Russian history. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Russian history. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. Theory of the origin of the Eastern Slavs

The historical and ethnic predecessors of the Eastern Slavs were the tribes of the Ants, who lived in the Azov region, the Black Sea region and the Dnieper region in 1st century BC uh. Another name for the Ants - Ases - is close to the name of the Roxolani tribe and the tribal name "Rus" or "ros". Scientists of the Norman school believe that “Rus” was the name of one of the Scandinavian tribes to which the prince belonged Rurik with his squad.

But convincing evidence that this particular theory is correct has not been found. What is known for certain is that in X-XI centuries. The Russian land was called Middle Transnistria - the land of the Kyiv glades, and it was from here that this name was used. XII-XIII centuries. spread to other areas occupied by East Slavic tribes. In the south it was known much earlier than the arrival of Rurik and the Varangians in the Novgorod region (mid-9th century). Already in 7th century. the Normans penetrated the Azov coast, and in VIII-IX centuries. The Slavic-Varangian principality, or “Russian Kaganate,” was formed here. The city of Tmutarakan became an important political and commercial center of this state. At the beginning and in the middle IX century. Azov Rus' raided Byzantine possessions.

The Slavic colonization of the Great Russian Plain began from its southwestern corner, namely from the Carpathian region. Here, in VI century. A large military alliance of the Slavs arose under the leadership of Prince Duleb. But already within VII-VIII centuries. The Slavs begin to settle across the Russian Plain and occupy a vast area located along the Volkhov-Dnieper line. IN IX-X centuries. the southwestern part of the East European Plain was occupied by the Ulichi and Iverians, who settled in the territory between the Dnieper and the Black Sea; "white" Croats, located in the foothills of the Carpathians; Dulebs, Volynians and Buzhanians who lived in Eastern Galicia, on the banks of Volyn and the Western Bug. Along the western bank of the Middle Dnieper there were clearings, to the north of them along the Pripyat River - the Drevlyans; even further to the north - Dregovichi; on the eastern bank of the Middle Dnieper, on the Desna and its tributaries lived northerners; on the Sogla River - Radimichi, on the Oka River - Vyatichi, the easternmost of the Slavic tribes.

The northwestern part of the Russian-Slavic territory was occupied by a numerous tribe of Krivichi, who lived in the upper reaches of the Volga, Dnieper, Western Dvina and was divided into Krivichi of Polotsk, Smolensk and Pskov. Finally, the northern Russian group was made up of the Ilmenian Slavs (or Novgorodians), who occupied the territory around Lake Ilmen and on both banks of the Volkhov River.

2. The emergence of the first Russian cities

К IX-X centuries. East Slavic tribes occupied the western part of the Great Russian Plain, bounded by the Black Sea coast in the south, the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga (Lake Nevo) in the north. Here, from north to south (along the Volkhov-Dnieper line), a great waterway passed, which was called “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” For several centuries it was the main core of the economic, political and cultural life of the Eastern Slavs.

The consequence of this was the emergence of the most ancient Russian cities - Kyiv, Chernigov, Smolensk, Lyubech, Novgorod the Great, Pskov, Vitebsk, Rostov.

These cities were able to subjugate the surrounding regions to their power, creating the first political form in Rus' - a city region, or volost. Such urban division did not have a tribal origin and did not coincide with it.

Before the settlement of the Slavs on the Russian Plain, their socio-political structure was patriarchal, or tribal. The elders had the supreme power.

В 879 BC Rurik's relative Oleg began to rule in Novgorod. Oleg, together with Igor and his squad, set off along the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks." He took the cities of Smolensk, Lyubich on the Dnieper and approached Kyiv. Oleg seized Kyiv by cunning, conquered the Slavic and Finnish tribes, and also freed the East Slavic tribes from the Khazars and became the founder of the great Kievan principality.

Having asserted his power in the Dnieper region, Oleg 907 BC regulated trade relations between Russia and Byzantium.

В 912 Igor led Russia. AT 944 BC made peace with the Greeks.

С 946 BC princess Olga more than 10 years ruled the state. AT 955 BC accepted the Christian faith. From that moment Christianity began to spread in Kyiv.

With coming to power Svyatoslav (son of Igor) undertook a number of successful campaigns to the East.

3. Ancient Russia in the period X - early XII centuries. The adoption of Christianity in Russia. The role of the Church in the life of Ancient Russia

Olga's grandson Vladimir Svyatoslavovich was originally a zealous pagan. He even placed idols of pagan gods near the princely court, to which the people of Kiev made sacrifices.

Vladimir sent ambassadors abroad. When they returned, they spoke with particular enthusiasm about the Orthodox service in the Constantinople Cathedral Church of St. Sophia. Impressed by the story, Vladimir decided to accept Greek Christianity. (988). His marriage in 989 BC with the Greek princess Anna finally approved Christianity as the dominant religion of the Russian state.

Christianity was originally accepted only by those tribes that lived along the line of the Dnieper - Volkhov. In other areas, the new faith met with stubborn resistance from the population, paganism, united with the new religion, formed a dual faith.

Christianity produced a profound moral change in ancient Russian society.

The adoption of Christianity in Russia influenced the political structure of Russia. The Greek clergy transferred the Byzantine concept of "sovereign" to the prince of Kyiv, which was set by God not only for the external protection of the country, but also for the establishment and maintenance of internal social order.

The Russian Church was headed by the Metropolitan of Kyiv, who was also the Patriarch of All Russia. He was appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, on whom the entire Russian metropolis depended. The Metropolitan of Kyiv placed bishops in the most important Russian cities.

The Kiev-Pechersky Monastery was formed. The collection of church laws "The Pilot Book" served as a guide for church judges. The so-called church people were subordinated to church administration and jurisdiction:

1) monks;

2) white clergy with their families;

3) priest widows and adult priests;

4) clergy;

5) spit;

6) wanderers;

7) people in hospitals and hospices, and those who served them;

8) "inflated people", outcasts, beggars, the population living on church lands.

The church authorities judged all Christians who committed crimes against religion and morality, and dealt with all cases relating to family relations.

Christianity brought the Slavs a written language based on the Church Slavonic alphabet compiled by the brothers-enlighteners. Kirill и Methodius in the second half IX century.

Monasteries, in particular the famous Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, founded by Saint Anthony и Saint Theodosius in the second half XI century. The first chronicler was the Rev. Nestor. Large libraries of handwritten books were collected in monasteries and episcopal sees.

In the Kievan era, the most prominent were the metropolitans Hilarion и Cyril of Turovsky, hegumen Daniel.

4. Feudal fragmentation of Russia

С 1068 BC begins a period of civil strife - power passed from hand to hand.

Political collapse of Kievan Rus in XI-XII centuries. led to the formation of a dozen separate principalities (Kyiv, Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk, etc.).

The throne of Kyiv was occupied by the eldest prince in the family, and the rest were placed by seniority in cities of more or less significant importance. In the event of the death of the Grand Duke, the eldest of the remaining princes was to take the throne of Kyiv, and the rest of the princes would accordingly move from one volost to another. The struggle for the throne of Kyiv went on with increasing bitterness between the two princely lines: the Kyiv and Pereyaslav Monomakhivichs.

In the period from 1097 to 1103, congresses of princes were held, which, however, did not improve the situation.

Initially, the Monomakhovichi and Olegovichi shared the throne, but after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the civil strife was complicated by the confrontation between the Monomakhovichi.

Reasons for fragmentation:

1) strengthening of feudal relations;

2) the growth of large feudal landownership;

3) strengthening the military power of each principality;

4) economic development (growth of agriculture, cities, trade).

Feudal fragmentation led to the weakening of trade ties and economic relations, military clashes.

For 10 years of civil strife, Kyiv passed from one hand to another.

The whole country broke up into separate principalities, competing with each other.

By the end of the XII century. there is a tendency to centralize power. This is most clearly manifested during the reign of Roman Mstislavich.

The beginning of internecine wars was laid by a quarrel between the sons and grandchildren of Vladimir Monomakh. Grand Duke Yaropolk wanted to give Pereyaslavl to his nephew, so the princes of Rostov and Volyn opposed. As a result, the city was transferred to Yuri Dolgoruky, the son of Vladimir Monomakh.

5. Mongol-Tatar invasion and German-Swedish expansion

By the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, Russia had been in conditions of feudal fragmentation for more than a hundred years. This weakened Russia both politically and militarily.

Gradually in the first third XIII century. The two most powerful states-principals emerged and became political leaders: Galicia-Volyn in the southwest and Vladimir-Suzdal in the northeast. These principalities pursued a policy of centralization and political unification of Russian lands. However, this was prevented for many years by the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

The Russians suffered their first defeat from the Mongol-Tatars in 1223 BC during the collision river Kalka. The defeat at Kalka went down in history as one of the strongest and most difficult.

By the beginning of the invasion of Russia, the Mongols had a vast territory, a strong, organized army, and centralized power. The Tatar-Mongol invasion of Russia began in 1237 BC under the leadership of Batu Khan. Ryazan fell first.

Batu did not reach 100 versts to Novgorod and turned back. The following year, the main blow of the Mongol-Tatar expansion came to the south. Kyiv, Chernigov and many other cities were captured. The cities of Galicia-Volyn land were the last to be defeated.

В 1240s. In the lower reaches of the Volga, the city of Sarai-Batu was founded, which became the capital of the huge Tatar-Mongol state.

All the princes were confirmed on the thrones in Sarai-Batu, and later in Sarai-Berk. They were given labels - these are letters of the Tatar-Mongol khans for the right to occupy any throne. In order to know how much tribute could be collected, the first census was carried out. Those who could not pay tribute were sold into slavery.

The Mongol rulers kindled enmity between the Russian princes, preventing the centralization of Russian lands.

The Swedes and German knights attacked Russia from the west. AT 1234 BC Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod defeated the German knights on the Embakh River. The Teutonic and Livonian Orders united and with the support of Germany and the Pope, they attacked Novgorod and Pskov. Together with the Germans, the Swedes also decided to act. They planned to seize the lands of the Gulf of Finland.

In the winter of 1240 The Swedes along the Neva approached the mouth of the Izhora River. The army of the young Prince Alexander Vsevolodovich approached the Neva on July 15 and defeated the Swedes on the shore and at sea. Since then, the Novgorod prince was nicknamed Alexander Nevsky.

In the spring of 1242 the famous Battle of the Ice on Lake Peipsi took place, during which Alexander Nevsky defeated the German knights. This victory put an end to the claims and aggression of the crusaders.

Ivan III stopped paying the Tatar "exit" and entered into an alliance with the Crimean Khan, an opponent of the Golden Horde. AT 1480 BC Khan of the Golden Horde Akhmat decided to restore his power. The enemy troops met on the Ugra River, not daring to start a battle. AT early November Khan Akhmat retreated from the Russian borders. AT 1502 BC Crimean Khan Shengli Giray dealt the final blow to the weakened Golden Horde.

Basil III(1505-1533) - completed the unification of Great Russia. In 1510, he annexed Pskov to Moscow, and in 1517 BC - Principality of Ryazan. In 1514, in the war with Lithuania, he took Smolensk.

6. Formation of the Moscow state in the XIV - early XVI centuries. Rise of Moscow

For the first time Moscow is mentioned in the annals 1147 BC in connection with an invitation to Moscow by Prince Yuri Dolgoruky.

Moscow had a favorable location, being at the intersection of three main trade routes.

Thanks to this, Moscow became an important center of trade.

The support of the clergy played a big role in the rise of Moscow. Gradually, Moscow became the church capital of Russia.

В 1327 BCWhen Mikhail's son Alexander of Tver was the Grand Duke, there was an indignation in Tver against the Khan's ambassador Schelkay. This event was skillfully used by the new Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich Kalita. In 1328 BC Ivan Kalita received a label from Khan Uzbek to the Grand Duchy of Vladimir.

Thus ensuring the external security of his principality.

В 1362 BC through the efforts of the Moscow boyars and Metropolitan Alexei, the label for the great reign was acquired for the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich.

The victory won Dmitry Donskoy в 1380 BC on the Kulikovo field, gave the Moscow prince the importance of a national leader.

The highest authority in XVI-XVII centuries. there was a Boyar Duma. Cases were submitted to her consideration by decree of the sovereign.

If necessary, special commissions were formed from the general composition of the Duma - "reciprocal" (for negotiations with foreign ambassadors), "laid" (for drafting new regulations), "judgmental" and "reprisal". A joint meeting of the Duma and the "consecrated cathedral" was convened to resolve particularly important matters.

Zemsky Sobors were advisory in nature. The composition of the Zemsky Sobors included:

1) representatives of the higher clergy;

2) Boyar Duma;

3) representatives of the service and townspeople.

The central authorities in the Muscovite state were orders:

1) Ambassadorial order;

2) local order;

3) Discharge (military) order;

4) Slave order;

5) Robbery order (with the elders subordinate to him in the field);

6) Judgment order;

7) Order of a large treasury and a large parish;

8) several territorial orders.

В 1550 BC A new lawsuit was published, the purpose of which was to improve the justice system, control by representatives of the local population.

В 1550s. a number of statutory letters of Ivan IV, the government abolished the administration of governors and volostels.

7. Domestic and foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible. Livonian war. Oprichnina

Vasily III died in 1533 BC, and, since his son Ivan was only 3 years old, his mother, the Grand Duchess, began to rule the state Elena Glinskaya. After her death (1538) the era of boyar rule and the struggle for power between the princes Shuisky и Belsky. The only friend and mentor of the young king was the Metropolitan Macarius, famous compiler Chet's Menaion- a collection of church texts.

The adult Ivan was married to the kingdom and officially took the title of Tsar and Grand Duke of All Russia January 16, 1547 Two weeks later the king married Anastasia Romanovna Zakharina-Yurieva.

In addition to Metropolitan Macarius, the tsar’s circle of associates included a priest Sylvester, Alexey Adashev and prince Andrey Kurbsky. In 1551 BC - compiled by Stoglav.

В 1550 BC a new Code of Laws was published. He legitimized the presence of elders, representatives of the local population and jurors - kissers. During the court sessions, the Duma clerks were supposed to keep minutes, and the headman and kissers - to sign them after the decision was made. The governors could not arrest anyone without explaining to the elders and kissers the reason for the arrest.

В 1563 BC printing appeared in Moscow. The first printers were deacon Ivan Fedorov and Peter Timofeev.

В 1556 BC The tsar issued a general regulation on the military service of landlords and estates.

Government Ivan IV led a successful foreign policy. AT 1556 BC Astrakhan was conquered. All the Middle and Lower Volga regions became part of the Muscovite state. From the second half of the XVI century. Russian settlers rushed to these regions from the central regions of the Moscow state (in the 1580s, new Russian cities arose here).

Narva, Yuryev and about 20 other cities were taken.

В 1553 BC the tsar fell ill and, fearing death, demanded that the boyars swear allegiance to his youngest son Dmitry.

Ivan IV established a special court - the oprichnina, for which he first recruited a thousand, and then 6000 "bad" people, bound by oaths of loyalty and complete submission to the king. The oprichny regions were subordinated to the tsar, and the rest of the territory of the state remained in the hands of the zemstvo boyars.

The oprichnina was a deliberate undertaking by Ivan IV, the purpose of which was to crush the influence of the princely-boyar aristocracy, replace the former ruling class - the boyars with the nobility, and thereby strengthen the monarchical power.

In the last years of the reign of Ivan IV, the terror of the oprichnina subsides; estates previously confiscated from boyars and princes are partially returned.

8. Russia during the reign of Fedor Ioannovich. The social structure of Russian society in the XVI century

Between those close to the throne, a struggle began for influence on the king, the royal brother-in-law came to the fore Boris Fyodorovich Godunov.

В 1589 BC patriarchate was established in Moscow.

The last wife of Ivan IV, Maria Nagaya, with her young son Dmitry and brothers, was removed from Moscow to the city of Uglich.

15 May 1591 Tsarevich Dmitry was killed.

В January 1598 Tsar Fedor died. With his death, the Rurik dynasty on the Moscow throne ended.

The centers of literacy and education were monasteries.

В XVI century. a galaxy of talented publicists appears (F. I. Karpov, I. S. Peresvetov, Ermolai-Erazim, Sylvester).

After the death of the childless king Fedor Ivanovich Zemsky Sobor was convened, at which Boris Godunov was elected the new Russian Tsar.

In Poland Grigory Otrepyev - the son of a Galich boyar, a monk, a former clerk in the Miracle Monastery in Moscow, who fled to Lithuania, where he secretly converted to Catholicism, called himself a prince Dmitry, son of Ivan iv. AT October 1604 he entered Moscow. And already in June 1605 Moscow solemnly welcomed "its lawful sovereign" Dmitry Ivanovich.

On the night of 17 May 1606 boyars led by prince Vasily Shuisky broke into the Kremlin and killed the king.

Князь Vasily Shuisky was "shouted out by the king".

Soon a new one appeared in Starodub False Dmitriy. With the help of the Swedes and the people's militias, the king's nephew Prince Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky.

Tsar Vasily July 17, 1610 was dethroned. After the overthrow of Shuisky, an interregnum began in Moscow. The time of the "seven boyars" began.

В September 1610 Moscow, with the consent of the boyars, was occupied by the Polish army.

В December 1610 False Dmitry II was killed in Kaluga.

I The Zemstvo militia was heterogeneous in composition. Consisting of nobles and boyar children, headed by the Ryazan governor Prokopy Lyapunov.

On the other hand - Cossacks, whose leaders were former Tushino "boyars". June 30, 1611 issued a decree on the composition and work of the new zemstvo government. It included princes D. Trubetskoy, I. Zarutsky and P. Lyapunov. Due to controversy in the I government, the militia disintegrated.

Nizhny Novgorod became the center of the II Zemsky militia. His headman Kuzma Minin в September 1611, urged fellow citizens to help the Moscow state. The head of the zemstvo militia invited the stolnik and voivode prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky.

In October, the militias entered Moscow.

On February 21, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor solemnly proclaimed Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov the Russian Tsar.

9. Development of Russia after the Time of Troubles. Peasant war led by Stepan Razin

After the Time of Troubles and the economic crisis, Russia had to restore the destroyed economy. Agriculture remained subsistence. Only a small part of the production was sold on the market. There were several forms of exploitation of the peasantry: corvée, natural and cash dues.

Handicrafts developed actively. Wage labor began to be used in large craft workshops. The all-Russian market was formed.

One after another, uprisings broke out:

1) 1648-1650 - uprisings swept over 20 cities of Russia;

2) 1650 BC - a riot in Pskov and Novgorod, in which archers also took part;

3) 1666 BC - copper riot in Moscow. It began due to the fact that the government began to mint worthless copper money instead of silver.

Causes of the peasant war:

1) strengthening of autocracy;

2) the growth of the state apparatus;

3) increase in the tax burden;

4) enslavement of peasants, etc.

The flight of the peasants, their attack on the feudal lords, numerous urban uprisings were the prerequisites for the peasant war.

В 1666 BC A campaign of Cossacks led by ataman Vasily Us from the Don through Voronezh to Tula took place. This campaign stirred up the masses. AT 1667 Stepan Razin made trips to the Volga and Lik, and in 1668-1669 - across the Caspian Sea to Persia. In the summer of 1669, moving along the western coast of the Caspian Sea, Razin returned through Astrakhan to the Don to the Kagalnitsky town.

В 1669-1670 Stenka Razin's uprising grew into a peasant war. It was headed by Stepan Razin, Vasily Us and Fedor Sheludyak.

Lettom 1670 BC the rebels occupied the entire lower and middle reaches of the Volga from Astrakhan to Simbirsk. It was not possible to take Simbirsk: in the battle, Razin's detachments were defeated, and he himself was wounded and captured (executed summer 1671). The rebels were finally defeated only by November 1671when Astrakhan was taken. The reasons for the defeat of Razin consisted in the spontaneity of his movement, fragmentation in the troops, disorganization and the complete absence of a program of action.

10. Russia in the XVII century. Domestic and foreign policy. culture

With the king Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) the royal power is strengthened. The Council Code limited church and monastic land ownership. Patriarch Nikon carried out church reform. Tsar and Cathedral 1654 BC supported church reform. They helped Nikon in the fight against the opposition, led by the archpriest Habakkuk.

Troops maintained at the expense of the state treasury. These innovations allowed Russia to successfully wage war against Poland. The beginning of this war was associated with the accession of the Left-bank Ukraine to the Muscovite state. Only the intervention of the Swedes, who sought to prevent the Russians from reaching the Baltic Sea, did not allow them to achieve a complete victory.

В 1656 BC the war with Sweden began. But in 1661 Russia had to make peace with Sweden.

The XNUMXth century can be called the beginning of a new period in the history of Russian culture.

В 1634 BC a primer was published V. Burtseva, Grammar of Meletius Smotrytsky.

В 1687 BC opened the Slavic-Greek-Latin School, later called the Academy.

At the turn of the XVI and XVII centuries. a general map of the state appeared.

The events of the beginning of the century prompted princes and boyars, nobles and townspeople, monks and priests to take up the pen. A satirical genre appears: "The ABC of a naked and poor man", "Service to a tavern", "The Tale of Shemyakin's Court".

Stone architecture, interrupted by the Time of Troubles, is reborn with 1620s. The walls and towers of the Kremlin are being restored in Moscow. Tent churches and cathedrals are being built. The famous complexes of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, Joseph-Volokolamsk, Novodevichy, Simonov, Spaso-Efimev, and New Jerusalem monasteries are being designed. By the end of the century, the Moscow Baroque style was emerging.

In the visual arts, the Stronovskaya school, with its small, calligraphic writing, the finest drawing of details, is developing.

11. Petrovsky transformations (1689-1725). Socio-economic and administrative reforms

At the very beginning of the century, a huge number of factories were opened.

Metallurgy comes first.

Peter pursued a protectionist policy towards Russian industry. As a result of the measures taken, Russia's dependence on imports has been significantly reduced.

The population was divided into guilds:

1) the first guild included doctors, pharmacists, painters, skippers, jewelers;

2) the second guild included poorer artisans and merchants;

3) the third group consisted of merchants and owners of manufactories.

According to the reforms of Peter I with 1699 BC the population of the cities was controlled by the City Hall in the capital and the zemstvo huts in the field.

Under Peter I, the composition of the nobility changed. In his ranks, according to official merit and the royal salary, many people from other classes entered.

The old generation of nobles, who were divided into duma, metropolitan and provincial ranks, was replaced by a new official division, which, according to Peter, should have come from the principle of length of service, suitability. The Petrovsky Table of Ranks, published on January 24, 1722, finally fixed the principle of official length of service. The new law of Peter divided the service into military and civil.

In 1699, the Boyar Duma was replaced by the Close Chancellery of eight confidants of the tsar. In 1711, the Senate was created, which has judicial, administrative, managerial and legislative powers.

Fiscal positions were introduced.

The Senate directed all institutions in the country. The Senate itself was also under control.

New colleges were formed:

1) Military;

2) Admiral's;

3) Chamber Board;

4) Justice College;

5) Auditor Board;

6) Commerce College;

7) Staff-offices-board;

8) Berg-manufactory-board.

Adjacent to the collegiums was the Synod, the central body for managing church affairs and estates, established in 1721.

В 1708-1710 Peter divided the country into eight provinces:

1) Moscow;

2) Ingrian;

3) Kievskaya;

4) Smolensk;

5) Kazan;

6) Azov;

7) Arkhangelsk;

8) Siberian.

Then Voronezhskaya was added to them. Each of them was headed by a governor. By 1719, the number of provinces had increased to 11.

12. Great embassy. Foreign policy in the era of the reign of Peter I

The Great Embassy was formed by Peter I in 1697 BC Admiral headed the embassy F. Ya. Leforta. The official purpose of the embassy was to reaffirm the alliance directed against Turkey and Crimea. The tsar and the embassy got acquainted with European industry, in particular with shipbuilding and observatories. More than 800 craftsmen of various specialties were hired to work in Russia.

After the Great Embassy, the direction of foreign policy changes.

August 8, 1700 an armistice was signed with Turkey.

August 9, 1700 Peter I declared war on Sweden. The struggle for access to the Baltic began.

Peter, from the end of the 30th century, began to form regiments of the regular army. XNUMX infantry soldier regiments were created, of which three divisions were formed. Colonels and junior officers were exclusively foreigners - Poles, Swedes, Germans.

November 18, 1700 The Russian army was defeated near Narva. AT October The Noteburg fortress was taken at the source of the Neva. In the spring of the following year, the garrison of Nyenschantz, a fortress at the mouth of the Neva, surrendered.

16 May 1703 Peter I founded the fortress of St. Petersburg, the future capital of Russia.

In 1704, Russia signed an alliance treaty with the Commonwealth: the parties pledged to wage war with Sweden and not conclude a separate peace with it.

Battle of Poltava (June 27, 1709) ended with the complete victory of the Russian army over the Swedes.

November 10, 1710 Turkey declared war on Russia. March 6, 1711 Peter I left for the army. On July 10, the Russian army entered Moldova, where the Turkish offensive was repulsed, but Russia's position was very difficult.

Peter convened a council of war, at which it was proposed that the Turks begin negotiations. Two messengers were sent to them. For two days in the camp of the Russian Tsar, soldiers, generals, officers did not close their eyes, waiting for further events.

July 12, 1710 The parties signed a peace treaty. According to its terms, Turkey received Azov, in addition, Russia was forced to promise to destroy the fortresses of Taganrog on the Sea of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbAzov and Kamenny Zaton on the Dnieper.

More significant were the Russian victories in the Baltics. At the beginning of 1712, near Stralsund and Wismar, the Russian army defeated the Swedes; in January 1713, the Swedes were again defeated near Friedrichstadt. On July 27, 1714, the Russian fleet defeated a large Swedish squadron at Cape Gangut.

13. Russia during the reign of Catherine I, Peter II, Anna Ioannovna

Peter I died January 28, 1725without appointing a successor. The question of the heir to the throne was to be decided by the Senate, the Synod and the generals. When deciding on the heir to Peter I, opinions and voices were divided:

1) the old nobility wanted the accession of little Peter, the son of Tsarevich Alexei;

2) the nobles, headed by A. D. Menshikov and P. A. Tolstoy, wanted to proclaim the widow of Peter I, Catherine, as empress.

The Senate proclaimed Empress Catherine, who was crowned in 1724 BC In fact, the ruler of the state became A. D. Menshikov.

In May 1727, Catherine died and Peter II Alekseevich ascended the throne. The princes Dolgoruky gained great influence on the emperor, and Menshikov and his family were exiled to Siberia. AT January 1730 Peter II became seriously ill and died.

Members of the Supreme Privy Council invited the Dowager Duchess of Courland to the Russian throne, Anna Ivanovna (daughter of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich).

On February 15, 1730, Anna solemnly entered Moscow, and the oath was taken to her. The Empress abolished the Council and created a cabinet "for the best and most orderly administration of all state affairs."

Under the new empress, the Baltic Germans occupied many positions in diplomacy. The first place in the state was taken by the favorite of Anna Ioannovna, chief chamberlain von Biron.

Russian nobles, especially from the old nobility, were not only relegated to the background, but also subjected to direct cruel persecution, executions, exile, imprisonment in the fortress befell the princes Dolgoruky and Golitsyn, the cabinet minister A.P. Volynsky was executed.

В 1736 BC a law was issued that significantly limited the official service of the nobility imposed on it by Peter the Great. Even earlier in 1731 BC the government of Anna Ioannovna returned to the nobility the right to dispose of estates, limited by the law of Peter I on single inheritance.

To improve the economic condition of the landowners in 1734 BC opened a state loan bank.

In October 1740 BC Empress Anna died, appointing her two-month-old grandson John as heir to the throne.

14. Russia during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna and Peter III

On the night of November 25, 1741, with the support of the guards officers, Elizabeth made a palace coup and was proclaimed empress. The young Emperor John was exiled to the North of Russia.

During the reign of Elizabeth, one of the most important economic reforms was carried out - the abolition of internal customs (by decree December 20, 1753).

The main event of foreign policy under Elizabeth was the participation of Russia in the war (which began in 1756) against Frederick II of Prussia. In 1757, Russian troops entered Prussia to help Austria, oppressed by Frederick.

In 1759, the Russian army, together with the Austrian troops, practically destroyed the Prussian army.

Empress Elizabeth had no children, so in 1742 she appointed her nephew Duke of Schleswig-Holstein Karl Peter Ulrich as heir to the throne, after which the latter, having converted to Orthodoxy, became known as Peter Fedorovich. The Empress decided to marry him to the princess of Anhalt-Zerbst. In 1744, the wedding took place, and the princess received the name Catherine.

At the end of 1761, Elizabeth died, and Peter III. His reign was short. Under him, a manifesto was issued on the release of the nobility from compulsory military service. He caused general dissatisfaction with his admiration for the recent enemy of Russia, Frederick of Prussia, the introduction of Prussian drill into the guards.

In favor of Catherine, a group of guards officers plotted against Peter III, and on the night of June 28, 1762 Catherine, accompanied by officers, appeared in the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment, then from there moved to the barracks of the Semenovsky regiment, then to the Kazan Cathedral, where she was proclaimed empress. After that, the procession moved to the Winter Palace, where a manifesto was drawn up on Elizabeth's accession to the throne. Peter III finally lost heart, returned to Oranienbaum and signed the act of abdication (June 29, 1762). A week later, Peter III was killed by his wife's close associates.

15. Russian culture of the XNUMXth century

В XVIII century. The development of Russian culture was determined by the fundamental socio-economic reforms of Peter I.

В 1725 BC The Academy of Sciences appeared in St. Petersburg, with a university and a gymnasium attached to it. AT 1755 I. I. Shuvalov и MV Lomonosov founded Moscow University. AT 1757 BC Academy of Fine Arts opened.

They began to draw up maps ("Atlas of the Russian Empire" (1734)). Opened the Kunstkamera.

At that time, such Russian scientists as M. V. Lomonosov, M. V. Severin, S. P. Krashennikov, I. I. Lepekhin lived and worked.

In the middle of the XVIII century. Classicism is established in Russian literature. The ancestor of classicism in Russia is A. D. Kantemir. Russian classicism is represented by the names of A. P. Sumarokov, M. M. Kheraskov, V. I. Maikov, Ya. B. Knyazhnin.

They erected the bell tower of the cathedral in the Peter and Paul Fortress, the building of the colleges, the Tauride Palace, the Winter Palace, the cathedral of the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, the Pashkov House in Moscow, the Senate building in the Kremlin.

The basis in Russian painting was - V. L. Borovikovsky, D. G. Levitsky, F. S. Rokotov.

В 1756 BC Petersburg was the first professional theater in Russia.

In June 1762 Catherine II became empress.

Declaring herself the successor of Peter I, Catherine called her reign "enlightened absolutism."

In 1767, the Legislative Commission met in St. Petersburg, whose task was to revise Russian laws. However, the commission did not justify the hopes of the empress and was dissolved under the pretext of the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish war.

One of the main reforms of Catherine II was the reform of the Senate. She divided the Senate into six departments with different functions. The role of the Senate was reduced to an administrative-executive one.

For the same purpose, in 1764, local self-government, the hetmanate, was liquidated in Ukraine. The Little Russian Collegium was created.

В 1775 BC provincial reform was carried out. Each province was headed by a governor.

Under Catherine II, the alliance of the nobility with state power was significantly strengthened. On April 21, 1785, Catherine issued a Letter of Complaint, which expanded the personal privileges of the nobility:

1) nobles could only be judged by their class court;

2) were exempted from all taxes and corporal punishment;

3) received the right to engage in trade, establish factories and factories on their land.

16. Russian economy in the second half of the XVIII century

Second half of the 18th century. - this is the time of the beginning of the gradual formation of the capitalist structure.

In the second half of the XVIII century. manufacturing industry developed rapidly. The number of enterprises using civilian labor has increased sharply.

In addition, the government in every possible way contributed to the development of trade. In 1754 all internal customs were abolished. Freedom of trade in agricultural products was also declared.

Merchants had significant privileges.

In 1754, three large state-owned banks were created, including the Noble and Merchant banks. Later, "signature banks" were created in St. Petersburg.

Government Catherine II withdrew troops from Prussian territory.

The Russian empress and the Prussian king concluded in St. 1764 BC union agreement.

В 1768 BC Turkish Sultan Mustafa declared war on Russia.

В 1772 BC The first partition of the Commonwealth took place.

July 10, 1774 A peace treaty was signed in Kuchuk-Kaynardzhi. Moved to Russia:

1) land between the Dnieper and the Bug;

2) Azov at the mouth of the Don;

3) Kerch and Yenikale at the tip of the Crimea;

4) Kinburn at the entrance to the Dnieper Bug Estuary;

5) in the North Caucasus, lands up to the Kuban, Kabarda.

April 8, 1783 The government of Catherine II included Crimea (Tavrida) into Russia. IN August 1787 Turkey, having demanded the return of the Crimea and received a refusal, again declared war on Russia. Its troops and fleet attacked Kinburn, but were defeated by the army of A. V. Suvorov. AT 1788 BC army G. A. Potemkina took Ochakov by storm.

By 1788, the Russians occupied Akkerman, Bender, and Gadzhibey Fort.

October 22, 1791 between Turkey and Russia in Iasi, a peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia received land in Right-Bank Ukraine.

17. Emelyan Pugachev's uprising

В 1760. the government introduced a state monopoly on fishing and salt mining on Yaik. This caused discontent among the Cossacks. AT late 1771 a commission arrived on Yaik under the leadership of a major general M. M. von Traubenberg.

The following year, the Cossacks rose under the banner Peter III Fedorovich. The most famous impostor was the Don Cossack Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev.

В September 1773 Pugachev headed up the Yaik to Orenburg - the center of the border line of fortresses, an important strategic point in the southeast of the country. Pugachev took the Tatishchev fortress by storm. In early October, his army approached Orenburg, assaults and battles began under the walls of the city. The camp of the rebels was located near Orenburg in the Berdskaya Sloboda. Here Pugachev and his accomplices created the Military Board - the highest authority and management of military and civil affairs.

The uprising swept: the Southern and Middle Urals, Western Siberia, Bashkiria, the Volga region, the Don.

The authorities gathered regiments and sent them to Orenburg. In the Tatishcheva fortress, a general battle took place between the forces of Pugachev and the army of General M. M. Golitsina. After the defeat, Pugachev withdrew the remaining forces from Orenburg. But near the Samara town, M. M. Golitsin again defeated the rebels. Pugachev withdrew to Bashkiria, then to the South Urals. The rebel detachments of Salavat Yulaev operated here. Pugachev's detachment captured several factories, then occupied the Trinity Fortress. But here he was defeated by I.P. de Colong.

Pugachev went to Zlatoust. AT May 1774 he several times entered into battle with the army of I. I. Michelson but was defeated. Yulaev and Pugachev, joining their forces, moved west to the Volga.

Pugachev crossed the Volga with 2 men and moved west. In the Right Bank, Pugachev's detachment was replenished with several thousand people and began to move south along the right bank of the Volga. Pugachev occupied Penza, Saratov, began the siege of Tsaritsyn, but the approaching corps of Michelson threw the rebels to the southeast. At the end of August 1774, the last battle took place near Cherny Yar, in which Pugachev suffered a final defeat.

He, with a small group of people, went to the left bank of the Volga, where he was betrayed by the Cossacks. AT September 1774 Pugachev was brought to the Budarinsky outpost.

January 10, 1775 Pugachev and his associates were executed on Bolotnaya Square.

18. Socio-economic development of Russia in the first quarter of the XIX century. Reforms 1801-1811

Early XNUMXth century was marked by a palace coup. On the night of 11 to 12 March 1801 emperor Paul I was strangled, and his son, a participant in the conspiracy, ascended the throne. In your manifest Alexander I announced to the people that his father had died of apoplexy.

В July 1801 the emperor created and headed the Secret Committee, which included P. A. Stroganov, V. P. Kochubey, N. N. Novosiltsev.

December 12, 1801 A decree was issued allowing merchants, philistines and state peasants to buy land as property.

Decree - "On free cultivators" dated February 20, 1803 - allowed landowners to release peasants with land for ransom.

September 8, 1802 In order to strengthen the central government, eight ministries were created instead of colleges:

1) foreign affairs;

2) military land affairs;

3) naval affairs;

4) justice;

5) internal affairs;

6) finance;

7) commerce;

8) public education.

September 8, 1802 Alexander I signed the Decree on the rights of the Senate, which was declared the highest administrative and judicial body. Since 1802 to 1804 the entire system of educational institutions was restructured. As a result, the education system consisted of four links:

1) one-year parish school;

2) a two-year county school;

3) provincial school (gymnasium);

4) university.

In addition, there were lyceums, institutes, military schools.

The university charter of 1804 granted autonomy to all universities for the first time.

By the end of 1809, Speransky drew up a plan for reforming the Russian Empire - "Introduction to the Code of State Laws." The essence of the project was to transform feudal-serf Russia into a legal bourgeois state. The issue of the abolition of serfdom as an indispensable condition for preventing a revolution was also considered.

According to the draft constitution developed by Speransky, the entire population of the state was divided into three estates:

1) nobility;

2) merchants, petty bourgeois, state peasants;

3) "working people" - landlord peasants, artisans, servants.

The first two estates received political rights. Power in the country was proposed to be divided into:

1) legislative;

2) executive;

3) judicial.

The Senate was to become the supreme body of judicial power, the executive - ministries, and the legislative - the State Duma. The State Council was established as an advisory body under the tsar.

Of his major projects, only one was implemented: January 1, 1810 Council of State was established.

19. Foreign policy of Alexander I. Patriotic war of 1812. Campaign of the Russian army in 1813-1815

The most important task of Russia's foreign policy in early 19th century. was a containment of French expansion in Europe.

Alexander signed in Tilsit unfavorable for Russia Russian-French treaty of peace, friendship and alliance (July 1807). Russia recognized all the conquests of France, entered into an alliance with her and joined the continental blockade of England.

Russia was at war with Iran and Turkey. Russo-Iranian War (1804-1813) ended with a Russian victory. Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812) also ended with the victory of the Russian army. And according to the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 16 May 1812 Russia ceded Bessarabia, Abkhazia and part of Georgia.

After making peace with Napoleon, Alexander went to war with Sweden. (1808-1809). As a result, Finland went to Russia, which became part of Russia as an autonomous principality.

June 12, 1812 Napoleon at the head of his army invaded the territory of Russia. He hoped to defeat the Russian armies and impose peace on Russia on his own terms. The Russian army was headed by: M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration, A. P. Tormasov.

Following the plan of M. B. Barclay de Tolly, the Russian army immediately began to retreat. Napoleon's plan was thwarted, he continued the attack on Moscow in the hope of a general battle. Russian society was dissatisfied. This forced the emperor to appoint commander-in-chief M. I. Kutuzova.

26 of August A battle took place near the village of Borodino near Moscow.

on September 1 A military council was held in the village of Fili, where it was decided to leave Moscow to Napoleon, thereby preserving the Russian army.

on September 2 Napoleon entered Moscow. Due to lack of food, he decided to leave the Russian capital. Kutuzov was preparing for a counteroffensive, which he launched 6 October.

12 October The battle took place at Maloyaroslavets. The onset of severe frosts and famine turned the French retreat into a flight.

December 25, 1812 the manifesto of Alexander I announced the victorious end of the Patriotic War.

January 1, 1813 The Russian army crossed the Neman.

October 4-6, 1813 the battle of Leipzig, the so-called Battle of the Nations, took place. Soon the allied troops entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to the island of Elba.

28 May 1815 During the Congress of Vienna, the Final Act was signed, according to which Russia received Bessarabia, Finland and the territory of the former Duchy of Warsaw.

June 6, 1815 the Battle of Waterloo took place. Napoleon was once again defeated and sent to Saint Helena.

20. Transition to reactionary politics. Arakcheevshchina

1815-1825 entered the history of Russia under the name "Arakcheevshchina". The restoration of the country after the war with the French was carried out at the expense of the peasants. Fearing uprisings, the tsar resorted to liberal measures. He promised to introduce a constitution in Russia and instructed Arakcheev to draw up a plan for the liberation of the peasants. Nevertheless, a harsh reaction existed in Russia from 1820 until the end of the reign of Alexander I. The main manifestation of the reactionary regime was brutal terror.

But under Alexander I, military settlements were created. The goals of this innovation were to reduce the cost of the army, as well as to create an effective means for the rapid suppression of peasant uprisings. The state peasants were transferred by the counties to the position of military settlers and had to combine army service with their usual duties.

The punitive policy was carried out in all spheres of the life of the state, including education. In 1817, the Ministry of Education was merged with the spiritual department and renamed the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education. At its head stood the prince A. N. Golitsyn. Russian universities were subject to revisions, many professors were expelled, some were put on trial.

The police regime was strengthened. Having destroyed the secret police in 1801, Alexander I 1805 BC established the Higher Police Committee, 1807 BC transformed into the Committee for the Protection of Public Safety. AT 1820 BC secret police were introduced into the army. All these measures were designed to prevent the emergence of new centers of the revolutionary movement. For the period from 1820 to 1825. there were thirteen unrest in various military units. One of them happened in 1820 in the Semyonovsky Guards Regiment in St. Petersburg.

The only liberal measure taken by Alexander I was the liberation of the peasants in the Baltic states without giving them land. The tsarist government supported the Baltic nobility. Once every three years, the nobles gathered for meetings - Landtags, where they discussed draft resolutions, which were subsequently considered by the government. At the Landtags, a collegium of landrats was elected, which dealt with the affairs of local government.

Restrictions on the amount of dues and corvee were abolished, landowners received the right to sell peasants and the right to exile them to Siberia.

21. Social movement in Russia in the first quarter of the XNUMXth century

The movement of the Decembrists took shape as early as 1814, when one after the other associations began to take shape, called pre-Decembrist ones:

1) "Order of Russian knights";

2) "Holy artel";

3) "Semenovskaya artel".

But they did not pose a serious threat to the state.

February 9, 1816 A secret organization called the Union of Salvation was established, whose goal was to abolish serfdom and replace autocracy with a constitutional monarchy. Because of the disagreements that arose, the "Union of Salvation" broke up, but instead of it in 1818 BC The Welfare Union was formed. Its participants decided to fight for the republic, choosing the tactics of a military revolution. Since 1821, secret revolutionary societies began to be created in Russia one after another.

One of these societies was the "Southern Society", under the leadership P. I. Pestel. Their program was Russkaya Pravda.

At the same time, the "Northern Society" was operating in St. Petersburg, headed by K. F. Ryleev, G. S. Batenkov, and the Bestuzhev brothers. Both societies agreed on the date of the performance - the summer of 1826, but due to the sudden death of Alexander I, the uprising was postponed to December 14, 1825

After the death of Alexander I, an interregnum arose. There were two pretenders to the throne:

1) Konstantin;

2) Nicholas.

Constantine renounced the throne, so the oath to Nicholas was scheduled for December 14th. The Decembrists decided to take advantage of the situation and December 14 at 11 am rebel troops gathered on the Senate Square. According to the plan, three detachments of the Decembrists were to capture the Winter Palace and arrest the new tsar, then seize the Peter and Paul Fortress and force the senators to recognize the coup.

But the Decembrist troops never dared to take decisive action. Artillery salvoes on the rebels put an end to the confrontation. After this, arrests of Decembrists began both in St. Petersburg and in the south of the country. The investigation into their case took place with the direct participation of Nicholas I, and he also passed the verdict. The trial was indicative in nature: P. I. Pestel, S. I. Muravyov, K. F. Ryleev, M. A. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P. G. Kakhovsky were sentenced to quartering, but Nicholas I commuted the sentence to execution by hanging. All other Decembrists were exiled.

22. Domestic policy of Russia in the second quarter of the XNUMXth century

A new form of government was introduced, called the military-bureaucratic. In 1826, by decree of Nicholas I, departments of the imperial office were formed. The 1832st department performed clerical services for the office. The second branch took up the legislation of the empire. The drafting of the legislative code was entrusted to M. M. Speransky. Two editions were issued: "The Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire" (1833) and "The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire" (XNUMX).

The main task of the III branch, which was headed by combat general A. Kh. Benckendorff, was the fight against dissent.

The new charter eliminated university independence.

Agriculture developed, as before, along an extensive path. Industry, too, could not be called successful, although there was a massive transition to machine production. The financial system of the state was in a difficult position. The War of 1812 created a huge budget deficit.

During the reign of Nicholas I, 9 secret committees were created that tried to solve the peasant issue. In 1835 a committee was set up to deal with the abolition of serfdom.

All Russian society was divided into appositions.

The liberal opposition movement was represented by the Slavophiles. Slavophilism was an ideological and political doctrine of the exclusivity and originality of the historical path of development of Russia. The Slavophiles proposed to abolish serfdom and limit the despotism of the tsar.

In opposition to Slavophilism was Westernism - the doctrine according to which the historical development of Russia should follow the European version. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to abolish serfdom, introduce a constitutional monarchy, guarantee the rights and freedoms of the individual.

The revolutionary movement was represented by revolutionary democrats, who were divided into moderates and radicals. The radicals took as a basis the theory of Russian socialism.

There was a change in values in Russian culture. So classicism was replaced by sentimentalism. The founder of which was Karamzin. The growing interest in human personality led to the formation of romanticism. This time is marked by the names of Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Lermontov, Aivazovsky, Glinka, Griboyedov, Gogol, etc.

Criticism is developing strongly (Belinsky).

Realism emerges.

23. Foreign policy of Russia in the second quarter of the XNUMXth century

In foreign policy Nicholas I adhered to the principle of peaceful coexistence with neighboring states. Since Russia was a member of the Holy Alliance, she was directly involved in a number of military campaigns, along with England and France. Yes, in 1827-1829 Allied countries by force stopped Turkey's military operations against the Greeks. In 1833, a situation arose as a result of which Russia gained great influence in the Balkans. In particular, Turkey turned to Russia for help in the fight against the Egyptian Pasha. Russia sent its fleet to defend the Bosphorus. The matter did not come to military action, since European diplomacy managed to persuade the rebels to submit to the Sultan. But Turkey concluded an agreement with Russia, under which Russia undertook to "lock" the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles for the passage of foreign ships.

European diplomacy achieved the establishment of a common protectorate of five powers over Turkey:

1) Russia;

2) England;

3) Austria;

4) France;

5) Prussia.

Since that time, Russia's influence in the Balkans began to decline rapidly. The Nikolaev policy of interference in all European affairs caused discontent and opposition from such states as England and France. The latter began to support Turkey on a number of foreign policy issues. The outbreak of conflict between the Turks and Greeks led to hostilities 1853 BC, in which Emperor Nicholas opposed the powerful coalition of England, France and Turkey in hostilities, Austria and Prussia - in diplomatic. Crimean War 1853-1856 showed the failure of the entire Nikolaev system. The well-trained and most numerous army in the world could not cope even with the 60th Anglo-French expeditionary corps that landed in the Crimea. The vast majority of the Russian army protected the landlords from the peasants and watched the country's endless borders, not connected by railways, and therefore was not mobile. Russia at the very beginning of the war lost its fleet, having sunk it in the Bay of Sevastopol, since the sails could not compete with the steam engines of English ships. The defeat of Russia turned out to be unconditional and natural. During the unfolding battle of Sevastopol, Nicholas I died.

24. Prerequisites for the peasant reform of 1861. The abolition of serfdom

The objective prerequisites for the reform 1861 BC were economic processes.

Alexander II to carry out the reform "from above" creates a Committee of the high-ranking elite. Eventually February 19, 1861 Alexander II approved all legislative acts concerning the abolition of serfdom. Among them stood out:

1) "General Regulations on the Peasants Who Have Emerged from Serfdom", proclaiming the abolition of serfdom and the general conditions for this abolition;

2) "Regulations on the organization of courtyard people who have emerged from serfdom."

All rights and obligations common to peasants were legally enshrined in the Manifesto and Regulations on February 19, 1861. The peasants received the rights of a legal entity:

1) conclude contracts, assume obligations and contracts;

2) the right to carry out "free trade" without trade certificates and without payment of duties;

3) open shops, factories and other industrial and craft establishments;

4) the right to participate in gatherings, draw up worldly sentences, participate in elections to public positions as voters and elected;

5) move to other classes, be recruited or simply enter the military service, leave the place of residence;

6) the right to enter general educational institutions.

Zemstvo reform - January 1, 1864 "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" were approved.

В June 1870 approved "City Regulations".

"Judicial Statutes" and Decree on Judicial Reform of November 20, 1864 made the court public, introduced the principle of adversarial proceedings and jury trial. New judiciary appeared.

The result of the military reform was the Charter on military service from January 1, 1874, which instead of recruiting introduced universal military service for the male population after 21 years.

By the 1870s the capitalist system of economy began to supplant all others. The peasants began to rent land from the landowners and paid for it in money or working off. The labor system of the economy became transitional from corvée to capitalist.

The peasant reform stimulated the development of industry. The rise of agriculture contributed to the creation of demand for industrial products.

25. Foreign policy of Russia during the reign of Alexander II

As a result of Turkey's support, Russia achieved the lifting of the ban on keeping the navy on the Black Sea and building warships there. From that moment on, the eastern question comes to the fore, aggravated due to the successful advance of Russia in Central Asia in the 1860s-1870s. Yes, in 1868 BC Russia put the Kokand Khanate under its control. Following him, the Emir of Bukhara signed an agreement with Russia. AT 1873 BC The Khanate of Khiva capitulated. On the educated lands, Russia created the Turkmen Governor-General with its center in Tashkent. At the end of the 1870s. began an offensive against the Turkmen tribes. As a result of long hostilities, in May 1881, the Trans-Caspian region was formed with the center in Ashgabat.

В 1873 BC Russia and Austria-Hungary signed a political convention, to which Germany joined. As a result, the so-called "Union of the Three Emperors" took shape in Europe. The conclusion of the "Union" meant Russia's exit from international isolation.

In the summer of 1875, the Slavic peoples of Turkey revolted because of the Sultan's refusal to equalize the rights of the Christian population with the Muslims. When the war between Serbia and Montenegro and Turkey began (July 1876), Russian officers joined the Serbian army, and Russian society supplied weapons and food there.

Alexander II had to declare war on Turkey.

April 12, 1877 hostilities began. They did not last long, and after the victories of the Russian troops, Russia and Turkey signed a peace treaty (February 1878). According to the San Stefano Peace Treaty, Turkey recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and also transferred the fortresses of Ardagan, Kars and Batum to Russia. An independent Bulgarian principality was also created in the Balkans.

Russia's leadership in the Balkans did not suit Austria-Hungary, and under its pressure, Russia was forced to submit the treaty for international consideration, which took place at the Berlin Congress in June-July 1878. There, the San Stefano peace treaty was changed. Austria-Hungary got the opportunity to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, Turkey got back part of the territories. The Berlin Congress meant a diplomatic defeat for Russia.

26. Russia during the reign of Alexander III the Peacemaker. "Counter-reforms" of the 1890s

Recovering from the murder of his father, Alexander III began to pursue his tough policy.

From 1886 to 1894, counter-reform projects were being developed. Fearing overthrow, he began to pursue a policy of centralization of power, the abolition of democratic reforms, an increase in the gendarmerie, and even created an organization to combat revolutionaries and terror. Strict censorship introduced.

During the reign of Alexander III, not a single war was fought, for which he received the nickname Peacemaker. AT June 1881 the signing of the new Austro-Russian-German "Union of the Three Emperors" took place. The Triple Alliance was formed.

August 27, 1891 A Russian-French secret agreement was signed, which provided for joint action in the event of an attack on one of the parties.

The last Russian emperor Nicholas II saw his task in preserving the autocracy unchanged.

The tsarist autocracy pursued a frank Russification policy towards Poland, Finland and the Caucasus. Under these conditions, a revolutionary explosion was inevitable.

To the beginning XX century. Russia was an agrarian-industrial country. It was one of the five most developed industrial countries in the world.

To the beginning XX century. Mechanical engineering and metallurgy became established.

В 1893 BC there was a strong industrial boom.

S. Yu. Witte, M. I. Bunge and others were convinced that Russia needed a consistent economic program. In accordance with it, the following activities were carried out:

1) a strict tax policy was pursued;

2) the government pursued a policy of protectionism;

3) in 1897 BC the currency reform was carried out.

В 1900 BC the global economic crisis began, which dealt a serious blow to the Russian economy. He hit mechanical engineering and metallurgy with the greatest force. All types of monopolies existed in Russia:

1) cartels;

2) syndicates;

3) trusts;

4) concerns.

Agriculture provided half of the national income. The main features of the development of agriculture were:

1) the growth of commercial entrepreneurial agriculture;

2) specialization of individual economic regions of the country.

27. Russo-Japanese War

At the turn of the century, the contradictions between the capitalist countries on the question of the division of the world escalated. At this time, two world groupings are being formed:

1) Entente (Russia, England and France);

2) Triple alliance (Germany, Italy and Austria).

At the same time, the knot of contradictions was located not only in Europe, but also in the Pacific Ocean. Of particular interest was the Liaodong Peninsula in view of the military-strategic importance of Port Arthur. AT 1896 BC a Russian-Chinese treaty on a defensive alliance against Japan was concluded, and in 1898 BC - lease agreement for the Liaodong Peninsula for 25 years. This pushed Japan to war with Russia.

Russia was completely unprepared for war, not only diplomatically, but also in military-technical terms. To January 1904 Russian troops in the Pacific were more than three times inferior in number to the Japanese.

January 27, 1904 the Japanese squadron suddenly attacked the Russian troops in Port Arthur. Russian ships were not ready to attack, and several ships were seriously damaged. In February, a talented naval commander S. O. Makarov, who led the Pacific squadron, managed to take control of Port Arthur in his own hands. He began combat exercises, arranged military supplies, and to summer of 1904 Port Arthur was heavily fortified, but the Japanese continued their unsuccessful siege.

Defeats followed one after another: in August near Liaoyang, in September on the Shahe River. On December 20, 1904, an act was signed on the surrender of Port Arthur. The Russian fleet was destroyed.

В 1905 BC two of the biggest battles in world history took place:

1) Mukden - on land;

2) Tsushima - at sea.

The battle of Mukden took place in February 1905 and ended with the retreat of the Russian army, which suffered heavy losses. In May, there was a battle near the island of Tsushima. Russian squadron under the command of Admiral Z. P. Rozhdestvensky was completely destroyed. This marked the end of the war. With the mediation of the United States, peace negotiations began, which ended with the signing of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty. According to it, Russia lost access to the Pacific Ocean, as well as the southern part of Sakhalin Island, part of the CER, Korea became the sphere of influence of Japan.

28. First Russian Revolution 1905-1907

internal political crisis in 1905 BC was caused by the exacerbation of social contradictions, as well as the unfavorable consequences of the Russo-Japanese war. A revolution has begun in the country. The immediate beginning of the revolutionary events can be considered the execution of a demonstration of workers who staged a peaceful procession to the Winter Palace to petition for needs January 9, 1905 The priest was the initiator G. A. Gapon. Initially spontaneous, the movement became more focused and organized. A peasant union is formed. One of the most striking events was the uprising on the battleship "Potemkin" in July 1905. The peak of revolutionary activity falls at the end of 1905, when the strike that broke out in Moscow grew into the All-Russian October political strike (October 12-18). During the strike, workers' councils arose, which in fact turned into alternative authorities. By December, the strike had grown into a real war.

The main tasks of the revolution can be considered:

1) carrying out economic reforms;

2) replacement of the monarchical system with a democratic one;

3) provision of political freedoms;

4) the destruction of estates, isolation and inequality of different segments of the population.

In the conditions of a gradual loss of control over the situation, Nicholas II was forced to sign October 17, 1905 a manifesto that granted the population inviolability of the person, freedom of speech, conscience, assembly and unions.

Elections to the First State Duma were held in February-March 1906

The main parties that emerged after October 17, 1905, the following parties emerged:

1) Constitutional Democratic (cadets, leaders - Prince P. D. Dolgorukov;

2) The Union of October 17 (Octobrists, leaders - D.N. Shikov, from October 1906 - A.I. Guchkov).

These parties can be attributed to the liberal movement.

There were also socialist parties: the RSDLP (V. I. Lenin), the Socialist-Revolutionaries (V. M. Chernov).

Monarchist parties were: SRN (Ya. I. Dubrovin) and the Union of Michael the Archangel.

The First Duma included 179 Cadets, 17 Octobrists, 18 Social Democrats, 63 autonomists, 97 members of the labor peasant group, 105 non-party members. The Duma was dissolved 8 June the same year, and the soon elected II State Duma lasted from February 20 by June 2, 1907

On June 3, 1907, the "Third of June Monarchy" regime was established. 2/3 of the seats in the Duma were received by representatives of the bourgeoisie and farmers.

On July 26, 1914, most of the parties spoke in favor of abandoning their own activities.

29. Stolypin reform 1906-1917

One of the most notable events in the domestic policy of the Russian Empire between the two revolutions was the reforms P. A. Stolypin. The long overdue agrarian reform became necessary after the revolutionary events of 1905. Its development and implementation are associated with the name of P.A.

November 3, 1905 - the manifesto of Nicholas II on the abolition of redemption payments to their complete abolition from January 1907 marked the beginning of agrarian reforms. P. A. Stolypin sought to create in the Russian countryside a layer of prosperous peasantry capable of becoming the mainstay of the state, and since the solution of the peasant issue at the expense of landowners' lands was recognized as impossible, the main stake was placed on the destruction of the community.

The process of agrarian reform was initiated by the Decree of November 9, 1906 on peasant land ownership, the provisions of which were enshrined in the law of July 20, 1910. Under this decree, the peasants received the right to withdraw from the community, and the consent of the community gathering became optional. Peasants leaving the community were given ownership of all the lands that were in their allotment use, and the peasant could combine cut strips of land in one place, "go out to the cut", and also create a farm, that is, a farm. AT 1907 BC The peasant bank received part of the lands of the royal family, through which the landlords could sell part of their land holdings. The bank contributed to the accumulation of land in the hands of the rural bourgeoisie on the most favorable terms for the landowners.

For ten years, from 1906 by 1916, about 26% of all community members (over 2 million peasant households) took advantage of the opportunity to leave the community, but still the majority of rural owners remained in the community. For the period from 1906 by 1916 Mainly rich and enterprising peasants created 1 million cuts and 2 farms.

Separately, the agrarian reform included the massive resettlement of former communal peasants to the eastern regions of the country. Over 3 million peasants moved to Siberia from 1906 by 1914, and 2 million of them remained in the new place. However, about 5% of the settlers returned, joining the army of the weak-willed.

The reform was not completed 1911 BC P. A. Stolypin was killed in Kyiv by the provocateur D. Bogrov), but nevertheless she contributed to the transition of the countryside to the capitalist path of development.

30. Beginning of the First World War

The reason for the war was the murder June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The main cause of the First World War was the contradiction between the colonial powers. Germany sought to conquer England. The basis of Germany's strategic plan was the Schlieffen Plan, designed for quick and decisive measures. The Russian headquarters developed 2 plans. On July 30, she announced a general mobilization.

On July 31, Germany demanded that Russia cancel the decision to mobilize and, without receiving a direct answer, 1 of August declared war on her. On August 2, France announced its support for Russia, which in turn was supported by England.

3 of August Germany declared war on France and Belgium 4 of August Great Britain declared war on Germany;

6 of August Russia received an official declaration of war from Austria-Hungary.

Starting in Europe, the war very quickly developed into a world war, covering 38 states.

Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich was appointed supreme commander in chief. In the first weeks of August 1914, the Entente troops on the Franco-Belgian border suffered a series of serious defeats. Responding to the call of the allies, Russian troops went on the offensive in East Prussia in mid-August.

On the Southwestern Front, simultaneously with the East Prussian operation, the Battle of Galicia took place.

On August 10, Germany sent the battlecruiser Gebek and the light cruiser Breslau to the Black Sea to support the Turkish fleet. Russia declared war on Turkey and defeated it.

Despite the success on the Caucasian front, the company 1915 BC was extremely unfortunate for Russia. Nevertheless, the plan of the German command was thwarted, and Russia was not withdrawn from the war.

In May - June 1916, as a result of the Brusilov breakthrough, when the defense of the Austro-German troops was broken through over 340 km to a depth of 120 km by the forces of the Southwestern Front under the command of General A. A. Brusilov, Austria-Hungary faced the reality of defeat . In the war, an obvious advantage began in the direction of the Entente.

However, the unfavorable situation in Russia, which winter 1916-1917 form of a nationwide crisis, allows us to consider the First World War as the most important cause of events 1917 BC

31. February Revolution in Russia

Internal instability, dissatisfaction with the government in the context of the ongoing war, economic crisis and devastation led at the beginning 1917 BC to a revolutionary explosion in Petrograd. Commander of the Petrograd Military District General S. S. Khabalov could not put things in order, and in the evening February 26 there was a fundamental change in the balance of power. The soldiers of the battalion of the Life Guards of the Pavlovsky Regiment went over to the side of the revolutionary workers. And by March XNUMX, Moscow was already in the hands of the rebels.

On March 2, Nicholas II signed an act of abdication in favor of the younger brother of the Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich, who abdicated the throne the very next day, declaring the need to convene a Constituent Assembly.

In the morning February 27 The State Duma created a Provisional Committee headed by Chairman M. V. Rodzianko. At the same time, the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' Deputies was created. Both organizations created after the abdication of the emperor and the fall of the autocratic monarchy became real political forces in the country. Of the 12 members of the Provisional Government, 5 represented the Cadets, 2 - the Octobrists, 1 each - Progressives, Centrists and Trudoviks, 2 - were non-party. The Declaration of the Provisional Government, published on March 3, contained a program of broad democratic reforms. The country has developed a system of dual power. The power of the provisional government was formal.

Autumn 1917 the country was sharply marked by a political and socio-economic crisis. The provisional government lost support. Few people supported V. I. Lenin, since the opinion of G. E. Zinoviev and L. B. Kamenev about the peaceful development of the revolution prevailed in the party. But as soon as V. I. Lenin arrived in Petrograd, the Bolsheviks decided to support his course. On October 10, at a meeting of the Central Committee of the party, a plan for an armed uprising was adopted. Leading bodies for the preparation of the uprising were created:

1) Politburo (V. I. Lenin, I. V. Stalin);

2) Military Revolutionary Committee (VRK) (Ya. M. Sverdlov, M. S. Uritsky, I. V. Stalin, and others).

By the morning 25 October the Bolsheviks occupied railway stations, telegraph, bridges, power station, State Bank. At 10 am on October 25, Lenin wrote an appeal by the Military Revolutionary Committee "To the Citizens of Russia", which announced the overthrow of the Provisional Government and the transfer of power into the hands of the Military Revolutionary Committee.

On October 25, the Bolsheviks began to storm the Winter Palace, which housed the Provisional Government. Winter was taken. The government is under arrest. Meanwhile, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets opens. The congress proclaimed the victory of the revolutionaries and announced the transfer of power to the soviets.

At the second meeting, decrees on peace and land were adopted and the first Soviet government, the Council of People's Commissars, was formed. Lenin became the chairman.

32. The main stages and causes of the Civil War 1918-1921

In Russia, the Civil War began in November 1917 BC, immediately after the victory of the October armed uprising.

In the Civil War, the following main stages are distinguished:

1) before May 1918 - war prologue;

2) summer - October 1918 - during this period, the Civil War spreads to the entire territory of the country;

3) November 1918 - April 1919 - this is the period of increased intervention of the Entente countries after the end of the First World War;

4) until the end of 1919 - decisive battles took place on the Southern and Eastern fronts;

5) 1920 BC - this period is characterized by the Soviet-Polish war and the defeat of Wrangel's troops in the Crimea;

6) 1921-1922 - An epilogue to the Civil War.

The war was the result of an imminent crisis within society, which inevitably had to happen. The classes overthrown by the revolution sought to return political power, economic privileges and property to their own hands. They were supported by the clergy.

Main fronts of the Civil War:

1) on the Don, Terek and Kuban (M. V. Alekseev, L. G. Kornilov, A. I. Denikin, P. N. Krasnov);

2) in Ukraine;

3) in the Volga region and Eastern Siberia.

After the end of the First World War, the forces of the Entente countries are released, which immediately intensify their intervention. After the annulment of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, anti-Bolshevik regimes come to power.

В 1919 BC the whites launched 3 grand but poorly coordinated offensives:

1) in March, A.V. Kolchak launched an offensive on a broad front from the Urals to the Volga. But, refusing to join in Saratov with the troops of A.I. Denikin, he could not take Moscow and was forced to retreat;

2) May 4-19, 1919 the troops of A. I. Denikin launched a successful offensive, capturing a number of cities;

3) in October the troops of A. I. Yudenich came close to Moscow.

В October 1919 forces of the Red Army inflicted a heavy defeat on A. I. Denikin, and in March 1920 he was completely destroyed.

В April 1920 Yu. Pilsutsky made peace with Petliura, head of the Ukrainian Rada, and sent his troops to occupy Ukraine.

В late 1920 the last White forces left Sevastopol and Odessa. The civil war is over.

33. Political system in Russia after the end of the Civil War

The Soviet government was in a difficult position. In this situation, the Bolsheviks decide on the transition to universal military duty. The Revolutionary Military Council, headed by L. D. Trotsky. A Workers' and Peasants' Defense Council is also being created. It was headed V.I. Lenin. The task of this body was to mobilize all forces to achieve victory. The Order of the Red Banner of War was established.

By the end of 1919, with the strengthening of the interventionist and anti-Bolshevik forces, the Bolsheviks established the policy of war communism.

By the end of 1920, all industry was nationalized, which was subordinate to the Supreme Council of National Economy (Supreme Council of the National Economy). This was to help establish military production, destroy private property and build a classless socialist society.

But the most difficult issue was food. There was famine, war and mass deaths from typhus and cholera in the country. At first, a food dictatorship was introduced, which prohibited the trade in bread. Speculation in bread was punishable by death.

There was a nationalization of industry.

January 11, 1919 issued a decree on surplus appropriation, as a temporary measure in a war.

This was the beginning of the policy of war communism. Card system has been introduced in the cities. All trade was excluded.

The years of war communism became the dictatorship of the Bolshevik Party. It was also characterized by the curtailment of publishing activities, tightening of censorship, and the terror of the political police intensified. The royal family was shot in Yekaterinburg, 500 hostages and suspicious persons were shot in Petrograd. Any protests against the Bolshevik government were terminated by shooting. Gulags appeared - a loss for isolating class enemies.

34. Russia in 1917-1920s. National policy of the Soviet state

In 1917, V. I. Lenin formulated a new scheme of the national-state structure.

Finnish and Polish issues occupied a special place in this program.

The process of creating a unified state developed in two directions:

1) creation of autonomies;

2) granting republican sovereignty.

Many peoples received two levels of autonomy:

1) republican (Bashkir ASSR, Dagestan ASSR, Tajik ASSR);

2) regional (Kalmyk, Mari, Chuvash regions).

Autonomous regions (AO) on the basis of larger national territories arose with the participation of the Red Army and under the leadership of the Central Committee of the RCP (b).

Formally sovereign Soviet republics also appear:

1) in December 1917, the Ukrainian SSR was created;

2) in January 1919 - the Byelorussian SSR;

3) in April 1920 - the Azerbaijan SSR;

4) in November 1920 - the Armenian SSR;

5) in February 1921 - the Georgian SSR.

В March 1922 the last three formed the Transcaucasian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic (TSFSR). To 1922 BC all these republics were bound by an alliance.

The Stalinist project, the so-called autonomization plan, proposed the creation of a unitary state with the inclusion of the union republics in it as autonomies.

V.I. Lenin rejected this project and insisted on the formation of a state on the principle of a voluntary union and equal republics.

В January 1924 II All-Union Congress of Soviets approved the first Constitution of the USSR. The Congress of Soviets became the supreme legislative body, and between congresses - the Central Executive Committee (CEC), consisting of two equal chambers: the Union Council and the Council of People's Commissars. A single union citizenship was established, the population of the country nominally received broad democratic rights and freedoms. Between 1922 and 1924 the Criminal and Civil Codes were approved, judicial reform was carried out, censorship was constitutionally fixed, the Cheka was transformed into (GPU), and then into the OGPU under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR.

35. Political struggle in Russia in 1917-1920

In the 1920s the mono-party system was finally established in the USSR.

The leading center of the country, the Political Bureau (Politburo) of the Central Committee of the RCP(b), included as main members in 1921:

1) V. I. Lenin;

2) G. E. Zinoviev;

3) A. B. Kameneva;

4) I. V. Stalin;

5) L. D. Trotsky, I. I. Bukharin, M. I. Kalinin and V. M. Molotov as candidates.

The RCP(b) during the years of the Civil War turned into a closed organization with a rigid linear management structure. The main and most responsible posts both in the party and in the state apparatus were occupied by representatives of the so-called old Bolshevik guard. It included about 10 thousand people who joined the party before the revolution. AT 1921 BC purges of the ranks began, and in 1924 a split in the "old guard" began. Already in 1924, the General Secretary of the Central Committee became the dominant figure (since 1922) I. V. Stalin, who pursued a tough hardware policy. The first episode of the internal party struggle for power was L. D. Trotsky’s rejection of the economic and political course of G. E. Zinoviev, L. B. Kamenev and I. V. Stalin. AT January 1924 Trotsky's group was accused of a petty-bourgeois deviation and attempts at a split.

The "new opposition" consisting of G. E. Zinoviev, L. B. Kamenev, G. Ya. Sokolnikov and N. K. Krupskaya spoke at the XIV Party Congress against the course of I. V. Stalin and N. I. Bukharin. AT 1926-1927 the "united opposition" of L. D. Trotsky, L. B. Kamenev and G. E. Zinoviev is formed. AT early 1928 the main opponent of I.V. Stalin, L.D. Trotsky was exiled to Alma-Ata, and in 1929 BC - abroad. Thus, pursuing a policy of removing oppositionists and the "old guard" from power, I.V. Stalin by the end of the 1920s. got rid of all the most dangerous rivals in the struggle for power, laying the foundations of personal dictatorship.

36. Foreign policy of the Soviet state after the Civil War

The foreign policy of the Soviet state after the end of the civil war and intervention was based on two opposing principles: first, the establishment of strong diplomatic and economic ties with the capitalist states in order to lead the country out of the crisis; secondly, an orientation towards the world revolution, which implied the support of the communist parties of the Western countries.

С 1918 by 1928 the head of the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs was an experienced diplomat, a hereditary nobleman T. V. Chicherin.

In the spring of 1920 A delegation led by the People's Commissar for Foreign Trade arrived in London L. B. Krasin, which concluded with the British side one of the first agreements of the Soviet country with the European powers. FROM 10 April by 19 May 1922 An international economic and financial conference was convened in Genoa, in which 29 countries participated. The demands of foreign countries (payment of debts, return of nationalized foreign property in the amount of 78 billion gold rubles), as well as counter-claims from the Soviet side, caused contradictions that were never resolved at this conference. The first success of Soviet diplomacy was the conclusion of an agreement between Soviet Russia and Germany April 16, 1922 in Rapallo. The agreement provided for the restoration of diplomatic relations, the mutual waiver of reimbursement of military expenses, and a number of other points.

Since 1924 to 1925 Russia signed about 40 agreements and treaties, including the Japanese-Soviet convention. Of the great powers, only the United States denied recognition to the Soviet Union.

December 17, 1925 A treaty of friendship and neutrality was signed with Turkey. Established diplomatic relations with Mexico (1924) and Uruguay (1926).

One of the biggest crises in Anglo-Soviet relations was the events of May-June 1923, when Deputy People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs M. M. Litvinov received a memorandum containing a number of ultimatum demands ("Curzon's ultimatum"). In the mid 1920s. The Soviet Union was recognized by the world community as a sovereign subject of international relations.

37. Development of national culture in 1917 - mid-1920s

В December 1919 Decree "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of the RSFSR" was issued.

The following educational institutions were formed: primary 4-year school, 9-year city school, ShKM, FZU.

В 1922 BC on the initiative of V. I. Lenin, 160 prominent scientists and philosophers were expelled from the country (N. A. Berdyaev, S. L. Frank, P. A. Sorokin, etc.)

Many Russian writers and poets ended up abroad, realizing that freedom of creativity and ideological dictate are incompatible (I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin, K. D. Balmont, Z. N. Gippius, D. S. Merezhkovsky and others .)

The literary group "Serapion Brothers" (K. A. Fedin, V. V. Ivanov, M. M. Zoshchenko, V. A. Kaverin, and others) who remained in the country advocated the search for a new artistic form.

Works of symbolist and formalist trends (A. A. Bely, E. I. Zamyatin, A. M. Remizov) are widely used. Social prose also appeared, reflecting the contradictions of the early 1920s. (A. I. Tarasov-Rodionov, M. Yu. Lebedinsky).

В 1929 BC created the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. V. I. Lenin (VASKhNIL), whose president was V. I. Vavilov. The study of the atomic nucleus is being conducted L. D. Mysovsky, D. D. Ivanenko, D. V. Skobeltsin, B. V. Kurchatov и I. V. Kurchatov and more

The development of chemistry. Yes, in 1928 BC S. V. Lebedev discovered a method for producing synthetic rubber from ethyl alcohol. In 1928, the Committee for Chemicalization of the National Economy was formed under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR.

Through research K. E. Tsiolkovsky in the USSR, the development of theoretical problems of space exploration begins. In 1930, the world's first jet engine was created (designer F.A. Zander). In the 1930s physiologist continue to work I. P. Pavlov, breeder I. V. Michurin. Genetics is developing, the Institute of Genetics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the All-Union Institute of Plant Growing (VIR) are being created.

In the 1930s world-class composers worked in the USSR - S. S. Prokofiev, D. D. Shostakovich, A. I. Khachaturian, T. N. Khrennikov, D. B. Kabalevsky, I. O. Dunaevsky, R. M. Glier.

Cinema became an important form of art for the state ideology during these years (in the late 1920s and 1930s, such outstanding directors as G. Vasiliev, S. Vasiliev, S. Eisenstein, V. Pudovkin, A. Dovzhenko, I. Eck worked , S. Gerasimov, G. Aleksandrov and others).

38. Socio-economic development of the USSR in the late 1920s-1930s

If by the end of the 1920s in the USSR and the remnants of civil society survived, then in the 1930s. the state becomes completely totalitarian:

1) the economy comes under state control;

2) the party finally merges with the ideological state.

After the proclamation of the course towards industrialization at the XIV Party Congress (December 1925), a crisis began in agriculture. The state was forced to resort to “extraordinary measures” - the dispossession of wealthy peasants. In the spring of 1929, two party groups emerged:

1) the group of N. I. Bukharin (A. I. Rychkov, N. P. Tomsky, N. A. Ustinov) advocated the establishment of a mechanism for coordinating actions between agriculture and industry;

2) I. V. Stalin's group (V. V. Kuibyshev, K. E. Voroshilov, G. K. Ordzhonikidze) proposed the maximum concentration of resources in heavy industry by "pumping" funds from light industry and agriculture.

В April 1929 The Stalinist group received support. The main goals of steel industrialization were:

1) elimination of the technical and economic backwardness of the country;

2) achieving economic independence;

3) creation of a developed military-industrial complex.

Stalinist industrialization solved the peasant question through the "liquidation of the peasantry as a class," at the same time creating - collective farms, which were under administrative control.

As a result, in absolute volumes of industrial production, the USSR in 1937 took second place in the world after the United States.

By 1932, 61% of peasant farms in the USSR were collectivized; by 5, 1937% of peasant farms were collectivized. During collectivization, there was a sharp drop in agricultural production, and in 93-1932. famine broke out in the southern regions of the country, killing over 33 million people. The main goals of collectivization were achieved:

1) the country's economy is freed from the need to use market mechanisms;

2) elements dangerous to the regime were eliminated in the countryside;

3) a material base was created for the development of industry (although the number of peasants decreased by 1/3, and gross grain production by 20%, its state procurement doubled in the period from 1928 to 1934).

39. Socio-political development of the USSR in the late 1920s-1930s

Since 1928 by 1937 in the USSR, a totalitarian state was finally formed.

Market mechanisms were laid down by state regulation, and in all spheres of society a regime of total control was established, carried out by the party-state apparatus.

There were other signs of a totalitarian system:

1) monoparty system;

2) lack of opposition;

3) merging of the state and party apparatus;

4) the actual elimination of the separation of powers;

5) destruction of political and civil liberties;

6) unification of public life;

7) the cult of the leader of the country;

8) control over society with the help of all-encompassing mass public organizations.

At the top of the political pyramid was the General Secretary of the CPSU (b) I. V. Stalin.

By the beginning of the 1930s. he eliminated all oppositionists and contenders for power and approved the regime of personal dictatorship in the USSR. The main structures of this political system were:

1) party;

2) management of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b);

3) Politburo;

4) state security agencies operating under the direct leadership of I.V. Stalin.

Mass repressions, as one of the main tools of the regime, pursued several goals:

1) elimination of opponents of Stalin's methods of building socialism;

2) destruction of the free-thinking part of the nation;

3) keeping the party and state machinery in constant tension.

Strictly regulating not only the behavior, but also the thinking of each of its members, the ideologized official organizations were called upon from childhood to educate a person in the spirit of the norms of communist morality.

In fact, each of them was just one or another modification of state ideology for different social groups. Thus, the most privileged and honorable was membership in the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (about 2 million people) and the Soviets (about 3 million deputies and activists). For young people there was the Komsomol (Komsomol) and the Pioneer organization. For workers and employees there were trade unions, and for the intelligentsia there were unions depending on the type of activity.

The logical continuation of the political course of the party was the adoption December 5, 1936 at the VIII All-Union Extraordinary Congress of Soviets of the new Constitution of the USSR. It established the creation of two forms of ownership:

1) state;

2) collective-farm-cooperative.

The system of state power has also undergone changes:

1) the Supreme Soviet of the USSR remained the supreme body;

2) in the intervals between its sessions, the Presidium of the Supreme Council had power.

40. Foreign policy of the USSR in the late 1920s-1930s

In the foreign policy of the USSR at the end of 1920-1930. three main periods can be distinguished:

1) 1928-1933 - an alliance with Germany, opposing Western democracies;

2) 1933-1939 - gradual rapprochement with England, France and the United States in the face of a growing threat from Germany and Japan;

3) June 1939-1941 - rapprochement with Germany (up to the beginning of the Great Patriotic War).

In the first period, Japanese aggression in Manchuria contributed to the improvement of relations with China. Support for China was further reduced and completely stopped after the conclusion of the Soviet-Japanese treaty from April 13, 1941

Between 1928 and 1933 the most active economic and diplomatic relations were established with Germany, but after the National Socialists came to power, the Western policy of the USSR changed radically and acquired a clear anti-German character.

В 1935 BC mutual aid treaties were signed with France and Czechoslovakia.

The duality of the USSR's policy was revealed in 1939, when, simultaneously with the Anglo-French-Soviet negotiations in July-August over the German threat, there were secret negotiations with Germany, which ended with the signing 23 of August Moscow non-aggression pact. It was signed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs A. Ribbentrop from the German side and People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs V.M. Molotov - from the Soviet.

The pact contained secret protocols on the division of spheres of influence in Eastern Europe.

From the very beginning of the war, the secret protocols of the pact Molotov-Ribbentrop came into action: from September 17 to September 29, 1939, the Red Army occupied the western regions of Belarus and Ukraine.

September 28, 1939 The Soviet-German Treaty "On Friendship and Borders" was signed, defining the border between Germany and the USSR approximately along the Curzon line.

At the same time, accelerated preparations for war were underway. Thus, the number of armed forces of the USSR tripled in the 2 pre-war years (about 5 million people), the output of military products increased significantly, and allocations for military needs in 3 reached 1940% of the state budget. On the other hand, the required scale of production of modern weapons was never achieved, mistakes were made in the development of military doctrine, and the combat capability of the army was weakened by massive repressions, during which over 32 thousand commanders and political workers were killed, and persistent ignorance of information about training Germany was not allowed to bring its troops to combat readiness in time for the war.

41. World War II

The Second World War, which began on September 1, 1939, was caused by a number of reasons:

1) economic and political contradictions;

2) the struggle for a further redistribution of the world;

3) the aggressive policy of fascist Germany;

4) the inept actions of a divided Europe, which considered the greater threat to itself not Nazism, but communist ideology.

61 states took part in the war, military operations took place in Europe, Asia, Africa, the USA, Oceania and all oceans. The total number of soldiers in the armies of the warring countries exceeded 110 million people, the number of killed, according to various sources, ranged from 60 to 70 million people. The largest global conflict in history, which lasted 6 years, became the most destructive. The reason for this was that, unlike the First World War, the fighting was much more dynamic, military equipment (tanks and airplanes) was widely used, and vast territories became the springboard for military operations.

The first stage of the war was the capture of Poland (in accordance with the German Weiss plan). Despite the fact that on September 3, Great Britain and France, as well as their colonial possessions, declared war on Germany, two weeks later the Polish army was defeated.

The next period of the war was characterized by some lull and was called the "strange war" for the reason that there were practically no military operations at that time. A large-scale offensive in Western Europe began in accordance with the Weserübung plan only on April 9, 1940. Denmark and Norway were occupied, and then on May 10, 1940, the German army invaded the territory of Belgium and Holland, which capitulated, respectively, on May 28 and 14 . At the same time, the invasion of France began. The main part of the Anglo-French group was evacuated to England in the Dokker area, and on June 22, 1940, a Franco-German truce was concluded in the Compiègne Forest. Italy, which entered the war on June 10, launched an offensive in Somalia against British troops. The "Sea Lion" plan acted against England, which provided for massive bombardments and preparations for a landing operation on the British Isles. By the summer of 1941, Germany and Italy occupied 12 countries, establishing control over a large part of Europe. At the same time, since July 1940, a plan of war against the USSR was being developed under the name "Barbarossa".

42. Great Patriotic War (1941-1945)

The Great Patriotic War has begun June 22, 1941 According to the "Barbarossa" plan, the military forces were divided into three main groups of the army: "North", "Center", "South".

On the basis of the border districts were created:

1) Northern Front (M. M. Popov);

3) Northwestern Front (F.I. Kuznetsov);

4) Western Front (D. G. Pavlov);

5) Southwestern Front (M. P. Kirpson);

6) Southern Front (I. V. Tyulenev).

The basis of the German plan was a lightning war - blitzkrieg. According to this plan for winter 1941 it was supposed to go to the Arkhangelsk-Volga-Astrakhan line. The course of the Great Patriotic War can be divided into 4 main stages:

1) the first stage - the beginning of the war, November 1941 - characterized by the retreat of the Red Army. The strategic initiative was in the hands of the German command (the Germans occupied the Baltic states, Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus, blockaded Leningrad and approached Moscow);

2) second stage (December 1941 - November 1942) - unstable balance of forces. In May 1942, the German troops launched a counteroffensive and, in accordance with the new strategic plan, in the summer of 1942 reached the Caucasus and Stalingrad. The Battle of Stalingrad (July 17 - November 18) ended with the encirclement of over 330 thousand enemy troops;

3) the third period of the Great Patriotic War (December 19, 1942 – December 31, 1943) - transfer of strategic initiative to the Soviet Union. During the battle on the Kursk Bulge (July-August 1943), the Wehrmacht lost over 500 thousand people, 3 thousand guns, 1 thousand tanks, over 5 thousand aircraft, which meant the collapse of the German offensive strategy. After the victory at Kursk, a powerful offensive of the Red Army began on a front stretching up to 3 thousand km;

4) fourth period (1944 – May 9, 1945) - in January 1944, the blockade of Leningrad was completely lifted. During Operation Bagration, which began on June 23, most of Belarus was liberated. Successful operations in Poland allowed the Soviet troops to January 29, 1945 enter German territory.

The final operation of the Great Patriotic War was the capture of Berlin.

8 May 1945 An act of unconditional surrender of the armed forces of Nazi Germany was signed.

9 May liberated Prague.

43. Allies of the USSR in the war against the Nazis

From the very beginning of the war, close cooperation between the Soviet Union and the governments of the allied countries began. So, July 12, 1941 The first step towards the creation of an anti-Hitler coalition was taken - a Soviet-British agreement on joint actions in the war was concluded. Officially, the coalition began its existence in January 1942 after the signing in Washington by representatives of 26 states of the Declaration of the United Nations (more than 20 countries later joined it). IN October 1941 an agreement was signed on Anglo-American deliveries of food and military equipment to our country, supplemented in July 1942 agreement with the United States on lend-lease assistance. The main problem in the relations between the USSR, the USA and England was the question of opening a second front in Western Europe, which happened only in July 1944 (except for the landings in Sicily and southern Italy in 1943). At the Big Three conferences in Tehran (November 1943), Yalta (February 1945) and Potsdam (July-August 1945), the planning of military operations gradually developed into a discussion of the principles of the post-war world. In accordance with the agreement reached at Yalta, the USSR took part in the final phase of World War II, declaring August 8, 1945 war in Japan. After the successful offensive in the Far East, as well as the US atomic attack on Japanese cities, the Japanese government 10 of August start of negotiations. As a result on September 2 Japan's surrender was signed aboard the USS Missouri, officially ending World War II.

The USSR made the main contribution to ridding the world of the fascist threat, paying for it with colossal human and material losses. One of the main outcomes of the war was a new world geopolitical structure that brought the Soviet Union into the ranks of superpowers. In contrast to the USSR, the United States became the leader of Western democracies, turning into the second superpower. Thus, a bipolar system of the world was formed, which determined the political courses of the two great powers and their allies. Created at the final stage of the war, the United Nations was further relegated to the background by the military-political blocs of the superpowers:

1) arising in 1949 BC the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO);

2) by the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO), issued in 1955 BC

The confrontation and local conflicts between these blocs determined the Cold War policy for the next 40 years.

44. USSR in the second half of the 1940s - early 1950s

The main trend in the economy of the USSR during the war years was the transfer of industry to war footing, but with 1943 BC The gradual restoration of the economy begins in areas liberated from German occupation. Since during the Great Patriotic War the country lost approximately 1/3 of its national wealth (1710 cities, 70 thousand villages and hamlets were destroyed, 31 plants and factories, 850 mines, 1135 thousand km of railways were destroyed, the cultivated area decreased by 65 million hectares, population by 36 million people), economic revival became the main task after the Victory. As in the years preceding the war, the main emphasis in this direction was on the restoration of industry.

The demobilization of the army personnel was carried out (total 1948 BC 8 million people were fired), and the majority of demobilized military personnel were sent to industrial enterprises.

March 18, 1946 session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR approved the fourth five-year plan (1946-1950). In general, during these years, industrial production exceeded pre-war figures by 73%, labor productivity increased by 25%, and 6200 large industrial enterprises were restored. Despite this, the conversion of the military industry was only partial, which made it possible to keep the military-industrial complex as the most important element of the country's economy. The rapid recovery of the economy during the Fourth Five-Year Plan was based on:

1) using all the possibilities of a directive economy;

2) reparations with Germany;

3) free labor of the military and prisoners of the Stalinist camps;

4) expanding the scale of the economy (extensive path of development);

5) redistribution of funds from light industry, agriculture and the social sphere in favor of heavy industry;

6) compulsory state loans;

7) monetary reform 1947 BC etc.

The situation was different in agriculture, however, even here, during this period, it was possible to increase gross output from 60% (1946) up to 92% (1950) from pre-war levels.

It can be argued that in the first post-war years, the country's economy continued to develop in a super-centralized way - the disproportion between the output of means of production and consumer goods increased. The main task of the authorities in the field of economy was to increase the military potential, and not to increase the welfare of citizens.

45. Foreign and domestic policy of the USSR in the mid-1950s - early 1960s

In the socio-political sphere, the last years of the reign of I. V. Stalin (1945-1953) were marked by the strengthening of total control over the spiritual life of the country.

During the war years, a new generation of people appeared who were able to think independently. In addition, many of the soldiers had the opportunity to see how the standard of living in Europe differed from the Soviet one. The majority of the country's population hoped for some liberalization and democratization of the political regime (including party members).

It should be noted that some steps have been taken in this direction. Thus, the GKO was abolished, the collectivity in the work of the Soviets increased, and the congresses of public and political organizations resumed. AT 1946 BC The SNK was transformed into the Council of Ministers. AT 1952 BC The CPSU(b) was renamed the CPSU. However, there were no changes in the ideological sphere, moreover, the isolation of the USSR from foreign countries increased (campaigns to combat cosmopolitanism). The transformations did not affect the state security systems and the Gulag, but with 1948 BC A new round of repression began, the victims of which were at least 6 million people.

In the field of foreign policy, the main directions of the course of the USSR were:

1) consolidation of influence in the liberated countries of Eastern Europe (socialist camp);

2) a peace-loving policy towards Western countries with a simultaneous buildup of military power for the forcible establishment of socialism in other countries (not excluding Western Europe).

At the same time, the doctrines of "containment of communism" and "rejection of communism" are becoming the main trends in Western politics. By the end of the 1940s. The influence of the United States in the countries of Western Europe was noticeably strengthened, at the same time, pro-Soviet regimes were established in the countries of Eastern Europe, which became one of the reasons for the emergence of the Cold War phenomenon. AT 1949 BC there is a Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) for the "countries of people's democracy", supplemented in 1955 by the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD). As a counterbalance to these organizations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is created, and the production of atomic weapons begins. The first conflicts between the two superpowers arise (Korean War 1950-1953).

46. Socio-political development of the USSR in the 1950s - mid-1960s

After the death of I. V. Stalin (March 5, 1953) The most influential figures in the leadership of the USSR were:

1) G. M. Malenkov;

2) N. S. Khrushchev;

3) L. P. Beria.

As a result of the political struggle (March-June 1953) - managed to eliminate L.P. Beria for "criminal encroachment" on the party leadership of society, G.M. Malenkov was removed from the post of head of government in February 1955, "united opposition". N. S. Khrushchev managed to concentrate the party and executive powers in his hands.

After the death of I. V. Stalin, a campaign began to criticize the cult of personality, accompanied by the release and partial rehabilitation of Soviet prisoners. For the period from 1956 to 1961. 700 thousand people were rehabilitated. Speech by N. S. Khrushchev at a closed meeting of the XX Congress of the CPSU (February 1956) "On the cult of personality and its consequences", as well as the adoption of a special resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU from June 30, 1956 laid the foundation for criticism of the Stalinist regime. The task of "restoring Lenin's norms" in the activities of the state and the CPSU was put forward.

A number of reforms were carried out in the economic sphere. Since the mid 1950s. economic transformations began (the campaign for the development of virgin lands). AT 1957 BC sectoral ministries were abolished and territorial councils of national economies were introduced. The economic policy mainly consisted in carrying out administrative reorganizations. Collective farms are being transformed into state farms.

In the industrial sector, the backlog from the leading Western countries was growing in the era of the scientific and technological revolution. The growth of industrial and agricultural production gradually declined with each five-year period. Collective farmers received passports for the first time, mass housing construction was going on.

The reforms of N. S. Khrushchev did not affect the foundations of the command-administrative system. As a result, progressive undertakings turned into dissatisfaction with the population and the party and state apparatus.

In 1964 N. S. Khrushchev was relieved of his duties.

47. Foreign policy of the USSR under N. S. Khrushchev

At the Twentieth Congress of the CPSU, a new doctrine was formulated, which included two main points:

1) the multivariance of ways to build socialism was recognized (with confirmation of the principle of "proletarian internationalism", i.e., assistance to communist parties and socialist countries);

2) the concept of peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems was updated.

В 1955 BC the military-political alliance of the new socialist countries is finally taking shape. The Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD) is being created as part of the USSR, the GDR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, the People's Republic of China, the People's Republic of Belarus, and the People's Republic of Armenia. In the same year, relations with Yugoslavia were normalized. However, in 1956 BC there was an uprising in Hungary, suppressed by parts of the Soviet army and local communists. But not in all countries of the socialist camp, criticism of Stalinism aroused enthusiasm. She received a negative assessment in Albania, North Korea and especially in China. Despite the liberalization of the political course, relations with Western countries became even more aggravated. AT 1953 BC the war in Korea ended, and the USSR refused to create military bases in Turkey. AT 1955 BC Soviet troops were withdrawn from the territory of Austria.

In March 1954 BC G. M. Malenkov was the first to put forward the thesis about the inadmissibility of military conflicts in the era of nuclear weapons. In the end 1950s. The USSR considered the possibility of creating a system of collective security in Europe and Asia, and also unilaterally reduced the size of its armed forces, declared a moratorium on nuclear tests, and at the same time changed its military doctrine. In general, in the context of the Cold War, both the Soviet Union and Western countries continued to build up their military potential. The most dangerous in the history of the Cold War were 1961 BC (the construction of a wall in Berlin, isolating its western sectors), as well as 1962 BCwhen, due to the deployment of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba, the Cuban Missile Crisis erupted, almost leading to a nuclear war. However, the war was avoided. Moreover, after this episode, the process of improving relations between East and West began.

The basis of the foreign policy of the USSR in relation to the countries of the third world was the involvement of former colonies (mainly England and France) in its sphere of influence. AT 1957-1964 negotiations were held with the leaders of more than thirty developing countries. 20 cooperation agreements were signed. In order to direct their development along the socialist path, many countries were provided with significant material assistance (UAR, India).

48. "Thaw" and Soviet culture in the late 1950s-1960s

In the mid 1950s. the education system established in 1930., needed reform. The main changes were made in the secondary education system: adopted in December 1958 The law introduced universal compulsory eight-year education instead of seven years. An eight-year polytechnic school was created, secondary education could be obtained at a school for working (rural) youth on the job, at a technical school (on the basis of an eight-year school), at a secondary labor general education school (with industrial training). The higher education system was focused mainly on the training of engineers. For students of higher education, a mandatory work experience was introduced.

New scientific institutions, institutes and problem laboratories, scientific centers were created.

The geography of Soviet science expanded.

Some of the most significant achievements of Soviet science in these years were:

1) creation in 1957 BC the world's most powerful elementary particle accelerator - the synchrophasotron;

2) launch of the world's first nuclear-powered icebreaker;

3) launch October 4, 1957 the first artificial earth satellite;

4) sending animals into space in November 1957 BC;

5) the first human spaceflight in history April 12, 1961 (Yu. A. Gagarin);

6) an attempt to create the world's first jet supersonic passenger liner (TU-104).

Work was carried out in the field of nuclear fusion theory, field theory, aerodynamics, hydrodynamics. Soviet scientists gained worldwide fame L. D. Landau, A. D. Sakharov, M. A. Lavrentiev, S. P. Korolev.

В May 1958 In XNUMX, the decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On the correction of errors in the assessment of the operas" Great Friendship "," Bogdan Khmelnitsky "," From the Heart " was adopted, in which the previous assessments of Soviet composers were recognized as unfair and unsubstantiated.

New unions of artists were created: the Union of Writers of the RSFSR, the Union of Artists of the RSFSR, the Union of Cinematographers of the USSR.

A real event was the release of the works of AI Solzhenitsyn "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich" and "Matryona's Dvor". The phenomenon of dissidence arises (B. Galansky, V. Bukovsky, E. Kuznetsov, the emergence of samizdat literature).

49. Socio-economic development of the USSR in the mid-1960s - early 1980s

The plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU recognized it as inexpedient to combine the duties of the First Secretary of the Central Committee (it became L. I. Brezhnev) and the President of the Council of Ministers (A. N. Kosygin). The next 20 years were the period of the most stable development of Soviet society.

Between 1964 and 1985 there was a rapid increase in the population of the country. Under these conditions, social policy acquired special significance. But the main funds in the country were used to carry out economic reforms, while the social sphere was financed according to the residual principle:

1) investments in current construction were reduced;

2) health care spending was reduced;

3) the food problem has aggravated (Rosimport of food), which already in the 1970s. was the reason for the introduction of a card distribution system; decline in real per capita income.

In the field of economics in the 1960-1980s. one of the largest reforms of the economic mechanism, prepared back in the era of N. S. Khrushchev, began to be carried out in the country:

1) in agriculture, the debts of collective farms and state farms were written off;

2) increased purchase prices;

3) set a surcharge for above-plan production.

In industry, the main direction of transformation was:

1) strengthening cost accounting;

2) restructuring the pricing system;

3) restoration of the sectoral principle of management;

4) reduction in the number of planned indicators.

The main goal of all reforms was to improve the economy through the introduction of a mechanism of internal self-regulation. The main shortcomings of the reform were half-heartedness and inconsistency. The accompanying negative reform processes were:

1) extensive development, which implied the expansion of production, which became difficult due to the exhausted possibilities of the main donor - agriculture;

2) the need to build up military potentials;

3) covering the state budget deficit through energy exports;

4) inability to master new technologies of scientific and technological revolution;

5) the emergence of the shadow economy and its merging with corrupt groups of the Soviet nomenklatura.

50. Political development of the USSR in the mid-1960s - early 1980s

Since 1965 by 1985 On the whole, the formation of the Soviet bureaucratic system was completed, and there was a gradual increase in the size of the apparatus. The process of centralization of the party organization intensified.

Accepted October 7, 1977 the new Constitution (4th) established in the 6th article the monopoly position of the CPSU in the political system of the country. The constitution as a whole had a democratic character. However, the rights and freedoms fixed in it could not actually be realized in the USSR.

The internal political course was based on the thesis of "building a developed socialist society in the USSR" and the need to improve developed socialism (neo-Stalinism).

The foreign policy of the USSR in 1965-1985 was based on the position of a radical change in the balance of power in the world in favor of the countries of the socialist bloc. Since the 1970s in relations between the US and the USSR, characterized as a "detente" of tension.

В 1972 BC The FRG and the GDR officially recognized each other, and at the same time the first visit of US President R. Nixon to the USSR took place. AT 1973 BC during the visit of L. I. Brezhnev to the United States, an agreement was signed on the prevention of nuclear war. AT 1975 BC The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was held in Helsinki with the participation of the heads of 33 states of Europe, the USA and Canada.

After suppression in August 1968 attempts at a democratic coup in Czechoslovakia (Prague Spring), the split in the socialist camp intensified. This was the reason for the new policy of the USSR towards the "allies", aimed at strengthening military and economic integration in Eastern Europe, which in fact meant limiting the sovereignty of the countries of "people's democracy".

Pro-Soviet regimes are being established in a number of Third World states. At the end of 1979, a "limited contingent of Soviet troops" was brought into Afghanistan to strengthen Soviet influence.

51. Domestic culture in the mid-1960s - early 1980s

In the field of education, there has been a gradual decline in the level of training of students. During these years, for the first time, a disproportion between mid-level and top-level specialists became apparent. An increase in the number of technical schools could not improve the situation. The attempt to reform the school in 1983-1984 The system of higher education was also in crisis: the increase in the number of universities led to the irrational use of graduates, a decrease in the level of training and the prestige of the Soviet diploma. In the field of science, the main problem was the isolation of scientific research from the applied sphere. If in fundamental areas Soviet developments did not lag behind Western ones, then, say, in computerization, the lag was simply catastrophic. So, despite the advanced space programs, in the early 1980s. 40% of workers were employed in industry, 60% in construction, and 75% in agriculture.

And yet, significant successes have been achieved in physics, chemistry, space exploration, and the development of new weapons. Funding for culture in the country has constantly increased (from 55 billion rubles in 9 to 1979 billion rubles in 125). However, the tightening of censorship and ideological pressure could not but affect the artistic level of the works. During these years, many literary and artistic figures were deprived of the opportunity to create freely in the USSR:

1) publications were prohibited;

2) theatrical performances;

3) many films remained on the shelves;

4) some prominent figures of Russian culture were forced to leave the country (I. A. Brodsky, Yu. S. Lyubimov, A. I. Solzhenitsyn, A. A. Galich, M. L. Rostropovich).

Nevertheless, many outstanding works of art appeared during these years, which received recognition at home and abroad. Against the backdrop of the official mass culture (production and historical-revolutionary themes dominated), they looked especially bright. Of particular note is the cinematographic school of these years (A. A. Tarkovsky, A. D. German, T. Abuladze, S. N. Parajanov, K. Muratova, N. S. Mikhalkov, A. S. Konchalovsky and others). The dissident movement, headed by leading representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia, became an integral feature of the culture and social life of the USSR.

52 Domestic policy of the USSR during the years of perestroika

After the death of L. I. Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU stood at the head of the party and state apparatus Yu. V. Andropov. Replaced him in February 1984.

K. U. Chernenko. After the death of K. U. Chernenko, in March 1985, the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU became M. S. Gorbachev. The period of the country's life, called "restructuring".

The main task was to stop the collapse of the "state socialism" system. Designed in 1987 BC The reform project included:

1) expand the economic independence of enterprises;

2) revive the private sector of the economy;

3) give up the foreign trade monopoly;

4) reduce the number of administrative instances;

5) in agriculture to recognize the equality of five forms of ownership: collective farms, state farms, agro-combines, rental cooperatives and farms.

Decree 1990 BC "On the Concept of Transition to a Regulated Market Economy".

Inflationary processes intensified in the country, caused by the budget deficit.

The new leadership of the RSFSR (Chairman of the Supreme Council - B. N. Yeltsin) developed the "500 Days" program, which assumed the decentralization and privatization of the public sector of the economy.

The policy of glasnost, which was first announced at the 1986th Congress of the CPSU in February XNUMX, assumed:

1) mitigation of censorship over the media;

2) publication of previously banned books and documents;

3) mass rehabilitation of victims of political repressions, including major figures of the Soviet government 1920-1930s.

Mass media free from ideological attitudes appeared in the country in the shortest possible time. In the political sphere, a course was taken to create a permanent parliament and a socialist legal state. AT 1989 BC Elections of People's Deputies of the USSR were held, and the Congress of People's Deputies was created. Parties are formed with the following direction:

1) liberal democratic;

2) the communist party.

In the CPSU itself, three trends were clearly identified:

1) social democratic;

2) centrist;

3) orthodox traditionalist.

53. Collapse of the Soviet Union

В 1989-1990 Communist parties of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia announced their withdrawal from the CPSU. In all the republics, new centers of power began to take shape; a policy of distancing from Moscow is being pursued.

Already in spring and summer 1990 BC The Baltic republics adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty. IN 1989 BC interethnic conflicts began in the country.

The second stage of political reforms led to the fact that:

1) the "leading and guiding" role of the CPSU was abolished;

2) the possibility of registering political parties was announced;

3) an attempt was made to restructure the CPSU.

Negotiations between the presidential office and the leadership of the republics began on concluding a new union treaty after unsuccessful military operations in Tbilisi (April 1989), Baku (January 1990), Vilnius and Riga (January 1991). Representatives of nine of the fifteen republics of the former USSR agreed to participate in the negotiations.

Introduced the post of President of the USSR. The center's last attempt to maintain a unified state was the Commonwealth of Sovereign States (CCS) project. However, by summer of 1991 most of the republics declared their sovereignty.

August 19, 1991 the conservative wing in the leadership of the USSR made an attempt to keep the system from the final collapse. The signing of a new union treaty, scheduled for August 20, could automatically change all state structures. In Moscow, the State Committee for the State of Emergency (GKChP) was established, which attempted to establish power in the country. However, the President of the RSFSR (since June 1991 - B. N. Yeltsin) managed to organize resistance in Moscow and large cities of Russia. Already on August 21, an extraordinary session of the Supreme Council of Russia supported the leadership of the republic; all members of the GKChP were arrested on charges of attempting a coup d'état.

The leaders of the new states refused to sign the union treaty. In mid-December 1991, the leaders of the Russian Federation, Ukraine and Belarus (B. N. Yeltsin, L. M. Kravchuk, S. S. Shushkevich) announced the creation of the CIS. On December 21, eight more republics joined the CIS. Resignation of President M. S. Gorbachev December 25, 1991 finally secured the liquidation of the USSR.

54. Foreign policy of the USSR during the years of perestroika

On the edge 1987-1988 there is a new foreign policy doctrine, called "new political thinking". The main principles of the new foreign policy course were:

1) rejection of the fundamental conclusion about the split of the world into two opposite socio-political systems;

2) recognition of this course as one and indivisible;

3) rejection of the principle of proletarian (socialist) internationalism;

4) recognition of the priority of universal human values over any others.

The main directions of foreign policy as a whole remained traditional for the USSR relations with the West, socialist countries and the third world.

In July 1991, the Soviet-American Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (OSNV-1) was signed. was carried out (May 1988 - February 1989) withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan 1989 BC began the withdrawal of troops from Mongolia, as well as Vietnamese troops from Kampuchea. During the years of perestroika, gratuitous aid to friendly regimes in developing countries was reduced. At the same time, relations with Israel and South Korea were strengthened.

In a short period of time, the national democratic forces in the former countries of the socialist bloc have taken a leading position. The integration of these countries into NATO and the EEC has begun. Already in 1990, the reunification of the GDR and the FRG took place.

In the spring of 1991 CMEA and ATS were officially dissolved.

The main outcome of 1991 in terms of international relations was the destruction of the system that emerged after the Second World War. The bipolar order of the world, based on nuclear deterrence, the confrontation between two economic systems and two superpowers, has collapsed. From that time on, only the United States could claim superpower status.

55. Domestic policy of the Russian Federation in 1991-2000

В October 1991 A program of economic reforms was drawn up, which included:

1) price liberalization;

2) privatization and corporatization in industry and agriculture;

3) antimonopoly tax policy;

4) reduction of unreasonable expenses;

5) a system of targeted social assistance;

6) establishing economic relations with other countries.

В 1992 BC privatization of state property began.

August 14, 1993 issued a presidential decree on the introduction of privatization checks (vouchers).

In agriculture, the gradual creation of farms and industrial share partnerships began. To 2000 BC most of the enterprises in the country passed into private hands. The prices of consumer goods rose steadily, driving up inflation; increased social stratification. The decline in knowledge-intensive industries has been steadily increasing. The peak of the economic crisis was the default on August 17, 1998.

The conflict between the branches of government (President B. N. Yeltsin, the Supreme Council headed by R. I. Khasbulatov) took real shape in October 1993. After the President announced the dissolution of the Congress and the Supreme Council, the Supreme Council, in turn, removed the head of state from positions, transferring presidential powers to Vice President A. V. Rutskoi. Developments October 2-4, 1993 ended with the capture of the White House by special forces.

December 12, 1993 Elections were held to the Federation Council and the State Duma - the upper and lower houses of the Federal Assembly. At the same time during the popular vote 12 December The new Constitution of Russia was adopted. A presidential-parliamentary republic was created with a clear predominance of executive power.

B. N. Yeltsin won the 1996 elections, however December 31, 1999 before the expiration of his term, he resigned and, according to the Constitution, the prime minister became the acting president of the country V.V. Putin, elected President of the Russian Federation March 26, 2000 in the first round (52% of the votes).

56. Foreign policy of the Russian Federation in 1991-2000

An important task of the country's leadership was to preserve the territorial integrity of Russia. AT 1991 BC all autonomous republics, as well as autonomous regions, declared themselves sovereign republics. In December 1994, federal troops were brought into the territory of Chechnya to restore constitutional order. AT May 1997 an agreement was signed between Chechnya and the Center to end the state of war. However, the hostilities were soon continued, and only February 29, 2000 The command of the federal forces in Chechnya announced that they had taken control of the last stronghold of the militants - the city of Shatoi. But the Chechen question was still far from being finally resolved.

Priority in foreign policy was given to relations with the United States and the CIS.

The Russian Federation lost its naval bases in the Baltics and Crimea, and the question arose of creating new borders with the former republics of the USSR.

Russia's relations with Western countries throughout 1990s. developed in several directions:

1) relations with the "Big Seven";

2) continuation of nuclear disarmament within the framework of relations between the Russian Federation and the United States.

An important event after the collapse of the Warsaw Pact was the withdrawal of Russian military contingents from the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as the Baltic states. On May 27, 1997, the Russia-NATO agreement was signed in Paris, in which the countries of the Alliance assumed a number of obligations.

The most important direction of Russia's foreign policy was the settlement of relations with neighboring countries. AT 1992 BC a treaty on collective security of the countries - members of the CIS (6 out of 11 countries) was signed.

A special place was occupied by the problem of protecting the Russian-speaking population living in the post-Soviet space (about 26 million people).

Authors: Ivanushkina V.V., Trifonova N.O., Babaev G.A.

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Interesting materials of the Free Technical Library:

▪ section of the site Assembling the Rubik's Cube. Article selection

▪ article by Francoise Sagan. Famous aphorisms

▪ How many surnames are there in South Korea? Detailed answer

▪ article Bilberry myrtle. Legends, cultivation, methods of application