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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Regional studies. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
LECTURE No. 1. General provisions of the course "Regional Studies" 1. The concepts of "economic region", "industrial region", their relationship Regional studies - the field of scientific knowledge that studies the territorial organization of the economy. The subject of regional studies is economic regions of all levels - economic zones, enlarged regions, large economic regions, middle-level regions, industrial hubs, industrial centers, agglomerations, territorial production complexes, industrial and agro-industrial complexes, free economic zones. Regional studies studies intra-regional and inter-regional economic relations, as well as the course of economic reforms in the regions in the context of the formation and development of market relations. Regional studies reveals the concepts of all forms of territorial organization of the economy. Economic zones are groups of enlarged areas allocated in a taxonomic series for the purposes of long-term forecasting of the distribution of productive forces for the period of the formation of market relations. Currently, two economic zones are distinguished - Western and Eastern. The most important significance of these zones for the development of Russia lies in the rationalization of economic proportions. The role of the Western zone is growing mainly in the development of machine building, complex, highly skilled industries that ensure scientific and technological progress. In market conditions, this zone should have a priority development of the agro-industrial complex. The eastern zone is the main resource and energy base of the country, and in the future, priority will be given to the fuel and energy complex, the development of forest resources, energy and water-intensive industries[1]. Enlarged regions are formed in economic zones according to the principle of common natural resource potential, specialization of the economy and economic ties. The main principle of their allocation is the level of economic development and development, the ratio between the most important resources and the degree of their use. In the Western zone, three enlarged regions are distinguished - the North and the Center of the European part of Russia, the Ural-Volga region and the European South. In the Eastern zone, two enlarged regions are distinguished - Siberia and the Far East [2]. Enlarged areas in modern economic literature are called macroregions. The main link in the system of economic zoning are large economic regions. Major economic region - this is an integral territorial part of the national economy of the country, which has its own production (market) specialization and strong internal economic ties. A large economic region is inextricably linked with other parts of the country by the social division of labor. In each large economic region, there are three groups of industries interconnected with each other - industries of market specialization, industries that complement the territorial complex, and infrastructure industries. Currently, there are 11 large economic regions - Northern, North-Western, Central, Central Black Earth, Volga-Vyatka, Volga, North Caucasian, Ural, West Siberian, East Siberian and Far East. Large economic regions are subdivided into middle-level regions, or meso-regions. These include the republics, territories and regions that are part of Russia. These areas are also specialized complexes, but with a more limited composition of industries and economic ties. As part of the districts of the middle link, grassroots districts, or microdistricts, are distinguished. These are the primary links in the taxonomy of economic zoning - administrative urban and rural areas. Under agglomeration understand the territorial economic entity, characterized by a high level of concentration of enterprises in various sectors of the economy, infrastructure facilities and scientific institutions. Agglomerations have a high population density (for example, the Moscow agglomeration, St. Petersburg, etc.). industrial node - a group of industries that are compactly located in a small area, interconnected by industrial ties that have a common settlement system, an established social and technical infrastructure. Industrial centre - a group of industries compactly located in a relatively small area and for the most part technologically unrelated to each other. A new effective form of territorial organization of the economy are territorial production complexes (TPK) formed within large economic regions on the basis of unique natural resources. They are called program-targeted TPCs, since their development is financed from the state budget and they are developed within the framework of government-approved programs. TPK is a promising base for the creation of new large economic regions. These are the main forms of territorial organization of the economy, which are the subject of study of regional studies. All of them are interconnected and represent a single system of taxonomic series in economic zoning. All of them are combined into one capacious concept - "territorial organization of the economy." The rational territorial organization of the economy presupposes the complex territorial development of the economy of economic regions of all taxonomic ranks, the rational, efficient distribution of productive forces, and the improvement of the structure of the economy in accordance with the main tasks of a market economy. Task course "Regional Studies" is to study the natural resource potential of economic regions of all ranks, the problems of the population and labor resources of each region, regional environmental problems. Regional studies studies the sectoral and territorial structure of the economic complexes of the regions of Russia, the main forms of territorial organization of the economy, intra- and inter-regional economic relations, as well as the course of economic reforms in the regions in the context of the formation and development of market relations. Regional studies are closely connected with a number of related economic disciplines studied in economic universities - economic geography, environmental management, public administration, municipal management, economic history, economic theory, sectoral economics - and in its research uses the basic data of these scientific disciplines in relation to the territorial organization economy. The formation of economic knowledge is especially important for highly qualified specialists in state and municipal administration and, first of all, depends on their deep study of a specific territory, region where all economic activity takes place, including financial and banking, settlement and analytical, and management. When studying regions, a deep understanding of the economic and political situation in them is necessary. Not all districts are equally prepared for the market. It is known that now it is possible to distinguish three types of regions in Russia, which have their own characteristics in the formation of the market: 1) labor surplus - the North Caucasus; 2) military-industrial - St. Petersburg, the Urals, the Nizhny Novgorod region, industrial centers of Siberia; 3) diversified and depressed areas - a significant part of the zone of the North. 2. Methodology, scientific methods of the discipline "Regional studies" The methodological basis of regional studies is modern scientific theories of economic zoning, the results of a study of the structure of regional complexes, targeted federal programs for the development of Russian regions, theoretical aspects of the formation of territorial production and sectoral complexes, patterns and principles for the distribution of productive forces of economic sectors and economic regions, provisions of regional policy and strategy . In its research, regional studies use various methods - balance, index, economic-statistical, historical-comparative, cartographic, methods of economic-mathematical modeling when choosing the optimal options for locating production in the regions, the method of system analysis, etc. All methods of research and indicators of territorial programs and forecasts are aimed at revealing the reserves for the growth of production in economic regions, the proportionality, efficiency and dynamism of their development. Thus, the balance method makes it possible to choose the optimal ratio between sectors of market specialization, sectors that complement the territorial complex, i.e., providing both the needs of leading industries and the needs of the population, and service sectors. Balances are also necessary for the development of rational interregional and intraregional ties. Economic justifications for the location of enterprises: the choice of a region and a place for the construction of an enterprise, calculations of its availability with raw materials, fuel, energy, water, labor and other resources - all this is the content of the balance method. To compile regional balances, it is necessary to carry out design and survey work, expeditionary research, in which field and cameral methods are used. Compilation of sectoral and regional balances makes it possible to establish the level of complex development of the region, to identify the presence of disproportions in its development. Simple balance calculations of production and consumption of products in the region with the help of conventional computer technology are referred to as approximate methods, and inter-industry balance calculations are referred to as exact methods. A specific method of studying regional studies is the cartographic method. The map is a source of knowledge, a source of enrichment with information on the location of productive forces in each region. It allows you to visualize the features of the placement. Thanks to maps, maps, cartograms, cartograms, not only the features of the location, but also quantitative indicators characterizing the levels of development of the regions are better perceived and remembered. The map is, as it were, a figurative model of the territory, on which, with the help of conventional signs, objects and phenomena are displayed in their interconnection. The index method is widely used in regional studies. To quantify the level of specialization of economic zoning, the coefficient of localization, the coefficient of per capita production and the coefficient of inter-district marketability are used. 3. Coefficient of localization, coefficient of production of the region's products per capita, coefficient of inter-district marketability The coefficient of localization of this production (L) is the ratio of the share of a given industry in the production structure to the share of the same industry in the country. Its calculation is made on the basis of gross marketable output, fixed industrial assets and the number of industrial and production personnel. 
where хj - the share of the j-th region in the total volume of the factor attribute; уj - the share of the j-th region in the total volume of the resulting phenomenon (in this case, the turnover); n - number of j-th regions. Per capita production rate σΔ is calculated as the ratio of the share of the region's economic sector in the corresponding structure of the country's industry to the share of the region's population in the country's population. 
where Dj- commodity turnover per capita of the j-th region; D - average turnover per capita in all regions; Sj - the population of the j-th region; m is the number of j-th regions. Regional marketability coefficient (KMT) is calculated as the ratio of the export of this product from the region to its regional production. 
where: Pij - the price of the i-th product in the j-th region; S is the number of inhabitants of the j-th region; n is the number of i-th goods; m is the number of j-th regions. If the calculated indicators are greater than or equal to one, then such an industry is an industry of market specialization of the region. 4. Indicators that determine the effectiveness of district specialization One of the most important criteria for the location of economic sectors in a particular territory of an economic region is indicator of their economic efficiency. To determine the economic efficiency, the main criterion for obtaining the intended products at the lowest cost is adopted. As indicators of the efficiency of production location, the cost of production is taken, taking into account its delivery to the consumer, specific capital investments per unit of capacity and profit. Along with these indicators, a system of technical and economic indicators of its location is being developed for each branch of production in the region. This system includes: 1) specific costs of the main types of raw materials, fuel, energy, water per unit of production; 2) the output of industrial waste per unit of production; 3) labor costs per unit of output; 4) specific costs of fixed assets. The use of performance indicators for the rational distribution of industries in the region contributes to the establishment of optimal proportions between them. The most important research method in regional studies is system analysis, which makes it possible to study the complex development of the region, internal relations and their interaction. System analysis is a comprehensive analysis that uses the principle of stages, starting from setting goals, defining tasks, formulating a scientific hypothesis, and comprehensively studying the features of the optimal production location option. In this case, the criterion is the greatest satisfaction of the needs of the population. At present, especially in the period of the formation of market relations, the problems of location are becoming more and more complex, and sectoral and territorial ties are becoming more and more difficult to manage. Therefore, there is a need to apply a new research method - economic and mathematical modeling. This method allows determining the territorial proportions of the development of the Russian economy, compiling a model for the optimal location of economic sectors, and compiling a model for the formation of economic complexes in the regions. The use of this method with the use of a computer makes it possible to process huge arrays of initial data with minimal labor and time and choose the best solutions in accordance with the goal. 5. Tasks of the scientific discipline "Regional studies" What are the tasks of the scientific discipline "Regional Studies" at the present stage of the formation of market relations? The most important task of regional studies is the development of theoretical foundations for the formation and development of economic regions in the conditions of the formation and development of market relations, the development of programs for the development of economic regions in market conditions, the development of recommendations for improving the structure and management of economic regions of all taxonomic ranks. At the same time, the main guidelines, especially in the development of entrepreneurship, the creation of social infrastructure, the protection and rational use of natural resources, are: 1) taking into account the specifics of each region in the implementation of structural, investment, financial, social, foreign economic restructuring; 2) transfer of the main directions of market reforms to the regional level. An important task is also the decentralization of management processes, the activation of economic activity in each region. One of the tasks in carrying out regional economic reforms is the development of measures for the spatial integration of the Russian economy, the creation of a mechanism for vertical and horizontal interactions between government bodies, the development of measures to overcome the collapse of interregional economic ties, and the preservation of a single market space. The main goal of regional policy - Ensuring a decent level of well-being in each region. The following strategic tasks of regional development should be singled out. For old industrial areas and large urban agglomerations, the main task is to convert defense industries, modernize infrastructure, establish a variety of forms of ownership, and improve the environmental situation. For the regions of the Non-Black Earth Region, the Southern Urals, Siberia, and the Far East, it is most important to overcome the crisis in the agrarian sector, the revival of small towns and villages, the development of industrial and social infrastructure, and the development of abandoned lands. It is necessary to develop programs for the self-sufficiency of the population with food. For the extreme regions of the Far North and mountainous regions, the most important tasks are the stabilization of the socio-economic situation, the creation of conditions for the revival of small peoples with solid state support. It is necessary to form new economic complexes based on unique natural resources, attract investments to implement their development programs, develop a system of measures for the integrated use of extracted raw materials in compliance with strict environmental standards. For all regions of Russia, the most important task is to stimulate the development of export and import-substituting industries, the formation of free economic zones, the creation of technopolises as regional centers for introducing the achievements of domestic and world science, and accelerating economic and social progress. For border areas, programs are needed for respecialization, accelerated development of infrastructure, taking into account potential migrants, and redeployment of military units. The development of infrastructure systems, especially transport, communications, informatics, which would contribute to structural changes and ensure the effective development of the regional economy, is of national importance. An important task of regional studies at the present stage is the development of measures to overcome the excessive lag in the level and quality of life of the population of individual republics and regions of Russia. Special development and support programs should be developed for nationally depressed regions: Kalmykia, Tuva, Buryatia, Chechnya, Ingushetia, Dagestan, and others. LECTURE No. 2. Regional development of Russia 1. Features of the regional development of Russia There are not many countries in the world like Russia in which geography would so strongly predetermine the specifics of social life. The development of an effective regional strategy for such a country is impossible without precise knowledge and careful consideration of its geographical features. These features can be divided into two groups: primordial (cultural, natural) and transient (legacy of modern history). Original features: 1. Huge territory - Russia is still the largest country in the world. This is both a positive development factor (an abundance of resources, a variety of conditions), and a negative one (low population density, difficulties in the interaction of parts, costs of overcoming long distances). 2. harsh nature - Russia is located in the harsh northeastern corner of Eurasia, three-quarters of its territory is covered with tundra and taiga on permafrost, only a fifth is suitable for plowing, and half of this part lies in the zone of risky farming. Almost all the surrounding seas freeze, almost all borders are deserted, pass through mountains and dense forests, so that the country looks isolated from its neighbors by nature itself. 3. Placement contrasts - 3/4 of the population is concentrated in the European part, which makes up only 1/4 of the country's territory, and only a quarter of the population falls on the vast expanse from the Urals to the Far East. The main part of the resources, the abundance of which Russia is so famous for, is located far from the main economic centers, and even in areas of Siberia and the Far North that are difficult to access for development. 4. "One-dimensionality" - the developed part of the country is squeezed to the southern border and stretches for tens of thousands of kilometers from west to east. Beyond the Urals, it is almost devoid of depth. Like placement contrasts, this exacerbates the negative impact of long distances. 5. Geography controversy - the diversity of nature coexists with the monotony along the inhabited strip; the absence of mountains that impede communication, with the unfortunate "transversity" of rivers and ridges, like the Urals in this strip; the diversity of nations coexists with the overwhelming majority of one of them in number; rigid state centralism - with the traditional autonomy of remote outskirts, and disproportions in the level and nature of economic development (from post- to pre-industrial) - with the widespread dominance of the most specific Soviet heritage. 6. The complexity of the territorial structure - coexistence of simplicity and randomness. There are two rules here. First, there is a clear pattern "center - periphery" - the concentration of life in the largest cities, the decline in population density, economic activity, innovation and much more as you move away from these centers. This is especially pronounced on the scale of the country with a distance from Moscow, however, it is often reproduced on other scales - both within the region and within a separate district. Therefore, the overall picture becomes mosaic, disorderly. Secondly, there is often no mesoscale: it is easy to distinguish large parts on the territory of Russia, like Siberia or the Urals (macroscale), each inhabitant knows his area of \u10b\u20bresidence well (microscale), but distinguishing regions of the middle level, like Meshchera or Pomorye, is extremely rare. This rule is sometimes reproduced on other scales (it is easy to single out two or three large parts and many peculiar quarters in Moscow, but it is difficult to divide it into XNUMX-XNUMX distinct parts). All this greatly complicates the territorial organization of public life. 7. Aspatial culture - this scientific term refers to the weakening of the reaction to space in Russian culture (a relatively weak sense of distance, border, place). This is partly due to the peculiarities of nature (distances are too large, natural boundaries are not expressed). This property reconciles Russians with the centralism of government; they are accustomed to determining their geographical position by administrative-territorial division, and not by historical and cultural regions, like most other peoples of the world. All this helped the Russians to expand the area of their settlement, but hindered and prevents them from mastering it. Transient Features They are predetermined, first of all, by the seventy years of domination of Bolshevism, as well as by the events after 1985, and especially by the reforms of 1992-1993. 1. Gigantism, hyper-concentration - Emphasis on giant enterprises, major centers, major locomotive regions, the desire to succeed through scope and scale. It is based on ideological motives hidden by economic rhetoric (construction of communism, etc.). The consequences are the monopoly of superfactories, the lengthening of ties, the country's dependence on two or three centers of production of most goods, the hypertrophy of capital cities, the crisis of small ones, and the decline of the countryside. And against the same background, vast areas actually remain unaffected by the reserve of development in breadth. 2. Hyper-specialization of regions and centers on a narrow set of economic activities, exacerbated by the rickety of the service sector, which could diversify the structure of each district and center. Because of this, structural and sectoral shifts quickly develop into regional ones, and the regions become highly dependent on supplies from outside. The idea of territorial production complexes, alas, failed. On the other hand, the same factor prevents the collapse of the country into self-sufficient parts. 3. Indivisibility of industries and the social sphere - an abundance of enterprises with their own housing stock, social infrastructure, etc., in connection with which sectoral restructuring is impossible without serious social consequences. Many centers are turning into "milltowns" - cities attached to factories, where the executive functions are actually performed by the heads of enterprises, and the whole public life is permeated with paternalism. Another phenomenon of the same order is the abundance of artificial formations, such as "closed cities", isolated elite settlements, for the most part associated with branches of the military-industrial complex and isolated from the environment. Under these conditions, "purely economic" reforms inevitably cause severe social consequences that hinder the processes of reform and distort their meaning. Quite often, the "social echo" of structural adjustments is echoed by the aggravation of the general political situation in the regions and throughout the country. 4. Ossification of administrative-territorial boundaries - the squeezing of all types of public life within the borders of regions and republics, the transformation of these borders into a kind of "Chinese walls" (these borders are clearly distinguishable even from space: a network of local roads opens on them, almost all of them are overgrown with dense forests). 5. Strong territorial contrasts literally in all spheres - economic, social, and even political. In 1990, on the eve of the reforms, the per capita national income directed towards consumption fluctuated from 4 thousand rubles. in Moscow to 1,3 thousand in Dagestan. Gaps of 3-4 times in key social indicators were common. This is not surprising for a country with a market economy, but hardly justified in a country whose rulers proclaimed equality as the main slogan of the state. The contrasts in the economy were also enormous: in the efficiency of production, in welfare, investments, militarization of production, etc. By the beginning of the reforms in Russia, regions coexisted that were at very distant stages of social development from pre-industrial (like Tuva or Dagestan) to post-industrial (Moscow, Leningrad). 2. Processes of regionalization in modern Russia The reforms of 1992-1993 had a complex, contradictory effect on regional development. The collapse of economic ties between the republics of the former USSR caused a widespread decline in the level of production, which affected primarily industrial regions with a high concentration of specialized industries and military-industrial complex enterprises. At the same time, the reorientation of economic ties to Russian suppliers and consumers began, which objectively contributes to the strengthening of the country's single economic space. As early as 1993, the negative potential of the process of disintegration of ties turned out to be largely exhausted. Being economically justified, price liberalization put an end to a long period of suppressed inflation, made it open, at the same time demonstrating the inability of the federal center to control it, significantly reduce and stabilize the rate of price growth. Inflation has generated a number of negative processes in the economy of the regions: 1) there were serious price distortions, as a result of which interregional differences in living standards increased even more; 2) there was a powerful impetus for the development of non-market barter exchange under the control of local authorities, which impedes the deepening of economic reform; 3) in some regions, the authorities used inflation as a pretext for conserving elements of the old economic system (rationed distribution of goods, strict control over prices, etc.); 4) General financial difficulties gave rise to a cash crisis and a vicious circle of mutual non-payments of enterprises, which further exacerbated the problems of the regions and their actual inequality in the country's budget system; 5) incentives for long-term investment turned out to be undermined, which aggravated the difficulties of industrial regions that provide the material content of capital investments, and the reorientation of production, forced under these conditions, to the production of technologically primitive products provokes a general technological rollback of the entire Russian industry; 6) temporary shutdowns of enterprises make economic ties already unstable within Russia itself, and the expected bankruptcy proceedings may cause a serious aggravation of the problems of unemployment affecting entire regions. In general, the positive process of Russia's involvement in the system of the international division of labor at the same time made interregional socio-economic contrasts even more pronounced. On the one hand, raw material regions with high export potential got into a privileged position, on the other hand, the situation in regions where socially oriented enterprises (for example, light industry) are concentrated, which cannot compete with manufacturers of imported products, has become more complicated. In the near future, Russia is unlikely to do without a policy of reasonable protectionism, which, among other things, will help to reduce interregional disproportions. The main geographical result of the first period of reforms was the rapid growth of interregional disproportions, since the impact of economic reforms on the regions turned out to be very different. On the other hand, some factors held back shifts in the distribution of the population and productive forces - primarily the general decline in economic activity, underinvestment, and the slowdown in migration. Some of the shifts that have taken place look temporary and could be reversed if production stabilizes or picks up. Therefore, one should not exaggerate the significance and scope of the shifts in the territorial structure of Russian society in recent years. The basic characteristics of this structure remained unchanged, although they smoothed out: hyperconcentration, gigantism, hyperspecialization of regions, etc. Another geographical outcome is the extremely uneven course of economic reform across the regions of the country. In some regions, reforms are being accelerated, in others, predominantly in raw materials, they are guided by the maximum use of the benefits from exports. There are republics, territories, regions that build their prosperity on various benefits received from the federal government. Finally, there are regions where they are trying to preserve elements of a centrally planned economy. In terms of the scale of market transformations, the republics lag noticeably behind the territories and regions. Therefore, today we need an effective reform management system, determining the place of central and local authorities in this process. In essence, there is not a single problem-free region in Russia now. This is connected not only with the difficulties of the transition period: there is also a noticeable trend towards economic disintegration, manifested in the desire of a number of regions to unilaterally use their export advantages, erect barriers to the movement of goods and capital, limit the participation of other regions in privatization, secure exclusive ownership of natural resources, do not fulfill obligations to the federal budget. The disintegration process itself is also ambiguous. On the one hand, it reflects the historically inherent tendency in Russia towards a certain autonomy of regional markets. Regionalism is determined by the geopolitical features of the country, the elimination of the totalitarian system of government, the objective need to expand the powers of local authorities, and the transition to market relations. From this point of view, it is natural. On the other hand, there is a noticeable inclination towards economic separatism, a desire to seize all new powers without prior notice, without taking into account national interests. This is dangerous. An exceptionally deep territorial division of labor has developed in the country, and not a single, even the largest, region is able to exist in the regime of absolute autonomy. Ill-considered actions of local authorities not only violate the integrity of the country's single economic space and hinder market reforms. It is also a matter of social justice. The wealth of the regions was created by the labor of many generations of Russians, and any of them, wherever they live, has the right to their share. These principles form the core of Russia's regional problems. 3. Regional problems of modern Russia The fact that the processes of the country's regional development require especially close attention is an obvious fact. To select an effective strategy of action and appropriate political, socio-economic and other instruments, it is necessary to clearly define the main issues, the essence of the regional problem. In general, it is seen as a trinity. First, how to translate the proclaimed constitutional equality of the subjects of the Federation, "de jure" equality, into equality of socio-economic living conditions, to "de facto" equality? How correctly to define principles of this "equality"? Secondly, how not declaratively, but really, for the common good, to use the powerful development potential contained precisely in the differences between Russian territories? How to put into practice the age-old dream and the imperative of Russian life - "unity in diversity"? And finally, thirdly, how to find a consistent combination of national state, regional and personal human interests in the most difficult situation of today as accurately and without conflict as possible? The regional problem, in principle, cannot be solved once and for all, but its severity should be minimized with the help of a regional strategy - a system of measures to influence the territorial structure of society for the sake of socially significant goals. The goals of the regional strategy should lie outside the actual regional problems. It is unacceptable that the improvement of the territorial structure is carried out only for its own sake. As the the main objectives of the regional strategy You can name: 1) the well-being of citizens, which is understood not only as property well-being, but also political and socio-economic stability, the guarantee of ensuring human and civil rights throughout the country; 2) territorial justice as ensuring the equality of citizens regardless of their place of residence; 3) maintaining the integrity of the state, the unity of its constitutional, legal, economic and social space while maintaining and increasing the economic, social, natural resource, infrastructural and cultural and historical potential of each region in the interests of its population. The solution of the problem of regional development develops into a problem due to a number of objective contradictions. First, there are objective and indestructible contradictions between the country and the region (as a contradiction between the whole and the part) and between regions: what is beneficial for a particular region is by no means always beneficial for other regions or for the country as a whole, and vice versa. Therefore, the regional problem and its individual aspects do not have an unambiguous solution; it turns into an agreed optimum of heterogeneous interests, into a compromise. Secondly, there is an equally objective contradiction along the lines of "efficiency - equality." The mechanism of this contradiction is quite simple: the desire solely for economic efficiency leads to a deepening of inequality in the development of different regions. As a result, setting equalization of the degree of development of territories as a priority task reduces economic efficiency. And in this case, the decision should lie in the sphere of coordinating the interests of national and territorial ones. Thirdly, the territorial structure of society is very inertial, and many politicians are "uninterested" in doing difficult, decades-long work that objectively will not bring momentary tangible dividends. As a result, activities in the field of regional development of the country are carried out inconsistently, sporadically, without a clear vision of the prospects and possible results of today's efforts. Fourthly, due to the centuries-old domination of the centralized state in Russia, civilized mechanisms for resolving various kinds of contradictions, especially political ones, have practically not developed, and therefore, in parallel with the improvement of purely managerial mechanisms, conciliation mechanisms must be urgently mastered. The regional problem clearly falls into three parts: 1) socio-economic issues (regional policy in its traditional sense); 2) political issues (federalism); 3) cultural issues (regionalism). These components have a different nature in many respects, and measures to reduce the severity of each of the aspects of the regional problem should also be different. Different tasks should be solved by methods adequate to these aspects. Crossing and overlapping of these methods, i.e., solving, for example, economic problems with the help of social measures, should be avoided. LECTURE No. 3. Economic zoning 1. Historical sketch of the administrative structure of Russia The vast territory of Russia, even in the early stages of the formation of the Russian state, required a territorial study of its features, natural resource potential, the creation of administrative bodies to collect taxes and manage all socio-economic processes. Therefore, it became necessary to divide Russia into separate administrative units. In Russia, after the liquidation of specific principalities, there was a division into voivodeships, camps, counties. Governing them was at the same time "feeding" their rulers[3]. Creation of the Russian state in the XVIII century. (with command management) required the formation of homogeneous administrative "units" - provinces. Their main tasks are recruiting for the army, collecting taxes and police inspection. Under Peter I in 1708, the country was divided into eight large provinces, the provinces were divided into counties. In 1727, an intermediate unit was allocated between provinces and counties - provinces. Regiments were assigned to each province, their recruitment was carried out at the expense of the population of the provinces. Petrovsky provinces existed for almost seventy years, until 1775; their number during this time grew to twenty. In 1775, by decree of Catherine II, a new administrative reform was carried out. There was a disaggregation of the provinces, they became 40, and then 68. Each province was supposed to have at least 300-400 thousand people, and the number of men of military age was from 20 to 30 thousand people[4]. This administrative division remained unchanged until the October Revolution. The southern territories of Russia were essentially colonies of Russia, and in form they were considered military regions ruled by governors-general. They were also called military districts. For example, the Turkestan military district, controlled by the governor general; The Caucasus was ruled by the Caucasian governor. The structure of pre-revolutionary Russia included Poland and Finland as self-governing units[5]. 2. Formation of the administrative-territorial division after the revolution After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, another administrative lower unit took shape - the volost. The formation of the post-revolutionary administrative-territorial division of our country began in 1917. On November 7, 1917, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was formed. In December 1917 - the Ukrainian SSR, in January 1919 - the Byelorussian SSR. In 1918, as a result of the struggle of the revolutionary and opposition forces in Transcaucasia, the state independence of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan was proclaimed, but the internal struggle continued. In 1920-1921. three Soviet socialist republics were established in Transcaucasia - Azerbaijan, Georgian, Armenian, which in 1922 were merged into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (ZSFSR). In 1924, the Turkmen, Uzbek, and Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics were created, in 1926, the Kirghiz ASSR (which since 1924 was called the Karakirghiz Autonomous Region). In December 1922, the formation of the USSR took place. It originally included: the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR. In 1924, the Turkmen and Uzbek republics entered the Union. In 1929, the Tajik ASSR was transformed into a union republic and also became part of the USSR. In 1936, the Kazakh SSR separated from the Kirghiz SSR and also became part of the USSR. In 1940, Soviet troops were introduced into the territory of the Baltic states and Moldova in accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, where 4 more union republics were formed, which also became part of the USSR - the Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian and Moldavian SSR. In the first years of Soviet power, the old administrative units - provinces, districts and volosts - were broken up. New administrative units were introduced - territories, regions and districts. Many inconsistencies between the administrative-territorial division of tsarist Russia and the economic significance of the regions were eliminated. By the end of the 1930s. the modern political and administrative division of the USSR was formed, which lasted until the 1990s. During this period, there were 15 union republics: the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, the Estonian SSR, the Latvian SSR, the Lithuanian SSR, the Moldavian SSR, the Georgian SSR, the Armenian SSR, the Azerbaijan SSR, the Turkmen SSR, the Tajik SSR, the Kirghiz SSR, the Uzbek SSR and the Kazakh SSR. The union republics included 20 autonomous republics, 8 autonomous regions and 10 autonomous (national) districts. established by the early 1990s. the political and economic environment led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. This process is due to a number of reasons, the main of which is the domination of the totalitarian system, the concentration of all power structures in the hands of the CPSU, the complete political and economic dictate of the leading structures of the CPSU over all spheres of the political and economic life of the country. Naturally, that diktat had to be overthrown sooner or later. There was a collapse of the empire, which was accompanied by a financial, economic, political crisis. First, 6 union republics declared state independence - Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia. They refused to participate in the signing of the union treaty on the preservation of the Union and the establishment of the Federation of Free States. It was supposed to change the name of the country - the Union of Soviet Sovereign Republics. However, its signing was thwarted by a coup d'état organized by the State Emergency Committee in August 1991. And although the putsch was suppressed by the democratic forces of Russia, its consequences led to the further collapse of the USSR and the aggravation of the political and economic situation in the country. Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and other republics declared full independence in this situation. The process of nationalization of all-Union property began. The fragile balance of the republics, although confirmed by bilateral economic agreements, has been upset[6]. At present, the former Soviet Union has completely collapsed and sovereign states recognized by the world community have formed on the site of a huge empire: Russia (Russian Federation), Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan , Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. All these state-republics are basically presidential republics [7]. On the initiative of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was created, the purpose of which is to create a single economic space and establish mutually beneficial ties, as well as joint management of strategic defense, establishing contacts on the operation of a single transport system, a communications system, a single power supply. The CIS currently includes 12 former Soviet republics of the USSR, although the agreement on the creation of the CIS has not been ratified by parliaments in all of them[8]. There was a modern administrative-territorial division of Russia. The Russian Federation includes the following republics: Republic of Adygea, Republic of Altai, Republic of Bashkortostan, Republic of Buryatia, Republic of Dagestan, Ingush Republic, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Republic of Kalmykia - Khalmg Tangch, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Republic of Karelia, Republic of Komi, Republic of Mari El , Republic of Mordovia, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Republic of North Ossetia, Republic of Tatarstan, Republic of Tuva, Udmurt Republic, Republic of Khakassia, Chechen Republic, Chuvash Republic[9]. At the same time, it should be noted that Chechnya has declared full sovereignty outside the Russian Federation and does not intend to sign the Federal Treaty, while the Law of the Russian Federation No. Federation of the Chechen Republic. The Russian Federation includes one autonomous region - Jewish, 6 autonomous districts: Aginsky Buryatsky, Nenets, Ust-Ordynsky Buryatsky, Khanty-Mansiysk (Yugra), Chukotsky and Yamalo-Nenets, 8 territories - Altai, Kamchatsky, Krasnodar, Krasnoyarsk, Perm, Primorsky, Stavropol, Khabarovsk and 47 regions. 3. Economic zoning. Economic zoning methods Economic zoning has its own history. The first attempts at economic zoning and the first publications on zoning issues provided an initial orientation to the economic differences in individual parts of the country. Since the economic life of Russia in the pre-revolutionary years was determined mainly by agriculture, climatic and other zonal natural conditions were taken as the basis for zoning. These first attempts at economic zoning were predominantly natural-economic or agricultural zoning. During the development of capitalism in Russia, with the strengthening of the territorial division of labor and economic ties, new tasks arose before agriculture and industry in Russia. This required the deepening of work on the basis of statistics on population, industry, agriculture, and transport. Particularly distinguished are the works on the economic zoning of Russia by the famous statistician and geographer P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. In the middle of the last century, he carried out the zoning of the European part of Russia into the so-called 14 natural regions. Both natural and economic conditions of the territories were taken into account[10]. The second zoning was carried out by him at the end of the 12th century, as a result of which 11 regions of the European part of Russia were identified. These areas were presented as compact, unique in their natural and economic conditions of the territory[XNUMX]. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. there is a number of works on the economic zoning of Russia [12]. However, all the experiments in pre-revolutionary zoning did not have sufficient practical significance; they were mainly of an educational nature. At the same time, the works of such pre-revolutionary scientists as A. N. Chelintsev, A. I. Skvortsov, P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky were used in the development of the state planning grid of regions [13]. The most important condition for economic zoning in the post-revolutionary period was its compliance with the administrative-territorial structure. In 1920, the GOELRO plan for the electrification of the country was developed. According to the GOELRO plan, 8 districts were distinguished: Northern, Central Industrial, Southern, Volga, Ural, Caucasian, West Siberian, Turkestan. This was the first experience of Soviet economic zoning. In 1921 the Gosplan prepared the zoning project; According to this project, the territory of the USSR was divided into 21 economic regions. It reflected a combination of sectoral and territorial sections of the plan. In 1938-1940. The State Planning Committee of the USSR developed a new grid of economic regions. According to this grid, the territory of the USSR was divided into 13 large economic regions. In accordance with it, state plans for the national economy were drawn up and approved in the fourth, fifth and sixth five-year plans. The plans were drawn up by branches, economic regions and union republics. In 1963, the State Planning Committee of the USSR proposed dividing the territory of the USSR into 18 large economic regions, taking into account their natural and economic features. In the RSFSR, 10 large economic regions were identified: Central, North-Western, Central Black Earth, Volga-Vyatka, Volga, North Caucasus, Ural, West Siberian, East Siberian and Far East. In 1982, the North-Western region was divided into two regions: North-Western and Northern. Thus, the last grid of regions of the USSR included 19 large economic regions, 11 of them on the territory of Russia. Economic zoning methods 1. Method of energy production cycles (EPC) N. N. Kolosovsky gave the following definition to this method: "... the energy production cycle is understood as the entire set of production processes that are consistently deployed in the economic region of the USSR on the basis of a combination of a given type of energy and raw materials, from primary forms of extraction and upgrading of raw materials and energy and the rational use of all components of raw materials and energy resources... The cycle must be understood as a historical category unfolding in time"[14]. The EPC method takes into account precisely the sequence of production stages that must be carried out to produce a product, and "builds" this sequence "from the extraction of raw materials." N. N. Kolosovsky outlined 8 generalized cycles (or their combinations): 1) pyrometallurgical cycle of ferrous metals; 2) petrochemical; 3) a set of hydropower industrial cycles; 4) a set of cycles of the processing industry; 5) forest energy cycle; 6) the totality of industrial and agricultural cycles; 7) hydroreclamation; 8) industrial-agrarian cycle (for areas of irrigated land ownership). In addition, he outlined ninth cycle - nuclear energy - as a promising one. It would be wrong to think that the analysis of the territorial structure of the region should be limited to the nine named cycles. N. N. Kolosovsky calls these cycles generalized. This means that with a detailed analysis, generalized cycles must be deciphered. The main idea of the EPC method and the purposes of their use - the classification of areas, their territorial structure, fractional zoning - leads to the need to develop a hierarchical system of cycles, their classification. The classification of cycles is based on their definition as a set of interdependent production processes that develop on a combination of a certain type of raw material and energy. The type of energy is taken into account for the main process. For example, for an electrically intensive industrial set of cycles, the introduction of electricity into the reaction zone itself is typical only for electrolytic or electrothermal processes. At other stages of the cycle, electricity is used as power energy (for example, the stages of rolling non-ferrous metals, mining or enrichment of ore)[15]. At present, almost always raw materials are complex. The use of complex raw materials usually leads to the development of a number of parallel production chains during its primary processing. In addition, another phenomenon is widely known in practice - the development of homogeneous types of raw materials and the production of related finished products from these types of raw materials with the proximity of technological processes for their production. The nature of production processes is also determined by the type and quantity (per unit of output) of energy used. These three circumstances make it possible to make a certain generalization of processes, i.e., generalization of energy production cycles, and build their hierarchy. On these grounds, the following classification is divided into three stages: 1) generalized cycles and a generalized set of cycles; 2) subcycles; 3) branches of cycles. Generalized cycles, a generalized set of cycles - a set of such "chains", sequentially replacing each other production processes developing in parallel, which necessarily consider the processing of all types of the same type of raw materials (or all components of complex raw materials). The generalized set of cycles can include processes using different types of raw materials, then the production proximity of the main technological processes of each of their sequences is limited by the homogeneity of their energy intensity and labor intensity. Sub-loops and simple loops - such a combination of several "chains" of production processes that uses different types of the same type of raw materials and in which the technology of the main production processes of each "chain" is close. At the second stage of the classification, subcycles are distinguished in cases of "decoding" of the generalized energy production cycle. When a generalized set of cycles, such as industrial-agrarian, is deciphered, then we will talk about simple cycles[16]. The branches of the EPC are developed on the basis of a combination of one type of raw material (or one component of complex raw materials) and a certain type of energy inherent in the main process in the production of one type of finished product. It is characterized by one sequence of production processes, including the extraction or production of raw materials, the processing of waste, the processes necessary to service the main[17]. The cycles of each stage of classification in the analysis of the complex are used for specific purposes. Generalized cycles - for the classification of district production complexes, subcycles - for the analysis of intra-district territorial organization of productive forces, branches of cycles - for the analysis of the territorial structure of complexes of subdistricts, microdistricts. Naturally, one can speak only in general terms about the direction of using cycles; it is possible, of course, to use the branches of cycles in the analysis of complexes of districts, and not just subdistricts, but in the study of the territorial structure of complexes of subdistricts, the use of generalized cycles does little [18]. The set of productions that make up the cycle allows some variations. However, this phenomenon also takes place in branch classification. With branch classification, it is difficult to attribute one or another combine to a particular industry. It is customary to attribute combined enterprises depending on the share of the product group in the total value of the enterprises' products. But even here, not to mention the conditionality of the principle itself, a problem arises in cases where the enterprise produces several products in different proportions[19]. The difference between the classification of cycles and the classification of industries is determined by the fact that the branches of cycles, sub-cycles and generalized cycles are aggregates that combine production processes from the extraction (or production) of raw materials to the production of a finished product, while the aggregate under consideration includes all auxiliary and related production. When classifying industries, industries that process the main type of product, and the waste generated at the same time, very often belong to different industries[20]. The degree of development of energy production cycles and economic relations between the cycles that make up the region depend on the level of development of the country's economy as a whole and the specific conditions of the region: the actual composition of raw materials, the characteristics of energy resources, the course and stage of the historical process of economic development of the region, labor and national cultural characteristics of the population . All these specific moments contribute their own specifics to the typical structure of the region and create something special and individual that distinguishes the production-territorial complexes of economic regions from each other. The analysis of territorial orientation assumes the grouping of industries on the basis of the same type of orientation factor. This grouping is as follows: fuel-intensive, material-intensive, electric-intensive, labor-intensive, consumer-oriented industries. Mixed types are also possible, when production is immediately oriented towards two or more factors. The classification of industries based on the orientation factor is used to determine the production stage at which the development of the EOC in the economic region under study should be completed. The development of the cycle must be interrupted at that production stage, at which a contradiction is revealed between the nature of the production process of the stage under consideration and the nature of the resources of the economic region[21]. 2. Method of intersectoral complexes: Interindustry complexes (IOC) represent an efficient combination of enterprises from the economic point of view, participating in the production of a certain type of product or service[22]. Intersectoral complexes differ from energy production cycles in that they are [23]: 1) association of enterprises, not production processes. It would be more correct to compare the IOC not with the EOC, but with complexes adequate to the EOC; the elements of such complexes (as well as the IOC) are enterprises; with such a comparison, the difference in question disappears; 2) IOC is formed from "consumers", while the EPC is formed "from a combination of raw materials and energy". Intersectoral complexes, therefore, are extremely important and the only method for solving the problems of distribution (industrial and non-industrial) of products, circulation and exchange. The classification of intersectoral complexes is built depending on the detail of the classification of industries and, consequently, the detail of the classification of their products[24]. As you know, there are three groups of industries that are distinguished depending on the detail of the product analysis: 1) branches of the national economy (mining industry, manufacturing industry, agriculture, transport, communications, etc.); 2) industries (fuel, engineering, etc.), agriculture (livestock, crop production), transport (railway, road, river, etc.), as well as other sectors of the national economy have a corresponding division; 3) industries are divided into sub-sectors (for example, the textile industry is divided into cotton, wool, silk, linen, knitwear); 4) the branches of agriculture, transport, etc. are also subdivided into sub-sectors. Depending on what rank of branches is considered in the intersectoral complex, one can also speak about the rank of the complex itself. In addition, intersectoral complexes, like the EOC, differ in specialization and territorial significance. 3. Coefficient method: To solve inter-district and intra-district problems, some researchers also use coefficient method, trying with their help to determine the specialization, completeness and efficiency of the development of the economy of the regions[25]. This method is not new, it was widely used by A.N. Chelintsev in 1910-1918. to determine the specialization of districts; in the late 1930s. it was "revived" by the English economists P. S. Florence and A. J. Winsley, then it became widely used in the USA and much less frequently in other countries. Thus, among the well-known methods that make it possible to scientifically substantiate the rationality of the territorial organization of the economy of districts, is the EPC method. In the future, the analysis of the regional production complex will be based on this method. Fundamentals of modern economic zoning and forms of territorial organization of the Russian economy Economic zoning is the basis of the territorial management of the national economy of Russia. System of economic regions - the basis for building material and other balances in the territorial context in the development of targeted and regional programs[26]. Economic zoning serves as a prerequisite for improving the territorial development of the economy and is of paramount importance for organizing regional economic management. This is especially important at the present time, when the regions of Russia have gained economic independence. Economic zoning, inextricably linked with the specialization of regions in certain types of production, is one of the factors in raising the productivity of social labor and the rational and efficient distribution of productive forces. Modern economic region - this is an integral territorial part of the national economy of the country, which has its own production specialization, strong internal economic ties. The economic region is inextricably linked with other parts of the country by the social territorial division of labor as a single economic entity with strong internal ties[27]. The formation of economic regions is an objective process, expressed by the development of the territorial division of labor. 4. Basic principles of zoning There are several principles of regionalization[28]. 1. economic principle, considering the region as a specialized part of a single national economic complex of the country with a certain composition of auxiliary and service industries. According to this principle, the specialization of the region should be determined by such industries in which the costs of labor, funds for the production of products and their delivery to the consumer will be the smallest in comparison with other regions. The economic efficiency of a region's specialization should be evaluated both from the point of view of establishing the most expedient territorial division of labor throughout the country, and from the point of view of the most productive use of the region's available resources. 2. national principle, taking into account the ethnic composition of the population of the region, its historically developed features of work and life. 3. administrative principle, determining the unity of economic zoning and the territorial political and administrative structure of the country. This principle creates the conditions for the effective independent development of regions and the strengthening of their role in the territorial division of labor in Russia. These principles are fundamental to the modern theory and practice of Russia's economic zoning. In modern conditions, the allocation of large economic regions is dictated by the development of scientific and technological progress. The contours of the boundaries of economic regions are determined by the area of location of industries of market specialization and the most important auxiliary industries associated with industries of market specialization by technological supplies of raw materials, parts, components, i.e., cooperation of industries. The area-forming factors of modern economic regions include the presence of large mineral deposits, high population density and labor experience accumulated by them, etc. Economic zoning is not a frozen process; it can change and improve in the course of the country's economic development, depending on many factors. The formation of program-targeted TPKs in a number of large economic regions can lead to the disaggregation of economic regions. There is a process of development of program-targeted TPK - Timan-Pechora, TPK based on the KMA, West Siberian, Kansk-Achinsk (KATEK), Sayan, South Yakutsk. They are formed on the basis of unique natural resources[29]. The modern economic zoning of Russia includes three main links (taxonomic units)[30] : 1) large economic regions; 2) districts of the middle link - territories, regions, republics; 3) grassroots areas - administrative and economic areas, urban and rural areas. Each type of economic zoning meets certain tasks of territorial development. The highest level of zoning - large economic regions - is used by the central republican authorities for the nationwide management of the economy in the territorial context. Major economic regions - these are clearly specialized and relatively complete territorial economic complexes that play an important role in the all-Russian division of labor. Having a large territory, a large population, a diverse natural resource potential, large economic regions have a clearly defined specialization (up to 5-7 industries). The larger the territory of a large economic region, the wider its production profile, the more complex the economic complex. The middle link of zoning is used to manage some sectors of the economy within the region, territory, republic. Its role in the management of agriculture and the service sector is great. Regional districts have their own economic features. A peculiar form of integrated development of the regions, the unification of agricultural areas around industrial centers provide the city with a leading position. Grassroots economic regions represent the primary links in the taxonomy of economic zoning. On their basis, initial specialized territorial production complexes are formed. The lower regions play an important role in the development and implementation of long-term and annual programs for the development of the regional economy and socio-cultural construction, in the location and specialization of enterprises for the production and processing of agricultural products, local industry, consumer services, trade and public catering. Economic regions can be combined into macro-regions, or economic zones that differ in general natural conditions, economic features, and trends for further development. In large areas of the zones, common major inter-district problems clearly emerge[31]. 5. Composition of large economic regions of Russia The main principles of the allocation of economic zones - the level of economic development of the territory, the ratio between the most important resources and the degree of their use[32]. There are two economic zones - Western (European part of Russia and the Urals) and East (Siberia and the Far East). In order to fulfill long-term target programs, to balance the production and consumption of important types of products, groups of regions in economic zones are combined into enlarged regions. There are three enlarged regions in the Western zone - the North and the Center of the European part of Russia, the Ural-Volga region and the European South. There are two enlarged regions in the Eastern zone - Siberia and the Far East. Currently, Russia includes 11 large economic regions (regions): Northern, Northwestern, Central, Central Black Earth, Volga-Vyatka, Volga, North Caucasian, Ural, West Siberian, East Siberian, Far East. Moscow and St. Petersburg have the status of self-government[33]. Today, in the conditions of market development, three types of Russian regions can be distinguished 1) labor surplus - the republics of the North Caucasus, the Stavropol and Krasnodar Territories, the Rostov Region; 2) military-industrial - St. Petersburg, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod region, the Urals, industrial hubs in the south of Siberia; 3) diversified and depressive - a significant part of the zone of the North[34]. For the first group of regions It is recommended that every possible encouragement be given to the small-scale commodity system both in towns and in the countryside. For regions of the second type to attract foreign capital, regions of the third type - creation of a particularly favorable regime for entrepreneurial activity due to partial exemption from taxes and other factors. To improve the financing of the regions, market infrastructures are being created - housing funds, pension funds, insurance funds, stock exchanges, associations. It is recommended to focus associations on the coordinated solution of the most important tasks: the implementation of macroregional development programs, the creation of funds, the increase in the efficiency of the territorial division of labor, the development of production, taking into account privatization, the introduction of new technologies, the expansion of farms and subsidiary plots, the development of regional programs for the revival of villages, the development of small towns, the protection environment, development of relations with other regions. Currently, the most difficult situation is in the regions where heavy industry is developed, especially coal and metallurgical industry, with large monopoly enterprises - Kemerovo, Chelyabinsk, Yekaterinburg, Rostov, Tula, large cities of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, as well as regions where defense industry enterprises are concentrated. complex - Moscow and St. Petersburg, Moscow, Leningrad, Chelyabinsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Yekaterinburg, Perm, Tula regions, Udmurtia and individual industrial units with a narrow production base, mainly in the north[35]. In the context of structural restructuring, the threat of a sharp decline in production, mass unemployment and aggravation of social tension is especially real for the regions. Therefore, the existence of these regions requires benefits on federal and local taxes, loans, tax breaks from the profits of commercial banks, the expansion of the rights of local authorities and social protection of the population. Individual enterprises in these regions will be given loans to maintain production and re-profiling to produce socially oriented products. All of the above applies to integral economic zoning. In addition, there is sectoral zoning, for example, areas for the location of ferrous metallurgy (metallurgical bases), areas for the location of transport, agricultural engineering and other industries, and agricultural zoning. Thus, it is assumed that in the future, with the development of market relations, it will be possible to distinguish five agricultural regions of Russia[36]: 1) farming regions with a significant share of private property - the main part of the Non-Chernozem zone, agricultural regions of the southern part of Eastern Siberia and the Far East; 2) regions where large collective farms are combined with farms - the Chernozem Center, the Volga region, the foothills of the North Caucasus, the Southern Urals, the south of Western Siberia; 3) mountainous regions - the republics of the North Caucasus, the Altai Republic; 4) regions of distant pasture animal husbandry - Kalmykia, Tyva, Buryatia, Chita region; 5) poorly developed territories with focal development of agriculture and a special land use regime - this is the main part of the North zone. The most radical agrarian reforms are planned in the regions of the first type. It provides for the accelerated development of farms through additional state investments and subsidies, as well as the resettlement of the economically active population to these regions - demobilized military personnel, the Russian-speaking population from the countries of the new abroad, as well as immigrants from cities. Particularly vulnerable are the regions of new development with harsh, extreme conditions - the zones of the North, as well as regions with structural unemployment, agrarian overpopulation (for example, the North Caucasus) and territories with a weak financial and economic base - Transbaikalia, Tyva, Kalmykia, Dagestan. These regions will be supported from republican federal funds. Currently, free economic zones are being formed, which will receive all the benefits for industrial, agricultural development, with a high level of infrastructure. These are St. Petersburg, in the Far East - Nakhodka, Magadan, Sakhalin, in Siberia - Kuzbass, in the Moscow region - Zelenograd, in the Kaliningrad region - Yantar and zones in other regions of Russia [37]. 6. Strategic objectives of regional development In the conditions of the formation and development of market relations, a new regional policy is being formed. It should be noted the special importance of the regional aspect of the economic reforms carried out in our country. Due to the huge differences in natural-geographical, socio-demographic, economic and other conditions, approaches to the special development of the economy of each individual region of Russia have been determined[38]. In doing so, the main guidelines will be: 1) taking into account the specifics of the work of the regions in the implementation of the all-Russian structural, investment, financial, social, foreign economic policy; 2) transferring a number of areas of reform mainly to the regional level, especially in small business, the social sphere, nature protection and the use of natural resources; 3) decentralization of reform management processes, activation of local economic activity; 4) the need to develop special reform programs in regions with particularly peculiar conditions. The strategic objectives of regional development are as follows[39] 1) reconstruction of the economy of old industrial regions and large urban agglomerations through the conversion of defense and civilian industries, modernization of infrastructure, improvement of the environmental situation, privatization; 2) overcoming the crisis in the agro-industrial regions of the Non-Black Earth Region, the Southern Urals, Siberia, the Far East, the revival of small towns and the Russian countryside, the acceleration of the restoration of the lost living environment in rural areas, the development of local industrial and social infrastructure, the development of abandoned agricultural lands; 3) stabilization of the socio-economic situation in regions with extreme natural conditions and predominantly raw material specialization, creation of conditions for the revival of small peoples (primarily the regions of the Far North, mountainous regions); 4) continuation of the formation of territorial production complexes and industrial hubs in the northern and eastern regions of Russia through non-centralized investments and with the priority development of industries for the integrated use of extracted raw materials in compliance with strict environmental standards; 5) stimulating the development of export and import-substituting industries in regions that have the most favorable conditions for this; formation of free economic zones, as well as technopolises as regional centers for introducing the achievements of domestic and world science, accelerating economic and social progress; 6) re-specialization of new border regions, creation of jobs in them and accelerated development of social infrastructure, taking into account potential migrants and redeployment of military units from the countries of Eastern Europe and the former republics of the USSR; 7) development of interregional and regional systems - transport, communications, informatics, providing and stimulating regional structural shifts and the efficiency of the regional economy; 8) overcoming the excessive lag in terms of the level and quality of life of the population of individual republics and regions of Russia. The policy of removing Russia's dependence on food imports will require an accelerated intensification of agriculture in the Non-Black Earth and southern regions of Russia. Most of the tasks of Russia's regional policy will be shifted to the level of regions. A socio-economic mechanism will be created that combines state regulation with regional self-government. 7. Free economic zones Free economic zones (FEZ) firmly entered the world economic practice and operate in various countries. Now in the world, according to various sources, there are from 400 to 200 ° SEZ, but this list cannot rightfully include a single Russian one, since those entities that are called "free economic zones" in Russia do not meet international requirements for such kind of zones. In accordance with the documents of the International Convention on the Simplification and Harmonization of Customs Procedures (Kyoto, May 18, 1973), a free zone (or "free zone") is understood to be a part of the country's territory in which goods are considered as objects outside the national customs territory (principle of "customs extraterritoriality") and are therefore not subject to normal customs control and taxation. In other words, the SEZ is a part of the territory of the country with a special operating regime[40]. The special legislation expressing this regime, which regulates the activities of economic entities in the FEZ, covers the following range of issues: customs regulation; taxation; licensing; visa processing; banking; property and collateral relations (including those relating to land ownership rights); granting concessions; free zone management[41]. Certain specifics in the SEZ may also have acts of labor and social legislation. It should be noted the characteristic features of the SEZ: 1) the use of various types of benefits and incentives, including: a) foreign trade (reduction or cancellation of export-import duties, simplified procedure for foreign trade operations); b) fiscal related to tax incentives for specific types of activities. Benefits may affect the tax base (profit or income, property value, etc.), its individual components (depreciation, wage costs, R&D and transport), the level of tax rates, issues of permanent or temporary exemption from taxation; c) financial, including various forms of subsidies provided both directly - at the expense of budgetary funds and preferential state loans, and indirectly - in the form of setting low prices for utilities, reducing rents for the use of land, etc.; d) administrative, simplifying the procedures for registering enterprises, the regime of entry and exit of foreign citizens. As a result of the application of incentives, the rate of return in SEZs is 30-35%, and sometimes more: for example, multinational companies receive an average of 40% of profits per year in Asian SEZs. Significantly reduced (by 2-3 times) the payback period of capital investments (it is considered normal for SEZs when these periods do not exceed 3-3,5 years); 2) the presence of a local, relatively separate zone management system, endowed with the right to make independent decisions in a wide economic spectrum; 3) comprehensive support from the central government. Creation of SEZ - an effective direction for the development of the economy of individual territories and regions, focused, as a rule, on the solution of specific priority economic tasks, the implementation of strategic programs and projects. At the same time, as practice shows, the system of benefits established in the FEZ is sufficiently individual and is closely related to the programs implemented on its territory. According to world economic experience, the initial goals and objectives declared during the creation of the SEZ almost always do not coincide with what happens as a result of actual development. Based on the tasks set during the formation of a particular zone, relevant requirements for its placement. The most common of these include: 1) favorable transport and geographical position in relation to the external and internal markets and the presence of developed transport communications; 2) developed production potential, availability of production and social infrastructure; 3) a natural resource potential that is significant in terms of reserves and value (first of all, reserves of hydrocarbon raw materials, non-ferrous metals, forest resources, etc.). Therefore, the territories most favorable for the placement of SEZs, as a rule, have a border position in relation to foreign countries (and in Russia, including the former Soviet republics), and also have commercial sea ports and a main transport network (railway , road, airports), established industrial, scientific and cultural centers, areas of concentration of the most valuable natural resources. In some cases, the creation of SEZs is also expedient in areas of new economic development, which do not have an initially developed industry, industrial and social infrastructure, but allow solving important long-term national programs (strengthening the fuel and energy and mineral resource base of the country, etc.). The practice of creating existing and projects of future SEZs in Russia show that, depending on the goals and objectives, they can be divided into the following main types: 1) complex zones of industrial nature; 2) foreign trade (free customs zones, including export production and transit zones); 3) functional, or industry (technological parks, technopolises, tourism, insurance, banking, etc.). These types of zones can be characterized by the following main features[42]. Complex zones are multi-profile. They are formed both in a limited area and within the boundaries of regions and other territorial entities. They create conditions for attracting large capital with the obligatory development of the necessary infrastructure. Complex zones can be classified (at least according to the ideas of their creators) most of the FEZs created in Russia, including the FEZs in Nakhodka, the Kaliningrad region, St. Petersburg, etc. Foreign trade zones provide foreign exchange earnings, including through consignment warehouses, leasing premises, exhibitions, transshipment of goods and their transit. Foreign trade zones include, in particular, the Sherri-zone free trade zone (near Sheremetyevo airport), free customs zones Moscow Free Port (near Vnukovo airport), Free Port Terminal (on the territory of Moscow Western River Port). Industry zones (technological parks, technopolises, etc.) perform both national economic and foreign economic functions. In particular, they contribute to the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in certain industries through the intensification of foreign economic cooperation, the introduction of the results of domestic science, as well as the development of high technologies, new types of finished products and the expansion of exports. The industrial zones of a scientific and technical nature include the SEZ in Zelenograd, which should specialize in the field of microelectronics, informatics and communications; zones of financial ("offshore") nature may include the zone of economic favored nation in Ingushetia; to zones of tourist-resort type - a special economic zone "Caucasian Mineralnye Vody" [43]. The choice of the type of zones for specific territories is influenced not only by general, but also by local factors. So, for transport, export-import zones, it is necessary to have a large transport hub. They, as a rule, are located in coastal cities with seaports, railways, and airports. The same conditions are desirable for placing trade, banking and other zones. To create zones such as technoparks and technopolises, a developed research and production base and a skilled workforce are needed. The organization of tourist and recreational zones requires the presence of cultural and historical centers, balneological resorts, landscapes attractive for tourism, and developed infrastructure[44]. 8. Economic regions of modern Russia The division into economic regions has been used since the 1930s. until now (in particular, in the text of the State budget). There are 11 economic regions on the territory of Russia (until 1986 there were 10 of them). Northern Economic Region (allocated around 1986 from the North-West) Composition: Arkhangelsk region, including the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Vologda region, Murmansk region, Republic of Karelia (formerly Karelian ASSR), Komi Republic (formerly Komi ASSR). Northwest economic region Composition: St. Petersburg (formerly Leningrad), Leningrad region, Novgorod region, Pskov region. After the collapse of the USSR, the Kaliningrad region, previously located in the Baltic economic region of the USSR, was included in the region. Central Economic Region Composition: Moscow, Moscow region, Bryansk region, Vladimir region, Ivanovo region, Tver (formerly Kalinin) region, Kaluga region, Kostroma region, Oryol region, Ryazan region, Smolensk region, Tula region, Yaroslavl region. Central Black Earth economic region Composition: Belgorod region, Voronezh region, Kursk region, Lipetsk region, Tambov region. Volga-Vyatka economic region Composition: Nizhny Novgorod (formerly Gorky) Region, Kirov Region, Republic of Mari El (formerly Mari ASSR), Republic of Mordovia (formerly Mordovian ASSR), Chuvash Republic (formerly Chuvash ASSR). North Caucasian economic region Composition: Krasnodar Territory, Republic of Adygea (formerly Adygei Autonomous Region of Krasnodar Territory), Stavropol Territory, Karachay-Cherkess Republic (formerly Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Region of Stavropol Territory), Rostov Region, Republic of Dagestan (formerly Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic), Kabardino- Balkar Republic (formerly Kabardino-Balkarian ASSR), Republic of North Ossetia-Alania (formerly North Ossetian ASSR), Chechen Republic and Ingush Republic (formerly Chechen-Ingush ASSR). Volga economic region Composition: Astrakhan Region, Volgograd Region, Samara (formerly Kuibyshev) Region, Penza Region, Saratov Region, Ulyanovsk Region, Republic of Kalmykia (formerly Kalmyk ASSR), Republic of Tatarstan (formerly Tatar ASSR). Ural economic region Composition: Kurgan Region, Orenburg Region, Perm Region, including the Komi-Permyatsky Autonomous Okrug, Sverdlovsk Region, Chelyabinsk Region, the Republic of Bashkortostan (formerly the Bashkir ASSR), the Udmurt Republic (formerly the Udmurt ASSR). West Siberian economic region Composition: Altai Territory, Republic of Altai (formerly Gorno-Altai Autonomous Region of Altai Territory), Kemerovo Region, Novosibirsk Region, Omsk Region, Tomsk Region, Tyumen Region, including the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. East Siberian economic region Composition: Krasnoyarsk Territory, including the Taimyr (Dolgano-Nenetsky) Autonomous Okrug and the Evenk Autonomous Okrug, the Republic of Khakassia (formerly the Khakass Autonomous Region of the Krasnoyarsk Territory), the Irkutsk Region, including the Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug, the Chita Region, including the Aginsky Buryat Autonomous Okrug , the Republic of Buryatia (formerly the Buryat ASSR), the Republic of Tyva (formerly the Tuva ASSR). Far Eastern economic region Composition: The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) (formerly the Yakut ASSR), Primorsky Krai, Khabarovsk Krai, including the Jewish Autonomous Region, Amur Region, Kamchatka Region, including the Koryak Autonomous Okrug, Magadan Region, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug (formerly part of the Magadan Region) , Sakhalin region. LECTURE No. 4. Fuel and energy complex of Russia Fuel and energy complex (FEC) - a set of industries associated with the production and distribution of energy in its various types and forms. The fuel and energy complex includes industries for the extraction and processing of various types of fuel (fuel industry), the electric power industry and enterprises for the transportation and distribution of electricity. The importance of the fuel and energy complex in the economy of our country is very high. And not only because it supplies fuel and energy to all sectors of the economy, not a single type of human economic activity is possible without energy, but also because this complex is the main supplier of currency (40% - this is the share of fuel and energy resources in Russia's exports). ). An important indicator characterizing the work of the fuel and energy complex is the fuel and energy balance (FEB). Fuel and energy balance - the ratio of the extraction of various types of fuel, the energy generated from them and their use in the economy. The energy obtained from the combustion of different fuels is not the same, therefore, to compare different types of fuel, it is transferred into the so-called standard fuel, the calorific value of 1 kg of which is 7 thousand Kcal. When recalculated into standard fuel, the so-called thermal coefficients are used, by which the amount of the recalculated type of fuel is multiplied. So, if 1 ton of coal is equated to 1 ton of standard fuel, the coefficient of coal is 1, oil - 1,5, and peat - 0,5. The ratio of different types of fuel in the fuel and energy balance of the country is changing. So, if until the mid-1960s. coal played the main role, then in the 1970s. the share of coal decreased, while oil increased (deposits of Western Siberia were discovered). Now the share of oil is declining and the share of gas is increasing (because it is more profitable to use oil as a chemical raw material). The development of the fuel and energy complex is associated with a number of problems: 1) stocks of energy resources are concentrated in the eastern regions of the country, and the main areas of consumption - in the western. To solve this problem, it was planned to develop nuclear energy in the western part of the country, but after the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the implementation of this program slowed down. There were also economic difficulties with the accelerated extraction of fuel in the east and its transfer to the west; 2) fuel production is becoming more expensive, and therefore it is necessary to increasingly introduce energy-saving technologies; 3) the increase in fuel and energy complex enterprises has a negative impact on the environment, therefore, during construction, a thorough examination of projects is required, and the choice of a place for them should take into account the requirements of environmental protection. LECTURE No. 5. Metallurgical complex of Russia 1. Metallurgical complex of Russia. Ferrous metallurgy. Features of the location of enterprises The metallurgical complex includes black и non-ferrous metallurgycovering all stages of technological processes: from the extraction and enrichment of raw materials to the production of finished products in the form of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and their alloys. Metallurgical complex is an interdependent combination of the following technological processes: 1) extraction and preparation of raw materials for processing (extraction, enrichment, agglomeration, obtaining the necessary concentrates, etc.); 2) metallurgical processing - the main technological process with the production of cast iron, steel, rolled ferrous and non-ferrous metals, pipes, etc.; 3) production of alloys; 4) recycling of waste from the main production and obtaining various types of products from them. The specifics of the metallurgical complex are the scale of production and the complexity of the technological cycle that are incomparable with other industries. For the production of many types of products, 15-18 redistributions are necessary, starting with the extraction of ore and other types of raw materials. At the same time, conversion enterprises have close ties with each other not only within Russia, but also across the Commonwealth countries. Ferrous metallurgy Role and significance ferrous metallurgy are determined primarily by the fact that it serves as the foundation for the development of mechanical engineering. Ferrous metallurgy covers the entire process: from the extraction and preparation of raw materials, fuel, auxiliary materials to the production of rolled products with products for further processing. It includes: mining, enrichment and agglomeration of iron, manganese and chromite ores; production of cast iron, blast-furnace ferroalloys, steel and rolled products; production of electroferroalloys; secondary redistribution of ferrous alloys; coal coking; production of refractories; extraction of auxiliary materials (flux limestone, magnesite, etc.); production of metallurgical products for industrial purposes[45]. In this complex, the core is the actual metallurgical processing (cast iron-steel-rolled products). The rest of the production - related, related. In terms of the concentration of ferrous metal production, Russia is ahead of many industrialized countries, including the United States. Over 3/4 of pig iron and 2/3 of steel, approximately 3/5 of rolled products are produced by our enterprises with an annual output of more than 3 million tons each. The eight largest enterprises - Magnitogorsk, Nizhny Tagil, Chelyabinsk and Orsk-Khalilovsky (Urals), Cherepovets (North), Novolipetsk (Central Chernozemny region), West Siberian and Kuznetsk (Western Siberia) plants - produce 9/10 of all pig iron, more than 4/5 of steel (including all BOF steel and more than 4/5 of cast iron) and more than 4/5 of rolled products. These enterprises process more than 9/10 of iron ore and 2/5 of secondary raw materials. A highly developed production combination is also characteristic. The combination of metallurgical processing with coal coking is especially beneficial. In Russia, over 95% of all coke is produced by metallurgical plants. Modern large enterprises of ferrous metallurgy, by the nature of internal technological relations, are metallurgical and energy-chemical plants. Combines - the main type of ferrous metallurgy enterprises of most industrialized countries. In Russia, enterprises with a full cycle produce approximately 9/10 of iron, steel and rolled products. In addition, there are plants producing iron and steel, or steel and rolled products (including pipe and hardware plants), as well as separate iron, steel and rolled products. All enterprises without iron smelting belong to the so-called conversion metallurgy. A special position in terms of technical and economic parameters is occupied by enterprises with electrometallurgical production of steel and ferroalloys. Finally, "small metallurgy" stands out (production of steel and rolled products at machine-building plants). Ferrous metallurgy with a complete technological cycle is an important area-forming factor. In addition to numerous industries that arise on the basis of the disposal of various kinds of waste from iron smelting and coal coking, it attracts related industries. The most typical satellites of ferrous metallurgy 1) thermal power industry, primarily installations that are part of metallurgical plants and can operate on secondary fuel (surplus blast-furnace gas, coke, coke breeze); 2) metal-intensive engineering (metallurgical and mining equipment, heavy machine tools, metal structures, locomotives, etc.). The main resources of iron ore are concentrated within the KMA (21,6 billion tons), where such deposits of world importance as Lebedinskoye, Stoilenskoye, Mikhailovskoye and Yakovlevskoye are located. Great iron ore resources of the Urals (almost 7,5 billion tons), within which the Kachkanar group of deposits stands out (3,5 billion tons). In third place is Eastern Siberia (5,3 billion tons) with the Korshunov and Rudnogorsk deposits in the Angara-Ilimsk basin and the Abakan group of deposits. Then come the Far East (4,5 billion tons), the Northern region (2,8 billion tons), where the Eno-Kovdorskoye, Kostamukshskoye and other deposits are known, and Western Siberia (1,8 billion tons). The most significant resources of manganese ores are presented in Western Siberia (Usinsk deposit), and chromite ores - in the Urals (Sarana deposit). Ferrous metallurgy with a complete technological cycle gravitates, depending on economic feasibility, to sources of raw materials (the Urals, the central regions of the European part) and fuel bases (Kuzbass) or, finally, to points located between them (Cherepovets) [46]. Converting metallurgy focuses mainly on sources of secondary raw materials (waste from metallurgical production, waste from consumed rolled products, depreciation scrap) and on places of consumption of finished products, since the largest amount of scrap metal accumulates in areas of developed mechanical engineering[47]. Small-scale metallurgy interacts even more closely with mechanical engineering. With all the changes that have taken place in the location of production in connection with the development of new sources of raw materials and fuel in different regions of the country, the Urals continues to maintain its position as the largest metallurgical base in Russia. The second and third places are shared by the Center and Siberia with the Far East. In fourth place is the Northern region. Urals produces almost 1/2 of pig iron, steel and rolled products in the country. Ferrous Ural metallurgy uses imported fuel (Kuznetsk and Karaganda coal), partly works on raw materials coming from Kazakhstan (Sokolov-Sarbai ore), as well as KMA. The strengthening of the raw material base here is associated with the development of titanomagnetites (Kachkanar deposit) and siderites (Bakal deposit), which account for 3/4 of the iron ore reserves. Titanomagnetites are already involved in development (Kachkanar GOK). With a significant development of conversion metallurgy, which causes a noticeable (1,5 times) excess of steel production over the production of pig iron, enterprises with a full cycle play the main role. They are located mainly along the eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains. On the western slopes, pig metallurgy is more represented. The concentration of production reaches a high level here. The predominant part of ferrous metals is produced by giant enterprises (in Magnitogorsk, Nizhny Tagil, Chelyabinsk, Novotroitsk), which arose during the years of industrialization. At the same time, many small factories (albeit reconstructed) have survived in the Urals, producing more than 1/10 of iron and steel and more than 1/5 of all rolled products. Attention is drawn to the qualitative profile of the Ural metallurgy, which largely depends on the specification of raw materials. A prominent position is occupied here by the production of ferroalloys by blast-furnace (Chusovoi) and electrometallurgical (Serov, Chelyabinsk) methods, pipe rolling (Pervouralsk, Kamensk-Uralsky, Chelyabinsk). In addition, the Urals is the only region in the country where naturally alloyed metals are smelted (Novotroitsk). Center being an old area of ferrous metallurgy, it developed relatively recently in two unrelated directions: on the one hand, in the smelting of cast iron and blast-furnace ferroalloys (Tula), on the other, in the production of steel and rolled products mainly from scrap metal (Moscow, Elektrostal, Nizhny Novgorod and others). "Small metallurgy" has always reached a large scale here. At present, the Center is one of the main metallurgical bases of the country. It provides more than 2/5 of all iron ore in the country, and in terms of ferrous production it is on the same level with Siberia and the Far East. The gap between the individual stages of the technological process that existed earlier in the Center was eliminated as a result of the production of pig iron. The construction, subsequent reconstruction and expansion of full-cycle enterprises (Novolipetsk and Novotulsk plants) made it possible to sharply reduce the role of separate steel and cast iron processing units here and thereby create combined production. The level of combination in the ferrous metallurgy of the Center is still much lower than in the Urals. Full-cycle plants produce a little more than 1/2 of all pig iron and about 2/3 of steel and rolled products. Ferrous metallurgy of the Center is completely dependent on imported fuel (Donetsk coal or coke). The resources of raw materials, represented by the KMA deposits, practically do not limit production. Scrap metal is of great importance. Almost all iron ore is mined in an open pit. Along with rich ores, ferruginous quartzites are mined in large quantities (Lebedinsky, Stoilensky and Mikhailovsky GOKs). The Yakovlevskoye deposit of rich ores is being developed. KMA serves as a source of raw materials not only for the factories of the Center, it also provides it to a number of enterprises in the Urals, as well as the North. Within the KMA, the production of metallized pellets arose. On this basis, electrometallurgy is developing without blast-furnace redistribution (Oskol Combine). The production of cold-rolled strip was created (Orlovsky steel-rolling plant). Siberia (together with the Far East) as a metallurgical base is in the process of formation. It is somewhat inferior to the Center for iron and steel smelting, but surpasses it in terms of rolled products. Modern production is represented here by two powerful enterprises with a full cycle - the Kuznetsk Metallurgical Plant and the West Siberian Plant (Novokuznetsk) - and several conversion plants (Novosibirsk, Guryevsk, Krasnoyarsk, Petrovsk-Zabaikalsky, Komsomolsk-on-Amur), as well as a ferroalloy plant ( Novokuznetsk). The raw material base is the iron ores of Gornaya Shoria, Khakassia and the Angara-Ilimsk basin (Korshunov GOK). Fuel base - Kuzbass. northern region As a metallurgical base, it began to take shape in connection with the creation of the Cherepovets Metallurgical Plant, which has been operating as a full-cycle enterprise since 1960. The plant uses iron ore from the Kola Peninsula (Kovdorsky, Olenegorsky GOKs), Karelia (Kostamukshsky GOK) and coking coal from the Pechora basin. Outside the metallurgical bases, there are relatively large enterprises of conversion metallurgy in the North Caucasus (Krasny Sulin, Taganrog), in the Volga region (Volgograd). The new processing plant also operates in the Far East (Komsomolsk-on-Amur). 2. Non-ferrous metallurgy Non-ferrous metallurgy includes mining, enrichment, metallurgical processing of ores of non-ferrous, precious and rare metals, including the production of alloys, rolling of non-ferrous metals and processing of secondary raw materials, as well as diamond mining. Participating in the creation of structural materials of ever higher quality, it performs essential functions in the conditions of modern scientific and technological progress[48]. Due to the variety of raw materials used and the widespread use of non-ferrous metals in modern industry, non-ferrous metallurgy is characterized by a complex structure. According to their physical properties and purpose, non-ferrous metals are conditionally divided into four groups: the main ones, which include heavy (copper, lead, zinc, tin, nickel), light (aluminum, magnesium, titanium, sodium, potassium, etc.), small (bismuth , cadmium, antimony, arsenic, cobalt, mercury); alloying (tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum, niobium, vanadium); noble (gold, silver and platinum with platinoids); rare and scattered (zirconium, gallium, indium, thallium, germanium, selenium, etc.). Into the non-ferrous metallurgy of Russia includes copper, lead-zinc, nickel-cobalt, aluminum, titanium-magnesium, tungsten-molybdenum, hard alloys, rare metals and other industries, separated depending on the type of products, as well as gold processing. According to the stages of the technological process, it is divided into the extraction and enrichment of raw materials, metallurgical processing and processing of non-ferrous metals. Non-ferrous metallurgy is characterized by the organization of closed technological schemes with multiple processing of intermediate products and disposal of various wastes. In the future, this trend will intensify. At the same time, the limits of production combination are expanding, which makes it possible, in addition to non-ferrous metals, to obtain additional products - sulfuric acid, mineral fertilizers, cement, etc. Due to the significant material consumption, non-ferrous metallurgy focuses mainly on raw material bases. At the same time, enrichment is directly "tied" to the places of extraction of ores of non-ferrous and rare metals. Non-ferrous metal ores are distinguished by an extremely low content of useful components. Typical ores used to produce copper, lead, zinc, nickel, tin have only a few percent, and sometimes fractions of a percent, of the base metal. Ores of non-ferrous and rare metals are multicomponent in composition. In this regard, the complex use of raw materials is of great practical importance. Consistent and deep metallurgical processing with repeated return to the head of the technological process of intermediate products and comprehensive waste disposal for the most complete extraction of useful components determine the widespread development of production combination within non-ferrous metallurgy. The effectiveness of the combination based on the complex processing of non-ferrous and rare metal ores is extremely high, given that, firstly, most of the associated elements do not form independent deposits and can only be obtained in this way, and secondly, the raw material bases of non-ferrous metallurgy are often located within poorly developed areas and therefore require additional costs for industrial development. The integrated use of raw materials and the disposal of industrial waste connect non-ferrous metallurgy with other branches of heavy industry. On this basis, entire industrial complexes are being formed in certain regions of the country (the North, the Urals, Siberia, etc.). Of particular interest is the combination of non-ferrous metallurgy and basic chemistry, which appears, in particular, when sulfur dioxide gases are used in the production of zinc and copper. Even more complex territorial combinations of different industries arise during the complex processing of nephelines, when aluminum, soda, potash and cement are extracted from the same raw material as finished products and, thus, not only the chemical industry, but also and the building materials industry. In addition to raw materials, a significant role in the placement of non-ferrous metallurgy is played by the fuel and energy factor. From the point of view of the requirements for fuel and energy, it includes fuel-intensive and electricity-intensive industries. Raw materials and fuel and energy factors affect the location of enterprises in different branches of non-ferrous metallurgy in different ways. Moreover, in the same industry, their role is differentiated depending on the stage of the technological process or the adopted scheme for obtaining non-ferrous and rare metals. Therefore, non-ferrous metallurgy is distinguished by a large number of options for locating production compared to ferrous metallurgy. Copper industry due to the relatively low content of concentrates, it is confined (excluding refining of ferrous metal) to areas with raw materials. The main type of ores currently used in Russia for the production of copper is copper pyrites, which are mainly represented in the Urals (Krasnouralskoye, Revdinskoye, Blyavinskoye, Sibayskoye, Gayskoye and other deposits). An important reserve is cupriferous sandstones concentrated in Eastern Siberia (Udokan deposit). There are also copper-molybdenum ores. Copper-nickel and polymetallic ores are used as additional raw materials. In the Urals, enterprises for the production of blister copper and its refining are separated from each other. The former include Krasnouralsk, Kirovograd, Sredneuralsk, Karabash and Mednogorsk copper smelters, while the latter include Kyshtym and Verkhnepyshminsky copper electrolytic plants. Lead-zinc industry characterized by more complex structural and territorial features compared to the copper industry. In general, it is confined to the areas of distribution of polymetallic ores - the North Caucasus (Sadon), Kuzbass (Solair), Transbaikalia (Nerchinsk deposits) and Far Eastern Primorye (Dalnegorsk). However, due to the fact that lead and zinc concentrates have a rather high content of useful components and, consequently, transportability (as opposed to copper concentrates), beneficiation and metallurgical processing are often separated from each other. So, in the Urals, the specificity of the raw material base of which is the presence of copper-zinc ores, for the production of zinc (Chelyabinsk) not only local concentrates are used, but also those coming from other regions of the country. Similar cases occur in the smelting of lead. A characteristic feature of the lead-zinc industry is the territorial disunity of enrichment and metallurgical redistribution. Another important feature of the industry is that, despite the complex composition of raw materials, lead and zinc in pure form are not always obtained simultaneously. According to the degree of completion of the technological process, the following areas are distinguished: 1) for the production of lead and zinc concentrates without metallurgical processing - Transbaikalia; 2) for the production of metallic lead and zinc concentrates - Far Eastern Primorye (Dalnegorsk); 3) for the production of metallic zinc and lead concentrates - Kuzbass (Belovo); 4) for the joint redistribution of lead and zinc - the North Caucasus (Vladikavkaz); 5) for the production of metallic zinc from imported concentrates - Ural (Chelyabinsk). Nickel-cobalt industry is most closely related to the sources of raw materials, which is due to the low content of intermediate products (matte and matte) obtained in the process of processing the original ores. Two types of ores are exploited in Russia: sulfide (copper-nickel) ores, which are known on the Kola Peninsula (Nikel) and in the lower reaches of the Yenisei (Norilsk), and oxidized ores in the Urals (Upper Ufaley, Orsk, Rezh). The Norilsk region is especially rich in sulfide ores. New sources of raw materials have been discovered here (Talnakh and Oktyabrskoye deposits), which makes it possible to further expand the metallurgical processing of nickel. The Norilsk region is the largest center for the integrated use of copper-nickel ores. Nickel, cobalt, platinum (together with platinoids), copper and some rare metals are produced at the plant operating here, which combines all stages of the technological process - from raw materials to finished products. By recycling waste, sulfuric acid, soda and other chemical products are obtained. The Kola Peninsula, where several enterprises of the nickel-cobalt industry are located, is also characterized by complex processing of raw materials. Extraction and enrichment of copper-nickel ores and matte production are carried out in Nikel. The Severonickel plant (Monchegorsk) is completing its metallurgical redistribution. Waste disposal allows additional production of sulfuric acid, mineral wool and thermal insulation boards. Tin mining industry in contrast to nickel-cobalt, it is represented by territorially separated stages of the technological process. The metallurgical processing is not connected with the sources of raw materials. It is focused on the areas of consumption of finished products or is located on the route of concentrates (Novosibirsk). This is due to the fact that, on the one hand, the extraction of raw materials is often dispersed over small deposits, and on the other hand, enrichment products are highly transportable. The main resources of tin are located in Eastern Siberia and the Far East. Sherlovogorsky, Khrustalnensky, Solnechny, Esse-Khaisky and other mining and processing plants operate here. The construction of the first stage of the Deputatsky GOK (Yakutia) is nearing completion. The geography of the production of light non-ferrous metals, primarily aluminum, is characterized by special features. Aluminum industry uses raw materials of higher quality than other branches of non-ferrous metallurgy. Raw materials are represented by bauxites, which are mined in the North-West (Boksitogorsk) and the Urals (Severouralsk), as well as nephelines - in the Northern region, on the Kola Peninsula (Kirovsk), in Eastern Siberia (Goryachegorsk). A new center for the extraction of bauxite is being formed in the Northern region (Severo-Onega deposit). In terms of composition, bauxites are simple, and nephelines are complex raw materials. The technological process in the aluminum industry consists of two main stages: the production of alumina and the production of metallic aluminum. Geographically, these stages can be located together, as, for example, in the North-West or the Urals. However, for the most part, even within the same economic region, they are separated, because they are subject to the influence of different location factors. The production of alumina, being material-intensive, tends to sources of raw materials, and the production of aluminum metal, being energy-intensive, is focused on sources of mass and cheap electric energy. Optimal for the production of alumina should be considered areas where, along with aluminum raw materials, limestone and cheap fuel are found. These include, in particular, Achinsk-Krasnoyarsk in Eastern Siberia and Severouralsk-Krasnoturinsky in the Urals. Alumina production centers are located in the North-West (Boksitogorsk - Tikhvin bauxites, Volkhov and Pekalevo - Khibiny nephelines), in the Urals (Krasnoturinsk and Kamensk-Uralsky - Severouralsky bauxites) and in Eastern Siberia (Achinsk - Kiya-Shaltyrsky nephelines). Consequently, alumina is obtained not only from sources of raw materials, but also away from them, but in the presence of limestone and cheap fuel, as well as in an advantageous transport and geographical position. In the first place in the production of alumina is the Urals (more than 2/5 of the total output), followed by Eastern Siberia (more than 1/3) and the North-West (more than 1/5). But domestic production provides only half of the existing needs. The rest of the alumina is exported from neighboring countries (Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Ukraine), as well as from Yugoslavia, Hungary, Greece, Venezuela and other countries. In Russia, all centers for the production of metallic aluminum (with the exception of the Urals) are to some extent remote from raw materials and are located near hydroelectric power plants (Volgograd, Volkhov, Kandalaksha, Nadvoitsy, Bratsk, Shelekhov, Krasnoyarsk, Sayanogorsk) and partly where large power plants operate on cheap fuel (Novokuznetsk). Joint production of alumina and aluminum is carried out in the North-West region (Volkhov) and in the Urals (Krasnoturinsk and Kamensk-Uralsky). The most powerful enterprises for alumina operate in Achinsk, Krasnoturinsk, Kamensk-Uralsky and Pikalevo, for aluminum - in Bratsk, Krasnoyarsk, Sayanogorsk and Irkutsk (Shelekhov). Thus, in the production of metallic aluminum, Eastern Siberia is sharply ahead (almost 4/5 of the total production in the country). The final stage of the technological process in non-ferrous metallurgy - the processing of metals and their alloys - is close to the areas of consumption and is usually located in large industrial centers. The areas of consumption also attract the processing of secondary raw materials - an important additional resource in increasing the production of non-ferrous metals, which makes it possible to obtain finished products at much lower costs. Gold mining industry - one of the oldest in Russia. In 1993, 132,1 tons of gold were produced, which makes our country fifth in the world after South Africa, the USA, Canada and Australia. At present, the share of Russian gold in world production is about 8%. In terms of explored reserves, which are estimated at no less than 5 thousand tons, Russia is significantly inferior only to South Africa, but surpasses Australia and Canada and is on the same level with the United States. Domestic deposits are represented by placer, primary (ore) and complex (gold in combination with copper, polymetals, etc.). The main reserves are concentrated in primary deposits, followed by complex and, finally, alluvial deposits. Meanwhile, alluvial deposits have always been developed most intensively: their development required less funds and time compared to primary ones. Now they account for about 3/4 of the total production. The bulk of domestic gold is mined in the Far East (2/3 of the total) and in Eastern Siberia (over 1/4). In the Far East, 2/3 of all production is concentrated in the mines of Yakutia (30,7 tons) and the Magadan region (28,2 tons). In Eastern Siberia, production is also concentrated by 2/3 in the Irkutsk region (11,7 tons) and the Krasnoyarsk Territory (10,8 tons). The rest of the amount of gold comes from the Urals (5%), where the mines arose much earlier than in other regions of Russia, Western Siberia and the north of the European part. LECTURE No. 6. Chemical and petrochemical complex of Russia Chemical Industry plays an important role in the economy of the country. This industry includes the mining and chemical industry, basic chemistry, chemistry of organic synthesis, and the production of polymeric materials. During the processing of polymeric materials, tires, rubber products, etc. are obtained. To the chemical industry also include the industry of chemical reagents and highly pure substances, varnishes and paints, and household chemicals. Through developed intersectoral ties, the chemical industry has a great impact on the industries that supply it with equipment, fuel, electricity, raw materials, as well as on the industries that consume its products. Location of chemical industry enterprises depends on the influence of various factors, among which the most important role is played by raw materials, energy and consumer. The labor intensity of production increases as the degree of processing and processing of raw materials increases. Basic chemistry includes the production of acids, alkalis and mineral fertilizers. The most important changes in the structure of this branch of the chemical industry are associated with its growing importance, and in its raw material base - petrochemical raw materials (instead of or in addition to coal-chemical and vegetable raw materials). This was facilitated by the presence in the country of large oil resources, the growth in the number and capacity of oil refineries, the increase in natural gas production, the development of pipeline transport, etc. A list of reasons that have had a negative impact on the work of the Russian chemical complex in recent years can be given. This is also a significant decrease in demand for the industry's products in the main consumer sectors - in engineering, light, pulp and paper and other industries, as well as in agriculture. The rupture of production and technological ties between enterprises of the chemical industry in the former republics of the USSR also had an effect. But the main reason is an attempt to make the transition to market relations without the necessary preparation, regardless of the social consequences. In terms of oil reserves, Russia ranks sixth in the world, behind Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Iraq and Iran. In the 1980s, the USSR ranked first in the world in oil production (more than 600 million tons). In recent years, oil production in Russia has fallen by 40% from 516 million tons (1990) to just over 300 million tons per year (1996) and still accounts for 9% of world production. Oil has long played a significant role in Russia's fuel balance and will continue to play a significant role in the future. Currently, the main oil production area in the Russian Federation is Western Siberia, where about 300 oil and gas fields have been discovered (over 70% of the total Russian oil and gas production). Siberian oil is of high quality. The main deposits are Samotlor, Ust-Balyk, Megion, Fedorov, Surgut and others. In the past, in Russia, oil from production areas to consumption areas was transported by rail in tanks and tankers by waterways. Currently, most of the oil is pumped through oil and oil product pipelines, the length of which in Russia is about 62 thousand km (1995). They connect the oil-producing regions with all parts of the country. Russian oil is exported to the CIS countries, Eastern and Western Europe. In recent years, as a result of a decrease in the volume of refining, the export of petroleum products has sharply decreased. And the supply of crude oil outside of Russia, on the contrary, increased. In general, the entire network of oil pipelines is represented by two groups of objects: intra-regional, inter-regional and a system of long-distance transit oil pipelines. The former provide individual links between oil fields and refineries, the latter integrate oil flows, depersonalizing its specific owner. Russia is taking steps to diversify its oil supply routes abroad. In the mid 1990s. oil exports from Russia to non-CIS countries increased despite the fall in its production in the country. Domestic consumption of oil and its supplies to the CIS countries have decreased. Oil exports to non-CIS countries now account for at least a third of the total production volume. The main markets for Russian oil are the UK and Ireland (a quarter of exports), Eastern Europe (a quarter of exports), Mediterranean countries (Italy, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Bulgaria - about 20%), other countries of Western Europe (Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands , Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Belgium, Liechtenstein), as well as the USA and Canada. LECTURE No. 7. Northern economic region 1. Composition (administrative-territorial formations), territory, population The northern economic region covers a vast expanse of the European part of the country with an area of 1500 thousand km2, overlooking the Barents and White Seas of the Arctic Ocean. It includes the Arkhangelsk, Murmansk, Vologda regions, the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the Karelian Republic and the Komi Republic. About 6 million people live in it[49]. A favorable economic and geographical position is provided by the proximity of the largest industrial bases, the Central European Economic Region, the Urals, and the northwest. The existing transport network and the presence of a large non-freezing port of Murmansk, the coast of the Barents Sea, and a shelf zone in the western part of the Kola Peninsula allow round-the-clock navigation, contribute to the formation in the area of the maritime economy - shipping, production and processing of marine resources, the development of large industrial centers, the expansion of foreign economic and scientific and technical relations with foreign countries. The nearest non-CIS countries are Norway and Finland[50]. The development of the economic complex of the region is constrained by the position of the Kola Peninsula in the polar latitudes, the extreme natural and climatic conditions, poor transport development and population of the territory, the low level of development of industrial and social infrastructure, the predominance of extensive methods of development and use of minerals, a large share of the use of manual labor. This leads to an increase in the cost of economic activity, which, combined with insufficiently rational methods, forms and methods of management, determines the subsidized nature of the economy[51]. The branches of market specialization of the Northern Economic Region are: timber, woodworking and pulp and paper, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, fuel industry, electric power industry, fishing industry and mechanical engineering[52]. The industrial and technical potential of the region makes it possible to attribute it to the number of industrialized regions. The leading branch of the economic region is industry, which produces more than 4% of all industrial output in Russia. The district produces 70% of phosphate raw materials, more than 41% of paper, more than 22% of cardboard, 24% of fibreboard, 22% of commercial timber, 15,5% of the country's plywood. 17% of fish and 10% of coal are mined here. The economic region is a major producer of iron ore, pig iron, steel, nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers, fish, as well as a significant part of the equipment for the pulp and paper and forestry industries[53]. An important feature of the Northern region is the formation on its territory of the Timan-Pechora territorial production complex - a large fuel and energy base of the European part of the country. Administrative-territorial units The structure of the Northern economic region includes: the Republic of Karelia and Komi, the Arkhangelsk, Vologda and Murmansk regions and the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. Among other northern territories of the country, the region is distinguished by a high number of urban settlements, of which there are over 200 (including urban-type settlements). The urban population is concentrated mainly in large cities and industrial centers (Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, Cherepovets, Petrozavodsk, Severodvinsk, Syktyvkar, Vorkuta, Vologda). Along with this, a characteristic feature of the settlement is the residence of almost half of the population of the region in medium and small urban-type settlements, the average population of which is 1,9 thousand people. 2. Mineral resources Fuel and energy and mineral resourcesA variety of minerals have been discovered on the territory of the region, primarily on the Kola Peninsula, the Polar Urals and within the Timan-Pechora oil and gas province. Among the most important of them in industrial terms are: coal of the Pechora basin, natural gas and oil reserves of the Komi Republic, apatite-nepheline, iron, copper-nickel and rare earth ores of the Kola Peninsula, North Onega and Vezha-Vorykva bauxites, iron ores , marble, granite, ornamental stones and mica of Karelia, quartz sand, brick and refractory clay, peat, found in the southern part of the region[54]. The northern economic region has half of all fuel and energy resources of the European part of the country. Within the Timan-Pechora province, 70 oil, gas, gas condensate, oil and gas fields are known. Oil and gas resources are concentrated in the Komi Republic, the Arkhangelsk region and in the shelf zone of the Barents and Kara seas. A promising region for oil and gas production is the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. The average oil and gas bearing area of the Northern economic region is 600 thousand km2. Oil reserves here amount to more than 3 billion tons, and natural gas - 4 trillion m3. In order to develop these resources, the Federal Target Program "Shelf" was approved in 1996, but its implementation is proceeding very slowly. The development of the natural resources of the shelf zone requires the solution of complex scientific and technical problems and the implementation of a wide technical re-equipment of offshore drilling equipment[55]. The Pechora coal basin with an area of 100 km is located in the north-east of the district.2. The balance reserves of coal are 210 billion tons. Coal is of high quality and calorific value of 4-7,6 thousand kcal. About 1/2 of the reserves are valuable coking coal. The depth of occurrence is 170-600 m. The thickness of the seams is from 0,7 to 1 m. The bulk of the reserves and production come from the Intinskoye, Vorgashorskoye and Usinskoye fields. The mining and geological conditions of extraction are complex due to the significant water content of the coal-bearing strata and the presence of permafrost[56]. Oil shale reserves have been identified in the region, which are estimated at 56 billion tons. Their main reserves are located within the Republic of Komi in the deposits of the Sysolsky, Yaregsky and Izhemsky regions[57]. Peat reserves are concentrated in the republics of Komi, Karelia, in the Murmansk and Arkhangelsk regions. The main part of peat is used as fuel and also in agriculture. Metal ore minerals are represented by black, non-ferrous, rare and noble metals. The balance reserves of iron ore in the region (3,4 billion tons) account for about 5% of the reserves of the Russian Federation. The most important iron ore deposits are Olenigorskoye and Kovdorskoye (the reserves of each are over 0,5 billion tons), located on the Kola Peninsula. In western Karelia there is a large Kostomuksha deposit (reserves over 1 billion tons). The average content of iron in ores is 25-32%. Ores are well enriched, have almost no harmful impurities, which makes it possible to obtain high-quality metal. There are deposits of copper-nickel ores in the Murmansk region. The ores are relatively poor in nickel, but also contain copper, cobalt, selenium, and precious metals. The aluminum-containing raw material of the region is represented by bauxites of the North Onega, Middle and South Timan, North Ural bauxite regions, nephelines of the Khibiny deposits and kyanites of the Murmansk region. In the future, it is planned to organize the development of the large bauxite deposit Sredny Timan of the Republic of Komi. The largest reserves of kyanite are concentrated in the Kaiva massif[58]. Rare metal raw materials are concentrated mainly in the Kola region. These are deposits of tantalum, niobium, lithium, cesium, zirconium, strontium. Titanium-containing raw materials were found in the Murmansk region, the Komi Republic[59]. Phosphate raw materials are represented by unique in scale and quality complex apatite-nepheline ores of the Khibiny deposit and apatite-magnetite ores of the Kovdorskoye deposit. The total reserves of apatite-containing ores exceed 10 billion tons [60]. Non-metallic raw materials are represented by large reserves of high-quality mica, feldspar, and high-carbon shungite[61]. The economic region is provided with all kinds of mineral building materials. In all areas, deposits of limestone, dolomite, brick-tile and expanded clay, boulder-granite-sand materials and sands, facing and building stones and other building materials have been explored[62]. One of the largest diamond deposits, Lomonosovskoye, is located in the Arkhangelsk region. The cost of industrial diamond reserves of this deposit is about 12 billion dollars. The cost of its development is 750 million dollars. The deposits are characterized by complex hydrogeological conditions of production. In general, the mineral resource base of the region is characterized by a high degree of geological and geographical exploration of the territory, compact distribution of the most important types of mineral raw materials, which makes it possible to diversify specialization, and long-term provision of existing and projected enterprises with explored reserves[63]. Forest and water resources The entire territory of the region is characterized by high air humidity and low evaporation of moisture. This determines the huge number of swamps, lakes, rivers. Water resources are 515 km2. The largest lakes are Ladoga, Onega, rivers - Pechora, Northern Dvina, Vychegda. The rivers of various sea basins are connected by systems of artificial canals: the North Dvina system connects the White Sea with the Caspian, the northernmost in the world, the White Sea-Baltic - the White with the Baltic. Rivers, lakes and artificial reservoirs are cheap and convenient transportation routes. On the seas of the Arctic Ocean basin, washing the territory of the region, there are sea transport routes of domestic and international importance. A dense river network, and in Karelia a system of large and small lakes favor the development of logging, convenient water transportation of wood to processing points and shipment of timber products to forest-deficient regions of the European part of Russia, as well as for export[64]. Within the Northern economic region, 40% of the forest and water resources of the European part of Russia are concentrated. From north to south, four soil-vegetation zones and subzones are replaced in the region: tundra, forest-tundra, coniferous taiga and mixed forests. Timber reserves amount to 6,9 billion m3. With a wide distribution of coniferous species (spruce and pine), large areas are occupied by small-leaved forests. The forests between the Pechora and the Ural Mountains are included in the UNESCO World Natural Heritage List - the primeval forests of the Komi Republic. The disadvantages of using forest resources include significant losses of wood raw materials during harvesting, transportation and processing, low recovery rates (50-100 years due to the short growing season, not exceeding 70-80 days), poor use of hardwood, and an underdeveloped road network. , low level of development and introduction of modern technologies for more rational use of wood[65]. The land fund of the district is about 230 million hectares. In the tundra and forest-tundra, the soil horizon is poorly developed. The main areas are occupied by forests and reindeer pastures. The share of agricultural land accounts for only 2,2%, which indicates insufficient agricultural development of the region's land fund. Podzolic, soddy-meadow and marsh soils are common within other soil-vegetation zones. River floodplains are rich in herbs, which are the natural fodder base for animal husbandry. In the future, rational use of natural resources and environmental protection will be of priority importance for the development of the region's economy. This is due to the fact that the extraction and processing of minerals had an adverse impact on the environment: mining and dumps disturbed and alienated land, polluted surface and ground water, atmosphere and soil. The main sources of environmental pollution are enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, as well as enterprises of the mining and timber industry. Of particular importance for the region is the problem of rational use and protection of forest and fish resources, on the basis of which industries of specialization develop, and their reserves are largely exhausted. A wide range of landscape and environmental problems is associated with the deployment of a nuclear test site on the territory of Novaya Zemlya, as well as with the proposed development of oil and gas fields on the shelf of the Barents Sea and the start of exploitation of diamond deposits in the Arkhangelsk region. In order to prevent the growth of negative processes in the environment, it is necessary to reconstruct obsolete and build new treatment facilities, accelerate the increase in recycling water supply and reuse of wastewater. Of independent importance are the development and implementation of environmentally friendly methods of energy production, equipment and technology of heat supply, as well as the development and implementation of advanced technologies for the search, extraction and complex processing of primary raw materials, more complete use of secondary resources, industrial waste[66]. 3. Economic and geographical characteristics of the Northern economic region Economic and geographical characteristics of the fuel and energy complexThe fuel industry is concentrated mainly in the Komi Republic and is represented by the oil, gas and coal industries. Against the backdrop of an acute shortage of fuel resources in the European part of the country, the Northern Economic Region stands out for its significant fuel and energy potential and supplies fuel to other regions of the country[67]. The leading base of the coal industry is the Pechora basin. Rising costs associated with the location of the basin beyond the Arctic Circle cause unfavorable technical and economic indicators of coal mining on a large scale and hinder its development. However, the resource potential of the basin makes it possible to reliably and economically increase coal production. There are significant oil and gas reserves in the continental part of the region, more than 20 oil and 30 gas fields have been discovered here, which ensures the stable production of this valuable hydrocarbon raw material. More than 20 million tons of oil and about 20 billion m3 gas. Searches for new deposits are underway, both on the mainland of the region and on the shelf. The hydropower resources of the region provide (mainly in the Murmansk region and partly in the Karelian Republic and the Komi Republic) favorable conditions for the development of energy. Widely used for the construction of the hydroelectric river. Sufficient amount of water, availability of free land areas, low degree of population - all this creates the prerequisites for the placement of power plants. Here one can especially note the Tuloma hydroelectric power station and the Polish nuclear power plant of the Murmansk region, the Kislogubskaya TPP and the TPP of the village. Polar dawns. The power industry of the Northern region can also be developed based on the use of wind energy and sea tides on the Kola Peninsula. Of great importance is the connection of the Karelian energy system with the Leningrad and Kola energy systems by power lines with a voltage of 330 kW. It should be said that in the complex of measures that ensure the development of the region, energy plays a leading role as the most important prerequisite for the introduction of the most advanced technical solutions to reduce the labor intensity of production and improve the living standards of the population[68]. Economic and geographical characteristics of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy The ferrous metallurgy of the Northern region is represented by one of the four main metallurgical bases of the country, including the Cherepovets metallurgical plant of JSC "Severstal" and its raw material base - the Olenegorskoye and Kovdorskoye iron ore deposits. The fuel base is the coking coal of the Pechora basin. The plant was put into operation in 1955 and is gradually increasing its capacity. Non-ferrous metallurgy is developed, especially the copper-nickel industry, represented by the Nickel association in Monchegorsk in the Murmansk region, which uses the raw material base within the region and only partially processes Norilsk raw materials. In terms of production scale, it occupies one of the leading places in the country. There are also two aluminum plants in the region, the products of which are exported to other regions of the country. The territory of the Northern region has large resources of ores containing aluminum, which are considered as the most effective source of prospective development of alumina production[69]. These are the Severo-Onega and Vezha-Vorykvinskoe bauxite deposits and apatite-nepheline ores of the Khibiny massif. Currently, nephelines and North Onega bauxites are partially used. Economic and geographical characteristics of the machine-building complex Mechanical engineering is represented by a number of large specialized enterprises that serve the needs of the national economy in machinery and equipment. These include a plant for the production of paper machines and equipment for the pulp and paper industry and a skidder plant in Petrozavodsk, shipbuilding and ship repair enterprises in Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, and Kotlas. Metalworking and repair of mining equipment, tractor fleet of the logging industry have received significant development. The main types of industry products include: machinery and equipment for the forestry and mining and metallurgical complexes, various watercraft, bearings, measuring instruments, radio electronics and machine tool products, construction and road equipment; ships are being repaired. The leading place in production is occupied by shipbuilding, specializing in the construction of sea vessels and focused on the needs of the shipping company of the Arctic Ocean[70]. Economic and geographical characteristics of the chemical and petrochemical complex The chemical industry includes the largest enterprise in the country for the extraction of phosphate ores - JSC "Apatit" in the Murmansk region, which supplies about 70% of the total Russian production of phosphate raw materials sent to many regions of the country, including Siberia and the Far East, as well as for export. The raw material base of the enterprise is currently being intensively used. Suffice it to say that since the beginning of the operation of the Khibiny deposit, 300 million tons of apatite concentrate have been produced. The industry is also represented by a large nitrogen-fertilizer plant in Cherepovets, small enterprises for the production of plastics and a gas processing plant in Sosnogorsk. Favorable prerequisites for the development of the chemical industry, primarily the production of polymers, based on the full use of associated gas, as well as condensate[71], are in the Republic of Komi. Economic and geographical characteristics of the forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries Forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries are among the most important branches of the economy of the region. The reserves for their further development are the involvement and exploitation of virgin forests in the northeast of the Arkhangelsk region and in the central part of the Komi Republic, as well as the full use of low-grade deciduous coniferous wood. The northern region is the main region of the country's pulp and paper industry. A number of large enterprises of the industry are located on the territory of the region. Almost half of the paper is produced by Karelia, where the largest centers of the pulp and paper industry are Segezha and Kondopoga. The most developed timber industry complex is also in the Arkhangelsk region and the Komi Republic. The main timber processing enterprises are located in Arkhangelsk, Syktyvkar, and Kotlas. Plywood production is concentrated in Sortavala (Karelia). The main centers of the furniture industry are located in the largest cities of the region - Arkhangelsk, Petrozavodsk, Vologda, Cherepovets, Syktyvkar. Production at the stage of deep wood processing is concentrated at large pulp and paper mills in Arkhangelsk and Novodvinsk, as well as in Kondopoga, Segezha, Kotlas, Syktyvkar, Sokol. Hydrolysis yeast production is being developed as part of the combines, and a match factory is located in Cherepovets[72]. Economic and geographical characteristics of the agro-industrial complex The role of the agro-industrial complex (AIC) in the economy of the Northern economic region is small. The balance of the most important types of food products in the region is formed with a negative balance for all its types, except for fishing. The main centers of the fishing industry are Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. The area is distinguished by a low level of plowing of territories. Agriculture specializes mainly in animal husbandry, in particular in dairy and beef cattle breeding and reindeer breeding, pig breeding and poultry farming. Agricultural land makes up less than 1/5 of the territory, including arable land does not exceed 1% of the area. 95% of all agricultural land falls on the Vologda region and the southern part of the Arkhangelsk region. In the rest of the territory, the industry is represented mainly by greenhouse vegetable growing and certain types of animal husbandry. The share of animal husbandry accounts for more than 2/3 of the gross agricultural production of the region. The main directions are dairy and beef cattle breeding, pig breeding, and poultry farming. The district accounts for almost 17% of the country's deer population. Reindeer breeding is developed in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Arkhangelsk, Murmansk regions and the Komi Republic. Arkhangelsk and Vologda Oblasts remain the main areas producing crop products, where fodder and grain crops, flax, potatoes, and vegetables are grown. Further development of agriculture is associated with the development of market structures - peasant associations of individual and farm enterprises, which will improve the food supply for the population of the Northern Economic Region 4. Intra-district differences Arkhangelsk region The Arkhangelsk region is the most economically developed and most promising part of the Northern region. The main branches of market specialization are forestry, woodworking, pulp and paper, fish industry and mechanical engineering, especially shipbuilding. In the near future, oil and gas production on the continental shelf and diamond mining will be developed. In agriculture, the Arkhangelsk region specializes in dairy farming. The established industrial centers of the region are Arkhangelsk and Kotlas. The leading place in their industrial structure is occupied by sawmilling, wood chemistry, pulp and paper production, and standard housing construction. On the basis of the development of the Severo-Onega bauxite deposit, a large industrial center arose - Plesetsk with alumina, oil refining, woodworking and wood-chemical industries, as well as a new cosmodrome. Nenets Autonomous Okrug As part of the Arkhangelsk region, a subject of the Federation stands out - the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, in which such sectors of the economy as reindeer herding, fishing, fur trade for arctic fox, fox, etc. are developed. Cattle are bred. In the capital of the district, Naryan-Mar, sawmilling on imported timber along the rivers, fish processing, processing of deer skins are developed. The Nenets Okrug has great prospects for development, as a new oil and gas region has been discovered on its territory, on the mainland and on the sea shelf. Murmansk region The Murmansk region stands out for its developed fishing industry, nepheline and apatite mining, copper-nickel and iron ore industries, and shipbuilding. Large industrial centers were formed in the region - Murmansk, Pechenga, Apatity, Monchegorsk. Murmansk is an ice-free port, a support base of the Northern Sea Route, which occupies one of the leading places in Russia in terms of cargo turnover. Vologda region The Vologda Oblast specializes in the production of ferrous metallurgy products, the timber and woodworking industries, the production of linen fabrics, and lace weaving. The largest Cherepovets metallurgical plant and the Cherepovets steel-rolling plant operate in the region. There is also a large chemical enterprise in Cherepovets - the Ammophos production association and a nitrogen-fertilizer plant. Agriculture specializes in flax growing, dairy farming, and potato growing. Machine-building, woodworking, production of linen fabrics and the food industry are developed in the largest center of the region, Vologda. The Republic of Karelia The Republic of Karelia is the most important industrial region of the North. The republic has a developed pulp and paper industry, standard housing construction, various machine building, non-ferrous metallurgy, and production of building materials. A large Kostomuksha mining and processing plant was built jointly with Finland, producing high-quality iron ore concentrate. Agriculture specializes in dairy and meat cattle breeding, poultry farming, and sheep breeding. In the lakes and rivers of the republic, a significant amount of fish is caught, which is processed by enterprises. Fur farming has developed. Petrozavodsk, the largest industrial center of the republic, is the center of mechanical engineering, the production of skidders, equipment for the timber industry, the center for the production of building materials and wood chemistry products. The large industrial centers of Karelia are Kondopoga and Segezha, specializing in the pulp and paper and machine-building industries. Sawmilling, shipbuilding and fish canning industries have been developed in the cities of Belomorsk and Medvezhyegorsk. The Republic of Komi The Republic of Komi stands out for such industries as coal, oil, gas, timber, woodworking, pulp and paper industries. There are deposits of titanium ores, bauxites, rock and potassium-magnesium salts, on the basis of which they are mined and processed. The main branches of agriculture in the republic are: reindeer breeding in the North, in the rest - mainly along the valleys of the Vychegda and Sysola rivers - dairy farming and the cultivation of rye, oats, barley, vegetables and potatoes. The capital of the republic and a major industrial center is Syktyvkar. A large timber industry complex has been created here, especially the pulp and paper industry. Other industries are also developed - leather and footwear, food industry. The main centers of the coal industry are Vorkuta and Inta, the oil industry is Ukhta. LECTURE No. 8. Northwestern economic region 1. Composition (administrative-territorial formations), territory, population The North-Western region occupies an area of 1,15% of the territory of Russia. The region borders on Finland, Latvia, Estonia and Belarus and has access to the Baltic Sea. As of January 1, 2004, the population of the district was 8,9 million people. - 5,4% of the total population of the Russian Federation. The share of the urban population is almost 87%. In contrast to the raw-material North, the North-Western economic region is one of the industrially developed regions of the Russian Federation and plays an important role in the formation of the market as the largest supplier of a variety of industrial products, primarily engineering, especially complex science-intensive. Administrative structure of the North-Western region The North-Western economic region includes the following entities: 1) St. Petersburg; 2) Leningrad region; 3) Novgorod region; 4) Pskov region. The area of the district is 1,1% of the area of Russia - 196,5 thousand km2. Features of the economic and geographical position of the region The North-Western region is located in the northern part of the Non-Chernozem zone of the Russian Federation, north of 57` with. sh., the southern border of the region runs almost 800 km north of the US border. The most striking feature of the North-Western region is the discrepancy between the historical role of the region and its very modest territory. This discrepancy is due to the following features: 1) the location of the area on the outskirts, remoteness from the center of Russia. This situation saved the region from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. As you know, Novgorod is the cradle of the Russian land, a reserve of ancient Russian history and culture; 2) the area is sharply pushed towards Europe. Here are Pskov and Novgorod the Great - the most noble cities, for a long time connected with European countries through trade as part of Banza (a medieval union of the Baltic states); 3) seaside and border position of the region. The North-Western region is inferior to most of the economic regions of the Russian Federation in terms of population and territory, therefore it is called the region of one city - St. Petersburg. It contains 59% of the region's population and 68% of its urban population. In the North-Western region, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes, trade and crafts developed, international trade, industry and qualified personnel were concentrated in St. Petersburg, and the outlying position of the region contributed to the development of the economy. All these reasons played a certain role in shaping the modern image of the district. The region occupies one of the leading places in terms of the level of economic development, the scale and diversity of industrial production, research and development products, the training of highly qualified specialists in the national economy, the pace of the formation of market relations, the scale of participation in Russia's world economic relations. The North-Western region is located on the Russian Plain. The climate in the area is maritime, temperate continental. The air has high humidity, the soils are sod-podzolic. 2. The place of the district in the economic complex of the country The North-Western region specializes in the production of industrial products, which require deep specialization, combined with numerous and diverse connections for intra- and inter-industry production cooperation and skilled labor. The leading role in specialization belongs to the machine-building complex. The machine-building complex is multi-profile. Historically, heavy engineering develops without a metallurgical base. The peak of development of the machine-building complex fell on the 1930s - 40% of machine-building is provided by the St. Petersburg industrial hub. Mechanical engineering is distinguished by a great need for labor of mass professions (energy, agriculture, printing engineering). Mechanical engineering enterprises focused on highly qualified labor personnel, metal-intensive (radio electronics, instrument making, electronics). Mechanical engineering in the North-Western region has the following stages: 1) production of machine bodies; 2) production of components and parts, spare parts; 3) iron and steel casting; 4) assembly. Leading branches of engineering: 1) shipbuilding; 2) electrical engineering; 3) power engineering; 4) tractor engineering; 5) agricultural engineering; 6) instrumentation; 7) machine tool building; 8) electronic industry. The main part of machine-building enterprises is concentrated in St. Petersburg and the Leningrad region. Production associations have been created on the basis of most enterprises. The largest machine-building enterprises are the Electrosila plant (production of powerful generators for thermal and hydraulic power plants), the Kirov Plant (production of powerful tractors), the Admiralty and Vyborg Plants (unique ships, fishing vessels, tankers), the Nevsky Metallurgical Plant (piece, small-scale machines, equipment for nuclear power plants, powerful excavators), the LOMO association (opto-mechanical products), Svetlana (electronic equipment), as well as machine-tool associations, plants for precision engineering, radio electronics, computer technology and instrumentation. A significant role in the area's specialization belongs to the chemical complex. The oil and gas chemical complex is represented in the region by the upper floors of petrochemical production, including the processing of shale, and depends on the import of raw materials from other regions. The production of: 1) rubber products; 2) tires; 3) synthetic resins; 4) fertilizers; 5) plastics; 6) paint and varnish products; 7) acids; 8) reagents; 9) chemical-pharmaceutical preparations. The mining and chemical complex is located near the mining areas and also has separate workshops at the Volkhov and Kingisepp plants. The production of phosphate fertilizers is concentrated in Volkhov and St. Petersburg, the production of phosphate rock based on local phosphorites - in Kingisepp, the production of nitrogen fertilizers using natural gas - at the Novgorod Combine, the production of double superphosphate - at the Volkhov Combine, the production of tires, rubber shoes and other rubber products - at the association "Red Triangle", processing of slates - in the city of Slantsy. Synthetic chemistry is promising for development due to the fact that its products are highly transportable. On the whole, the chemical industry tends to reduce especially environmentally harmful production. A forest complex has been developed in the area. The needs of the complex in wood are covered both by local logging and, to a large extent, by raw materials from Karelia and other regions of the North. It is represented by all stages: 1) blank; 2) sawmilling; 3) woodworking; 4) wood processing produces: a) lumber; b) plywood; c) wood fiber boards; d) furniture; e) paper, etc. The production of the timber complex is concentrated in all regions of the region, but mostly in the Leningrad region and St. Petersburg. The largest pulp and paper mills are Svetlogorsk, Sovetsky, Priozersky, located on the Karelian Isthmus. The main direction of development of the forest complex is the deep processing of wood, improving the quality of its products, and restoring forests. The modern specialization of the North-Western region is primarily due to the presence in the region of the largest industrial center - St. Petersburg and largely determines the pace of scientific and technological progress in all sectors of the national economy of Russia. The leading place in the complex of branches of light industry is occupied by the textile, porcelain and faience, leather and footwear industries. 3. Development and placement of the main branches of market specialization Textile industry The development of the textile industry in the region was facilitated by the coastal position, which makes it possible to import, the region's great need for fabrics, and the concentration of highly qualified personnel in St. Petersburg. Until the 1990s textile industry enterprises worked on raw materials from Central Asia and Egypt. Weaving, finishing, clothing industry are developed in the region. The linen industry is developed in Pskov (the Velikoluksky plant), the shoe industry in St. Petersburg, and the porcelain and faience industry in the Novgorod region. Industrial and construction complex The region also developed an industrial and construction complex, represented by the glass industry, the production of reinforced concrete products and structures, and other building materials. Enterprises of the industrial and construction complex are located in all major cities of the region. Fuel and energy complex The main part of the fuel and energy complex is thermal power plants that operate on imported fuel - Pechora and Donetsk. In the energy balance of the region, nuclear power (Sosnovoborskaya NPP) and gas supply are gaining importance. Oil is supplied from the Timan-Pechora oil and gas province and processed at refineries. The role of HPPs in the region is small, the stations operate only in peak mode (Volkhovskaya HPP). To remove peak loads, pumped-storage stations and gas turbine cogeneration plants - GTUs - become important. The energy sector of the region is developing at a relatively fast pace despite the weak base. Metallurgical complex Almost all material for the production of metal, structural casting, rolled products, steel and cast iron pipes, fasteners, wire is brought from other regions. The area is partially provided with these products. The development of non-ferrous metallurgy is constrained by the poverty of the raw material base and the tension in the fuel and energy balance. Mining and primary processing of non-ferrous metals (primarily copper and nickel) is concentrated in the Murmansk region, and processing - in the Leningrad region. Alumina refineries are located in Tikhvin, Pikalevo, Volkhov. There is aluminum production in the Leningrad region, nickel and copper rolling. The enterprises of refractory materials work on local raw materials. The development of metallurgy industries requires solving the problems of environmental protection, increasing the reliability of the operation of neutralization biological treatment plants, and introducing new methods of electrical cleaning. Agro-industrial complex Agriculture occupies a central place in the agro-industrial complex of the district and plays a subordinate role of industry. The main role of agriculture is to meet the needs of its population and light industry for raw materials. This led to the territorial organization of agriculture: dairy, pig, poultry and vegetable farms are concentrated near the cities, and potato and flax growing (Pskov and Novgorod regions) are concentrated in suburban areas [73]. The main share of grain crops (flax growing) and animal husbandry falls on the Pskov region. Before the revolution, the production of perishable vegetables and fruits, meat products, fresh and fermented milk products, as well as the production of gray bread - rye, barley and oats - played a significant role in the agriculture of the region. In the agro-industrial complex of the North-West region, the growth in production is associated with: 1) strengthening interregional ties; 2) development of entrepreneurship in the countryside; 3) variety of forms of ownership; 4) creation of a network of processing enterprises of small and medium-sized businesses. Transport and economic relations The area owns all types of modern transport. The region accounts for a significant part of river and sea transportation. St. Petersburg is one of the largest ports in the country, but the prospects for further development of the port are very limited by the fact that it is located "in the body" of a large city. The estimated capacity of the port of St. Petersburg after its expansion is 25-30 million tons of cargo turnover per year, which does not satisfy the needs of Russia in the North-West region of 100-120 million tons. In this regard, it is planned to expand the existing ports in Vyborg and Vysotsk and build new major ports at the mouth of the river. Luka and in the area of Lomonosov. The main mode of transport is railway, the density of the railway network is high: 12 directions of roads to Moscow, the Urals, Belarus and Ukraine originate from St. Petersburg. Transport plays an important role in providing the processing industry with raw materials and fuel. Products of mechanical engineering, chemical, woodworking and pulp and paper industries are exported, while fuel and energy resources, timber, metal, food and building materials are imported. The share of imports prevails over exports, which is a consequence of the region's specialization in the manufacturing industry. Railways are of particular importance because they connect almost all of Russia with the Baltic. At present, the construction of a high-speed highway "Moscow - Scandinavia" through St. Petersburg and the modernization of the Oktyabrskaya highway are planned in the region[74]. It is planned to build a ring highway around St. Petersburg, create a new airport and reconstruct the old one (Pulkovo). In recent years, pipeline transport has been developed (the Siyaniye Severa pipeline was commissioned, and a pipeline from the Kirishi Oil Refinery is planned to be built). The closest ties have developed with the Northern region. Developed economic ties with the Central region. LECTURE No. 9. Central economic region 1. Composition (administrative-territorial formations), territory, population In terms of population, the number of cities and towns, the variety of types and appearance of settlements, the Center occupies a special place in our country. 30,3 million people live here, or 20,4% of the population of Russia; by population density (62,6 people/km2) CER also ranks first among districts. Within the Center itself, densely populated industrial regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve, saturated with numerous cities and towns, and peripheral western and southern parts are clearly distinguished. In the north of the district, the density is 15-20 people / km2, in the west and south 50-70 people/km2. The least densely populated is the Kostroma region, and the maximum density is in the Moscow region. A characteristic feature of the Center is the high proportion of the urban population. There are 248 cities and 400 urban-type settlements in the region, in which over 25 million people live. Thus, the share of the urban population in the district is 82,5%. At the same time, the Ivanovo, Tula and Yaroslavl regions reached the average district indicator, and the Moscow region exceeded it. There are more than 30 large cities in the region, the share of the population of which in the total number of residents of the CER is almost half, and in the urban population - more than 2/3. In the Center, both large clusters of urban settlements and single cities and towns are common. Among the clusters of cities, Moscow occupies an outstanding place, around which a whole galaxy of satellites has grown. 1/2 of the urban population of the district lives in the Moscow agglomeration. Other major urban agglomerations - "millionaires" - Tula and Yaroslavl. Important reasons for the strengthening of communication between the cities of the CER are their diversity, the special role of industry, territorial proximity, and favorable transport conditions. Large cities are characterized by high growth rates, which is due to the concentration of industry and social infrastructure. The network of urban settlements of the Center took shape over many centuries. Here, more than anywhere else, cities that are among the most ancient in our country have been preserved. It was they who became the reference points of modern urban settlement. Ancient cities (Smolensk, Ryazan, Vladimir, Vyazma, Kolomna) also predominate among administrative and industrial centers[75]. The CER is characterized by a relatively small proportion of rural residents in the total population - 17%. The main reason for the reduction in the number of rural residents of the region is the intensive outflow from the countryside. In the Moscow region, as well as in the Ivanovo, Vladimir, Tula regions, a significant part of the inhabitants of rural settlements is the population not associated with agriculture. Since ancient times, the population has primarily developed more fertile lands, therefore, in places where very favorable soils are distributed, massifs of continuous settlement were formed. Most of the Center is characterized by small and medium-sized settlements, which is explained by the predominance of the focal nature of the agricultural development of the territory. In the south-east of the district, more rarely located large villages prevail. This corresponds to a higher productivity of the land, continuous development of the territory, etc. Large rural settlements can also be found along large rivers, near cities[76]. 2. Territorial organization of the economy of the district On the territory of the CER, integral subdistricts can be distinguished, each of which has a fairly pronounced national economic specialization. The most important of them is Moscow with the Moscow Region. Moscow and region Moscow - the capital of Russia, the largest administrative, political, industrial, transport, scientific and cultural center. The city is located between the Oka and Volga rivers, on the Moskva River. This is a major transport hub, where 11 railway lines and 15 highways converge. Moscow has 3 large river ports (Western, Northern and Southern) and 4 airports, including an international one. The Moscow region in terms of industrial potential is second only to Moscow and St. Petersburg (with the region). Mechanical engineering is represented by the production of various equipment (metal-cutting machine tools, textile machines), diesel locomotives, agricultural machines, buses, electrical products, instruments, cameras, sewing machines, etc. "Elektrostaltyazhmash", "Metrovagonmash", Podolsky battery plant, Lyubertsy agricultural machinery named after. Ukhtomsky, Likino-Dulevsky bus, as well as enterprises in Dmitrov, Zagorsk, Klimovsk, etc. The chemical complex produces mineral fertilizers, sulfuric acid, synthetic resins, chemical fibers and threads, paints. Leading enterprises: the Voskresensk production association "Minudobreniya", the Klin and Mytishchi production associations "Khimvolokno", the Zagorsk paint and varnish plant, as well as the enterprises of Shchelkov, Orekhov-Zuev, etc. The main centers of the textile industry - the oldest branch of specialization - Orekhovo-Zuevo, Noginsk, Pavlovsky Posad, Yegorievsk, Serpukhov, Naro-Fominsk. They produce cotton, woolen, silk fabrics and knitwear. The building materials industry produces cement, bricks, reinforced concrete structures, and asbestos-cement pipes. In the food industry of the city, meat and dairy, confectionery, baking, perfumery, cosmetics and other industries are especially developed. The capital has a powerful printing industry. Intensive rural agriculture specializes in the cultivation of potatoes and vegetables, and in animal husbandry - in the production of milk and eggs. For each employed in agricultural production in the region, there are 5 times more people than the average for the republic. The scientific and technological revolution made the centers of science typical for the Moscow region urban settlements: Dubna, Pushchino, Protvino, Chernogolovka, Mendeleevo, Troitsk, etc. Enterprises and organizations of the region supply products for export to almost all countries of Eastern Europe, as well as to Africa, Asia, and Western Europe. Eastern subdistrict (Vladimir and Ivanovo regions) The area of the subdistrict is 52,9 thousand km2, population - 2962 thousand people, of which 80% are urban. The share of the subdistrict in the total volume of industrial production in Russia in 1992 was 2,3%. The industry of the subregion produces about 2/3 linen, more than 1/3 cotton, about 1/6 silk and 1/8 woolen fabrics; most of the tractors and about 1/3 of the excavators in the CER. Ivanovo region is the country's largest region of the textile industry. The main centers of cotton production are Ivanovo, Kineshma, Shuya, Vichuga, Furmanov, Teikovo, Rodniki. The linen industry is concentrated in Privolzhsk, Kineshma, Vichuga and a number of other settlements. In the industry of the Vladimir region, a special place is occupied by mechanical engineering, light and chemical industries; the share of mechanical engineering in the industrial structure exceeded 2/5. The region specializes in the production of products of the transport, agricultural, hoisting and transport engineering, electrical and instrument-making industries. The share of light industry in the Vladimir region tends to decrease. Mechanical engineering of the Ivanovo region is represented by such industries as textile, machine tool building and road construction. The largest enterprises are located in Ivanovo[77]. The enterprises of the chemical industry of the Vladimir region produce synthetic resins and plastics, fiberglass and polymer films; in Ivanovskaya - dyes and acids for the needs of the textile industry. The Vladimir region is famous for its centers of folk crafts - miniature painting and embroidery; Gus-Khrustalny is a well-known center far beyond the borders of the country, where art products from crystal and colored glass have long been produced. Palekh and Kholuy are world famous - ancient centers of art crafts in the Ivanovo region (painting of lacquer products, miniature painting). Industrial production is concentrated in Vladimir. The industry is represented by a tractor plant, chemical enterprises, the Avtopribor plant, and others. Other industrial centers include Kovrov, where a large excavator plant operates, the production of hosiery machines, dial scales, and a cotton mill are located; Murom, where there are diesel locomotive and radio plants, textile and woodworking enterprises. The food industry is of great importance in the Ivanovo region. Meat and dairy products, canned food, etc. are produced here. The timber and woodworking industries produce timber, lumber, and furniture. Woodworking is concentrated mainly in the Trans-Volga and south-eastern parts of the region. The building materials industry produces building bricks, precast concrete structures and parts. North-Eastern subdistrict (Yaroslavl and Kostroma regions) The area of the subdistrict is 96,5 thousand km2, population - 2279 thousand people, including 75,8% of the urban. The share of the subdistrict in the total volume of industrial production in Russia in 1992 was 2%. Features of the economic and geographical position of the subregion are determined by its wide outlet to the upper Volga. The main economic area was formed along the Volga from Rybinsk through Yaroslavl to Kostroma. The main urban settlements with enterprises of machine-building, chemical and light industries are concentrated here - the main branches of specialization of the subdistrict. Mechanical engineering enterprises produce metal-cutting and woodworking machines, excavators, and spinning machines (Kostroma Region). Mechanical engineering of the Yaroslavl region specializes in shipbuilding, the production of engines, electric motors, equipment for the chemical, woodworking and other industries. Large machine-building enterprises and a number of chemical engineering plants are concentrated in Yaroslavl. Rybinsk is a center of printing engineering, motor and shipbuilding. In Uglich there is a well-known watch factory throughout the country, in Danilov - a plant for woodworking machines. The chemical industry closely cooperates with mechanical engineering. In Yaroslavl, oil refineries, synthetic rubber plants, tire, paint and varnish plants operate, in Pereslavl-Zalessky - film and photo chemical production[78]. An important place in the economy of the Kostroma region is occupied by the forest complex. It produces wood-fiber and chipboard, cardboard. A house-building plant operates in Sharya, sawmills - in Neya, Manturov, plywood factories - in Kostroma, Manturov, a paper mill - in Alexandrov. The building materials industry produces prefabricated reinforced concrete structures and parts, building bricks, glass, crushed stone, gravel. The food industry is represented by butter, cheese factories, cereal factories and meat processing plants. One of the largest in the Central District, Kostromskaya GRES, operates in the region[79]. Among the enterprises of the light industry of the Yaroslavl region are Krasny Perekop, which produces cotton yarn and technical fabrics, the Yaroslavl cord factory, and flax mills in the cities of Gavrilov-Yam and Tutaev. The light industry of the Kostroma region is represented by the clothing, knitwear, and footwear industries. The linen industry is developing on its own raw material base (Kostroma, Nerekhta). Northwestern subdistrict (Tver and Smolensk regions) The area of the subdistrict is 133,9 thousand km2, population - 2828 thousand people, of which 70,9% are urban. The share of the subdistrict in the total volume of industrial output in Russia in 1992 was 1,5%. Light industry occupies the leading place in the Tver region. The cotton industry is of the greatest importance - in terms of production in the CER, the region is second only to the capital region, Vladimir and Ivanovo regions. Cotton enterprises are located in Tver and Vyshny Volochek. In footwear production, the region is second only to Moscow. Leather and shoe production operates in Ostashkov, Torzhok, Tver, Kimry. In the production of knitwear, the Tver region is second only to the capital region and the Smolensk region. Enterprises of this industry are located in Tver, Kimry and Vyshny Volochek. Primary processing of flax is carried out in Bezhetsk, Kashin, Sonkovo, a large flax factory - in Rzhev. All these enterprises use their own raw material base. The light industry of the Smolensk region is represented by numerous flax processing enterprises, including the Smolensk and Vyazemsky flax mills, operating on their own resource base. A large cotton mill is located in Yartsevo, leather and footwear enterprises operate[80]. The leading branch of the industrial complex of the Smolensk region - mechanical engineering and metalworking - is represented by the electrical industry, construction, road and power engineering. The main center of mechanical engineering is Smolensk, where road machines, means of automation of technological processes, radio components, and electric lamps are produced. Among other mechanical engineering centers, Yartsevo (production of weaving and spinning machines), Safonovo (instrument making) and Roslavl (power equipment) stand out. Mechanical engineering also occupies a significant place in the industry of the Tver region. Industry enterprises produce metal-cutting machines, forging and pressing, agricultural machines, excavators, tower cranes, flax harvesters. Large enterprises in Tver, Nelidovo, Kimry, etc. The industry of building materials is also developed on the local raw material base: brick factories - in Smolensk, Roslavl, Vyazma, Safonov, factories of reinforced concrete products - in Smolensk, Safonov, Gnezdovo. In the Tver region, enterprises for the production of glass and faience are widely known. Almost 1/5 of the volume of timber exports and lumber production in the Center falls on the Tver region. Sawmills are located in Maksatikha and Vyshny Volochek, a pulp and paper mill is located in Nelidovo. The fuel and energy complex of the Smolensk region is based on the use of its own deposits of peat and brown coal (Safonovo), and the Dorogobuzhskaya GRES operates on brown coal. Works Smolensk NPP. About 1/2 of the electricity generated in the Tver region comes from the Tver NPP. The chemical industry is represented by the Dorogobuzh Production Association "Minudobreniya" operating on imported gas, as well as the Safonovsky plastics plant. The food industry operates on its own raw material base. Butter factories are located in Yelnya, Glinka, Monastyrshchina and other centers, dairy canning plants - in Gagarin, Rudnya, Kardymov, meat processing plants - in Smolensk, Vyazma, Roslavl. Southern subdistrict (Oryol, Bryansk, Tula, Ryazan, Kaluga regions) The area of the subdistrict is 154,8 thousand km2, population - 6645 thousand people, including 71,8% of the urban. The share of the subdistrict in the total volume of industrial production in Russia in 1992 was 3,7%. The industry of the subdistrict supplements the industrial complex of the CER mainly with mechanical engineering, electric power industry based on the coal industry, ferrous metallurgy, and the chemical industry. Mechanical engineering is represented throughout the sub-region and is concentrated in Kaluga (turbine, electrical, etc.), Lyudinovo (thermal locomotive building), Kirov (mechanical foundry, iron foundries), Orel (textile machines, instruments, clocks, equipment for the food industry), Livny (hydraulic machines, fire-fighting equipment), Mtsensk (a branch of ZIL), Tula (agricultural, transport vehicles, machine tools, precision engineering products), Ryazan, Skopin (precision engineering, machine tool building, road construction and power engineering), Bryansk region (diesel locomotives, railway wagons, trucks, machine tools, excavators, devices, etc.). The light industry is represented by garment and shoe factories in Kaluga, Kondrov, Kirov, Sukhinichi, Orel, Livny, cloth factories in Borovsk, Klintsy, and knitwear factories in Kaluga and Borovsk. Transport routes passing through the territory of the Ryazan region from Moscow to the southern and southeastern regions of the European part of the country contribute to the development of light industry here. In Ryazan, Kasimov, Murmin, Spassk-Ryazansky there are enterprises of the woolen, clothing and leather and footwear industries. Chemical industry enterprises in the Tula region produce nitrogen fertilizers, synthetic rubber, phenols, pesticides, synthetic resins, and plastics and are located in Novomoskovsk, Efremov, and Shchekino. The enterprises of the chemical and forestry complex of the Ryazan region specialize in the production of mineral fertilizers, sulfuric acid, chemical fibers and threads, commercial timber harvesting, and cardboard production. In the Bryansk region, mineral fertilizers, paper and cardboard are produced on the basis of their own resources; there are sawmills, plywood and furniture enterprises[81]. The Tula region accounts for the bulk of the coal production of the Moscow region lignite basin. GRES - Shchekinskaya, Novomoskovsk, Cherepetskaya operate on this coal. The Ryazan region also produces brown coal and peat, which is used to generate electricity[82]. The metallurgical industry of the Tula region is the oldest industry, it works on the ores of the Kursk magnetic anomaly and on local raw materials. Metallurgical plants: Novotulsky and Kosogorsky. Ferrous metallurgy in the Orel region is represented mainly by steel-rolling production in Orel. In all areas of the subdistrict, the building materials industry is represented, which produces glass, building faience, brick, reinforced concrete products, cement, and slate. 3. Sectoral structure of the economy A complex industrial complex of predominantly manufacturing industries and industries has formed on the territory of the CER, which has a fairly high level of interconnectedness. Leading branches of the region: machine building and metalworking, chemical and petrochemical, light industry. The food industry, coal mining, electric power industry, metallurgy, woodworking, building materials industry, glass and faience industry have received great development in the region. Mechanical engineering and metal working The machine-building complex of the CER has no equal in the country in terms of the number of employees and marketable products. Among the branches of mechanical engineering, the leading place belongs to those that are most dependent on the availability of qualified personnel and use the powerful scientific and technical potential of the region. The machine-tool and tool industry of the CER produces 1/5 of metal-cutting machine tools and about 1/3 of metal-working tools in the CIS. The enterprises are concentrated in Moscow and the Moscow region (Kolomna, Egorievsk, Dmitrov), as well as in the Ryazan (Ryazan, Sasovo), Ivanovo (Ivanovo) and Kaluga (Sukhinichi) regions. Electrical industry enterprises are concentrated in the capital and in the region (Podolsk, Serpukhov), as well as in Yaroslavl, Rybinsk, Vladimir, Kolchugin. Instrumentation is most developed in Moscow and in the region, as well as in the Oryol, Yaroslavl and Smolensk regions. The leading production association in the automotive industry of the CER is the Moscow Automobile Plant. I. A. Likhacheva. The company specializes in the production of trucks of medium tonnage and small-scale passenger cars of the highest class. ZIL branches are located in Moscow, Ryazan, Smolensk, Yaroslavl, Yartsevo, Mtsensk and other cities. On the basis of ZIL vehicles in the Moscow region, the production of dump trucks (Mytishchi), buses (Likino-Dulyovo) was created. Moscow plant them. Leninsky Komsomol is the head enterprise of the Moskvich Production Association, which has branches in the Ivanovo and Tver regions. CER is the birthplace of domestic railway engineering. The production of diesel locomotives is concentrated in Kolomna, Bryansk, Kaluga, Lyudinovo, Murom; wagons - in Bryansk, Tver, Mytishchi. The region's aviation industry is distinguished by a high degree of concentration. Its enterprises are located in Moscow, Smolensk, Rybinsk (engine production). In the Volga-Oka interfluve - Yaroslavl, Rybinsk, Kostroma, Moscow, Gorokhovets - shipbuilding is localized. Of fundamental importance are the expansion and reconstruction of numerous tractor (Vladimir) and agricultural (Lyubertsy, Ryazan, Tula, Bezhetsk) machine-building enterprises in the CER. CER has no equal in the production of equipment for the textile industry (Ivanovo, Shuya, Kolomna, Klimovsk, Orekhovo-Zuevo, Kostroma), clothing (Podolsk, Tula, Rzhev), chemical (Yaroslavl, Mytishchi, Kostroma), coal (Tula, Uzlovaya, Skopin, Yasnogorsk), energy (Podolsk, Semibratovo), building materials, woodworking, printing (Rybinsk), etc. Chemical and petrochemical industry In these branches of industry, the district has significant fixed assets, a large scientific base and a capacious consumer. However, the development of the industry is constrained by a shortage of raw materials, water, energy, and the difficult environmental situation in a highly urbanized area. CER is a leader in the production of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers. The largest suppliers of complex fertilizers (including nitrogen fertilizers) are the Novomoskovsky and Shchekino Production Association "Azot" (Tula region), the Dorogobuzh plant (Smolensk region). Phosphate fertilizers are produced by Minudobreniya in Voskresensk, which uses imported apatite concentrates. On the basis of local phosphorites in the Moscow and Bryansk regions, phosphate rock is produced. The production of synthetic resins and plastics is concentrated in the Moscow and Tula regions, plastic products - in Moscow, Moscow (Orekhovo-Zuevo, Zhilevo, Lyubuchany) and Smolensk (Safonovo) regions. The region occupies one of the leading places in the country in the production of chemical fibers (Klin, Serpukhov, Moscow Region; Ryazan, Tver, Shchekino and Shuya). Synthetic rubber is produced in Yaroslavl and Efremov using imported oil and gas raw materials. The Yaroslavl and Moscow Tire Plants produce approximately 1/4 of the production of tires, the production of rubber products is concentrated in the same centers, and rubber footwear is concentrated in Moscow. Synthetic dyes are produced in the Ivanovo region, varnishes and paints - in the Yaroslavl and Moscow regions; here new productions are localized - chemical reagents and photochemical. In terms of the development of the chemical and petrochemical industry, Moscow, Moscow, Tula and Yaroslavl regions stand out in the CER. Light industry The light industry of the region is distinguished by a high degree of concentration, primarily of the textile industry. The light industry of the region accounts for 1/3 of the industry's production, which is explained by the presence of a powerful production base, large research institutes, qualified personnel, and wide consumer demand. The enterprises of the region produce almost 80% of cotton fabrics in Russia, while the enterprises of the Ivanovo, Moscow, Vladimir regions account for 4/5 of the total production of cotton fabrics in the region. The largest textile center of the country is Ivanovo. Silk industry enterprises, producing 45% of silk fabrics, are located mainly in the capital and the region, as well as in the Ivanovo, Vladimir and Ryazan regions. Linen industry enterprises, which also produce 80% of the total volume of linen fabrics in the Russian Federation, are located in the places where the raw material grows - fiber flax (Vladimir, Kostroma, Ivanovo and Yaroslavl regions). The main center of the linen industry is Kostroma, but enterprises have recently appeared in the Smolensk region. The region produces 60% of the total output of woolen fabrics, but at the same time, the capital region accounts for 2/3 of the fabrics of the region. Among other regions, Bryansk, Ivanovo and Tver stand out. The region's textile industry is especially characterized by extensive inter-regional ties - three-fourths of all textile products are exported, including more than four-fifths of cotton. Fuel and energy complex The fuel and energy complex of the CER only partially satisfies the needs of the region. Coal mining in the Moscow Basin is declining. In terms of peat extraction, CER occupies a leading position in Russia. The largest peat enterprises with a capacity of 1-2 million tons of peat per year operate here. Most of the production falls on the Moscow, Yaroslavl and Tver regions. But in the fuel balance of the region, the share of local fuels has decreased to 10-15%. Most of the peat is used not for energy purposes, but for the needs of agriculture. Currently, the CER is one of the country's leaders in the generation of electrical and thermal energy. The fuel and energy complex is based on large state district power plants and thermal power plants with a capacity of more than 1 million kW each - Konakovskaya, Kostroma, Kashirskaya, Ryazanskaya state district power plants, Moscow thermal power plants, etc. Following the country's first nuclear power plant - Obninskaya - large nuclear power plants were built: Smolenskaya, Tverskaya. The needs of the CER in petroleum products are largely met by the Ryazan, Yaroslavl and Moscow oil refineries. LECTURE No. 10. Volga-Vyatka economic region 1. Composition (administrative-territorial formations), territory, population The Volga-Vyatka economic region is located in the central part of the European territory of Russia, in the basins of the Volga and Vyatka rivers. It includes the republics of Mari El, Mordovia, Chuvash and Nizhny Novgorod, Kirov regions. The area of the district is 263,3 thousand km2, or 1,5% of the territory of Russia. Population - 8,444 million people. Occupying a little more than 1% of the territory of the Russian Federation, the Volga-Vyatka economic region produces 5,1% of industrial and 6,4% of the country's commercial agricultural products. In the inter-district territorial division of labor, the region is distinguished by the products of market specialization industries: mechanical engineering, chemical and petrochemical industries, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries. The share of the Volga-Vyatka economic region (VVER) in the output of industrial products, the value of fixed assets and the number of industrial and production personnel of the Russian Federation exceeds its share in the total population and area on the scale of Russia. In the all-Russian territorial division of labor, VVER is distinguished by the production of a variety of products from the engineering, chemical and petrochemical, oil refining, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries. The region is notable for its developed agriculture: the share of agricultural land is about 5%, arable land - 5% of the total Russian; the share of agricultural production - 5,7% of the total Russian. 2. Economic assessment of natural conditions and resources The relief of the territory of the region is represented by a hilly-ridged plain with pronounced glacial forms, the territory is dissected by numerous rivers in the Trans-Volga part, and in the south by gullies and ravines. The difficult terrain hinders the development of agriculture and construction. The climate of the region is continental. Continentality increases from the southwest to the northeast. The average temperature in January ranges from -11°C to -16°C, and in July - from +17°C to +19,5°C. Annual rainfall decreases from west to east from 600 mm to 350 mm per year. The duration of the frost-free period is from 190 to 140 days. The southern part of the region is affected by drought, while the northern part is excessively humid and swampy. Soils are predominantly podzolic, and in swampy areas they are represented by peat bogs, therefore, they require the application of organic and mineral fertilizers and land reclamation. In the floodplains, the soils are fertile alluvial, occupied by forb meadows, which serve as a fodder base for the development of animal husbandry. South of the Volga, fertile gray forest soils and degraded leached chernozems predominate. The region stretches for almost 1000 km from southwest to northeast and is located in various natural zones. Most of its territory lies within the forest zone, and the south - in the forest-steppe. Forests cover almost half of the district's area. Among the variety of factors influencing the economic development of the region, the provision of its mineral resources is of no small importance. In terms of mineral reserves and their diversity, the Volga-Vyatka economic region is significantly inferior to most of the economic regions of Russia. Among the minerals, the resources of phosphorites of the Vyatsko-Kama deposit of the Kirov region are of industrial importance. Their balance reserves exceed 2 billion tons, which is more than 20% of the total Russian reserves. About 60% of phosphorite reserves are among the best. The shallow occurrence of seams (from 3 to 30 m) allows for the development of raw materials in an open way with a low production cost. However, since the mine is located in the coldest, harshest and most snowy part of the Kirov region, ore mining is seasonal. The Volga-Vyatka region is also known for its peat deposits. Its geological reserves are estimated at almost 2,0 billion tons (1,3% of all reserves in Russia). More than half of all reserves are peat with a high calorific value, which is used as fuel. Peat is widely used in agriculture. Most of the peat reserves are in the Kirov region. Its reserves are also available in the Nizhny Novgorod region and the Republic of Mari El. Of the fuel resources, the region also has reserves of oil shale, the development of which is not currently being carried out. The territory of the region is recognized as highly promising in terms of oil, gas and kimberlite reserves. The region has sufficiently large resources of raw materials for the production of building materials: gypsum, clay, dolomite, cement raw materials, glass sand, building stone. The Volga-Vyatka region accounts for over 9% of Russia's gypsum reserves. Significant resources of cement raw materials are of great importance for the development of the building materials industry. Their reserves are concentrated in Mordovia and the Kirov region. Alekseevskoye (Republic of Mordovia) stands out among the deposits with large commercial reserves of marl-chalk rocks. The most important natural resources of the region include forest resources with timber reserves of 1,3 billion m3, which is about 2% of all wood reserves of the Russian Federation. The forest covers almost half of the territory of the Volga-Vyatka economic region. 80% of the forested area is occupied by commercial forest, 4/5 of the timber reserves are in the Kirov region and the north of Nizhny Novgorod region. The species composition of forests is dominated by coniferous species: spruce, pine, fir; from small-leaved - birch, aspen, willow; linden and oak are represented in the south of the region. In the process of long-term exploitation, the timber resources of the region, especially coniferous species, are significantly depleted, and the export of timber from the region is reduced. An important reserve is deciduous trees, which are still poorly developed in the region. Therefore, one of the main tasks is the rationalization of the exploitation of forest resources and the development of deep wood processing. The Volga-Vyatka economic region stands out among the European economic regions in terms of water resources. Surface water sources are sufficient to meet the needs of the economy and the population. The main source is the Volga with its tributaries. Equally important are groundwater reserves, which are rich in the region. Despite the high availability of water resources in the whole region, the conditions of water supply in it differ significantly even within a small area. The lack of water is felt in points located in the upper reaches of small rivers or on watersheds. In recent years, the increase in water scarcity is due not only to the limited supply of surface water, but also to their pollution, as well as pollution of groundwater by industrial effluents and untreated effluents from agricultural facilities. 3. Population and labor resources The population of the region is 8,4 million people, or 5,7% of the population of the Russian Federation. During the period of economic reforms, the population of the region decreased by 36 thousand people, which is explained by negative indicators of natural growth and migration flows to other regions of the country. The average population density is 31,7 people. per 1 km2, which is almost 4 times higher than the average population of Russia. However, the area is unevenly populated. Thus, the population density of the Chuvash Republic is 74,4 people. per 1 km2, and in the Kirov region - 13,5 people. per 1 km2. The industrialization of the region and the high outflow of the population from the countryside contributed to the urbanization of the population. 70,1% of the region's population lives in cities. The highest level of urban population is in the Nizhny Novgorod (77,9%) and Kirov (70,4%) regions. Less urbanized are the Republics of Mordovia, Mari El, Chuvash; in them, the urban population accounts for 58,3; 62,6 and 60,6% respectively. The main part of the urban population lives in 8 cities of the region. The largest urban agglomeration of the country is Nizhny Novgorod, which includes Nizhny Novgorod and satellite cities adjacent to it: Dzerzhinsk, Bor, Kstovo, etc., as well as urban-type settlements gravitating towards it. The trend of concentration of the population in a few points of the region with the depopulation of the main territory has become widespread here. Reproduction of the population in the region in recent years has been carried out at a slow pace. Many indicators of the demographic situation (gender and age composition, marriage rate, birth rate, mortality, natural increase) indicate negative trends in the development of demographic processes. The outflow of the population from rural areas, especially young people, has extremely complicated the demographic situation in the countryside. The indicators of natural loss are 1,1% points higher than the average for the country and amount to 6,4% in the region against 5,1% in the country. Negative population growth is characteristic of all administrative-territorial units, however, indicators above the regional average are noted in the Nizhny Novgorod and Kirov regions. The provision of the region with labor resources is one of the most important prerequisites for the development and distribution of productive forces. For a long time, the region belonged to areas with an excess of labor resources, and served as a source for replenishment of labor resources in other regions of the country. However, the assignment of the Volga-Vyatka region to labor surplus should be reconsidered at present. The number of economically active population in the region for 1992-1996. decreased by 203,1 thousand people, or 4,6%, and amounted to 4063,6 thousand people, and those employed in the economy decreased by 8,6%, which is associated with a further reduction in workers in the sphere of material production. The unemployment rate increased over the same period from 5,3% to 9,3%. The able-bodied population is 4,0 million people, of which 90,7% are employed in social production, including 69,6% in material production, and 30,4% in the non-productive sphere. In connection with the development of market relations, the bankruptcy of unprofitable enterprises, and the reduction of jobs, the proportion of the unemployed is growing, especially in small and medium-sized cities with a single-industry structure of the economy. Therefore, in these cities, it is necessary to develop small business, non-production sphere, which would contribute to additional attraction of labor force and mitigation of unemployment and social tension in the region. A convenient geographical location, stable transport links, the availability of construction sites suitable for accommodating new industrial facilities, highly qualified personnel create favorable prerequisites for increasing the economic potential of the region. 4. Structure and location of the main branches of the economic complex The share of mechanical engineering and metalworking in the structure of industrial production is 38,2%. The region produces cars, ships, machine tools, engines, instruments, electrical and electronic equipment. Among the mechanical engineering industries of market specialization, transport engineering stands out, the development of which was facilitated by the availability of qualified personnel and a scientific and production base. Here arose the largest complex of automotive industry. Among the enterprises of the automotive industry, the AvtoGAZ joint-stock company stands out, the head enterprise of which in Nizhny Novgorod produces cars and trucks, as well as related enterprises in small and medium-sized cities in the region: a motor plant in Zavolzhye, a brake unit plant in Kanash, a tire plant - in Kirov, factories of vans - in Shumerla, dump trucks - in Saransk, in Pavlovsk produce buses for the countryside. Among the branches of market specialization of the region, a highly developed chemical and petrochemical industry stands out. In the structure of production of marketable products in the region, it accounts for 10%. The development of the industry is based on the use of both local and imported raw materials. Chemical industry enterprises produce a wide range of products, including ammonia, caustic soda, synthetic resins, and plastics. Raw materials for the development of the chemical industry come from the Nizhny Novgorod and Kstovo oil refineries. Among the centers of the chemical industry, Dzerzhinsk stands out, where the largest chemical complex for the production of polymeric materials has been formed. Wood chemistry has received great development, the products of the industry have found wide application in the economy and everyday life. In Kirov, Saransk, Cheboksary, the tire and rubber industry has developed, which is closely connected with the automotive industry of the region. Own deposits of phosphorites are still used only for the production of phosphate rock. However, in the future, it is possible to create enterprises for the production of complex mineral fertilizers. One of the most important branches of market specialization is forestry, which focuses on the local raw material base. It accounts for 5,9% in the structure of production of marketable products of the industry of the region. It is inferior to mechanical engineering and the chemical industry in terms of volume, but is of great importance not only for this region, but also for adjacent regions, especially the Volga region, which does not have industrial timber reserves. However, excessive deforestation has led to a reduction in its reserves, and, consequently, to a decrease in the volume of harvesting. The main logging is carried out in the Kirov and Nizhny Novgorod regions. Enterprises for the primary processing of wood gravitate towards logging areas, and deep processing of wood with waste disposal is organized at the timber processing plants of Kirov, Yoshkar-Ola, and Novovyatsk. The pulp and paper industry has received a fairly high development in the region. In terms of paper production, the Volga-Vyatka region occupies the 3rd place in Russia, behind the Northern and Ural regions. The largest enterprise in the industry is the Balakhna Pulp and Paper Mill, which uses wood not only from conifers, but also from hardwoods. Pulp and paper mills are also located in Volzhsk and Pravdinsk. The absence of its own fuel and energy base has made the development of the region's fuel and energy complex highly dependent on the supply of energy carriers from other regions of Russia. In the fuel and energy balance of the region, the share of expensive coals coming from Pechora and Kuzbass is large. Changes in the structure of the fuel and energy balance were associated with the commissioning of the Nizhny Novgorod oil refinery and the flow of gas from Urengoy. This has reduced the use of solid fuels. The bulk of electricity in the region is generated by thermal power plants of small capacity. Hydropower is represented by two power plants: Cheboksarskaya (1430 thousand kW) and Nizhny Novgorod (520 thousand kW). The energy deficit is covered by the supply of electricity from the Unified Energy System of the European part of the country. The industries that complement the industrial complex of the region include ferrous metallurgy, which partially meets the needs of the region's machine-building enterprises in metal. The metallurgical complex is represented by conversion plants in Vyksa, Kulebaki, Omutninsk, Nizhny Novgorod and small metallurgy of large machine-building enterprises, for example, Krasnoye Sormovo JSC, etc. The region has a developed base of the construction complex. Enterprises for the production of building materials are located mainly in the Nizhny Novgorod region and the Republic of Mordovia. Of the local raw materials, glass sands are the most widely used. The Bor glass factory specializes in the production of hard-to-find glass for cars and window glass. It is planned to build a gypsum-anhydride plant in Chuvashia. Its capacity will be 1 million tons per year. By the amount of gypsum mined, it will take the 2nd place in the world. The need for construction in a number of building materials is not fully covered by local production. Particularly acute is the shortage of advanced building materials and structures - lightweight concrete, asbestos-cement panels, wooden, glued, and steel structures. The light industry of the region relies on the local raw material base. Leather production has developed in the Nizhny Novgorod region (Bogorodsk), fur and sheepskin coats - in Kirov (Slobodskoye). Enterprises for the production of hemp and twine are located in the Nizhny Novgorod region (Gorbatov) and Mordovia (Saransk), linen fabrics - in Nizhny Novgorod. Using imported cotton, the cotton industry in Chuvashia is developing. Far beyond the borders of the region, handicrafts made of wood are known - Khokhloma, Gorodets painting (Nizhny Novgorod region), clay - Dymkovo toy (Kirov). Agricultural complex Agriculture of the Volga-Vyatka region has significant potential. Occupying 4,6% of agricultural land, the region produces 6,4% of Russia's gross agricultural output. It specializes in dairy and meat animal husbandry, potato and grain crop production, and flax growing. Agricultural lands of the region occupy 40% of the total area. Arable land accounts for 75% of agricultural land, 25% is occupied by meadows and pastures. Agriculture has received the greatest development in the right-bank part of the region, where the area of arable land is twice as large as the arable land of the Trans-Volga region. In the structure of sown areas of the Volga-Vyatka region, the share of grain crops is almost 55%, which largely determines the nature of the entire agricultural production. The largest grain wedge falls on the Kirov region - more than half and the Republic of Mordovia - about 3/5 of their entire sown area. Among food crops, winter and spring wheat, as well as rye, are in the lead. Forage crops are represented by barley and oats. In the future, it is planned to strengthen the specialization of the region in the production of more productive fodder crops, such as winter rye, barley, and oats, which are most adapted to the climatic conditions of the region. Potato growing has been widely developed. Potato production in the region is characterized by low cost, low labor costs, which allows expanding the area of cultivation of this crop. Of the industrial crops, fiber flax is the main one. At the same time, in recent decades, there has been a decrease in the area under this crop, which is caused by low yields and high labor costs. Flax production requires specialized equipment, the use of intensive technologies. Of great importance in the region is animal husbandry, which is widely represented in all administrative-territorial units of the region. The agro-industrial complex of the Volga-Vyatka region has a network of processing enterprises. A significant expansion of the raw material base of processing enterprises was associated both with an increase in the production of raw materials, and with an increase in the share of purchases in the total volume of production. However, the enterprises of the processing industries of the agro-industrial complex of the region have a high degree of depreciation of the main industrial and production assets, poor technical equipment. The vast majority of enterprises were built before 1975, and more than a third of them - in the pre-war period. 5. Territorial organization of the economy A characteristic feature of the territorial organization of the economy of the Volga-Vyatka economic region is a significant unevenness in the distribution of productive forces. The core of the economic development of the region is the Nizhny Novgorod region. Its production profile is determined by the automotive industry, shipbuilding, machine tool building, diesel engine building and related enterprises in other industries. However, there is a decrease in the share of the region in the economic complex of the Volga-Vyatka region. This is due to the fact that high rates of industrial development were noted in the republics of the region. Thus, in the Chuvash Republic, the sectors of qualified mechanical engineering developed at a decisive pace - electrical engineering and instrument making; in the Republic of Mordovia - lighting engineering, cement and rubber production; in the Republic of Mari El - instrumentation and radio electronics. The Kirov region ranks second in the region in terms of industrial production. It accounts for 18% of the volume of industrial production in the Volga-Vyatka region. The main branches of specialization in the region are mechanical engineering, including electronics, the production of household appliances, machine tools, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper, chemical and food industries. The economy of the Republic of Mari El is dominated by industry. In the structure of industrial production, the share of mechanical engineering accounts for more than 1/4 of the volume of industrial production of the republic. In the structure of mechanical engineering, the largest share falls on complex and knowledge-intensive industries, such as radio electronics and instrumentation. The republic produces 61% of all domestic commercial and refrigeration equipment. The timber, woodworking and pulp and paper industries account for 13%. The Republic of Mordovia belongs to the industrial-agrarian. In it, along with industry, the agro-industrial complex also has a high level of development. The leading branch of industry in the republic is mechanical engineering, which accounts for more than 50% of the volume of manufactured industrial products of the republic. Among the branches of mechanical engineering, instrument making, lighting engineering, and semiconductor production stand out. The share of the food industry is large - almost 1/5 of the total industrial output of the republic. In the Chuvash Republic, in the structure of industrial production, mechanical engineering accounts for more than 1/3 of the volume of industrial production. It produces looms and electric forklifts, bulldozers. Among the machine-building enterprises of the republic, Promtractor JSC stands out - the only enterprise in Russia and Europe that manufactures powerful multi-purpose tractors used in the coal mining, gold mining and gas industries. The structure of the industrial complex also includes light, food and chemical industries. The main industrial production is concentrated in the republics in the capital cities. Small and medium-sized cities of the Volga-Vyatka region are poorly developed. In recent years, industrial units have been developed on the territory of the Volga-Vyatka region. Thus, the Saransko-Ruzaevsky industrial hub was formed in the Republic of Mordovia on the basis of the development of lighting technology, instrumentation and other branches of engineering. The formation of the Cheboksary industrial hub in the Chuvash Republic was facilitated by the construction of the Cheboksary hydroelectric power station, a tractor plant and a chemical plant with related industries. The Volga industrial hub in the Republic of Mari El arose on the basis of the development of woodworking and various types of mechanical engineering. LECTURE No. 11. Central Black Earth economic region Composition of the Central Black Earth economic region: Belgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Lipetsk and Tambov regions. Area: 167,7 thousand km2. Population: 7,9 million Economic and geographical position of the region An important role in the formation of the economic complex of the Central Chernozem Economic Region (Ts. Ch. E. R.) is played by the presence of the richest reserves of iron ore, massifs of fertile chernozem lands, combined with favorable agro-climatic conditions, and a convenient economic and geographical position. The Central Black Earth economic region borders on the leading industrial region of the country - Central and is conveniently located in relation to the fuel and energy bases of the Volga region, the North Caucasus and Ukraine. The natural conditions of the region are characterized by moderate continentality. Despite the aridity, the conditions are favorable for agriculture. The relief of the Central Black Earth Region is expressed by the Central Russian Upland and the Oka-Don Lowland. Natural conditions and resources The mineral resources of the Central Black Earth economic region are represented by the unique iron ore reserves of the Kursk magnetic anomaly, deposits of refractory clays, metallurgical dolomites, copper-nickel ores, bauxites and certain types of mineral construction raw materials. The iron ore reserves of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly are estimated at 43,4 billion tons in category A + B + C1 + C2, while the balance reserves are estimated in trillions of tons. The Kursk magnetic anomaly is one of the largest iron ore provinces in the world. Currently, 17 deposits have been explored, and 4 deposits are being intensively used. The main iron ore reserves of the province are concentrated on the territory of two regions - Belgorod and Kursk, and its total area is 160 thousand km2. Iron ore is represented by two types of ores: rich with iron content up to 62% and poor with iron content up to 36%. Copper-nickel deposits of the Voronezh region form the third largest copper-nickel province of the Russian Federation. There are bauxite deposits in the Belgorod region, but due to the great depth of occurrence and difficult hydrogeological conditions, they have not yet been exploited. A wide range of non-metallic raw materials is used in metallurgy, construction industry, chemical industry, agriculture of the region. These include refractory clays of the Voronezh region, metallurgical dolomites of the Lipetsk region, chalk and cement marls of the Belgorod and Voronezh regions, phosphorites in the Kursk region, etc. [83] The Central Black Earth economic region is acutely deficient in terms of fuel and energy resources and uses almost entirely imported fuel. Forest resources are mainly of soil protection and recreational importance. The industrial exploitation of forests does not play any significant role in providing the region with commercial timber. The area is poor in water resources, which is unfavorable for its economic development. The land resources of the region are distinguished by their quality: 80% are soils of the chernozem type. Population and workforce The population of the Central Black Earth economic region is 7,9 million people, or 5,3% of the population of the Russian Federation. 61,6% of the population lives in cities, 38,4% of the population lives in rural areas. By population density (47,0 people per km2) the region occupies one of the leading places in Russia. Due to the intensive development of the iron ore and metallurgical complex in the region, as well as the fact that for a long time the region supplied labor reserves to other regions of the country, the sex and age structure was disrupted in the Central Black Earth Economic Region, which led to a decrease in the birth rate and an increase in mortality rate of the population. As a result, in the region, one of the first in Russia, a natural population decline began. In subsequent years, the situation improved somewhat due to a slight increase in the birth rate in 1985-1987. and at the expense of emigrants from areas of interethnic conflicts and the Russian-speaking population from neighboring countries, but continues to be critical. The number of labor resources tends to decrease, and the area from the category of labor surplus, perhaps, will move to the category of labor shortage. The place of the district in the economic complex of the country The Central Black Earth economic region has developed economic ties with the Central, Ural, West Siberian and Volga regions of Russia and with Ukraine. Iron ore, mineral construction materials, ferrous metals, bread, and sugar are exported from the region. Since the region's economy is experiencing a shortage of energy and technological fuels, the import of coal, coke, oil and oil products predominates, as well as large volumes of mineral construction cargo, mineral fertilizers, etc. [84] On the territory of the Central Black Earth economic region, 2 sub-districts were formed, differing from each other in terms of the level of industrial development, specialization and the main direction of development. This is the Western one as part of the Kursk and Belgorod regions and the Eastern one as part of the Voronezh, Lipetsk and Tambov regions. The leading role in the economy of the Kursk region belongs to mechanical engineering and metalworking, chemical and petrochemical, mining, light and food industries. Large cities: Kursk, Shchigry, Lgov, Oboyan, Zheleznogorsk. The branches of market specialization of the Belgorod region are mining, machine-building, food industry and individual productions of the construction industry. The leading role in the development of productive forces belongs to ferrous metallurgy. Large cities: Belgorod, Stary Oskol, Gubnin, Alekseevka, Shebenino. The Voronezh region in the interdistrict division of labor is distinguished by mechanical engineering, chemical, petrochemical and food industries. The region provides 30% of the industrial production of the entire Central Black Earth economic region. Agriculture also specializes in horse breeding. Large cities: Voronezh, Borisoglebsk, Liski, Ostrogozhsk, Semiluki and Rossosh. In the Tambov region, the leading sectors of the economy are mechanical engineering and metalworking, chemical, light and food industries. Main cities: Tambov, Michurinsk, Mortansk, Kirsanov. The main sectors of the Lipetsk region are ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical and food industries, and the construction industry. There is a ferrous metallurgy enterprise operating in the region - the Novolipetsk Combine, which supplies its products to other regions and abroad. Main cities: Lipetsk, Yelets, Gryazi, Lebedyan, Dankov. The main directions of development of the Central Black Earth economic region One of the main directions for the further development of the Central Black Earth economic region is the creation of highly commercial and diversified agriculture and related processing industries. It is necessary to significantly strengthen the material and technical base of the region's agriculture, its industrialization at a qualitatively new level. Also in the region, the production of mineral fertilizers and the production of synthetic materials are promising. In the Belgorod region, the development of the cement industry based on its own resources is promising. LECTURE No. 12. North Caucasian economic region Economic and geographical position of the regionThe North Caucasian economic region includes the Rostov region, Krasnodar and Stavropol territories, the republics of Adygea, Dagestan, Ingush, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkess, North Ossetia, Chechen. The area of the district is 335,1 thousand km2, or 2,1% of the territory of Russia. The North Caucasus has an advantageous economic and geographical position. Occupying the Caucasian Isthmus, it is located between the Black, Azov and Caspian Seas, as well as at the crossroads of important routes from the central eastern regions of the country to the states of the Transcaucasus, Turkey and Iran. The North Caucasus borders on the powerful Donetsk-Pridneprovsky region of Ukraine, the Volga and Central Black Earth regions. The economic and geographical position is favorable. There is access to three seas. Through this region, Russia maintains ties with the states of Transcaucasia. Natural conditions are favorable for the population and the development of agriculture. There are various minerals [85]. Natural conditions and resources The natural landscapes of the North Caucasus are diverse. There are mountain ranges and steppe plains, turbulent mountain rivers and drying lakes, oases of subtropical vegetation on the Black Sea coast and cold snowy peaks of the Caucasus Mountains. The highest point of the Russian Federation is Elbrus (Republic of Kabardino-Balkaria). The diversity of natural conditions is explained by the geographical location and features of the relief, which in turn affects the resettlement of people and their economic activities. According to natural conditions, the region is divided into three zones: 1) flat; 2) foothill; 3) mountain. Plain (steppe) occupies most of the territory and extends from the Don River to the valleys of the Kuban and Terek rivers. The foothill zone is located to the south and stretches in a small strip from the northwest to the southeast. The foothills gradually pass into the system of mountain spurs of the Caucasus (mountainous part). The region has fertile lands (on the plains) and natural pastures (in the foothills). Mountain rivers have great hydropower potential, and the waters of lowland rivers are used for irrigation. The main disadvantage of natural conditions is the uneven supply of water resources. The western part is better provided with moisture, especially the Black Sea coast and mountain slopes. The northeast and east of the region are waterless and arid. The role of the region as the main recreational zone of Russia is great (the well-known resorts of the Black Sea coast and the Caucasian mineral springs, camp sites in the Caucasus mountains). The foothills of the Greater Caucasus are a pantry of chemical, metallurgical, construction raw materials, energy resources (including fuel - oil and gas). Natural gas is available in the Krasnodar and Stavropol Territories, oil - in the Chechen Republic and Adygea. Ores of non-ferrous and rare metals (zinc, lead, tungsten, molybdenum) are mined in the mountainous republics (North Ossetia, Kabardino-Balkaria), coal - in the Rostov region (the Russian part of the eastern wing of Donbass). Population and workforce The population of the North Caucasus is 17,7 million people. Population growth rates are noticeably higher than the average Russian ones (natural high growth). The region has a surplus of labor resources. The population is extremely unevenly distributed, although even the average population density is 47 people per 1 km2. Krasnodar Territory and Rostov Region concentrate almost 3/5 of the region's population within their borders. The highest population density rates are observed in the foothills, in areas of intensive agriculture in the Krasnodar Territory and industrial areas of the Rostov Region. And in the northeastern arid regions of Stavropol, Dagestan and the Rostov region, the population is extremely small. Structure of the economy and market specialization The North Caucasus is distinguished by a highly developed and diversified agriculture, from industries - engineering, fuel and food industries. Among other industries, the role of non-ferrous metallurgy and the production of building materials is noticeable. The leading branch of specialization is mechanical engineering. Agricultural engineering is especially developed (Rostov-on-Don, Taganrog, Millerovo, Novocherkassk, Kropotkinsk, Krasnodar), as it has its own metallurgical base (Rostov region), agriculture is developed and there are convenient transport routes. An important place is occupied by the production of equipment for the oil and gas and food industries, as well as the production of electric locomotives (Novocherkassk). Power engineering is represented in Taganrog (steam boilers) and Volgodonsk (equipment for nuclear power plants). The largest industrial center of the North Caucasus region is the city of Rostov-on-Don. The presence of mineral resources contributed to the development of industry. There are reserves of natural gas and oil in the foothill areas. The first borehole produced oil in the western Ciscaucasia as early as 1860, later deposits in the Grozny region began to be developed, and only in the 1950s. oil and gas production began in the Stavropol Territory. The Rostov region (eastern wing of Donbass) is also rich in fuel resources - anthracite and coking coal are mined here. Here, the coal and metallurgical industries, transport engineering were developed. The oil and gas industry is represented in Krasnodar (refinery), Maykop, Grozny (refinery), Tuapse (refinery). The chemical industry of the region produces nitrogen fertilizers from natural gas (Nevinnomyssk, Belorechensk), pesticides, synthetic materials, and plastics (Budennovsk). Non-ferrous metallurgy is represented in North Ossetia (Sadon), Kabardino-Balkaria (Tyrnyauz). The food industry fully provides raw materials for the developed agriculture of the region. There are enterprises for the production of flour, cereals, meat products, canned fruits and vegetables, wines. The North Caucasus is the country's largest agricultural base. The soils on the plains are fertile: chernozem and alluvial - large areas of arable land are concentrated here. Grain (wheat, corn, rice) and industrial (sugar beet, tobacco, sunflower, etc.) crops are grown. The area is famous for vegetable growing, horticulture and viticulture. Tea is grown in the Krasnodar Territory (it is the northernmost tea-growing region in the world). Animal husbandry, like agriculture, is diversified. On the plains, they are engaged in cattle breeding and pig breeding. Fine-wool sheep breeding is widespread in the arid regions of the Rostov region, Stavropol Territory and Dagestan, and coarse-wool sheep breeding is common in the foothills and mountainous republics of the Caucasus. Fuel and energy complex. Branches of this complex perform the functions of basic industries. The North Caucasus meets its needs for fuel, previously supplied coal, oil, gas to other regions of the country. LECTURE No. 13. Volga economic region Volga economic region in terms of the scale and level of development of industry, agriculture, the construction complex, transport and science, it ranks third among eleven regions of the Russian Federation. The Volga economic region includes: Astrakhan, Volgograd, Penza, Samara, Saratov, Ulyanovsk regions; Republics of Kalmykia and Tatarstan. General indicators of the region: territory - 0,54 million km2, population - 16,5 million people, density - 30,8 people. per km2. The area stretches from north to south along the Volga River for 1,5 thousand km and is characterized by a mid-continental climate type. Average temperatures: January -11,7 °C, July +22,3 °C; the annual amount of precipitation is 200-700 mm. The total land area of the district is 53,640 million hectares, of which only 9% is occupied by forests, and the timber reserves in the district are 572,9 million m3. Significant reserves of oil, natural gas, gas condensate, oil shale, native sulfur, and common salt are concentrated in the Volga economic region. The area stands out for its rich raw material base for the industry of building materials (cement and glass raw materials, non-metallic materials). The natural resources of the Volga region provide it with the role of one of the main raw material bases of Russia for the extraction of natural gas and in the building materials industry. The region's most important natural resource is high-quality soils, most of which are chernozems - a unique basis for the development of highly productive agriculture. The chemical and petrochemical industries of the region occupy a leading position in Russia. In addition, paper, pulp, televisions, refrigerators, etc. are produced in the region. Promising directions for the Volga region are deeper oil refining with an increase in light products and the development of the production of synthetic resins, plastics, detergents, and chemical fibers. The Volga economic region occupies one of the leading places in the Russian Federation in the development of the agro-industrial complex. Its share is 14% in the production of all marketable agricultural products of the Russian Federation. About 24% of the able-bodied population is employed in agricultural production. In the gross agricultural output of the region, more than 63% is accounted for by animal husbandry. The region is the main supplier of durum wheat: about 50% in the Russian Federation. Of the branches of crop production, it is necessary to note the production of sunflower - 7040 thousand tons, which is over 22% of its total production in the Russian Federation. All types of transport are developed in the Volga region. The operational length of the railways is about 10% of the length of the Russian railways, the largest part of it is located in the Saratov and Volgograd regions and the Republic of Tatarstan. Based on 10 thousand km2 The region has 160 km of railways, which is 3 times more than the average for the Russian Federation. Railroads and highways connect the centers of regions and republics of the region with the central, northeastern and southern regions of the European part of Russia. The length of inland waterways is over 5700 km. The Volga, Don, Khoper, Kama rivers are navigable from 200 to 250 days a year. Air transportation is carried out through the airports of Astrakhan, Volgograd, Samara, Penza, Saratov, Ulyanovsk, Elista, Kazan and Naberezhnye Chelny, where customs posts are established. Customs is in the seaport of Astrakhan. Provision of the Povolzhsky region with communication enterprises is somewhat lower than the average for the Russian Federation. However, in market conditions, a radical technical re-equipment of the entire communication system will be required. LECTURE No. 14. Ural economic region 1. Population of the Ural economic region The population in different regions of the country also changes due to the movement of people from one permanent place of residence to another (internal migration). The most numerous and constant migration of the population from rural areas to cities. There is also resettlement between rural settlements. Significant migration from small towns to large ones. In the pre-war years, the resettlement went to the Urals, Siberia and the Far East, where mineral deposits were developed and factories were built. The population is 20,5 million people. Currently, there are 140 cities in the Urals economic region, where 75% of the population lives - this is one of the highest rates in the country. Four cities have a population of over a million people: Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, Ufa, Perm. The largest urban agglomerations formed around these cities, concentrating 34% of the population of the Urals and occupying about 10% of its territory. The most urbanized are the Sverdlovsk and Chelyabinsk regions, where 87 and 83% of the population, respectively, live in cities and urban-type settlements. The population density is high - 24,9 people per square kilometer, while the most densely populated Chelyabinsk region (41,4 people / km2) and Udmurtia (38,7 people/km2), the least - Kurgan and Orenburg regions (15,6 and 17,7 people / km2 respectively), but even in these areas the population density is higher than the national average. 2. Structure and location of the leading sectors of the economy Industry plays a leading role in the structure of the economic complex of the Ural Economic Region. The fuel and energy complex ensures the functioning of all sectors of the economy. Its development is especially important in the Urals, where many heat- and energy-intensive industries are concentrated. The Urals is one of the areas with a low supply of fuel and energy resources. The traditional industry for the Urals is the coal industry, but coal deposits are being depleted, mines and quarries are being closed. Own coal mining is more expensive than using imported coal; both coking coal and power coal (from Kuzbass) are imported. Of great importance at the present time is oil and gas production, which, however, does not cover the needs of the Ural economic region. On the basis of the Orenburg gas condensate field, the Orenburg TPC was formed, from where gas is supplied to the central regions of Russia and for export. A powerful oil refining industry has been created, the largest oil refineries are located in Ufa, Salovat, and Perm. The United Ural Energy System is one of the largest in the country, its basis is thermal power engineering based on coal and natural and associated gas. It is represented by Reftinskaya (3,8 million kW), Troitskaya (2,5 million kW), Iriklinskaya (2,4 million kW), South Ural State District Power Plant, etc. Hydropower is also developed - the largest hydroelectric power plants were built on the Kama: Votkinskaya and Kama; There are several smaller hydroelectric power stations. In the Urals, there is the Beloyarskaya nuclear power plant with a powerful fast neutron reactor. Further strengthening of the energy base of the Urals economic region is associated with the commissioning of the Permskaya GRES (4,8 million kW), which is under construction, the expansion of the Reftinskaya GRES, and the construction of the Bashkir and South Ural NPPs. Electricity will also be supplied via the Ekibastus-Ural transmission line (from Kazakhstan), and in the future from Western Siberia and the Kansk-Achinsk TPK. To supply coal to the power plants of the Urals, a project of the Kuzbass-Urals coal pipeline with a length of 2400 km is being developed [86]. Ferrous metallurgy of the Ural economic region is represented by all stages of production, from the extraction and enrichment of iron ores to the smelting of iron, steel and rolled products. This is one of the most important branches of market specialization of the region. In the structure of fixed assets of the Urals, the share of ferrous metallurgy accounts for approximately 1/3[87]. As already noted, the Urals does not cover its needs for iron ore with its own production, ores are additionally imported from the Kursk magnetic anomaly, from the Kola Peninsula (at a distance of 3000-3500 km), as well as from Kazakhstan (Sokolovsko-Sarbaisky), which is much closer. However, the problem of supplying the metallurgy of the Urals with iron ore is becoming more complicated due to the transition of the Karaganda Metallurgical Plant (Kazakhstan) to supply from the Sokolovsko-Sarbai GOK. Therefore, the task is to more fully develop our own iron ore resources. On the basis of the Kachkanar group of deposits, one Kachkanar mining and processing plant is operating, and a second one is under construction. The extraction of Bakalsky and Orsko-Khalilovsky ores is increasing, in the future, the extraction of ores occurring at significant depths (Serovskoye, Glubochevskoye and other deposits) will be carried out. Great importance is also attached to the activation of geological prospecting in the north of the Ural Mountains. Manganese ores have not yet been mined in the Urals, although their reserves are quite significant - 41,3 million tons (Severouralsk manganese basin in the Sverdlovsk region). Until recently, ferromanganese and silicomanganese were supplied from Ukraine, and marketable ore from Kazakhstan. There are also reserves of chromite ores in the Urals (Saranovsky group of deposits), but they are used for the production of refractories due to the low content of chromium oxide and high silicon content. For the smelting of ferrochromium, chromites from Kazakhstan are used. There are no coking coals in the region, so the process fuel is imported and comes from the Kuznetsk coal basin. In order to reduce the needs of the Urals in coking coal, it is planned to apply new technologies more widely: use natural and associated gas, non-coking coal, etc. [88] The Urals are distinguished by a high level of concentration and combination of the production of ferrous metals. The main type of enterprises are full-cycle enterprises producing pig iron, steel and rolled products. The largest of them - Magnitogorsk, Nizhny Tagil, Orsk-Khalilovsky (Novotroitsk) plants and the Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Plant - produce almost 80% of iron and 70% of steel mined in the region. Other full-cycle enterprises are located in Chusovoy, Serov, Alapaevsk, Beloretsk and other centers. The conversion metallurgy is also significantly developed in the Urals, mainly at old factories, which predominate in the region in terms of quantity. Ferroalloys are also produced, both blast-furnace (Chusovoi) and electrothermal smelted (Chelyabinsk), pipe rolling (Pervouralsk, Chelyabinsk). Only in the Urals is there a smelting of naturally alloyed metals (Novotroitsk). The metal produced by the enterprises of the Urals is of high quality and relatively low cost[89]. The high concentration of metallurgical production has, in addition to positive aspects (reducing production costs, etc.), also extremely negative consequences: a sharp deterioration in the environmental situation, problems of water supply, population resettlement, transport, etc. from the lack of water resources, where the main production is currently concentrated. An important direction for the further development of the iron and steel industry in the Urals is the technical re-equipment of existing enterprises, the accelerated implementation of the achievements of scientific and technical progress. The construction of oxygen-converter shops at the Magnitogorsk and Nizhny Tagil plants, electric steel-smelting plants with continuous casting machines at the Orsk-Khalilovsky plant, Chelyabinsk, Serov, Alapaevsky plants is underway. All pipe plants are being reconstructed. Non-ferrous metallurgy is also a branch of market specialization of the Ural economic region, it has a very high level of development, it is represented by the production of copper, zinc, and nickel. The leading place is occupied by the copper industry, the raw material base of which is copper pyrite ores, which occur along the eastern slope of the Urals. Mining is carried out mainly in the South Urals. In the near future, the exploitation of deposits of high-quality copper ores in the northern Urals (in the Ivdel region), which are distinguished by a high content of basic and associated components, and a low content of harmful impurities, will begin; open-pit mining is possible. Enterprises for the smelting of blister copper are concentrated in the areas of ore mining: in Krasnouralsk, Kirovgrad, Revda, Karabash, Mednogorsk. The next stage of copper processing - its refining - is carried out at electrolytic plants in Kyshtym and Verkhnyaya Pyshma. When smelting copper, waste is generated that is used in the chemical industry: for the production of sulfuric acid, superphosphate (for example, at the Mednogorsk copper-sulfur plant). Since copper ores are usually multicomponent and contain, in addition to copper, zinc, gold, cadmium, selenium and other elements (up to 25), copper plants produce other metals in addition to copper or their concentrates. In the Urals, nickel ores are mined and enriched, metallic nickel and metal products are smelted. Nickel production is concentrated in the areas of ore mining: in the South Trans-Urals (Orsk), Ufaleisk region. A new mining and smelting plant was built on the basis of the Buruktal deposit. In addition to nickel, it includes the production of cobalt and iron concentrate, and waste disposal for chemical purposes. The aluminum industry of the Urals is provided with its own raw materials. Aluminum smelters: Bogoslovsky (Krasnoturinsk), Uralsky (Kamensk-Uralsky), etc. The further development of the aluminum industry in the Urals is associated with the strengthening of its energy base, since the smelting of aluminum metal is a very energy-intensive production. The production of titanium and magnesium is also energy intensive. In the Urals, it is represented by the Berezniki titanium and magnesium plant and the Solikamsk magnesium plant, which are based on carnallites of the Verkhnekamsk salt-bearing basin[90]. For the production of zinc in the Urals economic region, both local raw materials, represented by copper-zinc ores, and imported concentrates are used. A major center of the zinc industry is Chelyabinsk. Mechanical engineering of the Urals is a large branch of its market specialization, it occupies a leading place in the structure of industrial production of the Ural economic region. Currently, almost 150 machine-building enterprises are operating in the region, representing all sub-sectors of machine-building. The following are developed here: heavy engineering (production of mining and metallurgical equipment, chemical and petrochemical equipment), energy (production of turbines, steam boilers, etc.), transport, agricultural engineering, and tractor building. The most rapidly developing electrical engineering, instrumentation, machine tool. Many industries are metal-intensive, so mechanical engineering closely interacts with metallurgy. The main centers of heavy engineering: Yekaterinburg (Uralmash, Uralkhimmash, Uralelektrotyazhmash, drilling and metallurgical equipment plants, etc.), Orsk (equipment for metallurgy and mining), Perm (mining engineering), Ufa (mining equipment plant ), Karpinsk (production and repair of mining equipment), etc. Equipment for the oil and gas industry is produced in Salavat, Buzuluk, Troitsk, etc. [91] The Urals is not only a metallurgical base for heavy engineering, but also a major consumer of its products. The leading center for the production of turbines is Yekaterinburg. Agricultural engineering and tractor building are developed in Chelyabinsk (a tractor plant, the production of autotractor trailers, etc.), in Kurgan (Kurganselmash), Orsk, and other cities. Transport engineering is represented by car building (Nizhny Tagil, Ust-Katav), passenger cars (Izhevsk) and heavy-duty (Miass) cars, buses (Kurgan), motorcycles (Izhevsk, Irbit), shipbuilding (Perm), ship repair (Solikamsk). Enterprises of instrument making, machine tool building, electrical industry operate in many industrial centers of the Urals: Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, Ufa, Kurgan, Orenburg, etc. [92] The mechanical engineering of the Ural economic region, as well as the entire industry, is characterized by excessive concentration in large cities, insufficient specialization, the universalism of many enterprises, the dispersal of auxiliary and repair industries, the slow implementation of the achievements of scientific and technical progress, the preservation of old equipment and technology. The chemical industry, a branch of the market specialization of the Urals, has a powerful raw material base, uses oil, associated petroleum gases, coal, salts, pyrites, waste from ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, and the forest industry. The Ural economic region is one of the leading in the country in the development of the chemical industry, which is represented here by all the most important industries: mineral fertilizers, synthetic resins and plastics, synthetic rubber, soda, sulfuric acid, etc. The Urals is also a major consumer of chemical industry products. The most important is the production of mineral fertilizers, among which potash fertilizers stand out. Potash fertilizers are produced in the region where raw materials are extracted (Verkhnekamsk salt-bearing basin). The main centers are located in the Perm region (Berezniki, Solikamsk)[93]. Enterprises for the production of nitrogen fertilizers are located in the area of coal and table salt mining - in Berezniki, they work in conjunction with metallurgical plants (they use coke oven gas) - in Magnitogorsk, Nizhny Tagil; in the oil refining area (its waste is used) - in Salavat. Phosphate fertilizers are produced in Perm and Krasnouralsk on the basis of imported Khibiny apatites. Sulfuric acid is used in the production of mineral fertilizers. The sulfuric acid industry of the Urals is based both on fossil raw materials (sulfur pyrites) and on waste from non-ferrous metallurgy (Revda, Kirovgrad) and other industries. The soda industry is close to salt deposits, and is also combined with the production of potash fertilizers in the presence of limestone and coal. The main centers in the Urals are Berezniki and Sterlitamak. The chemistry of organic synthesis is represented by the production of synthetic resins and plastics (Yekaterinburg, Ufa, Salavat, Nizhny Tagil), synthetic rubber (Sterlitamak, Tchaikovsky), tires (Yekaterinburg) and other products. This industry uses both local and Western Siberian oil and gas. Petrochemical enterprises can be combined with oil refining, or they can be independent: Permnefteorgsintez, Salavatnefteorgsintez, etc. The chemical industry has problems typical for the Urals: 1) excessive concentration of production; 2) lack of water; 3) shortage of fuel and energy resources. The timber industry is a market specialization branch of the Urals economic region and operates on its own raw material base, represented by all stages of production from timber harvesting to the production of final products (paper, matches, plywood, furniture, housing construction, etc.). Chemical processing of wood and its waste is developed. The most important centers of the timber and woodworking industries are located in the Perm and Sverdlovsk regions (Serov, Perm, Solikamsk, and others). Logging is carried out mainly in the southern and central parts of these regions, although the main forest areas are in the north. Of great importance is the pulp and paper industry of the Urals, whose enterprises are also located in the Perm (Krasnokamsk, Krasnovishersk, Solikamsk) and Sverdlovsk (Novaya Lyalya) regions. The main directions for the further development of the timber and pulp and paper industries are: a gradual shift to the northern regions of the Urals, an increase in the complexity in the use of forest resources, an increase in the chemical and chemical-mechanical processing of wood, reconstruction and technical re-equipment of existing enterprises. The construction industry in the Urals relies on its own raw material base. This is one of the leading areas for the production of cement, which is produced both on the basis of natural raw materials and on the basis of ferrous metallurgy waste. The largest centers of the cement industry are Magnitogorsk, Yemanzhelinsk (Chelyabinsk region). The Urals also play a significant role in the production of prefabricated reinforced concrete, panel houses, bricks, gypsum, crushed stone and other products that are supplied to many regions of the country. Construction organizations of the Ural Economic Region help develop oil and gas fields in Western Siberia and build many facilities in other regions. As part of the light industry of the Ural economic region, a leather and footwear industry stands out, and textile industry enterprises have also been built, for example, the Tchaikovsky silk fabric factory in the Perm region. The clothing industry is widespread. The development of light industry in the region makes it possible to solve the problem of the use of female labor resources in areas where heavy industry is concentrated[94]. Branches of agro-industrial production The specialization of agriculture in the Urals is grain (spring wheat, rye, oats) and livestock products (milk, meat, wool). Agriculture is most developed in Bashkortostan and Orenburg region. In the structure of the sown areas of the Urals, the largest share is occupied by grain crops (about 65%), as well as fodder crops (over 32%). Potatoes, vegetables, fiber flax, sunflower, sugar beets are also grown. The share of industrial crops in crops is small - a little more than 1,5%, due to their high labor intensity. The main grain crops are concentrated in the Orenburg region and in Bashkortostan. The structure of agricultural production in the Urals is dominated by animal husbandry: in the north - dairy cattle breeding, poultry farming, in the south of the region - meat and dairy and meat animal husbandry, sheep breeding, the role of pig breeding is growing. An important task facing the agriculture of the Urals is to increase the yield of grain crops and the productivity of livestock. The food industry of the district is represented by flour and dairy plants and factories, meat processing plants. The main role is played by the meat industry. Transport Transport plays a huge role in the functioning of the economic complex of the Urals. This is explained, on the one hand, by the active participation of the region in the territorial division of labor, and, on the other hand, by the high level of complexity of the economy of the Urals, which is manifested in the fact that many sectors of the economy do not work in isolation, but in close interconnection with each other. Hence the high proportion of intra-regional transportation (up to 60%). The Urals economic region is dominated by rail transport. Railway lines cross the Urals in the main latitudinal direction, they carry out economic ties with other regions. A meridional railway was built, which performs intra-regional transportation. It is proposed to build the West Ural meridional and North Ural latitudinal railways, the construction of second tracks is planned, since the traffic density of the roads is high. Road transport is of great importance for intra-regional transportation of various goods. The length and quality of paved roads are insufficient. In the future, it is planned to create new road and railroad exits to the North Caucasian, Volga-Vyatka, West Siberian economic regions and Kazakhstan. The role of pipeline transport is great; oil and gas pipelines run through the Urals from Western Siberia to the European part of the country and abroad. The Ural region has a variety of economic ties with many regions. From the eastern regions, the Urals mainly receives raw materials and fuel, and supplies products from the manufacturing industries. The exchange of finished products and structural materials is carried out with the European regions, and export exceeds the volume of import. The closest ties are with neighboring economic regions: the West Siberian and Volga regions. Western Siberia supplies the Urals with coke, oil, gas, and, in the future, electricity, and imports mainly engineering products and building materials. Iron ore, copper concentrates, electricity and other goods come from Kazakhstan. The Volga region receives timber, metals, exchanges chemistry and engineering products with the Urals, and supplies food. The Urals also play a rather significant role in foreign trade. It supplies potash salts, metallurgical equipment, bulldozers, excavators, motorcycles, natural gas abroad. Territorial organization of the economy Three subdistricts are distinguished in the Ural economic region: Sredneuralsky (Sverdlovsk region), West Ural (Bashkortostan and Udmurtia, Perm region), South Ural (Orenburg, Kurgan, Chelyabinsk regions). The Sredneuralsky subdistrict specializes in metallurgy, ferrous and non-ferrous, heavy and power engineering, chemical and timber industries. This is the most powerful industrial region of the Urals. The West Ural subregion is distinguished by the oil and petrochemical industries, transport engineering and machine tool building. The South Ural subdistrict is notable for its developed ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy and tractor construction. A large gas industrial TPK is being formed in the Orenburg region. This subregion occupies a leading place in the agricultural production of the Urals. LECTURE No. 15. West Siberian economic region West Siberian region extends from the eastern slope of the Urals in the west to the Yenisei in the east, from the Kara Sea in the north to the Republic of Kazakhstan in the south. Its area is 2,427 million km2, or 17% of the territory of Russia, the population is 15,1 million people, the density is 6,2 people. per 1 km2. The district includes 5 regions: Kemerovo, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Tomsk, Tyumen region and Altai Territory. Climate type - mid-continental. The north of the region, located in the tundra and forest-tundra zone, has a harsh climate, the southern regions have more favorable natural and climatic conditions. The average temperature in January is up to -18 °C, in July +19,1 °C, the duration of the frost-free period is 60-120 days, the annual precipitation is 300-700 mm. Of the total land area of the district of 242,7 million hectares, 37% is covered with forests, mostly coniferous. Timber reserves amount to 10,8 billion m3. In terms of natural, industrial and export potential, the West Siberian region occupies a leading place in the economy. The area has significant developed deposits of oil, natural gas, gas condensate (Tyumen, Tomsk regions), coal, iron ores (Kemerovo region). Deposits of polymetallic, copper-nickel, manganese, tungsten ores, bauxite and mercury, as well as phosphorite, nepheline ores, and oil shale have been explored. Based on the unique reserves of oil, natural gas and coal, the largest fuel and energy base in Russia has been created, where almost 90% of gas production, more than 70% of oil production and about 40% of coal production are concentrated. Gross industrial output is approximately 11% of the volume in Russia as a whole. In the inter-district division of labor, the West Siberian region stands out as a major center of mechanical engineering, ferrous metallurgy, chemical and timber industries. The region's industry developed at a rate higher than the Russian average, with a narrow focus on the fuel and energy, chemical, timber and metallurgical sectors. In the current structure of industrial production, the share of extractive industries exceeds 31%, and the share of Group B industries is approximately 18%. Currently, almost the entire volume of produced gas is exported outside Western Siberia. Less than 7% of produced oil and 40% of coal are processed and used. In the timber industry, the predominant development belongs to the logging sub-sectors. Manufacturing industries are represented in the West Siberian economic region by the following types and volumes of products: 1) rolled ferrous metals (finished) - 1,1 million tons (Novosibirsk, Omsk regions); 2) generators for steam and gas turbines - 2072 thousand kW (Novosibirsk region); 3) steel pipes - 495 thousand tons (Novosibirsk region); 4) woodworking machines - 359 thousand units. (Tyumen region); 5) tires - 5,82 million pieces. (Omsk region); 6) mineral fertilizers - 586 thousand pieces. (Kemerovo region). The region also produces alternating current electric motors, lighting electric lamps, chemical fibers and threads, synthetic resins and plastics, cardboard, outerwear, footwear. The construction complex is dependent on the import of building materials and structures, primarily to the Tyumen region. There are local building materials: cement raw materials, sands for construction work, building stone, crushed stone, gravel. The volume of production of basic building materials and structures currently reaches: 1) cement - 7405,6 thousand tons; 2) precast concrete - 9153 thousand m3; 3) building brick - 2400,9 million pieces. conv. bricks; 4) lumber - 8412,5 thousand m3; 5) building steel structures - 235,6 thousand tons. Western Siberia is a major agricultural base in the East of Russia. In terms of gross output, it ranks 5th in the Russian Federation. The region produces agricultural products over 11% of Russian production. Agriculture has a livestock and grain direction. A variety of natural and climatic conditions has an impact on the location and specialization of agricultural production. The territories of the Altai Territory and the Omsk Region are most fully developed in terms of agriculture. In the north of the district, in the Tyumen region, there are deer pastures. The reindeer herd accounts for more than 25% of the total population in Russia. The development of agriculture in Western Siberia is very promising and is associated not only with branches of specialization. The area has experience in gardening, beekeeping, greenhouse farming. The priority direction is the development of traditional industries - fishing, hunting, etc. Farms have an average land plot size of about 55 hectares. The main branches of the agro-industrial complex that have received significant development in the region - flour milling, baking, meat processing and confectionery - generally correspond to the existing raw material base, but do not have the capacity to process the produced agricultural raw materials. All types of transport function on the territory of the region. The transport network consists of 8,8 thousand km of public railways; 61,8 thousand km of paved roads; 32 thousand km of pipelines; 21,5 thousand km of inland waterways. The main rivers of Western Siberia - the Ob, Irtysh, Ishim, Tobol, Konda, Ket, Chulym - are navigable from 150 to 200 days a year. Many lakes. At the same time, the transport development of the region is insignificant: in terms of the density of railways, it is 30% lower than the average indicators for Russia, and in terms of the density of roads - by 34%. The Kemerovo Region and Altai Territory are the most provided in terms of transport. Half of the volume of all freight traffic is carried out by rail transport. Railway lines have a predominantly latitudinal direction. Road transport is of great importance in domestic transportation. The availability of paved roads is low, especially in the north. The share of river transport accounts for about 10% of the volume of freight traffic. Air communication is provided by the airports of Tomsk, Kemerovo, Novokuznetsk, Barnaul, Biysk, Strezhevoy, Gorno-Altaisk, Omsk, Tyumen, Tobolsk, Surgut, Novosibirsk. Customs are available at the airports of Tomsk, Kemerovo, Barnaul, Omsk, Tyumen. Oil pipelines are laid across the territory of Western Siberia: Nizhnevartovsk - Ust-Balyk - Omsk, Samotlor - Almetyevsk, Ust-Balyk - Omsk, Ust-Balyk - Almetyevsk, Shaim - Tyumen - Kurgan, etc. and gas pipelines: the northern regions of the Tyumen region - the Volga region - Center and etc. The dispersed-focal system of population settlement on the territory of Western Siberia with a low population density and an undeveloped social sphere causes increased requirements for the provision of means of communication. In terms of providing the population with postal and telephone services, the district is inferior to the average for Russia. The conditions of Western Siberia, especially its northern regions, determine the need for the introduction of new means of communication - radiotelephones, electronic telegraphs, etc. The ecological situation in the region is assessed as extremely unfavorable, especially the developed part of Kuzbass - the Kemerovo region and the north of the region - the Arctic zone. Free economic zones have been created in the Altai Territory and the Kemerovo Region. On the territory of the district there are hunting farms and reserves: Buturlinskoye, Tarskoye, Ust-Ishimskoye, Barabinskoye, etc. Sport fishing (sturgeon, nelma) is possible on the rivers. In the area there are ancient monuments, museums of the XVIII-XIX centuries. LECTURE No. 16. Far Eastern economic region 1. Features of the geographical location and its impact on the development of the region Features of the geographical location and its influence on the development of the regionThe Far East of Russia covers an area of 6215,9 thousand km2 and stretched from north to south for more than 4,5 thousand km[95]. The region includes the Khabarovsk Territory with the Jewish Autonomous Region, the Primorsky Territory, the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), the Amur Region, the Sakhalin Region, the Magadan Region with the Chukotka Autonomous Region, and the Kamchatka Region with the Koryak Autonomous Region[96]. According to a number of basic characteristics (economic and geographical location, natural resources, conditions for their development, specialization of the economy), two sub-regions are distinguished: North (Yakutia-Sakha and Magadan Region) and South (Khabarovsk and Primorsky Territories, Amur, Sakhalin and Kamchatka Regions). The Far East South is much more favorable for economic development than the North. About 30% of the area of the entire region is inhabited by 80% of its inhabitants. The north, on the contrary, is characterized by harsh nature and sparsely populated areas. The development of valuable minerals is the main specialization of the region, which determines its place in the Russian economy. Industrial centers, associated mainly with the extraction of minerals, are significantly removed from each other[97]. There are two most important factors that determine the position of the Far East in the system of Russian regions[98]. First of all - the special economic and geographical position of the region. It is characterized by remoteness from the main, most populated and developed regions of the country, as well as marginality and limited contacts with the only neighbor - Eastern Siberia. The second factor is a powerful resource potential. The Far East is one of the richest regions of Russia. This gives him the opportunity to occupy an important place in the country's economy in a number of raw material positions. Thus, the region produces (%): diamonds - 98, tin - 80, raw boron - 90, gold - 50, tungsten - 14, fish and seafood - more than 40, soybeans - 80, wood - 13, cellulose - 7. 2. Natural resource potential The natural conditions of the Far East are characterized by a sharp contrast, which is due to the vast extent of the territory from north to south. Most of the territory is occupied by mountains and highlands. The height of the mountains is on average 1000-1500 m. Lowlands are located only on relatively small areas along river valleys. Permafrost is widespread in a significant part of the region, which complicates the construction and development of agriculture. There are more than 20 active volcanoes and many geysers in Kamchatka. The largest of the volcanoes is Klyuchevskaya Sopka with a height of 4750 m. The Far East has a rich and diverse mineral resource base. Explored in the region are deposits of diamonds, gold, tin, mercury and tungsten. There are huge fuel resources, a variety of ore raw materials and building materials. The region occupies a leading position in the country in terms of tin reserves, the main deposits of which are located in the Republic of Sakha (Deputatskoye) and in the Magadan region (Nevskoye, Iltinskoye). Primorsky Krai is rich in tin, where its largest industrial developments are concentrated (Khrustalnoe, Lifudzinskoe deposits). There are also tin deposits in the Khabarovsk Territory (Solnechnoye, Festivalnoye, Khinganskoye). Polymetals (lead, zinc, arsenic, silver, cadmium) are found in impurities with tin. A large deposit of polymetallic ores is in Tetyukha in the Primorsky Territory. Mercury deposits have been found in Chukotka, in the northeastern part of Yakutia, and in the Koryak Highlands (Kamchatka Oblast). Tungsten deposits are located in the Magadan region (Iultinsky tin-tungsten deposit) and in the Primorsky Territory (Armu-Imansky district)[99]. The Far East also has raw materials for ferrous metallurgy. Iron ores are concentrated mainly in the south of the Khabarovsk Territory, in the Amur Region and the Republic of Sakha. The Garinskoye deposit stands out in particular. The Malokhingan iron ore region is located on the territory of the Jewish Autonomous Region. The largest deposit in this area is Kimkanskoye. Manganese ores also occur here, mainly in the south of Lesser Khingan. In the south of the Republic of Sakha in the basin of the river. Aldan is located South-Aldan iron ore region. The largest iron ore deposits in the region are Taezhnoe and Pionerskoe[100]. Not far from the South Aldan iron ore region there are large deposits of coking coal - the South Yakutsk (Aldan) coal-bearing area, which favors the creation of ferrous metallurgy in the Far East in the future. The Far East is well provided with fuel and energy resources. The main coal reserves are concentrated in the Kivda-Raichikhinsky brown coal region, Bureinsky, Svobodnensky, Suchansky, Suyfunsky, Uglovsky regions, as well as the Lena and South Yakutsk basins. A number of deposits have been explored on Sakhalin, whose coal-bearing deposits are very diverse in their grade composition[101]. The Far East has oil and gas resources. In the Republic of Sakha, the Leno-Vilyui oil and gas province has been discovered, which has great prospects. The most significant gas fields are Ust-Vilyuiskoye, Nedzhelinskoye, Sredne-Vilyuiskoye, Badaranskoye and Sobo-Khainskoye. The largest oil and gas resources are in Sakhalin. A number of deposits are being exploited here, the largest of which are Kolendo, Tungorskoye, Okhtinskoye, Nekrasovskoye. The Sakhalin shelf is especially promising in terms of oil and gas production. There are reserves of diamonds, especially in the Republic of Sakha, where the Mir, Aikhal, and Udachnaya kimberlite pipes have been explored. Mining is carried out in an open way. In the basins of the Vilyui and Aldan rivers, there are deposits of Icelandic spar and rock crystal. In Primorye (village Yaroslavsky) the largest deposit of fluorspar in Russia was discovered. The Far East occupies an important place in the country in terms of mica reserves - phlogopite. Its main deposits are Timptonskoye and Emeldzhanskoye. Of the chemical raw materials in the region, there are table salt and sulfur. Salt is mined in the Republic of Sakha (Olekminskoye, Kempendyayskoye and Peleduiskoye deposits), and sulfur is mined in Kamchatka (Vetrovo-Yamskoye). Primorye and the Amur region are rich in cement raw materials. Graphite deposits have been discovered in the Jewish Autonomous Region. The climate of the coastal strip of the southern part of the Far East is relatively warm and humid, monsoonal. As you move deeper into the mainland, it becomes sharply continental. A significant part of the territory of the Republic of Sakha and the Magadan region is located beyond the Arctic Circle. Winter in the Far East is cold and dry. Yakutia (near Oymyakon) has the lowest temperature in the Northern Hemisphere (below -50°). Summers are hot in continental areas and cool in coastal areas. The climatic conditions of the region have a great influence on economic development. The Far East has a fairly dense river network. The largest rivers are Lena and Amur with many tributaries. It should also be noted the rivers of the extreme north-eastern part of the region - Yana, Indigirka, Kolyma. Rivers are used as transport routes. In addition, they are exceptionally rich in hydropower resources. Vilyuyskaya, Zeyskaya and Bureyskaya HPPs were built. Abundant summer rains cause river floods with floods, leading to flooding of agricultural land. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out special measures for the protection of crops. But due to the abundance of water in the southern part of the region, typical crops of the Pacific regions of Asia - soybeans and rice - are widespread. In the north, vast areas are occupied by tundra and forest-tundra. The western coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, the northern parts of the Amur region and Sakhalin, the central part of Kamchatka and almost 80% of the territory of the Sakha Republic are occupied by forests dominated by coniferous species - larch, pine, cedar, spruce. South of 50 ° north latitude, coniferous-broad-leaved forests begin, forming the so-called Ussuri taiga, where representatives of the vegetation of the northern and southern latitudes grow nearby. Korean cedar, Manchurian oak, black birch, linden, ash, Amur velvet, cork tree, larch, iron birch, gutta-percha tree, lemongrass grow here. The trees are intertwined with lianas, which makes the Ussuri taiga look like subtropical forests. The Far East exports timber and products of its processing to the countries of the Pacific and Indian Ocean basins. In the south, favorable conditions for agriculture. The main agricultural lands of the region are concentrated here. The forests are rich in valuable fur-bearing animals (ermine, sable, fox, squirrel, Siberian weasel), which are of commercial importance. The seas (the Bering Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan) play an exceptionally large and diverse role in the economy of the Far East. There are routes along the Sea of Japan that connect Russia with Japan, the DPRK, the Republic of Korea, China, and the USA. The commercial resources of the Sea of Japan are significant and varied. Herring, flounder, cod, salmon, mackerel and a number of other valuable commercial species are caught here. In the Sea of Japan, crabs, trepangs, seaweed and seaweed are also harvested. The Sea of Okhotsk occupies one of the first places among the seas washing the coast of Russia in terms of fish stocks. Salmon and herring make up the bulk of the total fish catch. Crabs are caught in large quantities off the western coast of Kamchatka, seal and whale hunting is developed in the Sea of Okhotsk, fur seals live on the islands, the fishing of which is regulated by an international convention. The Bering Sea is gaining more and more economic importance every year due to the growth of traffic along the Northern Sea Route. Valuable species of fish (coho salmon, chinook salmon, chum salmon, pink salmon) are mined here. Off the coast of Kamchatka, whaling is developed. The Far East region accounts for 60% of the fish catch in Russia. 3. Population, labor resources The population of the Far East is 7,6 million people. The urban population is about 76%. The Far East is the most sparsely populated region of the country. Average density 1,1 people per 1 km2. The population is distributed very unevenly across the region. Primorsky Krai stands out with the highest density - 12,1 people. The southern part of Sakhalin is quite densely populated. At the same time, in the Republic of Sakha, Magadan and Kamchatka regions, the population density is only 0,3-0,8 people per 1 km2. The development of the Far East during the period of industrialization and the ill-conceived national policy at the same time caused acute demographic problems. The destruction of the habitat of small peoples has put them on the brink of extinction. Therefore, at present, the task is to promote in every possible way the transformation of the habitat of these peoples, the creation of favorable social conditions for their normal life and the revival of traditions. As in other regions of Russia, in the Far East, in the initial period of the formation of the market, the problem of employment arose, the unemployed appeared, which was primarily due to the conversion of the defense complex. Social problems have escalated. In territorial terms, production and population gravitate towards the southern regions, which are more or less favorable in terms of climate and transport. Almost all enterprises of mechanical engineering, the defense complex, the black, oil refining, timber and woodworking industries, railways, large transit ports of all-Russian significance are located here. The main largest cities of the region are also concentrated here. The population in the southern territories and regions is 5 million people, or 2/3 of the total population of the Far East. The northern territories, which for the most part are absolutely uncomfortable and extremely uncomfortable, have a focal type of settlement. The population gravitates towards places of extraction of certain natural resources and transport hubs. The sectoral monospecialization of such centers and the small size of the settlement systems around them do not allow more or less complete human reproduction here. Many similar territories abroad are developed to a limited extent on the basis of specific approaches (temporary population, rotational organization of production). 4. Territorial organization and structure of production forces The leading branches of market specialization of the Far East region are based on the wide use of its natural resources. The main branches of industry, with which the region acts in the inter-district division of labor, are fishing, timber and mining. Of the industries that strengthen the integrated development of the region, machine building and metalworking, fuel and energy, building materials, food and light industries have received significant development. The leading place among the branches of market specialization of the Far East region belongs to the metallurgical complex, which includes the mining industry, as well as conversion ferrous metallurgy. The mining industry of the region is the extraction of gold, diamonds, tin-bearing, tungsten, lead-zinc and other ores, the production of non-ferrous metals, as well as conversion ferrous metallurgy. It is obvious that the mining industry is guided by the reserves of raw materials, therefore, the centers of the mining industry are located near rich deposits of raw materials. Also of great importance are the following 2 factors: the factor of natural conditions and the environmental factor. The "Queen of the Far East" continues to be the gold mining industry, which is one of the oldest branches of the national economy of the region. Enterprises of this industry are located throughout the Far East. Gold mining has long been carried out in the basins of the Zeya, Selemdzhi, Bureya, Amgun rivers, in the mountains of the Aldan Highlands, Khingan and Sikhote-Alin. Now new areas have become gold mining areas - Kolyma-Indigirsky and Chukotsky; in the first, gold mining began in the 1930s, in the second - in the 1960s. The Magadan region and the Republic of Sakha give 2/3 of all gold in Russia. The oldest gold mining area is the Amur Region. It was she who at one time created world fame for the Far East as the largest gold-bearing region. And today the Amur region gives the country a lot of gold. The main method of gold mining here is the cheapest, dredge. The Kolyma-Indigirsky mining region is connected by a highway with Magadan and Yakutsk, and by sea with the south of the Far East region. Placement of gold mining is focal in nature. The boundaries of the centers are determined by the areas of distribution of ore formations and alluvial gold of the developed deposits, the creation of common service areas and infrastructure for a certain group of mines: power plants, construction, repair, supply and trade bases, schools with boarding schools, medical institutions. This focal nature of the mining industry is typical, by the way, for other northern regions of the Far East. Extraction and enrichment of tin-bearing ores in the Far East are also common in many places. In terms of tin mining, the Khabarovsk Territory became one of the leading regions of the country after the war. The first-born of the tin-mining industry here is the Khingalovo plant, which in 1948 produced the first concentrate at its concentrating plant. In the 1960s in the Khabarovsk Territory, the Solnechny tin mining and processing plant was put into operation. Now two quarries and a processing plant are operating at this plant. In addition to Chukotka, mining and enrichment of tin-bearing ores are carried out in the Verkhne-Ayansky region of Yakutia, where ores are mined at the Deputatsky Combine with the highest tin content and therefore cheaper than in other places in Russia. Tin-bearing ores are also mined in the west of the Jewish Autonomous Region and near Komsomolsk. But their extraction was especially significant in the south of Sikhote-Alin, in the Dalnegorsk-Kavalerovo region. A large complex of various mining industries has developed here. Even before the revolution, gold mining and the development of lead-zinc ores began, and in the Soviet years several tin mining and processing enterprises were built. The area has a developed transport network, unified bases for the repair of mining equipment. The centers of the mining industry have been created for the extraction of diamonds in the Verkhne-Vilyuisky region of Yakutia. A city of diamond miners has already grown here - Mirny, connected by a highway with Lensk, and the Vilyui hydroelectric power station has been built. Centers for the development of diamonds are being created at the Aikhal and Udachnoye deposits, where a motor road has been laid. The Far Eastern seas constitute the richest base of the fishing industry. They provide 60% of fish production in Russia. The presence of rich and diverse fish resources and the equipment of fishing with modern equipment ensure high efficiency of fishing: the cost of raw fish here is lower than in the northern and western seas adjacent to the European macrozone. The vast forest wealth of the Far East (about 11 billion m3) led to the creation of one of the largest logging and wood processing complexes here, the effectiveness of which is determined by the concentration of large forest resources, including many valuable species of wood, with a high proportion of mature and overripe trees in the forests. In 1969, the export of timber in the Far East amounted to 24 million m3 (including 20 million m3 - business), and in 1993 - 35 million m3. This industry was not particularly affected by the decline in production, and, according to some data, the export of timber in 1995 slightly exceeded the same indicator in 1993.2 out of every 100 m2 territory. The main logging bases are located in the territories adjacent to the Lower and Middle Amur and the entire Ussuri, to the middle Zeya and Bureya, in the center and south of Sakhalin and in the upper reaches of the Lena river basin. A new timber industry base is now being created in the area adjacent to the Baikal-Amur Mainline. Most of the wood - over 40% - is harvested by the Khabarovsk Territory (it produces more than 40% of lumber, 70% of plywood and more than 20% of cardboard), almost 20% - Primorsky and about 10% - Sakhalin, Amur region and Yakutia. Larch, spruce, cedar and fir are mainly cut down, and in the Amu and Ussurye - and broad-leaved forests; small-leaved forests are used very little. Among the forest products exported from the Khabarovsk Territory, one should first of all name standard houses, plywood, containers, parquet, coniferous vitamin flour, fodder yeast, ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. In Primorsky Krai, a significant increase in timber harvesting, the production of lumber, plywood, fiberboard and chipboard occurred in the 1970s-1980s. Approximately then, new capacities came into operation at the Iman woodworking plant, Artemovsky and Imansky sawmills, and the Ussuriysk woodworking plant. Cities such as Lesozavodsk and Iman became centers of woodworking. Their products - lumber, plywood, furniture, parquet, prefabricated houses, barrels, boxes, skis, chipboard and fibreboard - are in high demand. About 2/3 of timber and products of its processing are sent to other regions and for export to Japan, Cuba (in 1993-1995, deliveries to Cuba decreased significantly), Australia and other countries. The complex of mechanical engineering and metalworking includes large industries of the region. They account for 1/5 of the cost of manufactured industrial products and almost 1/3 of industrial production personnel. Mechanical engineering proper is developed only in the Primorsky and Khabarovsk Territories and in the Amur Region; in other regions and Yakutia, repairs and the production of some spare parts for machines and equipment of the local economy have been established. The most developed shipbuilding and ship repair, directly related to the fishing industry, sea and river transport. There are shipbuilding and ship repair enterprises in the sea and river ports of the region. They build small and medium-sized fishing vessels and repair large ones. Branches of mechanical engineering for the production and repair of equipment for the fishing, mining and forestry industries are developing. There are enterprises of this profile in Vladivostok, Khabarovsk and some other cities. The industry of the construction complex is represented by cement plants in the Primorsky and Khabarovsk Territories and the Sakhalin Region, plants for reinforced concrete structures and building parts, mainly in large cities, and enterprises for the production of building materials. However, the scale of development of the industry is still insufficient. Of particular importance here is the creation of large bases for the industry of building materials in connection with the outstripping pace of the housing construction program in order to significantly improve the life of the population of the region and consolidate the influx of new settlers. In the northeast of Sakhalin - from Okha to Katangli - oil is being produced. From here, through two oil pipelines, it enters the oil refineries of Komsomolsk-on-Amur and Khabarovsk. But the size of oil production on the island is small and far from satisfying the needs of the region. Therefore, a lot of oil and oil products are imported to the Far East from Western Siberia. The problems of oil and gas production on the shelf of Sakhalin Island are being successfully solved. In the future, the Far East will have to develop not only the Sakhalin shelf, but also other areas of the Sea of Okhotsk, in particular, the shelf of the Magadan coast and the western coast of Kamchatka. Oil-bearing structures have been discovered in the Bering Sea. The shelf of the Arctic seas has a high predictive estimate of hydrocarbon reserves. The development of the Leno-Vilyui gas-bearing province, whose natural gas is already supplied to Yakutsk, is of great importance for the long-term development of the fuel and energy economy of the region. Oil and gas-bearing Sakhalin is connected to the mainland (in addition to the existing oil pipeline) by the Okha-Komsomolsk-on-Amur gas pipeline. The main electric power capacities of the Far East are concentrated in the southern part of the region, where they are connected to a common power system. The power centers of the northern territories operate in isolation, have a lower capacity and provide local consumers. Hydroelectric power plants and thermal power plants in the southern part of the region predominate among the operating power plants. The largest HPP is Zeyaskaya (1,3 million kW). The construction of the largest hydroelectric power station in the region - Bureyskaya (2 million kW) is underway. The creation of cascades of HPPs in Vilyui and Kolyma continues. In the north, we have our first ATEC - Bilibinskaya, as well as the Pauzhetskaya geothermal power plant in Kamchatka. The task set before the national economy of the Far East is to fully satisfy its energy needs at the expense of its own resources. 5. Agro-industrial complex Agriculture plays an important role in the comprehensive development of the Far East. The main agricultural lands here are located in the Middle Amur region, the Ussuri region and the Khanka plain, they account for 95% of the sown area of the region. The entire sown area of the Far East is almost 3 million hectares, including about 40% under grain crops, 35% under soybeans, 6% -7% under potatoes and vegetables, and 15-20% under fodder crops. The Far East is the main region of soybean production. It accounts for over 90% of all our crops of this valuable crop. In the southern part of the region, potatoes and vegetables are grown everywhere, the population of Primorsky Krai and the Amur Region is fully provided with these products through local production, but in general, the needs of the population in these crops in the region are not yet fully satisfied. The Far Eastern taiga, mainly mountainous areas, is rich in fur and other game animals. Hunting and fur farming are especially developed in the northern regions, throughout the Sikhote-Alin and on Sakhalin. Fur farms have been organized for breeding sables, arctic foxes, silver-black foxes, musk deer and deer. Transport and economic relations The economic development of the region to a large extent depends on the accelerated development of transport, since the sparse population requires the active functioning of intra-regional communications based on the close interaction of various modes of transport. All existing modes of transport function in the Far East region, but the main role is played by the railway. It accounts for up to 80% of transported goods. In a significant amount, inter-district and intra-district transportation of goods in the Far East region is carried out by sea. Navigation in the harsh Arctic seas is provided with the help of icebreakers. The Lena River adjoins the Northern Sea Route, forming a transport bridge between the railway line and the sea route along the shores of the Arctic Ocean. A completely different mode of operation of maritime transport in the Pacific seas. Almost all year round, intra-regional and international transportation is carried out along the Sea of Japan and the Bering Sea. The main cargoes in transportation in the Far East region are timber, coal, building materials, oil, fish and food products. The largest ports of these seas are Tiksi, Vanino, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Nagaevo (Magadan), Vladivostok, Nakhodka, Sovetskaya Gavan. The district is poorly provided with motor roads. But in areas cut off from other transport routes, the importance of motor transport is great. For long-distance transportation, there are several major highways, for example, the Never-Aldan-Yakutsk road leads from the south to the Republic of Sakha. The northernmost road runs from Yakutsk to Magadan. The road Khabarovsk - Birobidzhan, the Kolyma tract is of great transport importance. In addition to highways in the north of the region, there are many winter roads and local roads. The network of highways is more developed in the southern regions of the Far East. The importance of air transport for the Far East is enormous both for communications with other regions of Russia and for intra-regional transportation (especially for passenger transportation). Airplanes and helicopters provide communications with hard-to-reach areas. In the vast expanses of the north of the Far East, along with other modes of transport, reindeer transport is preserved. LECTURE No. 17. East Siberian economic region Territory of Eastern Siberia stretches from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the border with Mongolia, from the Yenisei to the upper reaches of the Amur. The area covers an area of 4,1 million km2, 24% of the area of the Russian Federation, the population is 9,2 million people, its density is 2,2 people / km2. It includes the republics of Buryatia, Tuva, Krasnoyarsk Territory, Irkutsk and Chita regions. Climate type sharply continental, average January temperature -26 oC, average July temperature +16,7 oC, the duration of the frost-free period is 58-108 days, the annual amount of precipitation is 300-700 mm. Permafrost is widespread, mainly in the north. Of the total land area of 412,3 million hectares, 57% is covered with forest, mostly coniferous. Timber reserves amount to 29 billion m3. East Siberian economic region - one of the most dynamically developing regions of Russia. It concentrates unique natural resources, powerful production potential and highly qualified personnel. Eastern Siberia produces about 12% of the entire mining industry, 7,7% of the fuel industry, 15,3% of the forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries, and 23% of the non-ferrous metallurgy of Russia. The main prerequisite for economic development is exceptional wealth of natural resources - mineral, water, forest, land. The region's coal reserves are twice the size of those of the United States. Eastern Siberia accounts for about 40% of the total timber reserves. The East Siberian Economic Region specializes in the production of the country's cheapest electricity and fuel extraction (Kansk-Achinsk coal basin), ensuring the development of energy-intensive and heat-intensive industries. Valuable types of mineral raw materials are mined in the region, logging and timber processing industry are developed. One of the branches of the mining industry in Eastern Siberia is gold mining. Tin, tungsten and molybdenum are mined in Transbaikalia, the Udokan copper deposit and the deposit of lead-zinc ores are being developed. In the north, near Norilsk, large reserves of nickel, cobalt, copper and other valuable metals are being developed. Of particular importance are the reserves of mica and salt in the Irkutsk region and fluorspar in the Chita region, in the Krasnoyarsk Territory along the rivers Kureika and Nizhnyaya Tunguska, in the Eastern Sayan there are the largest reserves of graphite in the country, asbestos is mined in Tuva, its large reserves have been explored in the north of Buryatia. . Manufacturing industries are represented by the following types and volumes of products: 1) rolled ferrous metals - 152,4 thousand tons (Krasnoyarsk Territory, Irkutsk Region); 2) steel - 30 thousand tons (Irkutsk region); 3) metal-cutting machines - 0,8 thousand pieces. (Chita region); 4) paper - 110,9 thousand tons (Krasnoyarsk Territory); 5) cardboard - 477,9 thousand tons (Irkutsk Region, Krasnoyarsk Territory); 6) shoes - 6,73 million pairs (Irkutsk Region, Krasnoyarsk Territory). In addition, equipment for the mining industry, chemical fibers, rubber, tires, copper, cobalt, and nickel are produced in the region. Due to the large volumes of construction, the region of Eastern Siberia is experiencing a shortage of building materials, whose production is: 1) cement - 7,2 million tons; 2) prefabricated reinforced concrete structures and products - 4,1 million m2; 3) panels and other structures of large-panel housing construction - 1,5 million m2; 4) building bricks - 1044 million pieces. conv. bricks; 5) building glass - 17,7 million m2. Increasing the production of building materials is possible on the basis of local building materials (clay, limestone, sand, gravel, dolomites, marls, gypsum, granite) and by-products of specialization industries (overburden and side rocks of deposits, coal mining waste, slag and ash). The natural and climatic conditions of Eastern Siberia are quite favorable for agricultural production (grain, meat, milk, eggs, potatoes, vegetables), but at present, at the expense of its own resources, the region fully satisfies its needs only in grain and potatoes. Agriculture specializes in meat and dairy farming and grain production. The consumption of food products in the region is provided by local production by less than 2/3, which is largely due to the insufficient development of processing industries. Increasing the mass of commodity resources will require the creation of a network of small enterprises specialized in the processing of local agricultural raw materials. Farms have an average land plot size of about 66 hectares. The transport network of Eastern Siberia is underdeveloped. The provision of the territory with railways and paved roads is lower than the average level in Russia by 2,4 and 2,6 times, respectively. The main transit and intra-regional transportation is carried out along the latitudinal railway lines - the Main Siberian, South Siberian and Baikal-Amur. The share of road transport accounts for about 80% of the total volume of cargo transportation. The main rivers of the region of Eastern Siberia are the Yenisei, the Lower and Podkamennaya Tunguska, the Angara, the Biryusa, the Khatanga, the Olenyok, and the Selenga. Navigation on these rivers is approximately 130-150 days a year. Of the lakes, the largest - Baikal, navigable 130 days a year, and lakes Taimyr, Lama, Khantayskoye, Pyasino - are not navigable. A large volume of transportation is carried out by water transport, mainly along the Yenisei to the north of Glavsib and along the Lena down to Ust-Kut. The Northern Sea Route is used to supply cargo to the northern regions of Eastern Siberia, in particular the Norilsk industrial area. The main seaports are Dudinka and Igarka. External and internal communications are carried out by air transport and pipelines. Air communication is provided through the airports of Krasnoyarsk, Abakan, Irkutsk, Norilsk, Bratsk, Cheremkhovo, Taishet, Ust-Ilimsk, Ust-Kuba, Ulan-Ude, Chita, Kyzyl. Customs points are located in Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Taishet, Ulan-Ude, Chita. The existing level of development of communication facilities in Eastern Siberia does not meet the growing needs of the national economy and the population. Below the normative availability of telephone communications for the population of the district: the average telephone density is 19,1 telephones per 100 families, while in rural areas the telephone density is 1,6 times lower than in urban areas. The intensive development of industries has led to a tense ecological state of Eastern Siberia. In terms of the amount of emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere, Eastern Siberia ranks 3rd among the economic regions of Russia, and 4th in terms of the volume of discharged polluted wastewater. The largest volume of gas emissions is allocated to Norilsk. Free economic zones have been created in Buryatia and the Chita region. Notes
Author: Guseva V.S.
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