

Morphological signs are used to determine body types. Their inheritance has been studied perhaps the most. As it turns out, they are most closely associated with the hereditary factor compared to the other two groups. However, the type of inheritance of most of these traits is not exactly known, since these traits depend not on one, but on many genes.

Of all the constitutional features, the least genetically determined are the parameters associated with the development of the fat component. Of course, the accumulation of subcutaneous fat occurs not only in conditions of excess high-calorie foods, but the trend of this relationship between nutritional level and fat deposition is so obvious that it is rather a regularity. Food availability and genetics are two different things.

Physiological signs, apparently, are somewhat weaker genetically determined than morphological ones. Due to the huge qualitative diversity of signs that are combined as physiological, it is difficult to talk about them as a whole. Obviously, some of them are inherited with the help of one gene, others are characterized by polygenic heredity. Some are little dependent on the environment and heredity will play a significant role in their manifestation. Others, such as heart rate, depend strongly on environmental conditions, and the factor of heredity will represent the role of a rather determining probabilistic force. On the example of the heartbeat, this would mean that with a certain heredity, a person will be predisposed to a frequent heartbeat, say, in a tense situation. The other person under these conditions will be less prone to palpitations. And in what conditions a person lives and in what situations he finds himself, of course, does not depend on heredity.

The dependence of the psyche on the genetic factor is assessed at three different levels:

▪ basic neurodynamic level - nerve stimulation at the cellular level - is a direct derivative of the morphology and physiology of the nervous system. It certainly depends on genetics to the greatest extent;

▪ psychodynamic level - the properties of temperament - is a reflection of the activity of the forces of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system. It already depends more on environmental factors (in the broadest sense of the word);

▪ proper psychological level - features of perception, intelligence, motivation, nature of relationships, etc. - to the greatest extent depends on the upbringing, living conditions, attitude towards the person of the people around him.

34. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development is understood as "a complex of properties of an organism that determines the reserve of its physical strength."

P. Bashkirov quite convincingly proved that the reserve of physical strength is an extremely conditional concept, although applicable in practice. As a result of research, it was found that the physical development of a person is well described by the ratio of three body parameters - weight, body length and chest girth - that is, signs that determine the "structural and mechanical properties" of the body. To assess this level, indices constructed from these parameters (Brock index and Pignet index), as well as weight and height indicators (Rohrer index and Quetelet index) and the "ideal" weight formula, which is the ratio of weight and body length, corresponding to some idea of ideal balance of these parameters. For example, a common formula is that body weight should be equal to body length minus 100 cm. In reality, such formulas work only for a part of people of average height, since both parameters grow disproportionately to each other. A universal formula cannot exist even theoretically. The method of standard deviations and the method of constructing regression scales have been applied. The standards of physical development in children and adolescents have been developed and are regularly updated.

The assessment of physical development, of course, is not limited to the three listed indicators. Of great importance are assessments of the level of metabolism, the ratio of active and inactive components of the body, the features of the neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory systems, skeletal muscle tone, taking into account the indicator of biological age, etc.

Assessing the complex of constitutional features, we can make assumptions about the potential (predisposition) to a particular disease. But there is no direct "fatal" relationship between body type and a certain disease and cannot be.

35. ASTHENIC AND PICNIC TYPE

To date, a large amount of information has been accumulated on the incidence of morbidity in people with different morphological, functional and psychological constitutions.

So, asthenic people are prone to diseases of the respiratory system - asthma, tuberculosis, acute respiratory diseases. This is usually explained by a "low supply of physical strength", but most likely this is simply due to the lower thermal insulation of the body due to the lack of a fat component. In addition, asthenics are more prone to digestive system disorders - gastritis, stomach and duodenal ulcers. This, in turn, is due to the greater nervousness of asthenics, the greater risk of neurosis and, according to E. Kretschmer, a tendency to schizophrenia. Asthenics are characterized by hypotension and vegetative dystonia.

The picnic type, being in many ways the opposite of the asthenic type, has its own risks of disease. First of all, these are diseases associated with high blood pressure - hypertension, as well as the risk of coronary artery disease, stroke, myocardial infarction. Associated diseases are diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis. Picnics are more likely to suffer from gout, inflammatory skin diseases and allergic diseases. They may have a greater risk of getting cancer.

The association of muscular type with pathologies has been much less explored. It is possible that people of a muscular type are more prone to stress and related diseases.

An essential conclusion from the studies of the constitution is that it is incorrect to talk about "bad" or "good" versions of it. In practice, the global scale of variability is practically inapplicable here. Positive or negative qualities (risks) of certain constitutional types appear only in certain environmental conditions. So, the probability of getting pneumonia in an athletic person in Russia is much greater than that of an asthenic in New Guinea. And an asthenic working in a flower shop or archive is much more likely to get an allergy than a picnic working as a school teacher. Asthenic will feel at the hearth of a steel plant or in a greenhouse much better than a picnic or an athlete; a picnic will feel better than an asthenic and an athlete - in some office, at a sedentary job, in a building with an elevator. The athlete will show the best results in sports or working as a loader.

36. THE THEORY OF SOCIALIZATION OF TARD

The origins of the theory of socialization are outlined in the works of Tarde, who described the process of internalization (acquisition by a person) of values and norms through social interaction. Imitation, according to Tarde, is the principle that forms the basis of the process of socialization, and it relies both on physiological needs and the desires of people arising from them, and on social factors (prestige, obedience and practical benefit).

Tarde recognized the relationship "teacher - student" as a typical social relationship. In modern views on socialization, such a narrow approach has already been overcome. Socialization is recognized as part of the process of personality formation, during which the most common personality traits are formed, manifested in socially organized activity, regulated by the role structure of society. Learning social roles proceeds in the form of imitation. General values and norms are mastered by the individual in the process of communication with "significant others", as a result of which normative standards are included in the structure of the individual's needs. This is how culture penetrates into the motivational structure of the individual within the framework of the social system. The socializer needs to know that the mechanism of cognition and assimilation of values and norms is the principle of pleasure-suffering formulated by Z. Freud, put into action with the help of reward and punishment; the mechanism also includes the processes of inhibition (displacement) and transfer. Imitation and identification of the learner are based on feelings of love and respect (to the teacher, father, mother, family as a whole, etc.).

Socialization is accompanied by education, i.e., the targeted influence of the educator on the educated, focused on the formation of the desired traits in him.

37. LEVELS OF SOCIALIZATION

There are three levels of socialization (their reality has been empirically tested, as evidenced by I. Cohn, in 32 countries): pre-moral, conventional and moral. The pre-moral level is characteristic of relationships between children and parents, based on the external dyad “suffering - pleasure”, the conventional level is based on the principle of mutual retribution; The moral level is characterized by the fact that the actions of the individual begin to be regulated by conscience. Kohlberg proposes to distinguish seven gradations at this level, up to the formation of an individual’s own moral system. Many people do not reach the moral level in their development. In this regard, the term “moral pragmatism” appeared in a number of Russian party programs, meaning that it is necessary to fight for the triumph of the moral law in people’s business relations. Society is gradually sliding down to the level of “situational morality”, the motto of which is: “What is moral is what is useful in a given situation.”

In childhood, the child wants to be like everyone else, so imitation, identification, authorities ("significant others") play an important role.

The teenager already feels his individuality, as a result of which he strives "to be like everyone else, but better than everyone else." The energy of self-affirmation results in the formation of courage, strength, the desire to stand out in a group, not differing in principle from everyone else. A teenager is very normative, but in his environment.

Youth is already characterized by the desire "to be different from everyone else." There is a clear scale of values that is not demonstrated verbally. The desire to stand out at all costs often leads to nonconformity, the desire to shock, to act contrary to public opinion. Parents at this age are no longer authorities for their children, unconditionally dictating their behavior. Youth expands its horizons of vision and understanding of life and the world, often due to the denial of the usual parental existence, forms its own subculture, language, tastes, fashions.

The stage of true adulthood, social maturity is characterized by the fact that a person asserts himself through society, through the role structure and value system, verified by culture. Significant for him is the desire to continue himself through others - relatives, a group, society and even humanity. But a person may not enter this stage at all. People who have stopped in their development and have not acquired the qualities of a socially mature personality are called infantile.

38. THE THEORY OF VIOLENCE

The focus of the theories of violence is the phenomenon of human aggressiveness. We note at least four areas of research and explanation of human aggressiveness:

▪ ethological theories of violence (social Darwinism) explain aggressiveness by the fact that man is a social animal, and society is the bearer and reproducer of the instincts of the animal world. The boundless expansion of the freedom of the individual without the necessary level of development of his culture increases the aggressiveness of some and the defenselessness of others. This situation was called "lawlessness" - absolute lawlessness in the relations of people and in the actions of the authorities;

▪ Freudian, Neo-Freudian and Existentialism argue that the aggressiveness of a person is the result of the frustration of an alienated personality. Aggressiveness is caused by social causes (Freudianism takes it out of the Oedipus complex). Consequently, the main attention in the fight against crime should be paid to the structure of society;

▪ interactionism sees the cause of people's aggressiveness in a "conflict of interest", incompatibility of goals;

▪ representatives cognitivism believe that a person's aggressiveness is the result of "cognitive dissonance", that is, inconsistencies in the cognitive sphere of the subject. Inadequate perception of the world, conflicting consciousness as a source of aggression, lack of mutual understanding are associated with the structure of the brain.

Researchers distinguish two types of aggression: emotional violence and antisocial violence, i.e. violence against the freedoms, interests, health and life of someone. Human aggression, more precisely, crime as a consequence of the weakening of self-regulation of behavior, in its own way, is trying to explain human genetics.

39. DEVIANT AND DELICENT BEHAVIOR

There is hardly a society in which all its members behave in accordance with general regulatory requirements. When a person violates the norms, rules of conduct, laws, then his behavior, depending on the nature of the violation, is called deviant (deviant) or (next stage of development) delinquent (criminal, criminal, etc.). Such deviations are very diverse: from missing school classes (deviant behavior), to theft, robbery, murder (delinquent behavior). The reaction of people around you to deviant behavior shows how serious it is. If the offender is taken into custody or referred to a psychiatrist, then he committed a serious violation. Some actions are considered as offenses only in certain societies, others - in all without exception; for example, no society condones the killing of its members or the expropriation of other people's property against their will. Drinking alcohol is a serious offense in many Islamic countries, and refusal to drink alcohol under certain circumstances in Russia or France is considered a violation of the accepted norm of behavior.

The seriousness of the offense depends not only on the significance of the violated norm, but also on the frequency of such violation. If a student walks out of the classroom backwards, it will only cause a smile. But if he does this every day, then the intervention of a psychiatrist will be required. A person who has not previously been brought to the police can be forgiven even for a serious violation of the law, while a person who has already had a criminal record faces severe punishment for a small offense.

In modern society, the most significant norms of behavior that affect the interests of other people are written into laws, and their violation is considered a crime. Sociologists usually deal with the category of offenders who break the law, as they are a threat to society. The more burglaries, the more people are afraid for their property; the more murders, the more we fear for our lives.

40. E. DURKHEIM'S THEORY OF ANOMY

Most often, offenses are impulsive acts. Biological theories are of little help when it comes to crimes involving conscious choice.

An important place in explaining the causes of deviant behavior is occupied by the theory of anomie (disregulation). E. Durkheim, investigating the causes of suicide, considered the main cause of the phenomenon, which he called anomie. He emphasized that social rules play a major role in regulating people's lives. Norms govern their behavior, people know what to expect from others and what is expected of them. During crises, wars, radical social changes, life experience is of little help. People are in a state of confusion and disorganization. Social norms are being destroyed, people are losing their bearings - all this contributes to deviant behavior. Although E. Durkheim's theory has been criticized, his main idea that social disorganization is the cause of deviant behavior is generally accepted.

The growth of social disorganization is not necessarily associated with an economic crisis, inflation. It can also be observed with a high level of migration, which leads to the destruction of social ties. Please note: the crime rate is always higher where there is a high migration of the population. The theory of anomie was developed in the works of other sociologists. In particular, ideas were formulated about "social hoops", i.e., the level of social (settlement) and moral (degree of religiosity) integration, the theory of structural tension, social investment, etc.

41. THEORIES OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOR

Structural tension theory explains many offenses as a disappointment of the individual. Declining living standards, racial discrimination and many other phenomena can lead to deviant behavior. If a person does not occupy a strong position in society or cannot achieve his goals by legal means, then sooner or later he will experience disappointment, tension, he begins to feel his inferiority and can use deviant, illegal methods to achieve his goals.

The idea of social investment is simple and to a certain extent connected with the tension theory. The more effort a person expended to achieve a certain position in society (education, qualifications, place of work, and much more), the more he risks losing in case of violation of laws. An unemployed person has little to lose if he gets caught robbing a store. There are certain categories of degraded people who specifically try to get into prison on the eve of winter (warmth, food). If a successful person decides to commit a crime, then he steals, as a rule, huge sums, which, as it seems to him, justify the risk.

Attachment theory, differentiated communication. We all have a tendency to show sympathy, to feel affection for someone. In this case, we strive to ensure that these people form a good opinion of us. Such conformity helps maintain appreciation and respect for us and protects our reputation.

Stigma or labeling theory, is the ability of influential groups in society to label certain social or national groups as deviants: representatives of certain nationalities, the homeless, etc. If a person is labeled as a deviant, then he begins to behave accordingly.

Supporters of this theory distinguish between primary (personal behavior that allows you to label a person as a criminal) and secondary deviant behavior (behavior that is a reaction to the label).

The theory of integration was proposed by E. Durkheim, who compared the conditions of a traditional rural community and large cities. If people move around a lot, then social ties are weakened, many competing religions develop, which mutually weaken each other, etc.

42. CONTROL IN SOCIETY

Any society for the purpose of self-preservation establishes certain norms, rules of conduct and appropriate control over their implementation.

There are three main forms of control:

▪ isolation - excommunication from society for hardened criminals, up to and including the death penalty;

▪ isolation - limiting contacts, incomplete isolation, for example, a colony, a psychiatric hospital;

▪ rehabilitation - preparation for returning to normal life; rehabilitation of alcoholics, drug addicts, and juvenile offenders. Control can be formal or informal.

System formal control - organizations created to protect order. We call them law enforcement. They have varying degrees of rigidity: the tax inspectorate and the tax police, the police and riot police, courts, prisons, correctional labor colonies. Any society creates norms, rules, laws. For example, biblical commandments, traffic rules, criminal law, etc.

Informal control - this is the unofficial social pressure of others, the press. Possible punishment through criticism, ostracism; threat of physical violence.

Any society cannot function normally without a developed system of norms and rules that prescribe the fulfillment by each person of the requirements and duties necessary for society. People in almost any society are controlled mainly through socialization in such a way that they perform most of their social roles unconsciously, naturally, due to habits, customs, traditions and preferences.

In modern society, of course, the rules and norms established at the level of primary social groups are not enough for social control. On the scale of the whole society, a system of laws and punishments for violation of established requirements and rules of conduct is being formed, group control is applied by state authorities on behalf of the whole society. When an individual is unwilling to follow the requirements of the laws, society resorts to coercion.

The rules vary in severity, and any violation of them entails different penalties. There are norms-rules and norms-expectations. Norms-expectations are regulated by public opinion, morality, norms-rules - by laws, law enforcement agencies. Hence the corresponding punishments. The norm-expectation can turn into the norm-rule, and vice versa.

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