Age-related psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Age-related psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. AGE PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: SUBJECT AND SECTIONS

Developmental psychology is one of the areas of psychology. The subjects of developmental psychology are the study and formation of ideas about the mental development of children of each age stage and the transition from one age to another. The psychological characteristics of each age stage of development of children are compiled. Each age stage has its own unique characteristics and internal conditions of development. Developmental psychology deals with the study of the dynamics of mental processes. For developmental psychology, the concept of "age" is interesting, which L. S. Vygotsky described as a certain cycle in human development, which has its own structure and dynamics. In the process of each cycle of development, psychological and physiological changes occur that do not depend on individual differences and are inherent in all people (taking into account the norm of their development).

The sections of developmental psychology are as follows:

1) child psychology - a branch of psychological science that studies the conditions and driving forces for the development of the psyche of children, as well as the laws governing the functioning of the child as a person. She studies the activities of children, the features of this process. This includes children's games, mastery of labor skills, learning features;

2) psychology of youth - a branch of psychological science that studies the characteristics of children of older adolescence, the crisis of this period, the study of the life positions of children, their aspirations for self-determination;

3) the psychology of adulthood studies the patterns of human development mechanisms at the stage of his maturity and especially when he reaches the highest level in this development, i.e. this section of developmental psychology studies the personality characteristics characteristic of a given period, as well as the study of crises of adulthood ;

4) gerontopsychology - a branch of psychological science that studies mental phenomena and processes associated with aging of the body, reveals involutionary tendencies of blunting and attenuation of some mental functions, decline in activity, weakening of mental stability, exploring the conditions of personal safety of older people, psychological assistance.

The concept of "age" is divided into psychological and chronological. Chronological is the passport age, i.e. the fixed date of birth. It is a kind of background for the processes of mental development and the formation of a person as a person. Psychological age is not related to the date of birth, it is not determined by the number of psychological processes. It depends on the inner content, on what feelings, aspirations, desires a person experiences.

2. PROBLEMS AND DIRECTIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY

A number of problems stand out in the development of developmental psychology.

1. Development of the child’s psyche and behavior, determined by the external environment and physiological maturation. The anatomical and physiological state of the body is of great importance for the development of the child’s psyche. Without formed physiological processes, we cannot talk about personal growth. Taking into account organic lesions or diseases suffered at an early age that affect the development of the psyche or delay its processes, it becomes clear that without organic maturation the development of the psyche is impossible. Some scientists consider the influence of the external environment to be more significant than the development of the organism. But the exact answer to the question of what and in what period influences the child’s mental development to a greater extent has not been found.

2. Influence on the development of the child's psyche of training and education, both spontaneous, spontaneous, and specially organized. At the moment, scientists cannot answer the question of what influences the mental development of children to a greater extent: a specially organized process of upbringing and education or a spontaneous process that develops in everyday life. Organized is understood as specially created processes (family education, training in kindergartens, schools, institutes), spontaneous - processes that arise momentarily when interacting with society.

3. A problem caused by the child's capabilities, the presence of his inclinations and abilities. Each person is born with certain inclinations. Does their presence in the future depend on the development of certain abilities in the child? What are inclinations, and are they genetically determined? Is it possible to add to them those mental qualities that a person acquires? Scientists do not have answers to these questions.

4. Comparison and identification of the changes (evolutionary, revolutionary, situational) that most affect the mental development of the child. So far, no answer has been found to the question of what determines the mental development of a child to a greater extent: processes that proceed slowly, but are reversible (evolutionary); processes that occur quite rarely, but pass brightly and deeply (revolutionary), or processes that do not have a permanent form, but act constantly (situational).

5. Identification of the main determinant of mental development. What is it: personality change or intelligence development? What influences mental development to a greater extent: personal growth or intellectual development? Maybe these processes themselves depend on each other? Scientists have not yet found answers to these questions.

3. SECTIONS OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY

There are several sections in developmental psychology:

1) child psychology;

2) psychology of youth;

3) psychology of mature age;

4) gerontopsychology.

Child psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies the conditions and driving forces for the development of the psyche of children, as well as the laws governing the functioning of the child as a person. Child psychology deals with the study of children's activities, the features of this process. This section includes the study of children from birth to adolescence, i.e. children up to 14-15 years of age. Child psychology studies the formation and development of a child as a person, his development in early childhood, preschool, primary school, adolescence. She also explores developmental crises at different stages, studies the social situation of development, leading activities, neoplasms, anatomical and physiological changes, features of the development of mental functions, emotional and motivational spheres of the personality, as well as complexes and ways to overcome them.

The psychology of youth deals with the study of the characteristics of children of older adolescence, the crisis of this period, as well as the study of the life positions of children, their desire for self-determination. She studies new formations of this age, the social situation of development, features of the cognitive and emotional spheres, communication, the processes of development of self-awareness and the formation of a worldview. The psychology of youth covers the period from 14 to 20 years.

The psychology of adulthood deals with the study of personality traits and crises inherent in this stage. This period covers the age from 20 to 50-60 years. Like the first section, it is divided into a number of age stages that have their own characteristics and differences. Psychology of mature age studies the features of cognitive processes, the emotional sphere, the formation of the "I-concept" and self-actualization, the features of the sphere of human activity, the contradictions of individual development, the socialization of moral behavior, and the development of the potential of the individual.

Gerontopsychology reveals involutionary tendencies of blunting and attenuation of some mental functions, decline in activity, weakening of mental stability. It also explores the conditions of the personal safety of the elderly, psychological assistance and covers the period from 60-70 years to death. Gerontology is also engaged in the study of the behavior of people in old age: their fears and anxieties, assessments of their own lives, activity and professional activities, family relationships.

4. CONNECTION OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY WITH OTHER SCIENCES

General psychology, studying a person, explores his personal characteristics and cognitive processes (and these are all psychological functions, such as speech, thinking, imagination, memory, sensations, attention, perception), thanks to which a person learns the world around him, receiving and mastering all the incoming information. Cognitive processes play an important role in the formation of knowledge.

Personality includes properties that determine the deeds, actions of a person, emotions, abilities, dispositions, attitudes, motivations, temperament, character and will. Theoretical and practical knowledge about the upbringing and education of children is inextricably linked with all branches of psychology, such as:

1) genetic psychology;

2) psychophysiology;

3) differential psychology;

4) developmental psychology;

5) social psychology;

6) educational psychology;

7) medical psychology. Genetic psychology is engaged in the study of the mechanisms of the psyche and behavior inherited from parents, studies their conditionality by genotype. Differential psychology deals with the study of the individual characteristics of a person that distinguish him from others. In developmental psychology, these differences are represented by age. Social psychology studies the relationship of people in society: at work, at home, at the institute, at school, etc. Knowledge of social psychology is very important for organizing an effective upbringing process.

Pedagogical psychology is engaged in the study of the processes of education and training, the creation of their new methods, taking into account the characteristics of each age.

Medical psychology (as well as pathopsychology and psychotherapy) studies emerging deviations in the psyche and behavior of a person from the accepted norm.

The main goals of these branches of psychology are the study and explanation of the causes of various mental disorders and deviations, as well as the creation of methods for their prevention and correction (treatment).

There is another branch in psychology - legal, which is of great importance in education. It explores the ability of a person to learn legal norms and rules.

Developmental psychology itself is divided into several sections: child psychology, psychology of youth, psychology of adulthood and gerontopsychology.

All these branches of psychology are closely interconnected, since ignorance or misunderstanding of one of them is a big drawback in the process of shaping education and upbringing. The psychological processes of each age have their own characteristics, and in order to avoid or correctly eliminate the problems that arise, knowledge of other branches of psychology is necessary.

5. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Methods of research of developmental psychology are:

1) observation;

2) survey;

3) experiment;

4) modeling.

Surveillance is external and internal. External observation is carried out by observing the subject, and the results obtained are recorded. Internal observation is self-observation, when a psychologist examines the phenomena occurring in his own mind. A similar method is used in the event of unreliable external factors affecting the conduct of the study. The method of observation involves the knowledge of the individual characteristics of the human psyche through the study of his behavior. According to objective externally expressed indicators, the psychologist judges the individual characteristics of the course of mental processes, the mental state of the child, his personality traits, temperament, and character. A characteristic feature of the method of observation is that the study of the external manifestations of the human psyche takes place in natural living conditions. Observations should be carried out systematically and according to a certain plan, scheme or program, which will provide the observer with the study of precisely those issues and facts that he had previously outlined.

The survey is conducted in order to study the answers to a series of questions asked. There are several types of surveys: oral survey and written survey-questionnaire. Applying tests, get quantitative and qualitative results. There are two types of tests - a test questionnaire and a test task. In the experimental method of research, for the most vivid manifestation of certain qualities necessary for the researcher, situations are created artificially (in which the experiment takes place).

In the experiment, the experimenter conducts an experiment, monitors mental phenomena, processes of the subject. If, during observation, the researcher passively waits for the manifestation of mental processes of interest to him, then in the experiment, without waiting for the processes of interest to him to come, he himself creates the necessary conditions to cause these processes in the subject. There are two types of experiment: natural and laboratory. They differ from each other in that they allow us to study the behavior of people in conditions that are remote or close to reality. An important advantage of the experiment is that for control it is possible to repeat the experiment many times, and also to interfere in the course of mental processes. The experimenter can vary the conditions of the experiment and observe the consequences of such a change, which makes it possible to find more rational methods in educational work with students.

The modeling method is used in case of unavailability of other research methods.

6. THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT IN AGE PSYCHOLOGY

According to the dialectical understanding, development is not only a process of quantitative changes (increase or decrease in any mental manifestations, properties and qualities).

Accordingly, mental development cannot be entirely reduced to the fact that with age something increases (vocabulary, amount of attention, amount of memorized material, etc.) or decreases (children's fantasy, impulsive behavior, etc.). Development is due to the fact that at certain age periods something qualitatively new appears in the psyche - these are the so-called neoplasms.

Such neoplasms include, for example, the subjective readiness for schooling of children of seven years of age, a sense of adulthood in adolescents. In developmental psychology, the very concept of "development" is used in relation to the human psyche. Age-related mental development is the process of the formation of the psyche (its growth, development) of the child from the moment of birth to his maturation as a person, the onset of his social maturity. Development is distinguished by qualitative transformations, various changes, the emergence of completely different mechanisms, structures and processes.

Child development is an amazing and even unique process. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it begins from above under the influence of activity, and not from below. This practical activity is determined by the level of social development. Child development does not have specific definite forms, just as it does not have a given final form.

In society, there are no developmental processes that act according to an already existing, i.e., established, model (with the exception of developmental processes in ontogenesis).

Consequently, the process of human development is not subject to the biological laws that operate in animals, but is subject to socio-historical laws. Being born, a person does not have formed forms of behavior, they develop over time, due to the influence of society and the laws that have developed in it.

Developmental psychology deals with the study of the driving forces, conditions and laws of mental development itself.

The driving forces in mental development are those factors that determine the development of the child. They embody the motivating sources of development and direct its process.

Necessary conditions are external and internal factors, always present and influencing. Regularities are called laws of mental development. With their help, they describe the process of mental development of people and control it.

7. PERIODIZATION OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

The various age classifications can be divided into two groups:

1) private classifications devoted to individual segments of life, more often children's and school years;

2) general classifications covering the entire life path of a person.

Private include the classification of intelligence by J. Piaget, who distinguishes 2 main periods of formation from birth to 15 years of age:

1) the period of sensorimotor intelligence (from 0 to 2 years);

2) the period of organization of specific operations (from 3 to 15 years). In this sub-period, he distinguishes between the stages:

a) 8-11 years - specific operations;

b) 12-15 - the period of formal operations, when a teenager can successfully act not only in relation to the reality surrounding him, but also in relation to the world of abstract (verbal) assumptions.

In the classification of D. B. Elkonin, belonging to the first group, three periods of life are considered:

1) early childhood;

2) childhood;

3) adolescence. D. B. Elkonin also singled out a number of alternating types of activity: direct emotional communication (infancy), subject-manipulative activity (early childhood), role-playing (preschool age), educational activity (primary school age), intimate-personal communication (younger adolescence). age), educational and professional activities (older adolescence).

The general classification of D. Birren includes the phases of life from infancy to old age. According to this classification youth - 12-17 years; early maturity - 18-25 years; maturity - 51-75 years; old age - from 76 years.

E. Erikson wrote 8 stages of human life (from birth to old age), based on the development of the human "I" throughout life, on the change of personality in relation to the social environment and to oneself. These stages include both positive and negative points:

1) the first 12 months of life - the initial stage, characterized by trust and distrust;

2) 2-3 years of life - the second stage, characterized by independence combined with indecision;

3) 4-5 years of life - the third stage, characterized by the appearance of enterprise and feelings of guilt;

4) 6-11 years of life - the fourth stage, where a feeling of inferiority appears and skills are formed;

5) 12-18 years of life the child begins to realize himself as a person, confusing social roles;

6) the beginning of adulthood. This stage is characterized by feelings of closeness with others and loneliness;

7) mature age - a person is absorbed by himself and society;

8) old age - a person is formed as a whole person, but a feeling of hopelessness appears.

8. IMPACT OF SOCIETY ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND HIS PSYCHE

In the early and preschool periods, the main thing in the development of the child as a person is an adult. It is his opinion, censure or approval, encouragement that are important conditions for the harmonious development of the child in harmony with the world around him and his own feelings.

The desire of the child to hear praise from adults, especially from parents, makes him do things that are not characteristic of him, behave in such a way as to deserve approval. As the child enters school, his social roles increase. He has more rights and obligations, he begins his interaction with society, occupying a certain place in it thanks to his efforts and skills.

The end of primary school age is characterized by the fact that children have a desire to hear praise and approval from schoolmates. The opinion of the teacher is also important for him. The desire for parental approval is not as pronounced as before. These changes are a kind of preparatory stage for the transition to adolescence.

A vivid manifestation of teenage aspirations is the desire to gain some authority, to occupy a certain niche among their classmates and friends. That is why teenagers are so eager to meet the established requirements.

Communication with peers, comparing oneself with others leads to the fact that the most important content of the mental development of adolescents is the development of self-knowledge. They have an interest in their own personality, identifying their capabilities and evaluating them. Consequently, adolescents develop self-esteem, and on its basis certain claims are formed.

This forces them to act on the basis not only of general established requirements, but also on the basis of their own views and ideas. Senior school age is a period of formation and formation of a scientific and moral worldview.

At this age, children's aspirations and desires organize and control their behavior and activities. The needs of schoolchildren are undergoing quantitative and qualitative changes. They become conscious and mediated. As such, living conditions cannot regulate or set mental development (children raised in the same conditions can be completely different, completely different from each other). Harmony in the child’s relationship with the outside world is important.

The same conditions for one person can be positive and desirable, and for another - undesirable, negative. It depends on the individual characteristics of the individual, on what feelings and experiences the child experiences, on the situation that has arisen.

9. PERIODS OF CHILDREN'S MENTAL DEVELOPMENT

In each stage that the child lives through, the same mechanisms operate. The principle of classification is the change of leading activities such as:

1) the child’s orientation towards the basic meanings of human relationships (interiorization of motives and goals occurs);

2) the assimilation of methods of action developed in society, including objective, mental ones.

The mastering of tasks and meaning is always the first, and after it comes the moment of mastering actions. Development can be described in two coordinates:

1) the child is a "public adult";

2) the child is a "public object".

D. B. Elkonin proposed the following periods of development of children:

1) infancy - from the moment of birth to a year (the leading form of activity is communication);

2) early childhood - from 1 to 3 years (objective activity develops, as well as verbal communication);

3) junior and middle preschool age - from 3 to 4 or 5 years (the leading activity is the game);

4) senior preschool age - from 5 to 6-7 years (the leading activity is still the game, which is combined with subject activity);

5) primary school age - from 7 to 11 years old, covers education in primary school

(during this period, the main activity is teaching, intellectual and cognitive abilities are formed and developed);

6) adolescence - from 11 to 17 years, covers the process of learning in high school (this period is characterized by: personal communication, work activity; professional activity and oneself as a person are defined). Each period of age development has its own differences and a certain time of flow. If you observe the behavior and those mental reactions that occur in a child, then you can independently identify each of the periods. Each new age stage of mental development needs changes: it is necessary to communicate with the child in a different way, in the process of training and education it is necessary to look for and select new means, methods and techniques.

If we take the process of child development in general, then we can distinguish three main stages:

1) preschool childhood (this is a fairly long period covering the life of a child from the moment of birth to 7 years);

2) primary school age (this period covers the life of a child from the moment he enters school until the end of primary school, i.e., the interval from 7 to 11 years);

3) middle and senior school age (this period covers the life of a child from the moment he enters the middle classes of the school until the moment he graduates, that is, from 11 to 17 years old).

10. STAGE OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND ITS COMPOSITION

If we consider childhood development as a stage in the formation of a personality, then we can divide it into several periods. Periods of childhood:

1) neonatal crisis;

2) infancy (the first year of a child's life);

3) crisis of the 1st year of a child's life;

4) childhood crisis;

5) crisis 3 years;

6) preschool childhood;

7) crisis 7 years;

8) primary school age;

9) crisis 11-12 years old;

10) adolescence.

All periods were identified using the requirements for them. Each of them should include a new social situation of development in which the child finds himself, the formation of a new leading type of activity, new formations in the child's psyche.

Neonatal crisis. It examines the physical and mental state of the newborn in the first hours of his life, their features.

Infancy. Developmental psychology during this period is engaged in the study of congenital forms of the psyche and behavior, the motor activity of the infant, and the characteristics of his mental functions.

Crisis of the 1st year of life. The following are studied: a new type of child's activity, his new social situation, the emergence of new means of communication, the break in the psychological unity of mother and child, new methods and tasks of education.

Childhood crisis. At this stage, the features of mental and physiological processes, neoplasms of this age and the appearance of contradictions, speech development and the development of mental abilities, their features are studied.

Crisis 3 years. Neoplasms, the social situation of development, age-related symptoms are being studied.

Preschool childhood. Cognitive processes, leading activities of this age, features of mental functions, as well as the child's psychological readiness for schooling and personality development are studied.

Crisis 7 years. They study the social situation of development, the formation of self-esteem and self-awareness.

Junior school age. Psychological features at the initial stage of education, cognitive development of younger schoolchildren, mental development, main activities, personality development are studied.

Crisis 11-12 years. The social situation of development, the new formation of the personality, the leading type of activity are studied.

Teenage childhood. The development of cognitive processes, the development of the psyche, thinking, the development of special abilities, the personality of the child and interpersonal relationships are being studied.

11. INTRAUTERINE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD AND ITS FEATURES

Periods of embryonic development of a child:

1) initial (first 7 days of development);

2) embryonic (from the 2nd to the 8th week of pregnancy);

3) fetal (from the 9th week until delivery).

By the 8th week, the embryo begins to acquire the features characteristic of a person. In the process of embryonic development, a person goes through several crisis stages associated with the formation of his individual systems.

During the stable period, the adoption stage (from the 8th to the 16th week of pregnancy) and the intrauterine infant stage (from the 20th to the 28th week of pregnancy) pass through. The crisis stages are the stages of otherness (this stage occurs from the beginning of pregnancy to the 13th week) and fetality (from the 15th to the 22nd week of pregnancy).

Let's consider these stages in more detail. The first stage in time is the crisis of otherness. This is the moment of conception of the child and its acceptance by the mother's body, that is, the initial stage of the formation of the fetus.

The second stage is the acceptance stage. At this stage, the fetus is accepted by the mother's body, her awareness of her own pregnancy. The third stage is the fetal crisis.

During this period, the fetus begins to actively manifest itself, that is, move. A mother, feeling her child, can respond to his movements (for example, by stroking), develop his sensory abilities. The fourth and last is the developmental stage (or the intrauterine infant stage). During this period, the active formation of the fetus continues. It increases in size, more and more acquires the features of a person. During this period, the mother and fetus emotional connection becomes more stable.

By the beginning of the 3rd month, it is already possible to speak about the development of the sense organs and the brain centers corresponding to them. Already at six weeks, you can fix the work of the brain, at seven - synapses begin their activity. This is the period of the first reflexes.

A three-month-old fetus can already feel the touch, he begins to actively move. The auditory system begins to form from the 8th week. The formation of the inner ear begins first, followed by the outer, and by the 5th month the process of formation of the entire auditory system is completed.

Sight and smell are also formed during the prenatal period, but unlike tactile sensations and hearing, they do not manifest themselves in any way until the moment of birth.

This is their difference from the taste, which the child begins to demonstrate early enough, which affects the needs of the mother.

12. DEVELOPMENT OF SENSORIC AND MOTOR SKILLS IN INFANTITY. "REVIVAL COMPLEX" AND ITS CONTENT

The “revival complex” described by N.M. Shchelovanov appears from 2,5 months and increases until the 4th month. It includes a group of reactions such as:

1) fading, focusing on the subject, a look with tension;

2) smile;

3) motor revival;

4) localization.

After four months, the complex falls apart. The course of reactions depends on the behavior of the adult. An analysis of age dynamics shows that up to two months the child reacts equally to both the toy and the adult, but he smiles at the adult more often. After three months, a motor animation is formed on the object seen. In the first half of the year, the child does not distinguish between positive and negative influences. The child has a need for attention, expressive-mimic means of communication appear. The more attentive an adult is to a child, the earlier he begins to distinguish himself from the outside world, which is the basis of his self-awareness and self-esteem. By the end of the first half of the year, the child shows a rich palette of emotions. The act of grasping at five months has already been formed. Thanks to the adult, the child singles out an integral object and forms a sensory-motor act. Interest in actions and objects is evidence of a new stage of development. In the second half of life, the manipulative action (throwing, pinching, biting) becomes the leading one. By the end of the year, the child masters the properties of objects. At 7-8 months, the child should throw, touch objects, actively behave. Communication is situational business. Attitudes towards adults are changing, negative reactions to remarks prevail. Emotions become brighter, differ depending on the situation.

The development of infant motor skills follows a certain pattern: movements are improved from large, sweeping to smaller and more precise, and first this happens with the arms and upper half of the body, then with the legs and lower body. The baby's sensory develops faster than the motor sphere, although the two are connected. This age stage is preparatory to speech development and is called the preverbal period.

1. Development of passive speech - the child learns to understand, guesses the meaning; Anemotic hearing in a child is important; articulation is important in an adult.

2. Practicing speech articulations. Changing the sound unit (timbre) leads to a change in meaning. Normally, a child at 6-7 months turns his head when naming an object if this object has a permanent place, and at 7-8 months he looks for the named object among others. By the first year, the child understands what subject is being discussed and performs basic actions. At 5-6 months, the child must go through the babbling stage and learn to clearly pronounce triads and dyads (three and two sounds), and be able to reproduce a communication situation.

13. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD'S PERSONALITY (PSYCHOANALYSIS, SOCIO-DYNAMIC THEORY)

Interacting with society, a person is forced to adapt, to learn to delay the impulses of instinct. Interaction with society can lead to the displacement of problems on one's body (the theory of convergence on an organ), i.e. society is a source of development, as well as a source of inhibition of human development. The main motive of the child's behavior is the satisfaction of his instincts, action on the principle of pleasure. The process of mental development consists in the differentiation of the mental structures themselves and in the development of new forms of adaptive behavior. The level of the unconscious is the level of parental codes. Z. Freud believes that at the end of the age of 6, a "super-ego" appears, and by the age of three, an "ego" is formed. Z. Freud also speaks of psychosexual development. The main criterion is the actualization of erotic zones. Each age has its own erotic zones. The first stage - oral, corresponds to the first year of a child's life. The second stage is anal (from one to two years). The child learns to control his body. The third stage is phallic (from two to five years). Gender identification is formed, relationships with an adult of the same sex become more complicated. The fourth stage is the latent stage of psychosexual development (from 5 to 11 years). The activity of the child is aimed at identification. Fifth stage - genital (after 11 years). The maturity phase is not exactly known, as it is individual. This is the time when a person is capable of mature love (passes through the phase of searching for a partner).

E. Erickson proposes a theory of the psychosocial development of the child and describes the conditions for the driving force of development. He distinguishes 8 age periods and solves his own problem or conflict situation in each period of development:

1) before the first year - oral-sensory stage: "Can I trust the world?";

2) from two to three years - the muscular-anal stage: "Can I control my own body and behavior?", i.e. differentiation at the level of shame, autonomy;

3) from four to five years - locomotor-genital stage: "Can I become independent?" At the level of character traits, initiative or feelings of guilt are manifested;

4) from 6 to 11 years old - latent stage: "Can I become skillful?" Industriousness or a sense of inferiority are manifested;

5) from 12 to 18 years - the moment of active consciousness and self-awareness: "Who am I?" The ability to resist or run away from a problem is visible;

6) from 18 to 25 years old - youth and youth: "Can I give myself to another?" Problems of intimacy and isolation arise;

7) over 25 years - two positions are possible: generativity (development) or stagnation (soothing with life);

8) maturity, adulthood. Summing up: despair, if a person has lived an unsuccessful life, or satisfaction with life, if he feels a sense of usefulness until old age.

14. COGNITIVE SCHEMA AND ITS CONTENT

J. Piaget concluded that the child's thinking is formed before it becomes verbal. He singled out operations as certain logically built structures of thinking. Their transformation and development constitute the content of the intellectual development of children. J. Piaget introduced such a concept as "schemes" - ways of adapting a person to the world around him through thinking and behavior. As a separate unit, the scheme includes elementary movements and complex motor skills and abilities combined with mental actions.

There are cognitive concepts by D. S. Bruner and J. Piaget. According to the concept of D. S. Bruner, there are two ways to understand the world - sensory and motor. Nothing can be included in thought without passing into feelings and motor activity. He talks about the sensorimotor mapping, which develops throughout a person’s life, but is dominant in the first years of life. First, the world is represented using images, then - in the form of symbols. Images and symbols organize presentations (5-6 year old level). The world of concepts based on generalizations is accessible to teenagers. In this case, the development of thinking is associated with the development of speech.

The most detailed concept of child development belongs to J. Piaget. Thinking develops in interaction with the environment as the child tries to adapt to change.

Therefore, an external influence or environment changes the child's activity patterns. There are three mechanisms that allow a child to adapt:

1) assimilation (the child's ability to adapt, manifested on the basis of existing skills, and the ability to act with new, not yet known objects);

2) accommodation (the desire of the child to change the previous skills and habits at the moment when conditions change);

3) balance (as a result of accommodation mechanisms, a balance is again established between the psyche and behavior of the child, which manifests itself in the fact that the child has certain skills and abilities and can apply them in given conditions).

All cognitive processes (according to J. Piaget) go through the following stages:

1) sensorimotor (stage of elementary symbolic thinking);

2) the pre-operational stage (from two to six or seven years), at which the formation of images, ideas, the assimilation of the similarities and differences of objects takes place;

3) the stage of specific operations (up to 12 years), which manifests itself in the manipulation of symbols, mastery of mental operations and logical rules;

4) the stage of formal operations (from the age of 12 until the end of life), when the flexibility of thinking develops, operating with abstract concepts, the ability to find solutions to various problems, evaluating each option.

15. FORMS OF COMMUNICATION DURING INFANTITY. CRITERIA M. I. LISINA

Communication, according to M. I. Lisina, is a communicative activity with its own structure:

1) communication - mutually directed communication, where each participant acts as a subject;

2) motivating motive - specific properties of a person (personal, business qualities);

3) the meaning of communication is to satisfy the need for knowledge of other people and ourselves through the evaluation of others and ourselves. Sufficiently wide and significant for the child

all interactions with adults. Communication, however, most often acts here only as part of it, since, in addition to communication, the child has other needs. Every day the child makes new discoveries for himself, he needs fresh vivid impressions, vigorous activity. Children need their aspirations to be understood and recognized, in a sense of support from an adult. The development of the communication process is closely related to all these needs of children, on the basis of which several categories can be distinguished, determined by the motives of communication, such as:

1) a cognitive category that arises when the child receives new vivid impressions;

2) a business category that arises in the process of active activity of the child;

3) a personal category that arises in the process of direct communication between the child and adults. M. I. Lisina presented the development of communication with adults as a change in several forms of communication. The time of occurrence, the content of the need that is being satisfied, the motives and means of communication were taken into account.

An adult is the main driver in the development of a child’s communication. Thanks to his presence, attention, and care, the communication process begins and goes through all stages of its development. In the first months of life, the child begins to react to the adult: he looks for him with his eyes, smiles in response to his smile. At four to six months the child develops a revival complex. Now he can look long enough and intently at an adult, smile, showing positive emotions. His motor abilities develop and vocalization appears.

The revival complex, according to M. I. Lisina, plays an important role in shaping the interaction of the child with adults. The emergence of situational-personal communication is an important stage in the formation of a child's personality. The child begins to feel on an emotional level. He shows positive emotions, he has a desire to attract the attention of an adult, a desire for common activities with him. Next comes situational business communication. Now the child is not enough with the attention of an adult, he needs to perform joint activities with him, as a result of which manipulative activity appears.

16. PROBLEMS OF PRENATAL PSYCHOLOGY

For the full positive development of the child's psyche, it is of great importance whether the parents want him to appear. Scientists argue that the child's psyche is traumatized even before birth, if he is not desired.

If during pregnancy a woman is exposed to frequent stressful situations, then steroid hormones can be formed in her blood that exceed the permissible quantitative norms.

They, penetrating through the placenta, negatively affect the still unformed brain of the child.

The child in the womb and the mother herself have a strong emotional connection, which largely determines the formation and further development of the baby's psyche. Everything that the mother feels and experiences, the child feels and experiences.

And this can have both a positive and a negative impact.

All negative experiences of the mother during pregnancy, her stresses, depressions, can affect the child after his birth, taking the form of neurosis, general anxiety, disorders and mental retardation, etc.

It is impossible not to take into account the role of the father, since his attitude towards the unborn child, the position of the mother and herself largely determines the general mental state of the woman.

Scientists involved in the psychology of prenatal development say that it is very important for the unborn child to create the most favorable conditions for development (both physiological and emotional). This will have a positive impact on the development of the child's abilities.

The physiology and psychology of the mother are for the child a kind of basis for its formation. The mother acts for him as an intermediary connecting with the outside world. The child can feel, feel the experiences of the mother that arise when interacting with him.

Factors affecting the development of the unborn child:

1) the ability of the fetus to sensory perception. From the age of three months, the child begins to feel touch. The baby can perceive sounds while in the womb. He calms down, hearing the voice of his mother or father, the sounds of music;

2) emotional ties between the fetus and mother. The positive or negative emotional state of the mother is transmitted to the fetus and affects the process of its development.

17. LIFE "ACQUISITIONS" OF A CHILD IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Early childhood covers the age from one to 3 years. By the end of the 1st year of life, the child is no longer so dependent on the mother. The psychological unity "mother - child" begins to disintegrate, that is, psychologically, the child is separated from the mother.

The leading activity becomes object-manipulative. The process of psychological development accelerates. This is facilitated by the fact that the child begins to move independently, activity with objects appears, verbal communication actively develops (both impressive and expressive speech), and self-esteem emerges. Already in the crisis of the 1st year of life, major contradictions emerge that lead the child to new stages of development:

1) autonomous speech as a means of communication is addressed to another, but is devoid of constant meanings, which requires its transformation. It is understandable to others and is used as a means of communicating with others and managing oneself;

2) manipulations with objects should be replaced by activities with objects;

3) the formation of walking not as an independent movement, but as a means of achieving other goals.

Accordingly, in early childhood there are such new formations as speech, objective activity, and also the prerequisites for personality development are created. The child begins to separate himself from other objects, to stand out from the people around him, which leads to the emergence of initial forms of self-awareness. The first task for the formation of an independent personality is the ability to control one’s body; voluntary movements appear. Voluntary movements are developed in the process of forming the first objective actions. By the age of 3, the child develops an idea of himself, which is expressed in the transition from calling himself by name to using the pronouns “my”, “I”, etc. The leading one is spatial visual memory, which is ahead of figurative and verbal memory in its development.

An arbitrary form of memorizing words appears. The ability to classify objects by shape and color is manifested in most children in the 2nd half of the 2nd year of life. By the age of 3, the necessary prerequisites are created for the transition to the preschool period.

In early childhood, a variety of cognitive functions develop rapidly in their original forms (sensorics, perception, memory, thinking, attention). At the same time, the child begins to show communicative properties, interest in people, sociability, imitation, primary forms of self-consciousness are formed.

Mental development in early childhood and the variety of its forms and manifestations depend on how much the child is included in communication with adults and how actively he manifests himself in objective cognitive activity.

18. SEMANTIC FUNCTION AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR CHILDREN

The first simple sounds uttered by a child appear in the 1st month of life. The child begins to pay attention to the speech of an adult.

The buzzing appears between 2 and 4 months. At 3 months, the child has his own speech reactions to the speech of an adult. At 4-6 months, the child goes through the cooing stage, begins to repeat simple syllables after the adult. In the same period, the child is able to distinguish intonation the speech addressed to him. The first words appear in a child's speech at 9-10 months.

At 7 months, we can talk about the appearance of intonation in a child. On average, a one and a half year old baby operates with fifty words. At about 1 year old, the child begins to pronounce individual words, name objects. For about 2 years, he calls simple sentences consisting of two or three words.

The child begins active verbal communication. From the age of 1, he switches to phonemic speech, and this period continues until the age of 4. The child’s vocabulary quickly expands, and by the age of 3 he knows about 1500 words. From 1 year to 2 years, the child uses words without changing them. But in the period from 2 to 3 years, the grammatical side of speech begins to form, he learns to coordinate words. The child begins to understand the meaning of words, which determines the development of the semantic function of speech. His understanding of objects becomes more accurate and correct. He can differentiate words and understand the generalized meaning. From 1 year to 3 years, the child enters the stage of pronouncing polysemantic words, but their number in his vocabulary is still small.

Verbal generalizations in a child begin to form from the 1st year of life. First, he combines objects into groups according to external signs, then - according to functional ones. Next, general features of objects are formed. The child begins to imitate adults in his speech.

If an adult encourages the child, actively communicates with him, then the child's speech will develop faster. At the age of 3-4, the child begins to operate with concepts (this is how words can be defined by the semantic language structure), but they are not yet fully understood by him. His speech becomes more coherent and takes the form of a dialogue. The child develops contextual speech, egocentric speech appears. But still at this age the child is not fully aware of the meaning of words. Most often, his sentences are built only from nouns, adjectives and verbs are excluded. But gradually the child begins to master all parts of speech: first, adjectives and verbs, then unions and prepositions appear in his speech. At 5 years old, a child already masters grammar rules. Its vocabulary contains about 14 words. The child can correctly compose sentences, change words, use temporary forms of the verb. Dialogue develops.

19. FEATURES OF REPRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY OF CHILDREN

Drawing is an expression of the inner world of a person and his psychological experiences. In the 1920s, F. Goodinoff used drawing as a definition of the mental development of children. The quality of the drawing is related to the level of mental development of the child, which determines the presence of the necessary details, the presence of additional details. According to the indicator of quantitative details, an indicator corresponding to his age is calculated. K. Mahover used drawing to study the personal characteristics of a person.

Drawing is a method of studying the inner world of a person, his ability to reflect the picture of the world, his state, and experiences. J. Piaget defined children's drawing as a special type of imitation that expresses the nature of internal images and individual symbols. When analyzing a child’s drawing, the researcher pays attention to how these drawings convey the reality surrounding the child, as well as the meaning that is put into it. In drawings, the story of what is depicted is no different from the verbal story. Through drawing, the child conveys everything new that he discovers in the world, since he does not yet have enough concepts to express it verbally, which is the child’s urgent need.

Stages of children's drawing:

1) the moral stage - the child is pleased that his movements lead to a result. The drawings show a heap of lines. The foundations of the creative qualities of the child are laid. The pre-aesthetic stage does not set the task of creating something beautiful. It corresponds to the stage of the cooing of the child, i.e., the period before the appearance of speech.

The child gives birth to new repetitive sounds. Stages of staining: imitation of the movements of adults, looking at scribbles, repeating scribbles, ornaments (primary form);

2) stage of primitive relations. Random luck binds the child to something that resembles a person or an object. The nature of the image depends on hand-eye coordination, temperament and mood. Early drawings do not contain details, since children are technically unable to reproduce them. The main thing is the child's satisfaction in the first and second stages;

3) the stage of schematic images. sign activity. The child does not respect the proportions in the human figure ("tadpoles"). He practices the symbolic representation of objects and people. Drawing contributes to the development of speech, enriches it;

4) the stage of similar, real images. Drawings become more diverse, themes expand;

5) stage of correct images (approximately 11 years). Images lose their childishness. After 11 years, the quality of drawing does not improve.

20. CRISIS OF THE 1st YEAR OF A CHILD'S LIFE

By the 1st year of life, the child becomes more independent. At this age, children are already getting up on their own, learning to walk. The ability to move without the help of an adult gives the child a sense of freedom and independence.

During this period, children are very active, they master what was not available to them before. The desire to be independent from an adult can also manifest itself in the child's negative behavior. Having felt freedom, children do not want to part with this feeling and obey adults.

Now the child himself chooses the type of activity. At the refusal of an adult, a child may show negativism: scream, cry, etc. Such manifestations are called the crisis of the 1st year of life, which was studied by S. Yu. Meshcheryakova.

Based on the results of a survey of parents, S. Yu. Meshcheryakova concluded that all these processes are temporary and transient. She divided them into 5 subgroups:

1) difficult to educate - the child is stubborn, does not want to obey the requirements of adults, shows perseverance and desire for constant parental attention;

2) the child has many forms of communication that were previously unusual for him. They can be positive and negative. The child violates regime moments, he develops new skills;

3) the child is very vulnerable and can show strong emotional reactions to the condemnation and punishment of adults;

4) the child, faced with difficulties, may contradict himself. If something does not work out, the child calls on an adult to help him, but immediately refuses the help offered to him;

5) the child can be very capricious. The crisis of the 1st year of life affects the life of the child as a whole. The areas affected by this period are the following: objective activity, the child's relationship with adults, the child's attitude towards himself. In objective activity, the child becomes more independent, he becomes more interested in various objects, he manipulates and plays with them. The child strives to be independent and independent, he wants to do everything himself, despite the fact that he lacks skills. In relation to adults, the child becomes more demanding, he may show aggression towards loved ones. Strangers cause him distrust, the child becomes selective in communication and may refuse contact with a stranger. The child's attitude towards himself also undergoes changes.

The child becomes more self-reliant and independent and wants adults to recognize this, allowing him to act in accordance with his own desires. The child is often offended and protests when parents demand submission from him, not wanting to fulfill his whims.

21. STAGES OF SENSOR DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN OF THE 1st YEAR OF LIFE

Infancy is characterized by a high intensity of the processes of development of sensory and motor functions, the creation of prerequisites for speech and social development in conditions of direct interaction between a child and an adult.

Of great importance is the environment, the participation of adults not only in the physical, but also in the mental development of the child. Mental development in infancy is characterized by the most pronounced intensity, not only in terms of pace, but also in the sense of new formations.

At first, the child has only organic needs. They are satisfied with the help of the mechanisms of unconditioned reflexes, on the basis of which the child's initial adaptation to the environment takes place. In the process of interaction with the outside world, the child gradually develops new needs: communication, movement, manipulation of objects, satisfaction of interest in the environment. Congenital unconditioned reflexes at this stage of development cannot satisfy these needs.

A contradiction arises, which is resolved by the formation of conditioned reflexes - flexible neural connections - as a mechanism for the child to acquire and consolidate life experience. Gradually becoming more complex orientation in the surrounding world leads to the development of sensations (primarily visual, which begin to play a leading role in the development of the child) and becomes the main means of cognition. At first, children can follow someone with their eyes only in a horizontal plane, later - vertically.

From 2 months old, babies can focus on an object. From now on, babies are most of all engaged in examining various objects that are in their field of vision. Children from 2 months are able to distinguish simple colors, and from 4 - the shape of an object.

From the 2nd month, the child begins to respond to adults. At 2-3 months, she responds with a smile to her mother's smile. On the 2nd month, the baby can concentrate, cooing and fading appear - this is a manifestation of the first elements in the revitalization complex. A month later, the elements are converted into a system. Around the middle of the 1st year of life, hands develop noticeably.

Feeling, grasping hand movements and manipulating objects expand the child's ability to learn about the world around him. As the child develops, the forms of his communication with adults expand and enrich.

From the forms of emotional reaction to an adult, the child gradually moves to respond to words of a certain meaning, begins to understand them. At the end of the 1st year of life, the child himself pronounces the first words.

22. SYNCRETISM AND THE MECHANISM OF TRANSITION TO THINKING

Thought processes and operations are formed in a child in stages in the process of his growth and development. There is development in the cognitive sphere. Initially, thinking is based on sensory knowledge, on the perception and sensation of reality.

The first mental operations of the child can be called his perception of ongoing events and phenomena, as well as his correct reaction to them.

I.M. Sechenov called the elementary thinking of a child directly related to the manipulation of objects and actions with them the stage of objective thinking. When a child begins to speak and master speech, he gradually moves to a higher level of reflection of reality - to the stage of verbal thinking.

Preschool age is characterized by visual-figurative thinking. The child's mind is occupied with the perception of specific objects or phenomena, and since the skills of analysis have not yet been formed, he cannot single out their essential features. K. Buhler, W. Stern, J. Piaget understood the process of development of thinking as a connection of the direct process of thinking with the driving forces of its development. As the child begins to grow up, his thinking develops.

The biological regularity of age development determines and forms the stages of development of thinking. Learning becomes less important. Thinking is spoken of as an organic, spontaneous process of development.

V. Stern identified the following signs in the process of thinking development:

1) purposefulness, which from the very beginning is inherent in a person as a person;

2) the emergence of new intentions, the emergence of which determines the power of consciousness over movements. This becomes possible due to the development of speech (an important engine in the development of thinking). Now the child learns to generalize phenomena and events and classify them into different categories.

The most important thing, according to V. Stern, is that the process of thinking in its development goes through several stages that replace each other. These assumptions echo the concept of K. Buhler. For him, the process of development of thinking is due to the biological growth of the organism. K. Buhler also draws attention to the importance of speech in the development of thinking. J. Piaget created his own concept. In his opinion, thinking is syncretic in a child under 12 years of age.

By syncretism, he understood a single structure that encompasses all thought processes. Its difference lies in the fact that in the process of thinking, synthesis and analysis are not interdependent. The ongoing analysis of information, processes or phenomena is not further synthesized. J. Piaget explains this by the fact that the child is egocentric by nature.

23. EGO-CENTRISM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

For a long time, the preschooler's thinking was negatively commented on. This is due to the fact that the thinking of the child was compared with the thinking of an adult, revealing shortcomings.

J. Piaget in his research focused not on shortcomings, but on those differences that exist in the thinking of the child. He revealed a qualitative difference in the child's thinking, which lies in the child's peculiar attitude and perception of the world around him. The only true for the child is his first impression.

Up to a certain point, children do not draw a line between their subjective world and the real world. Therefore, they transfer their ideas to real objects. This position becomes the reason for the emergence of such features of thinking as animism and artificialism.

In the first case, children believe that all objects are alive, and in the second, they think that all natural processes and phenomena arise and are subject to the actions of people.

Also, children at this age are not able to separate the mental processes of a person from reality.

So, for example, a dream for a child is a drawing in the air or in the light, which is endowed with life and can independently move, say, around the apartment.

The reason for this is that the child does not separate himself from the outside world. He does not realize that his perception, actions, sensations, thoughts are dictated by the processes of his psyche, and not by outside influences. For this reason, the child gives life to all objects, animates them.

Non-isolation of one's own "I" from the surrounding world J. Piaget called egocentrism. The child considers his point of view the only true and the only possible one. He does not yet understand that everything may look different, not as it seems at first glance.

With egocentrism, the child does not understand the difference between his attitude to the world and reality. With egocentrism, the child manifests an unconscious quantitative relationship, that is, his judgments about quantity and size are by no means correct. For a large one, he will take a short and straight stick instead of a long, but curved one.

Egocentrism is also present in the speech of the child, when he begins to talk to himself, not needing listeners. Gradually, external processes encourage the child to overcome egocentrism, realize himself as an independent person and adapt to the world around him.

24. CRISIS 3 YEARS

The constructive content of the crisis is associated with the growing emancipation of the child from the adult.

The crisis of 3 years is a restructuring of the child's social relations, a change in his position in relation to the surrounding adults, primarily to the authority of the parents. He tries to establish new, higher forms of relations with others.

The child develops a tendency to self-satisfy his needs, and the adult retains the old type of relationship and thereby limits the child's activity. The child may act contrary to his wishes (vice versa). So, refusing momentary desires, he can show his character, his "I".

The most valuable neoplasm of this age is the desire of the child to do something on their own. He starts to say: "I myself."

At this age, a child may somewhat overestimate his abilities and abilities (i.e., self-esteem), but he can already do a lot on his own. The child needs communication, he needs the approval of an adult, new successes, there is a desire to become a leader. The developing child resists the old relationship.

He is naughty, showing a negative attitude towards the requirements of an adult. The crisis of 3 years is a transient phenomenon, but the neoplasms associated with it (separation of oneself from others, comparing oneself with other people) is an important step in the mental development of the child.

The desire to be like adults can only find its fullest expression in the form of play. Therefore, the crisis of 3 years is resolved by the transition of the child to play activities.

E. Koehler characterized the crisis phenomena:

1) negativism - the unwillingness of the child to obey the established rules and fulfill the requirements of the parents;

2) stubbornness - when the child does not hear, does not perceive other people's arguments, insisting on his own;

3) obstinacy - the child does not accept and opposes the established household way;

4) self-will - the desire of the child to be independent of an adult, that is, to be independent;

5) depreciation of an adult - the child ceases to respect adults, may even insult them, parents cease to be an authority for him;

6) protest-rebellion - any action of the child begins to resemble a protest;

7) despotism - the child begins to show despotism in relation to parents and adults in general.

25. GAME AND ITS ROLE IN THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD

The essence of the game, according to L. S. Vygotsky, lies in the fact that it is the fulfillment of the generalized desires of the child, the main content of which is the system of relations with adults.

A characteristic feature of the game is that it allows the child to perform an action in the absence of conditions for actually achieving its results, since the motive for each action lies not in obtaining results, but in the very process of its implementation.

In the game and other activities, such as drawing, self-service, communication, the following new formations are born: the hierarchy of motives, imagination, the initial elements of arbitrariness, understanding the norms and rules of social relationships.

For the first time, the relationship that exists between people is revealed in the game. The child begins to comprehend that participation in every activity requires a person to perform certain duties and gives him a number of rights. Children learn discipline by following certain rules of the game.

In joint activities, they learn to coordinate their actions. In the game, the child learns the possibility of replacing a real object with a toy or a random thing, and can also replace objects, animals and other people with his own person.

The game at this stage becomes symbolic. The use of symbols, the ability to replace one object by means of another, is an acquisition that ensures the further mastery of social signs.

Thanks to the development of the symbolic function, a classifying perception is formed in the child, the content side of the intellect changes significantly. Game activity contributes to the development of voluntary attention and voluntary memory. A conscious goal (to focus attention, remember and recall) is allocated to the child earlier and easier in the game.

The game has a great influence on the development of speech. It also affects intellectual development: in the game, the child learns to generalize objects and actions, to use the generalized meaning of the word.

Entering the game situation is a condition for various forms of mental activity of the child. From thinking in object manipulation, the child moves on to thinking in representations.

In the role-playing game, the ability to act in a mental plane begins to develop. Role play is also important for the development of the imagination.

26. THE LEADING ACTIVITY OF THE CHILD TO THE END OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

By the end of early childhood, new activities begin to take shape that determine mental development. This is a game and productive activities (drawing, modeling, designing).

In the 2nd year of a child's life, the game is procedural in nature. Actions are single, unemotional, stereotyped, may not be interconnected. L. S. Vygotsky called such a game a quasi-game, which implies imitation of an adult and the development of motor stereotypes. The game begins from the moment when the child masters the game substitutions. Fantasy develops, therefore, the level of thinking rises. This age is different in that the child does not have a system according to which his game would be built. He can either repeat one action many times, or perform them chaotically, randomly. For a child, it does not matter in what sequence they occur, because there is no logic between his actions. During this period, the process itself is important for the child, and the game is called procedural.

By the age of 3, a child is able to act not only in a perceived situation, but also in a mental (imaginary) one. One object is replaced by another, they become symbols. Between the substitute object and its meaning, the child's action becomes, a connection appears between reality and imagination. Game substitution allows you to tear off an action or purpose from the name, that is, from the word, and modify a specific object. When developing play substitutions, the child needs the support and help of an adult.

Stages due to which the child is included in the substitution game:

1) the child does not respond to the substitutions that an adult makes during the game, he is not interested in words, questions, or actions;

2) the child begins to show interest in what the adult is doing and repeat his movements on his own, but the child's actions are still automatic;

3) the child can perform substitution actions or their imitation not immediately after the adult's demonstration, but after a lapse of time. The child begins to understand the difference between a real object and a substitute;

4) the child himself begins to replace one object with another, but imitation is still strong. For him, these actions are not yet conscious;

5) the child can independently replace one object with another, while giving it a new name. In order for game substitutions to be successful, an adult's emotional involvement in the game is needed.

By the age of 3, the child should have the whole structure of the game:

1) strong game motivation;

2) game actions;

3) original game substitutions;

4) active imagination.

27. CENTRAL NEOPLASMS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

Neoplasms of an early age - the development of objective activity and cooperation, active speech, game substitutions, the folding of a hierarchy of motives.

On this basis, arbitrary behavior appears, i.e., independence. K. Levin described the early age as situational (or "field behavior"), that is, the child's behavior is determined by his visual field ("what I see, I want"). Every thing is affectively charged (needed). The child owns not only speech forms of communication, but also elementary forms of behavior.

The development of the child's psyche in the period of early childhood depends on a number of factors: the mastery of a straight gait, the development of speech and objective activity.

Mastery of a straight gait affects mental development. The feeling of mastery of one's own body serves as a self-reward for the child. The intention to walk supports the ability to achieve the desired goal and the participation and approval of adults.

At the age of 2, a child enthusiastically looks for difficulties for himself, and overcoming them causes positive emotions in the baby. The ability to move, being a physical acquisition, leads to psychological consequences.

Thanks to the ability to move, the child enters a period of more free and independent communication with the outside world. Mastering walking develops the ability to navigate in space. The mental development of a child is also influenced by the development of objective actions.

Manipulative activity, characteristic of infancy, in early childhood begins to be replaced by objective activity. Its development is associated with the mastery of those methods of handling objects that have been developed by society.

The child learns from adults to focus on the constant meaning of objects, which is fixed by human activity. Fixing the content of objects in itself is not given to the child. He can open and close the cupboard door an infinite number of times, tap the floor with a spoon for a long time, but such activity is not able to acquaint him with the purpose of objects.

The functional properties of objects are revealed to the child through the upbringing and teaching influence of adults. The child learns that actions with different objects have different degrees of freedom. Some items, due to their properties, require a strictly defined method of action (closing boxes with lids, folding nesting dolls).

In other objects, the mode of action is rigidly fixed by their social purpose - these are tool objects (spoon, pencil, hammer).

28. PRESCHOOL AGE (3-7 YEARS). DEVELOPMENT OF PERCEPTION, THINKING AND SPEECH OF A CHILD

In a small child, perception is still not very perfect. Perceiving the whole, the child often fails to grasp the details.

The perception of preschool children is usually associated with the practical operation of the relevant objects: to perceive an object is to touch it, touch it, feel it, manipulate it.

The process ceases to be affective and becomes more differentiated. The perception of the child is already purposeful, meaningful and subject to analysis.

In preschool children, visual-effective thinking continues to develop, which is facilitated by the development of imagination. Due to the development of voluntary and mediated memory, visual-figurative thinking is transformed.

Preschool age is a starting point in the formation of verbal-logical thinking, as the child begins to use speech to solve a variety of problems. There are changes, development in the cognitive sphere.

Initially, thinking is based on sensory knowledge, perception and sensation of reality.

The first mental operations of the child can be called his perception of ongoing events and phenomena, as well as his correct reaction to them.

This elementary thinking of the child, directly related to the manipulation of objects, actions with them, I. M. Sechenov called the stage of objective thinking. The thinking of a preschool child is visual-figurative, his thoughts are occupied by objects and phenomena that he perceives or represents.

His analysis skills are elementary, the content of generalizations and concepts includes only external and often not at all significant signs (“a butterfly is a bird because it flies, and a chicken is not a bird because it cannot fly”). The development of speech in children is inextricably linked with the development of thinking.

The speech of the child develops under the decisive influence of verbal communication with adults, listening to their speech. In the 1st year of a child's life, anatomical, physiological and psychological prerequisites for mastering speech are created. This stage of speech development is called pre-speech. A child of the 2nd year of life practically masters speech, but his speech is agrammatical in nature: it does not contain declensions, conjugations, prepositions, conjunctions, although the child is already building sentences.

Grammatically correct oral speech begins to form at the age of 3, and by the age of 7, the child has a fairly good command of oral colloquial speech.

29. PRESCHOOL AGE (3-7 YEARS). DEVELOPMENT OF ATTENTION, MEMORY AND IMAGINATION

At preschool age, attention becomes more concentrated and stable. Children learn to control it and can already direct it to various objects.

A 4-5 year old child is able to maintain attention. For each age, attention span is different and is determined by the child’s interest and capabilities. So, at 3-4 years old, a child is attracted to bright, interesting pictures, on which he can hold his attention for up to 8 seconds.

For children of 6-7 years old, fairy tales, puzzles, riddles are interesting, which can hold their attention for up to 12 seconds. In children of 7 years old, the ability to voluntary attention is rapidly developing.

The development of voluntary attention is influenced by the development of speech and the ability to follow the verbal instructions of adults who direct the child's attention to the desired object.

Under the influence of play (and partly labor) activity, the attention of an older preschooler reaches a sufficiently high degree of development, which provides him with the opportunity to study at school.

Children begin to memorize voluntarily from the age of 3-4 due to active participation in games that require conscious memorization of any objects, actions,

words, as well as due to the gradual involvement of preschoolers in the feasible work of self-service and the implementation of instructions and instructions from elders.

Preschoolers tend not only to mechanical memorization, on the contrary, meaningful memorization is more characteristic of them. They resort to mechanical memorization only when they find it difficult to understand and comprehend the material.

At preschool age, verbal-logical memory is still poorly developed, visual-figurative and emotional memory is of primary importance.

The imagination of preschoolers has its own characteristics. For 3-5-year-old children, reproductive imagination is characteristic, that is, everything seen and experienced by children during the day is reproduced in images that are emotionally colored. But by themselves, these images are not able to exist, they need support in the form of toys, objects that perform a symbolic function.

The first manifestations of imagination can be observed in three-year-old children. By this time, the child has accumulated some life experience that provides material for the imagination. The game, as well as constructive activities, drawing, modeling, are of paramount importance in the development of the imagination.

Preschoolers do not have much knowledge, so their imagination is sparing.

30. CRISIS 6-7 YEARS. STRUCTURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL READINESS FOR LEARNING

By the end of preschool age, a whole system of contradictions develops, indicating the formation of psychological readiness for schooling.

The formation of its prerequisites is due to the crisis of 6-7 years, which L. S. Vygotsky associated with the loss of childish spontaneity and the emergence of a meaningful orientation in one's own experiences (i.e., generalization of experiences).

E. D. Bozhovich connects the crisis of 6-7 years with the emergence of a systemic neoplasm - an internal position that expresses a new level of self-awareness and reflection of the child: he wants to perform a socially significant and socially valued activity, which in modern cultural and historical conditions is schooling.

By the age of 6-7 years, two groups of children are distinguished:

1) children who, according to internal prerequisites, are already ready to become schoolchildren and master educational activities;

2) children who, not having these prerequisites, continue to remain at the level of play activity.

The psychological readiness of the child to study at school is considered both from the subjective and from the objective side.

Objectively, a child is psychologically ready for schooling if by this time he has the level of mental development necessary to start learning: curiosity, vividness of imagination. The child's attention is already relatively long and stable, he already has some experience in controlling attention, in its independent organization.

The memory of a preschooler is quite developed. He is already able to set himself the task of remembering something. He easily and firmly remembers what particularly strikes him and is directly related to his interests. Relatively well developed visual-figurative memory.

The speech of the child by the time he enters school is already sufficiently developed to begin to teach him systematically and systematically. Speech is grammatically correct, expressive, relatively rich in content. A preschooler can already understand what they hear, coherently express their thoughts.

A child of this age is capable of elementary mental operations: comparison, generalization, inference. The child has a need to build their behavior in such a way as to achieve their goals, and not act under the power of momentary desires.

Elementary personal manifestations have also been formed: perseverance, evaluation of actions in terms of their social significance.

Children are characterized by the first manifestations of a sense of duty and responsibility. This is an important condition for school readiness.

31. IMITATION AND ITS ROLE IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Imitation is of great importance for the formation of personality, the formation of intellectual abilities and social adaptation of the child.

L. S. Vygotsky spoke about his role in the formation of basic human qualities and properties, in mastering all types of activity.

At each stage of his development, the child is faced with new tasks, a new social situation, in which imitation helps him navigate. When imitating adults, he develops new forms of behavior.

Already in the period of the 1st year of life, the child can repeat some movements after adults: shake his head, show his tongue, clap his hands, etc. The child has mimic movements.

In the initial period of speech formation, the child develops pre-speech vocalizations. He can imitate different intonation and rhythm of the heard speech of an adult. The child imitates the facial expressions of the adult and his gestures.

After the 6th month, the child's imitation becomes more active, new imitation movements appear. This period can be called the period of true imitation.

The child's communication means of communication increase, he begins to manipulate objects more. The imitative movements of the child form his image of the object. The more often an adult makes certain movements, calls them, encourages the child to imitate them, the faster the child will begin to imitate them.

From the 2nd year of life, the child becomes more active, the number of his imitative movements increases.

An adult becomes an example for him, looking at which, the child begins to actively interact with objects: he imitates a conversation on the phone, flips through a book, pretending to read it, etc. This causes him to form a new type of activity - an object game.

The next stage of imitation is the actions of the child, arranged in a certain sequence. For example, in a game with a doll, he, imitating the actions of an adult, feeds her, collects her for a walk, puts her to bed, etc.

At 3 years old, the child's imitation becomes more and more similar to the behavior of adults.

In the preschool period, imitation becomes deeper and covers large aspects of life. The child repeats not only actions with objects, but also tries to reflect the characteristics of the behavior and communication of adults.

32. ACTIVITIES CHARACTERISTIC FOR PRESCHOOL CHILDHOOD

The leading activity of the preschooler is the game. Children spend a significant part of their free time in games.

The preschool period is divided into senior preschool and junior preschool age, i.e. from 3 to 7 years. During this time, children's games develop.

Initially, they are of an object-manipulative nature, but by the age of 7 they become symbolic and plot-role-playing.

Senior preschool age is the time when almost all games are already available to children. Also at this age, such activities as labor and teaching are born.

Stages of the preschool period:

1) younger preschool age (3-4 years). Children of this age most often play alone, their games are objective and serve as an impetus for the development and improvement of basic mental functions (memory, thinking, perception, etc.). Less often, children resort to role-playing games that reflect the activities of adults;

2) middle preschool age (4-5 years). Children in games unite in all large groups. Now they are characterized not by imitation of the behavior of adults, but by an attempt to recreate their relationship with each other, role-playing games appear. Children assign roles, set rules and monitor their observance.

Themes for games can be very diverse and are based on children’s existing life experiences. During this period, leadership qualities are formed. An individual type of activity appears (as a kind of symbolic form of play). When drawing, the processes of thinking and representation are activated. First, the child draws what he sees, then what he remembers, knows or invents;

3) senior preschool age (5-6 years). This age is characterized by the formation and mastery of basic labor skills and abilities, children begin to understand the properties of objects, and practical thinking develops. While playing, children master everyday objects. Their mental processes improve, hand movements develop.

Creative activity is very diverse, but the most significant is drawing. The artistic and creative activities of children, music lessons are also important.

33. NEW FORMATIONS OF THE INITIAL PERIOD OF SCHOOL LIFE

The most important new formations in the initial period of school life are arbitrariness, reflection, and an internal plan of action.

With the advent of these new abilities, the child's psyche is prepared for the next stage of education - the transition to education in the middle classes.

The emergence of these mental qualities is explained by the fact that, having come to school, children are faced with new requirements that teachers presented to them as schoolchildren.

The child should learn to control his attention, be collected and not be distracted by various annoying factors. There is a formation of such a mental process as arbitrariness, which is necessary to achieve the set goals and determines the child's ability to find the most optimal options for achieving the goal, avoiding or overcoming the difficulties that arise.

Initially, children, solving various problems, first discuss their actions step by step with the teacher. Further, they develop such a skill as planning an action for themselves, i.e., an internal plan of action is formed.

One of the main requirements for children is the ability to answer questions in detail, to be able to give reasons and arguments. From the very beginning of training, this is monitored by the teacher. It is significant to separate the child's own conclusions and reasoning from the template answers. The formation of the ability to independently evaluate is fundamental in the development of reflection.

Another new formation is significant - the ability to control one's own behavior, i.e., self-regulation of behavior.

Before the child entered school, he did not have to overcome his own desires (run, jump, talk, etc.).

Once in a new situation for himself, he is forced to obey the established rules: do not run around the school, do not talk during the lesson, do not get up and do not do extraneous things during class.

On the other hand, he must perform complex motor actions: write, draw. All this requires a significant self-regulation and self-control from the child, in the formation of which an adult should help him.

34. JUNIOR SCHOOL AGE. DEVELOPMENT OF SPEECH, THINKING, PERCEPTION, MEMORY, ATTENTION

During the period of primary school age, the development of such mental functions as memory, thinking, perception, and speech is carried out. At the age of 7, the level of development of perception is quite high. The child perceives the colors and shapes of objects. The level of development of visual and auditory perception is high.

At the initial stage of training, difficulties are identified in the process of differentiation. This is due to the still unformed system of analysis of perception. The ability of children to analyze and differentiate objects and phenomena is associated with an observation that has not yet been formed. It is no longer enough just to feel and highlight the individual properties of objects. Observation is rapidly forming in the system of schooling. Perception acquires purposeful forms, echoing with other mental processes and moving to a new level - the level of arbitrary observation.

Memory in the period of primary school age is distinguished by a bright cognitive character. A child at this age begins to understand and highlight the mnemonic task. There is a process of formation of methods and techniques of memorization.

This age is characterized by a number of features: it is easier for children to memorize material based on visualization than on the basis of explanations; concrete names and names are stored in memory better than abstract ones; in order for information to be firmly entrenched in memory, even if it is abstract material, it is necessary to associate it with facts. Memory is characterized by development in arbitrary and meaningful directions. At the initial stages of learning, children are characterized by involuntary memory. This is due to the fact that they are not yet able to consciously analyze the information they receive. Both types of memory at this age are greatly changed and combined, abstract and generalized forms of thinking appear.

Periods of development of thinking:

1) the predominance of visual-effective thinking. The period is similar to the thinking processes in preschool age. Children are not yet able to logically prove their conclusions. They build judgments on the basis of individual signs, most often external ones;

2) children master such a concept as classification. They still judge objects by external signs, but they are already able to isolate and connect individual parts, uniting them. So, by summarizing, children learn abstract thinking.

A child at this age masters his native language quite well. The statements are direct. The child either repeats the statements of adults, or simply names objects and phenomena. Also at this age, the child gets acquainted with written speech.

35. SPECIFICITY OF MENTAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TEENAGERS (BOYS, GIRLS)

In adolescence, the body of children is rebuilt and undergoes a number of changes.

Their endocrine system begins to change first. Many hormones enter the bloodstream, contributing to the development and growth of tissues. Children start growing fast. At the same time, their puberty occurs. In boys, these processes occur at the age of 13-15, while in girls - at 11-13.

The musculoskeletal system of adolescents also changes. Since a growth spurt occurs during this period, these changes are pronounced. In adolescents, features characteristic of the female and male sexes appear, body proportions change.

Sizes similar to adults are first reached by the head, hands and feet, then the limbs lengthen, and the trunk increases last. This discrepancy in proportions is the cause of the angularity of children in adolescence.

The cardiovascular and nervous systems are also subject to changes during this period. Since the development of the body is proceeding at a fairly rapid pace, difficulties may arise in the work of the heart, lungs and in the blood supply to the brain.

All these changes cause both a surge of energy and an acute sensitivity to various influences. Negative manifestations can be avoided by not overloading the child with many tasks, protecting him from the effects of prolonged negative experiences.

Puberty is an important moment in the development of a child as a person. External changes make him look like adults, and the child begins to feel differently (older, more mature, more independent).

Mental processes, like physiological ones, also undergo changes. At this age, the child begins to consciously control his own mental operations. It affects all mental functions: memory, perception, attention. The child is fascinated by thinking itself, by the fact that he can operate with various concepts, hypotheses. The perception of the child becomes more meaningful.

Memory goes through the process of intellectualization. In other words, the child remembers information purposefully, consciously.

In period I, the importance of the function of communication increases. There is a socialization of the individual. The child learns moral norms and rules.

36. PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT OF A TEENAGER

The personality of a teenager is just beginning to take shape. Self-awareness is of great importance. For the first time the child learns about himself in the family. It is from the words of the parents that the child learns what he is, and forms an opinion about himself, depending on which he builds relationships with other people in the future. This is an important point, since the child begins to set certain goals for himself, the achievement of which is dictated by his understanding of his capabilities and needs. The need to understand oneself is characteristic of adolescents. The child's self-consciousness performs an important function - a socio-regulatory one. Understanding and studying himself, a teenager first of all reveals his shortcomings. He wants to eliminate them. As time passes, the child begins to realize all his individual characteristics (both negative and positive). From that moment on, he tries to realistically assess his capabilities and merits.

This age is characterized by the desire to be like someone, that is, the creation of stable ideals. For adolescents who have just entered adolescence, important criteria in choosing the ideal are not the personal qualities of a person, but his most typical behavior, actions. So, for example, he wants to be like a person who often helps others. Older teenagers often do not want to be like a particular person. They highlight certain personal qualities of people (moral, strong-willed qualities, masculinity for boys, etc.), which they strive for. Most often, the ideal for them is a person who is older in age.

The development of a teenager's personality is quite contradictory. During this period, children are more eager to communicate with peers, interpersonal contacts are formed, and adolescents have an increased desire to be in some group or team.

At the same time, the child becomes more independent, formed as a person, otherwise begins to look at others and the outside world. These features of the child's psyche develop into a teenage complex, which includes:

1) the opinion of others about their appearance, capabilities, skills, etc.;

2) arrogance (teenagers speak quite sharply in relation to others, considering their opinion to be the only true one);

3) polar feelings, actions and behavior. So, they can be cruel and merciful, cheeky and modest, they can be against generally recognized people and worship an accidental ideal, etc.

Teenagers are also characterized by character accentuation. During this period, they are very emotional, excitable, their mood can change quickly, etc. These processes are associated with the formation of personality and character.

37. CHRONOLOGICAL LIMITS OF EARLY YOUTH

Youth is one of the stages in the development of a person, his life. There are no clearly defined boundaries of youth. According to some scientists, it comes from 11-12 years old, according to others - from 16-17 years old.

There is a certain standard that everyone adheres to. He defines the boundaries of youth as follows: its beginning is 16-17 years old, and its end is 20-23 years old.

Adolescence differs from all others in the sense of freedom of choice.

The difficulty in determining the lower limit of adolescence lies in the fact that not everyone goes through the same stages of learning.

Some, finishing the 9th grade of the school, go to colleges, lyceums, schools, someone starts working, someone is transferred to the evening form of education. Their social situation changes earlier than others, influencing attitudes, outlook and personality as a whole. Their period of adolescence comes earlier, as well as the crisis of development, which passes for them at 15 years old.

Those children who stay in school and complete 11th grade enter adolescence later.

Their social situation does not change until the age of 17, when they also experience a developmental crisis, getting in the way of choosing their future activities.

Those who are having a hard time with a youthful crisis are distinguished by the appearance of fears, increased anxiety, anxiety. At this time, they decide what they will do in the future, while being afraid to make a mistake.

Another frightening factor is the new social environment, new requirements and rules. For young men, this time is aggravated by the question of the army, which during this period rises especially sharply.

But even those who are optimistic about changing the situation still face some difficulties. First of all, they relate to the adaptation, acceptance and assimilation of new requirements.

During this period, family support and assistance are of great importance. Adults can give useful and valuable advice, help in mastering new social conditions and rules. It is important that adults do not insist on their own point of view, leaving the choice to young people.

At the same time, young people should be clearly aware of their responsibility for the correct choice, on which, perhaps, their entire future fate will depend.

38. YOUTH FRIENDSHIP AND LOVE. SELF-ASSESSMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

Adolescence is characterized by a great desire for friendship and love.

The friendship of boys and girls is more profound and stable than that of adolescents. The desire for emotional warmth and sincerity becomes significant. There is a desire to share something personal with a friend. Quite characteristic is that young men try to idealize friendship and their friends.

At the same time, they are quite demanding in relation to them. Boys may feel that they are not close enough to their friends.

For adolescence, as well as for others, the desire to establish friendly relations with people of the same sex is characteristic. But the relationship between girls and boys is somewhat changing. Their communication becomes more active. During this period, there is a desire to experience new deep feelings.

In early youth, they share their experiences, feelings, plans, etc. with a friend. Later, he is replaced by a beloved or loved one.

At this time, a young man or woman can fully open up as a person, experiencing spiritual and sexual intimacy. For this age, the need for love is the desire to be understood, to feel emotional attachment and warmth, spiritual closeness.

The way young men build their relationships, learn to show tenderness and care, will affect their future life.

A feature of adolescence is the desire to achieve goals in the future. This has a positive effect on the formation of personality.

The level of self-esteem and self-confidence determine how big life plans will be. Self-assessment of 10th grade students is quite stable, it is distinguished by a high level and comparative stability. At this time, they are not so much concerned about the choice of their future profession, they are optimistic, they believe in their own abilities and capabilities.

The situation changes dramatically in the senior class. At this time, the following groups can be distinguished:

1) children whose self-esteem has increased. They cannot really assess the situation, their desires and aspirations are mixed with reality;

2) children whose self-esteem is somewhat reduced. However, young men quite adequately perceive reality, correlating their capabilities and abilities with the level of their claims;

3) children whose self-esteem drops sharply, as they realize that their needs and aspirations are too great and do not correspond to their abilities and capabilities. Despite this, in adolescence there is a stabilization of the personality. Young men are more ready to accept themselves, self-esteem is formed.

39. CENTRAL NEOPLASMS OF YOUTH

The formation of self-consciousness is the main neoplasm in adolescence. At this age, there is an understanding of one's inner aspirations and desires, an awareness of oneself as a person and one's individual characteristics. A sense of adulthood is formed, an understanding of oneself as a woman and a man. Adolescence is a kind of transition from childhood to adulthood. There are a number of points that affect the formation of self-consciousness:

1) intellectual maturity, which includes the moral worldview. Young men are characterized by the desire to set new tasks and goals, to solve and achieve them. They have more opportunities that they are most often able to realize;

2) understanding of one's individual unity and difference from others. The young man is aware of his abilities and capabilities and can compare them with the abilities of others;

3) the formation of moral self-awareness. Young men adhere to established moral standards. In its development, moral consciousness reaches a significant level. The norms that young men adhere to are quite complex in structure and individual. They affect all aspects of life, including communication and activity;

4) differentiation of sex roles. During this period, there is an awareness of oneself as a man (or woman). New forms of behavior are being developed that are characteristic of a certain sex, which are quite flexible. At the same time, infantilism in behavior with some people can still be observed;

5) self-determination in the future, choice of profession. Young men are aware of their aspirations and preferences, following which they navigate in a variety of choices. Individual capabilities and abilities are manifested more significantly here. The time of self-determination most often does not matter for further achievements. The earlier the choice is made, the more time it takes to prepare it;

6) the final formation of social attitudes (of the general system as a whole). it

relates to all components: emotional, cognitive, behavioral. The process of self-consciousness is quite contradictory, and these attitudes can change;

7) originality of character accentuation. Such manifestations are characteristic only for adolescence. It should be noted that some character traits can be quite contradictory. But by the end of school, the accentuation of character does not appear so brightly, it becomes less noticeable;

8) the emergence of first love, the emergence of more emotional, intimate relationships. This is also an important point, as there is a formation of such personality traits as loyalty, responsibility, affection.

40. WORLD VIEW AND THE LEADING ACTIVITY OF THE YOUTH

Worldview is a person's own perception of the world, making judgments about it as a whole and its principles, it is a set of human knowledge.

The worldview begins its formation in adolescence. Youth is its main stage of formation, since during this period there is an active development of cognitive and personal abilities and capabilities. High school students do not yet perceive the world around them in a whole enough way, their worldview is unreliable and has little content.

At a young age, the horizons expand significantly, mental capabilities are enriched, interest in theoretical knowledge and a desire to systematize specific facts appear. During this period, the question of the meaning of life arises. Most often, this is a general desire to understand one's purpose.

At this time, the view of the world around is more subject to personal needs. Young people are trying to orient themselves in this world, to find themselves, their place in life. They are faced with the important task of choosing a profession, on which their position in society depends in the future.

The formation of a scientific worldview is due to desire and its activity, the desire to independently acquire new knowledge and, of course, mental development.

Educational and professional activity is leading at this age. The desire to find oneself, to determine one's future gives rise to young people's desire for knowledge, for learning. Their motives change. Aspirations match opportunities.

In other words, during this period they are ready and able to perceive new information for themselves and receive it with the help of a wide variety of types of training.

This applies to both theoretical and practical knowledge. An individual style of intellectual activity is being formed. This is due to the fact that young people subordinate the desire for knowledge to their own goals and plans.

They choose the most significant areas for themselves. Their educational and professional activities are primarily aimed at socialization, the pace of which can increase due to such parameters as:

1) certainty of plans for the future, understanding the meaning of life;

2) attitude towards work (both mental and physical). Willingness and ability to master a certain profession;

3) interest in choosing one's professional activity, conditionality of aspirations, motives;

4) the formation of a sense of duty and responsibility, the desire to hear praise and approval.

41. PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT IN YOUTH. YOUTH CRISIS

There are no clear boundaries in the period of youth. It can be considered the beginning of the moment when a person was physically and psychologically formed: his physiological maturation was completed, he reached puberty, a stable psyche was formed.

The final stage of the period of youth can be considered the transition of a person to the next stage of development, when he becomes socially independent, an adult.

Adulthood differs from youth in the emergence of new opportunities, the independent adoption of important decisions, the setting of goals and the choice of ways to achieve them.

An adult becomes free and independent in his choice, but fully responsible for it and the results obtained.

The quality of personality changes increases significantly at this age, which cannot be said about the quantity. A person undergoes spiritual and moral formation, his worldview is established, he masters several social roles, his psyche is formed.

All this depends not only on the social activity of a person in a given period, but also on his self-awareness. A person begins to perceive himself as a formed personality, as a socially significant individual. During the period of personal development and growth, young people face some difficulties. The first of these is the formation of one's own image, lifestyle. Young people are engaged in self-development, choose their social role, become older and begin to understand themselves better.

What matters is the stability of mental processes. Personal development allows you to manage your desires and aspirations. There is a desire to achieve a certain social position, for which you need to master the social roles, rules and behaviors in society.

Like all periods, youth goes through developmental crises. They are due to the socialization of the individual, the need to make a choice of a future profession. The crisis of development can manifest itself in different ways. Consider its form:

1) indefinite identity - a young person is frightened by a new situation, he does not want to change anything and, accordingly, grow up. He has no life plans, aspirations, no business that he would like to do (he cannot decide on a future profession);

2) long-term identification - a person has long been determined in choosing a profession, but was based not on his desires and aspirations, but on the opinions of others;

3) the moratorium stage - a person faces a difficult choice, when many doors, many opportunities are open before him, and he must choose one thing for himself.

42. SELF-DETERMINATION AND ACQUISITION OF SOCIAL STATUS IN YOUTH

Upon reaching a certain age, a person faces the need to choose a profession, each of which imposes certain requirements, requires the presence of certain mental and physical qualities. Those qualities that a person possesses must meet the requirements of the profession.

It depends on how much he will succeed in his work in the future, how satisfied he will be with the results of his work. Youth is a period of formation of professional identity. There is a desire to occupy a certain niche in society, to find their place.

A young man must clearly understand his desires and realistically assess his capabilities. He must delimit the scope of his interests and intellectual abilities. Also, the choice of profession is influenced by the worldview of a person.

In youth there is an awareness of social roles. The formation of certain psychological and social properties occurs under the influence of the professional position occupied by a person.

If society accepts these properties, then integration is successful. How well a person can master social roles affects the successful socialization of the individual. This involves the development of social experience and its successful application in practice. Consider the professional definition of a person from different angles.

Professional self-determination:

1) this is a series of tasks presented to a person by society, which he must gradually solve in conditions of lack of time (for some specific time);

2) the ability to balance between one's own aspirations, desires, inclinations, and the rules of the social labor system. This skill is formed in the process of gradual problem solving.

The choice of a profession largely determines the future way of life of a person, forms his individual style.

At a time when the choice of a profession is a thing of the past, a person determines himself and begins to occupy a certain niche in society, acquires a social status.

Now more important for him is the prestige of his position, how authoritative he is.

Authority determines the social significance of a person and how successfully he copes with the duties assigned to him.

43. CLASSIFICATION OF PERIODS OF LIFE OF ADULT HUMAN

The period of adulthood is the longest of all periods of a person's life. It starts at 20-25 years old and ends at 60-65 years old, and this is more than forty years of life.

Stages of adulthood:

1) early adulthood;

2) average adulthood.

Some experts distinguish three or four periods. Their beginning (age) varies with each author.

Maturity is the period of the most vivid manifestation of all human qualities. At this time, a person can reveal his abilities, realize opportunities, this is the flowering of his individuality.

He is becoming professionally, he moves to a new level of communication with people, realizes himself in the role of a spouse (or spouse) and parent.

The first period of adulthood has psychological, physiological and cognitive characteristics.

Man continues his individual development. His basic psychological functions are stabilized, and sensory sensitivity reaches the peak of development. Attention also changes, becomes selective, its volume and ability to switch increase.

Memory reaches high levels (both long-term and short-term).

Thinking is characterized by flexibility and mobility of processes. Depending on a certain age, specific types of thinking are developed a little more.

The emotional sphere also has its own characteristics. A person strives to establish long-term positive emotional bonds. He tries to win and keep public positions. Faced with a complex parental relationship, a person can consciously approach the assessment of his abilities and capabilities. Most often, during this period, he faces the choice of his future profession, which means that he is self-determining.

The second period of adulthood also has its own distinctive features. This age is characterized by a decrease in the level of mental functions. This is due to the fact that the capabilities of the human body are reduced.

Intellectual activity is quite productive, but after 50 years it begins to decline. Family relationships become more significant for a person.

Professional activity continues to occupy a large place in human life. Features of the self-concept are manifested. A person really evaluates himself as a person, self-esteem becomes generalized.

44. SOCIAL POSITION OF THE PERSON AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

From the moment of birth, a person begins to develop as a person, gradually entering the social environment.

The environment is of great importance for the favorable course of this process. Initially, the child comes into contact with society in order to satisfy his physiological needs, after a while - social.

In the process of socialization, a person goes through a number of stages: he enters into social relations, masters social activities, forms qualities characteristic of society, assimilates social experience and knowledge.

Stages of personality development:

1) infancy (1st year of life). The child first encounters society. His contacts are very limited, but even now they are of great importance for the formation of a positive attitude towards the world. This is facilitated by a caring attitude towards the child on the part of the parents;

2) early childhood (the period from 1 year to 3 years). This stage is characterized by the emergence of independence in the child. The child is aware of himself and distinguishes himself from the external environment;

3) preschool childhood (the period from 3 to 7 years). At this stage, the initiative of the child is manifested. He begins to master social roles. He begins to develop self-awareness, the child learns to evaluate himself and his actions;

4) school age (period from 7 to 14 years).

The child enters school, the social situation changes, he acquires a new social role. At this time, the child is trying to master his new opportunities and rights, to learn social rules. As before, the family remains significant for the development of the personality of the child. Approval from parents and peers, respect and support increase the child's self-esteem;

5) youthful age (period from 14 to 25 years).

During this period, self-awareness is quite stable. Boys and girls can realistically assess their abilities and capabilities. They continue to master social relations, face a difficult choice of profession, trying to find their "I" and establish themselves in society. By the end of this period, a person appears as a fully formed personality.

A person, having chosen a certain profession for himself, assumes that he will take a certain social status. He will have to master a new social role, which is understood as a certain pattern of behavior, human actions. Making his professional choice, a person can focus on the realization of material and moral needs.

But the process of social development of the individual does not stop there.

A person, getting into new social situations, is forced to adapt to them and change under their influence.

45. FAMILY AND ITS IMPORTANCE FOR SOCIALIZATION. TYPES OF FAMILIES

The family is of great importance in the socialization of a person, since in it the child first begins to interact with other people.

At the beginning of life, it matters the most. After the child begins to communicate with peers (in kindergarten, at school, at the institute, etc.), the importance of the family is still great.

In the family, the socialization of the individual occurs through education (this is a purposeful process). There is a process of social learning when the child interacts with or observes adults. The influence of parents on the socialization of the child’s personality is very great. There are several styles of parenting. D. Baumrind names three of them:

1) authoritative parental control. Parents were gentle and friendly with their children, exercised control over them, and taught the child to be accountable for his actions. Communication occupied a large place in their lives. The parents were united in their demands and explained their motivation to the child, trying not to infringe on his independence. Children raised in such a family are distinguished by self-confidence, they are friendly and active, quite independent, know how to restrain their emotions, show interest in many things, and know how to navigate new environments;

2) parents raising children according to the domineering model. They did not strive for the child to learn to be independent, exercised strict control over him, in different situations showed their power, often punished. The child lacked understanding and warmth. Children who grew up in such a family have low self-esteem, they are closed and do not trust people;

3) parents who raise their children in a permissive way. They did not make great demands on the children, they were indulgent with them, their household way of life was not settled. These are disorganized parents. They did not consider it necessary to educate the child in independence and self-confidence. Children who are brought up in such a family show great uncertainty in their abilities. They have not been taught to restrain their emotions, they rarely show interest in something. Most of the character traits formed in children are due to family relationships. Incorrect formation of the learning process can cause neurosis and other disorders in the child. A. E. Lichko names several types of improper upbringing: hyperprotection, dominant hyperprotection, conniving hyperprotection, upbringing in the "cult of the disease", emotional rejection, conditions of rigid relationships, conditions of increased emotional responsibility, contradictory upbringing.

46. CONTENT OF COMMUNICATION OF PEOPLE

Communication involves conversational speech between two or more people. It should contain some information exchanged between interlocutors. There are two types of communication:

1) interpersonal;

2) mass.

In the first form, people communicate directly with each other, in the second - through the media, such as radio, television. In the process of communication, a person's personality, his mental properties and qualities are formed, which are manifested in this process. Through communication, a person learns, acquires knowledge, adopts experience. From this we can conclude that communication is an important moment in the formation of the human psyche.

Communication functions:

1) connecting - this is the function of establishing a connection, contact of one person with another;

2) formative - this is a function of change, development of the psyche through communication;

3) confirming - this function allows a person to reveal the correctness of his judgments, helps his self-affirmation;

4) the function of establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. It allows a person to come into contact with new people and maintain new or old connections;

5) mono communication function. It enables a person to build communication alone with himself.

The form of interpersonal communication can be divided into 3 types:

1) imperative communication, built on the “superior - subordinate” connection. This is communication of an authoritarian type;

2) manipulative communication - communication that occurs in the process of a certain activity;

3) dialogic communication - communication, which implies the exchange of information between two or more people.

Parties of communication:

1) the communicative side of communication (or direct communication), which allows people to exchange information;

2) the perceptual side of communication, allowing people to know and understand each other;

3) the interactive side of communication, allowing people to organize common activities. Human communication is subject to change at every stage of human development. The baby's communication is characterized by the utterance of imitative sounds, humming, and babbling. His communication is at the initial stage of development and is manifested not only in speech form. During early childhood, changes in communication are caused by the emergence of a new type of activity in children. Their communication becomes situational and personal, and in preschool age it becomes more productive and has a non-situational and personal nature.

At primary school age, communication increases significantly and begins to acquire a new meaning. In adolescence, it becomes the leading activity and occupies a large part in the life of the child. In adolescence, the boundaries of communication expand, it becomes more diverse. For people of mature age, communication is an integral part of their life.

47. MATURITY. TYPOLOGY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MATURITY PERIOD

Maturity is one of the longest periods of human life. This is a period of rise of psychological, individual, personal and professional qualities that have already completed their formation. The chronological boundaries of maturity are called ambiguously.

In many ways, this depends directly on the person, on how successfully his development and formation as a person proceed.

In the period of maturity, a person has more opportunities, he can set the highest goals for himself and achieve them. His knowledge is quite large and diverse, he is able to realistically assess the situation and himself. Maturity can be called the period of individual flowering.

In adulthood, a person has already taken place in professional activities, has taken a certain social position. Work (career), family - this is what occupies a person to a greater extent during this period. E. Erickson believes that at this age there is one main problem - the choice that the person himself faces. It consists in determining by a person what is more significant for him: career growth or the solution of personal problems and tasks (this is productivity or inertia).

Important at this age is a person's understanding that he not only has certain opportunities and rights, but must also be responsible for his actions and decisions. If before he was responsible only for himself, then with age he is responsible for others.

Like any life stage, the period of adulthood can be accompanied by a crisis. This is a crisis of a man of 40 years old, which is distinguished by its peculiarities of occurrence, course and termination.

In professional activity in the period of adulthood, a person, as a rule, took place. He has already achieved a certain position in society, respect from colleagues and subordinates, his professional knowledge has expanded and multiplied. The person himself feels himself a professional person. In his work, he finds a source of moral pleasure, revealing his abilities.

During this period, a person, most often, has a family. The main family tasks are the education and upbringing of children, their formation as individuals. The interaction between parents and children is important. In many ways, it determines the family situation: calm and favorable or restless and negative.

In the period of maturity, a person may not feel his real age, but feel as much as his physical and mental state allows. There are three types of age: chronological, physical and psychological. More often than not, people feel younger than they really are.

48. CRISES 40 YEARS, MATURE AGE, BIOGRAPHICAL CRISIS

At the age of 40, a person, as it were, reconsiders his life. For everyone, the time of its passage is individual, there are no clear boundaries for its passage.

This is a kind of repetition, a double of the 30-year crisis, when a person begins to search for the meaning of life anew. Often it is due to changes in family life.

By this time, children become more independent, they have their own life, there is no urgent need for parents (as it was before that moment).

Spouses, connected up to this point by caring for children, are more often alone, and it may seem to some that there is nothing left to bind them (neither the former relationship to each other, nor joint responsibility, nor love and warmth in relationships), so many married couples disintegrate during this period.

People begin to lose loved ones, friends, relatives. All this cannot but affect a person, his position and attitude to life. During this period, the formation of a new "I-concept" takes place.

In the period of youth, the main neoplasms are the family (attitude towards it and within it) and professional development.

During the period of maturity, these neoplasms undergo changes, but still remain very significant. They become more meaningful. There is an integration of previous experience, which is called productivity.

The neoplasm of adulthood is rethinking. A person, as it were, chooses a new direction for himself or corrects the previous one.

E. Clapared put forward the theory that a person in adulthood reaches a certain professional level, above which he can no longer rise, and begins to hone his skills. But gradually the desire and capabilities of a person fade, there is a certain decline in his professional activity. This is due to a person’s lack of desire to grow further, the decline in his cognitive abilities and capabilities, his state of health, etc.

The person begins to age. It is important that a person at this time find something new for himself, some other type of activity (hobby, hobby, creative work). This will help him feel empowered. New activities are new goals, tasks, and therefore the search for ways to achieve them.

49. FEATURES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH RETIREMENT

Retirement is a very important stage in a person's life. It entails many changes, one of which is a change in the image, lifestyle. This is the transition of a person from one social role to another.

The personality of a person changes, he begins to behave differently, treat people, rethink reality and his values. He needs to come to terms with a new social role, that is, to understand what opportunities open up before him, what paths are closed to him, what it means to be a pensioner.

E. S. Averbukh says that retirement becomes a traumatic situation for a person. His self-esteem plummets, he feels socially worthless, his level of self-esteem goes down. He needs to rebuild his life.

Yu. M. Gubachev distinguished that the sooner a person retires, the sooner he will become physically, spiritually and mentally inactive, which can adversely affect his personality. The difference of this life stage is the social attitude towards it.

A person who is used to fulfilling certain duties every day, building his day time by time, retiring, is lost. He had a certain model of behavior, which is now no longer relevant. This can lead to aggressive behavior.

Retirement is a change in the situation not only for one person, but also for those around him, so both the pensioner and his relatives go through the process of adaptation.

Many researchers have come to the conclusion that retired people need some time to realize their new status, to form their new lifestyle (this is a necessary adaptation process).

A person faces a difficult choice of occupation. He must properly organize his time. During this period, the family plays an important role for the pensioner. This is where a person can fill in the gaps in communication.

The phases of the pension process proposed by R. S. Ashley do not have a strict sequence and clear age limits:

1) pre-retirement phase;

2) the "honeymoon" phase;

3) disappointment phase;

4) phase of stability;

5) the final phase.

The role of the family in creating a psychologically comfortable climate is especially high in the final phase, when a person, as it were, sums up the results of his entire life.

50. CAUSES OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOR

Deviant behavior is one of the violations of social behavioral norms. Unfortunately, in recent years this problem has become more and more urgent.

Psychologists, doctors, sociologists, and law enforcement agencies are studying deviant behavior and the causes of its occurrence.

Ya. I. Gilinsky defined the norm of behavior as a limit formed in the process of historical development, a certain measure of behavior acceptable in a given society (both for a particular person and for a group of people).

Deviant behavior can arise under the influence of a number of reasons, as we are told by sociologists dealing with the problems of its occurrence.

So, for example, according to R. Merton, the first reason for the emergence of deviant behavior is a change in the social foundations of society, when the old norms become completely irrelevant, and the rules of the new behavior have not yet been formed. This happens during revolutions, wars, when the old world with its foundations and ways of life ceases to exist.

Everything that was before is rejected as incorrect and not worthy of continuation or observance. A person is lost and simply does not know how to behave, he loses the orientation of actions. Deviant behavior can also be caused by social demands. When society sets certain goals for a person, without giving him the opportunity to achieve them, or the means that it can offer are too small, a person begins to look for new ways to solve the tasks assigned to him.

The second reason is the different norms of behavior inherent in different cultures. Every culture has its own specific characteristics.

Rules and norms were formed in the process of historical development and were firmly assimilated by the bearers of this culture. Getting into a new society and a new environment for himself, a person is involuntarily lost and cannot meet all the requirements of another culture.

Ya. I. Gilinsky said that the cause of deviant behavior may be people's dissatisfaction with the fact that some have more opportunities than others (social inequality).

For all the reasons for the emergence of deviant behavior, one regularity is characteristic, when forms of manifestation of deviation are combined.

An example is an antisocial person (hooligan, criminal), who, under the influence of alcohol, begins to show deviant behavior to a greater extent.

51. STANDARD OLDER INSTALLATION

Aging is a biological process that is characteristic of all living things. II Mechnikov singled out the pathological and physiological processes of aging.

During this period, a person has a decline in all mental functions: the process of thinking slows down, cognitive processes become less active, perception, memory, sensory suffer. The physical condition of a person is deteriorating: metabolism is disturbed, the performance of individual systems and organs is reduced.

A person, entering old age, is subject to personality changes. Older people become passive, less emotional. The family comes first, taking care of it. Older people become very suggestible and helpless. They focus on their health. Wanting to surround themselves with the care of loved ones, they begin to complain about real and imaginary illnesses.

Sometimes older people isolate themselves so much from the outside world that they reduce their lives to satisfying basic physiological needs, they stop experiencing ups and downs in mood, it becomes stable. Most often they are in a calm and balanced state. Some are typical! persistent deviations in the manifestation of mood: they can be unreasonably depressed or excited.

As people age, resentment can develop. A person, not having access to new impressions, goes deep into memories. He recalls the events of past years, connected with the people. Former grievances excite him with renewed vigor, hence the resentment characteristic of older people appears. With the duration of this moment and the severity of experiences, a person may begin neurosis or other painful conditions.

This age is characterized by the emergence of new fears, quite acutely experienced by a person.

For an elderly person, it is important to find a hobby, an activity that brings joy and satisfaction. When engaging in new activities, he will not find either time or desire to indulge in sad memories. In addition, active (to the best of the body's strength and capabilities) activity will help maintain self-esteem and lead a person away from feeling lonely.

Often during this period, a person tries to realize his creative potential, which was not in demand during his life, or to share rich life experience. At the same time, self-esteem increases and the life position of an elderly person is strengthened.

52. CLINICAL FORMS OF MENTAL DISORDERS OF MATURE AND ELDERLY AGE

It is generally accepted that the main cause of mental disorders in adulthood and old age are atrophic processes occurring in the cerebral cortex. Psychosis and senile dementia are considered difficult to treat, so specialists (psychiatrists, neuropathologists, therapists) often treat symptomatic. In old age, a person goes through many changing factors, his psyche disintegrates, which leads to insanity and other painful conditions.

The reasons for their occurrence:

1) the aging process of the body, organic disorders or changes in the functioning of the brain: vasoconstriction, sudden pressure surges, atrophic processes, metabolic disorders. All this interferes with the normal functioning of the brain;

2) unwillingness, rejection by a person of his age and the inevitability of death. A person begins to lose social positions to which he aspired all his life, friends, his former social circle, etc. The situation is aggravated by a person's understanding of the inevitability and proximity of death. The psychological protective functions of the body, protecting a person from painful experiences, block their access to consciousness, causing a mental disorder.

Emotions experienced by a person go through a certain stage of their altered development. First, he develops an anxiety state, trying to overcome which, a person falls into a state of painful bewilderment (it can be provoked by a stressful situation). He becomes thoughtful and silent, after which this state (or affect) turns into mental pain, which is very difficult for a person to express in words. This condition is called psychalgia.

The inability of a person to express his condition in words leads him to a new stage - alexithymia. During this period, a person reaches the stage of regression, both emotions and basic mental functions (thinking, speech, consciousness).

Gradually, the regression begins to deepen, which leads to physiological changes and a transition to a psychobiological conflict. This is what causes the emergence of psychosomatic diseases.

Psychopathies:

1) paranoid type;

2) schizoid type;

3) dissocial disorder;

4) emotionally unstable personality disorder;

5) hysterical personality disorder;

6) anancaste personality disorder;

7) anxious personality disorder;

8) a disorder of the dependent personality type.

53. THE THEORY OF INTENTIALITY AND ITS CONTENT

Intentionality is the focus of human consciousness on a specific subject.

The theory of intentionality was developed by E. G. Husserl. He said that human consciousness is always directed to a certain object.

Intentional consciousness is not at all static, it is a changing process, and intentionality itself is not just a given, something existing, but a working, functioning consciousness. The object to which consciousness is directed is functioning, i.e., a person uses it in his objective activity.

Human consciousness and the surrounding world are always closely connected. Consciousness can be called the subject, and the external world - the object. Human consciousness as an intention strives for something. It does not exist by itself, but is determined by the object of its aspiration. Consciousness cannot be something permanent, some kind of substance. It has no internal content, but is in constant striving for something, as if running away from itself. This continuous process defines it as consciousness. E. G. Husserl also said that consciousness cannot be by itself, it is always about something. To exist, it needs to be in constant motion, to be directed at some object of the surrounding world. As soon as consciousness begins to be inactive (to exist, as it were, on its own without a definite direction), it falls asleep. E. G. Husserl called intentionality the impossibility of the existence of consciousness in a state of rest, without being busy, directed at a certain object from the outside.

The main condition for its appearance is the activity of people, carried out with the help of any tools and regulated through verbal communication. This activity should act as a certain goal, the achievement of which is very important for all participants.

Individual consciousness is formed in the process of joint activity. It has become necessary to build clear actions in the process of achieving goals.

Significant for the development and formation of consciousness at the moment is activity.

The more productive and interesting it is, the more developed the consciousness will be. Through consciousness, a person understands not only the surrounding world, but he himself as a person, as an individuality. A person can realize himself with the help of his activity (for example, through creativity). A person transfers the emerging thoughts and images into activities (for example, paints pictures), studying which he cognizes himself.

There are two stages in the development of human consciousness:

1) reflective;

2) conceptual.

54. MENTAL ABILITIES AND MEMORY OF ELDERLY PEOPLE. PENSION STRESS AND ITS MANIFESTATIONS

Usually, the intellectual abilities of older people were considered limited and put forward the concept of "intellectual deficit". But recently scientists do not adhere to this opinion.

Most often, indicators of intellectual abilities are reduced due to the greater amount of time required for an elderly person in solving problems. If, when conducting research, a person is not limited by time frames, then tasks will be solved more successfully.

Some researchers believe that there is no need to compare the results of tests conducted in older people with those of younger people. These are only indicators of the specifics of intelligence, and not its quality. The thinking of the young has a different direction than that of the elderly. They strive for new knowledge, set new goals for themselves, solve problems that arise on the way to achieving them, while older people solve problems using their personal experience.

People engaged in creative or intellectual activities in old age (for example, teachers after retirement, staying at school and continuing their professional activities), retain the ability of flexibility and mobility of thinking longer.

American psychologists are sure that the physical condition of a person, forced isolation from society, lack of education and other reasons not caused by aging have a great influence on intellectual abilities. Investigating the mental functions and processes of the elderly, special attention is paid to memory. During this period, the functionality of memory weakens, it happens gradually and not at all totally. First of all, short-term memory suffers (it is more difficult for older people to remember the events of recent days). Long-term memory weakens later in life.

Retirement is a significant moment in a person's life. Since that time, his life has entered a new stage of development. Retirement itself can be stressful for a person, as there are many life changes associated with it. First of all, a person loses his former social status, his self-esteem and self-respect decrease sharply. A person is forced to adapt to new conditions, and adaptation does not always go smoothly and calmly. A person needs to reorganize his life, reconsider such a familiar way of life, the world around him, people, and his own values.

Many researchers believe that the quick and painless process of adaptation is influenced by the individual characteristics of a person, the choice of a new and interesting occupation, and the support of loved ones.

55. THE PROBLEM OF LONELY IN OLD AGE

Older people are more likely to feel lonely.

Reasons for worry:

1) a poor state of health that does not allow a person to leave the apartment;

2) the absence of family and close people (or the case when the family lives in another city);

3) a very limited circle of contacts. Loneliness itself is a lack of communication with other people, when a person either stops altogether or minimizes contacts with society and the world around him. Feeling alone, a person feels his uselessness, uselessness. Emotionally exhausted, a person physically feels weakened, which leads to his gradual destruction as a person. AI Berg proved that for normal life and the ability to reason sensibly, a person needs to contact, communicate with the outside world. When a person is completely isolated from society and has no access to information, insanity can begin. The new information received makes the thought processes move, work (analyze, synthesize, generalize, etc.).

Contacts with the outside world are necessary for a person so that his intellectual activity does not stop. If a person is capable and has the opportunity to continue interpersonal communication, he, as it were, delays his old age. It is this age that is more characterized by loneliness.

A person in old age is not burdened by professional activity, he seems to fall out of this social circle. It becomes less and less interesting and occupying his things. Topics for conversation chosen by older people are most often everyday. The latest news heard on radio or television, health, which occupies them to a greater extent, questions of medicine and health care are discussed. Another theme is the exchange of memories. Elderly people tend to remember the past years, youth.

For a person at this time, in connection with the state of health, the professionalism of the district doctor, his restraint and understanding, sympathy and participation, how accessible and understandable he can express himself, are important.

A person is in the constant movement of life: his circle of contacts is limited (doctors, neighbors, visiting relatives). Every day he does the same activity. New bright events in his life are very rare, practically absent. The main needs are physiological: warmth, food, healthy and restful sleep, etc.

For an elderly person, it is important to feel care, love, warmth from his family, relatives. The care shown for each other pushes into the background all negative feelings and experiences.

56. NATURAL-SCIENTIFIC AND THEOLOGICAL VIEWS ON DEATH

Death is the end of a person's life, when the vital activity of the organism stops. This is a natural and inevitable process that cannot be reversed. This is how death is interpreted in the scientific sense. In religious terms, death is the beginning of a new life. This is due to the religious doctrine of the material and spiritual human existence. Spiritual death does not come with physical death. The soul is reunited with God. Some scientists share religious views, saying that the soul, leaving the body, continues to exist in the form of an information clot, which then connects with the information field of the whole world. Materialists, however, do not agree with such an interpretation and argue that the soul (or, as they say, the psyche) cannot continue to exist after physical death. Recent studies by psychologists, physicians and physicists give reason to doubt the correctness of this point of view.

Death for a person is a crisis of his personal life. Realizing its closeness, he passes through a series of stages.

1. Denial. When a person is told that his disease is fatal, he does not want to believe it. This is a completely normal reaction for a person in this situation.

2. Anger. During this period, a person turns to himself and to all the people around him (those who are healthy or care for him) with the question: "Why me?" He can show indignation, anger or even anger. It is very important that a person be given the opportunity to speak, then this stage will be passed.

3. "Bargain". It is characterized by the appearance of the desire of a sick person to "bargain" his life. He begins to make various promises, saying that he will obey the doctors, fulfill all their prescriptions, etc. At the same time, the person turns to God, asking him for forgiveness for all the sins committed and the opportunity to live on.

These stages form the crisis period. They occur in a person in a given sequence and can be repeated.

4. Depression. It comes after a person has gone through a crisis. A person begins to understand and realize that he is dying, that this will happen soon and with him. He begins to withdraw into himself, often cries, does not want to part with his loved ones, but understands that this is inevitable. A person moves away from people and, one might say, dies socially.

5. Stage of acceptance of death. A person comes to terms with the thought of death, understands its proximity, begins to wait for it. This is the stage of mental death of a person.

Physiological death occurs at the moment of cessation of the functioning of individual systems or the organism as a whole.

Author: Loshchenkova Z.B.

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