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Table of contents

1. The nature of management (The concept of management, its necessity. Definitions of management. Management as a special type of activity, its specifics. Organization as an object of management: components, levels, main processes. Elements of the management process. Management functions. Management personnel and their roles. Necessary skills and manager quality)
2. Evolution of management thought (Classical school in management. Schools of human relations and behavioral sciences. Quantitative approach to management. System and situational approaches. Theory 7-S. American, European and Japanese models of management. "New management philosophy")
3. Internal and external environment of the organization (The content of the concept of "environment of the organization". The internal environment and its variables: managers, employees, culture. Organizational culture, its elements and types. External environment of direct and indirect impact. Characteristics of the external environment. The organization's response to changes in the external environment )
4. Management ethics and social responsibility of an organization (The concept of management ethics. Criteria-based approaches to ethical decision-making. Ways to improve the ethical behavior of managers and ordinary employees. Problems of ethics and social responsibility in domestic organizations)
5. Making managerial decisions (The concept of a managerial decision and its place in the management process. Classification of managerial decisions. Factors influencing the decision-making process. Group decision-making)
6. Strategic management (The concept of strategic management, its necessity and features. The essence and significance of strategic planning. Strategy, its elements and levels. Strategy formulation: main stages and tools. Variety of strategies: corporate strategy and its types; business strategy and its types; functional organization strategy)
7. Management structure (The concept of the management structure and the factors that determine it. Building a vertical structure: division of labor, chain of command, delegation of authority, norm of manageability, centralization and decentralization, coordination. Departmentalization. Functional, divisional and matrix structures. Structure "team" and network structure )
8. Communications in an organization (The concept and role of communications in management. The process of communications, its elements and stages. Forms of interpersonal communications and their barriers. Forms of organizational communications, their barriers. Types of communication networks. Management of communications in an organization)
9. Motivation of personnel in the organization. Management methods (The concept and model of motivation. Development of the concept of motivation by different schools of management. Content theories of motivation: A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs; F. Herzberg's two-factor theory; McClelland's theory of acquired needs; K. Alderfer's ERG theory. Process theories of motivation: justice theory, theory of expectations, model, concept and classification of management methods, basic principles of management)
10. Leadership in an organization (The nature of leadership and its basis. The balance of power and its forms. Effective leadership style: an approach from the standpoint of personal qualities; behavioral and situational approaches. Classification of leadership styles in a behavioral approach. Managerial grid R. Blake. Situational theories of leadership Fidler, Hersey -Blanchard, Reddin, Vroom-Yetton Women's Leadership)
11. Group management (Groups in an organization and their types. Informal groups and their causes. Management of an informal group. Characteristics of groups and their effectiveness. Group processes. Creation and management of teams. Advantages and disadvantages of working in teams)
12. Managing conflicts and stresses (Nature and types of conflicts in the organization. Causes and consequences of conflicts. Methods for resolving a conflict situation. Causes of stress and reducing its level)
13. Change management in an organization (Nature, model and stages of the change management process. Types of organizational change. Methods for resolving a conflict situation. The concept of organizational development)
14. Self-management (The need, nature and benefits of self-management. Symptoms and causes of the irrational organization of the work of managers. Self-management tools: "life curve", a time series for ranking life goals, analysis of one's strengths and weaknesses, setting priorities using ABC analysis and the Eisenhower principle. Delegation : meaning, rules, causes of resistance of subordinates and leaders)
15. Human resource management (Changing the place of human resource management in an organization. Goals and functions of HR management. Strategic and operational roles of HR management. Stages of HR management. Attracting an effective workforce. HR planning, sources, methods and criteria for recruitment and selection of personnel. Formation of an effective workforce. Personnel training and development Career management Maintaining a high workforce performance Determining employee compensation systems Dismissal)
16. The nature of control in an organization (The concept of control, its goals and areas. Stages of the control process. Forms of operational control. Forms of organizational control)

1. The concept of management, its necessity. Management definitions

Management is the management of people working in the same organization with a common end goal. But management is not just managing people, an organization, but its special form, it is management in a market, market economy, that is, in conditions of constant change, risk. Therefore, management is aimed at creating favorable conditions (technical, economic, psychological, etc.) for the functioning of the organization, to achieve its success.

The main components of success are:

1) the survival of the organization in the long term;

2) performance;

3) efficiency.

From these positions, management appears as a complex system of data from the science of management, the experience of the best managers in the world and the art of management.

As a system of scientific data, management is a set of philosophies, models, strategies, principles, methods and styles of managing an organization, production and personnel in order to increase its efficiency and increase profits.

2. Management as a special type of activity, its specifics

Management is a specific type of labor activity. It stood out as a special kind of labor together with cooperation and division of labor. In terms of cooperation, each manufacturer performs only part of the overall work, therefore, to achieve a common result, efforts are required to connect, coordinate the activities of all participants in the joint labor process. Management establishes coherence between individual works and performs general functions arising from the movement of the organization as a whole. In this capacity, management establishes a common connection and unity of action for all participants in the joint production process to achieve the overall goals of the organization. This is the essence of the management process.

It is difficult to give a complete definition of management, since it is a very complex, multifaceted phenomenon. There are over 300 definitions of management. Lee Iacocca believes that management is nothing more than "getting people to work."

Akio Morita writes that the quality of a manager can be judged by how well he can organize a large number of people and how effectively he can get the best results from each of them, merging their work into a single whole.

Peter Drucker defines management as a special kind of activity that turns an unorganized crowd into a focused, effective and efficient group.

Werner Siegert emphasizes that to manage means to lead to the success of others.

Michael Mescon believes that management is the process of planning, organizing, motivating and controlling, necessary in order to formulate and achieve the goals of the organization through other people.

You can give the following definition: management is the preparation, adoption and implementation of decisions in all areas of the organization's activities aimed at achieving the planned goals.

All the given definitions of management have something in common - it is the influence of the subject of management on the object of management with a specific purpose.

Management as a special kind of labor differs from labor that creates material goods and services. It does not take a direct part in the creation of wealth, but is, as it were, next to this process, directs it.

Management specifics are:

1) the object of labor, which is the labor of other people;

2) means of labor - organizational and computer technology, information, a system for its collection, processing and transmission;

3) the object of labor, which is a team of people within the framework of a certain cooperation;

4) the product of labor, which is a management decision;

5) the results of labor, expressed in the final results of the activities of the team.

3. Organization as an object of management: components, levels, main processes

An organization is a relatively autonomous group of people whose activities are consciously coordinated to achieve a common goal. It is a planned system of cumulative (cooperative) efforts, in which each participant has his own, clearly defined role, tasks or responsibilities that must be fulfilled.

These responsibilities are distributed among the participants in the name of achieving the goals that the organization sets for itself, and not in the name of satisfying individual wishes, even if the two often coincide. The organization has certain boundaries, which are determined by the types of activities, the number of employees, capital, production area, territory, material resources, etc. Usually they are fixed, fixed in such documents as the charter, memorandum of association, regulation.

Organizations are private and public firms, government agencies, public associations, cultural institutions, educational institutions, etc. Any organization consists of three main elements. These are the people included in this organization, the goals and objectives for which it is created, and the management that forms and mobilizes the organization's potential to solve the challenges.

Any organization is an open system built into the external environment with which the organization is in a state of constant exchange. At the input, it receives resources from the external environment; at the output, it gives the created product to the external environment. Therefore, the life of the organization consists of three main processes:

1) obtaining resources from the external environment;

2) transformation of resources into a finished product;

3) transfer of the produced product to the external environment.

At the same time, a key role is played by the management process, which maintains the correspondence between these processes, and also mobilizes the resources of the organization for the implementation of these processes.

In a modern organization, the processes carried out at the inputs and outputs are the main ones, which ensure the correspondence between the organization and its environment. The implementation of internal processes, the production function is subject to ensuring the long-term readiness of the organization to adapt to changes in the external environment.

4. Elements of the management process. Control functions

Management is a single process, which is represented by different managerial employees or bodies. The purpose of their interaction is to develop a single control action on the control object. Management personnel include managers (managers), specialists and employees (technical performers). The central place in management is occupied by the manager. He leads a certain team, he owns the right to make and control management decisions, it is he who bears full responsibility for the results of the work of the team.

A manager is a leader, a professional manager who holds a permanent position and is empowered to make decisions on specific activities of the organization. Specialists are employees who perform certain management functions. They analyze the information and prepare solutions for the managers at the appropriate level. The unnamed workers are served by technical performers: secretaries, referents, technicians, etc.

So, the management process includes the following elements: a control system (management subject), a controlled system (management object), a control action in the form of a management decision, an end result, a common goal and feedback, which is the transfer of information about the results of the control action from the control object to its subject.

Management as a single process that ensures the consistency of the joint labor process is carried out in different forms, through different management functions. They represent a form of achieving connection and unity of the joint labor process and are implemented through certain types of activities. Allocation of individual functions in management is an objective process. It is generated by the complexity of production and management. The composition of the control functions should ensure an effective response of the control system to any change in the controlled system and the external environment.

Direct control action on the control object is the interaction of three functions: planning, organization and motivation. Feedback is provided by the control function. These are the main management functions, they take place in any, even a small enterprise. In addition to the main ones, there are specific or specific management functions. Their set and content depend on the specifics of the managed object. These functions are associated with the management of a specific area, area of ​​the organization. These include: main production management, auxiliary production management, human resource management, financial management, marketing management, innovation management, etc.

In real economic life, the functions of the management process are manifested in the functions of the governing bodies, and the latter in the functions of their employees. Therefore, management functions act as purposeful types of labor, and management itself - as their totality. The work of specific managerial employees is actions, operations related to the preparation, adoption and implementation of managerial decisions. It embodies the impact of the subject of control on the managed object.

Since management is a specific type of work, a special profession, there must be general characteristics in the content of the work of managers. They are brevity, diversity and fragmentation.

5. Management personnel and their roles

Managerial activity can be described in terms of the performance by managers of 10 roles that managers play at different periods and to varying degrees. G. Mintzberg grouped these roles into 3 conceptual categories: informational (information management); interpersonal (people management) and decision-making (action management). A role is a set of representations of a manager's behavior. Each role involves the performance of certain activities, which ultimately ensures the performance of all four managerial functions (planning, organization, motivation and control).

Informational roles consist of collecting information about the internal and external environment, disseminating it in the form of facts, normative guidelines and explaining the policy and main goals of the organization.

Interpersonal roles involve the interaction of a manager with other people both inside and outside the organization. They form relationships inside and outside the organization, create a favorable moral and psychological climate in the team, motivate members of the organization to achieve goals, coordinate their activities and represent the organization in the external environment.

Decision-making roles are expressed in the fact that the manager determines the organization's development strategy, decides on the allocation of resources, negotiates with trade unions, clients, and makes current adjustments.

6. Necessary skills and qualities of a manager

A manager must have a variety of managerial skills and abilities. Usually they are combined into three groups: conceptual, communicative, technical. An effective manager must possess all three types of skills, but the degree to which they are needed depends on the position of the manager on the corporate ladder. Senior managers must first of all have conceptual skills, lower managers - technical ones. Managers of any level should equally possess communication skills.

Having listed the skills necessary for a manager, we note the qualities of an effective leader. Since management is a science, a profession, therefore, in order to master it, one must undergo special training. But beyond that, management is an art. It requires organizational skills, a kind of leadership talent. The manager must first of all be a good organizer with a sober, prudent mind, have the gift of foresight, courage, determination, the ability to take risks, must be an innovator, receptive to new ideas, and have business acumen. Must be able to build and regulate relationships and the psychological climate in the team. In addition, he must also possess high moral qualities: honesty, decency, justice, diligence, kindness. Let's name certain physical characteristics: impressive appearance, activity, energy, health.

LECTURE No. 2. The evolution of managerial thought

1. Classical school in management

Management knowledge appeared long before our era and long before management took shape as an independent scientific discipline and profession. Management was recognized as an independent field of activity only in the XNUMXth century. Along with the change in the practice of management, the teachings about management also changed.

The emergence of modern management science dates back to the beginning of the 1903th century and is associated with the name of Frederick Taylor. His main theoretical provisions are set forth in the works "Management of the Factory" (1911), "Principles of Scientific Management" (1912), "Deposition before a special committee of Congress" (XNUMX). An explosion of interest in management was caused by his second work, which is considered the beginning of the recognition of management as a science and an independent field of research.

Thus, F. Taylor is a representative of the classical school of management, which in turn had two directions: the school of scientific management, the founder of which is F. Taylor, and the school of administrative management, headed by Henri Fayol. Scientific management dealt with the problem of increasing the productivity of individual workers. Administrative management focused on managing the entire organization as a whole. F. Taylor formulated the essence of his theory as follows: "science was created instead of traditional skills; harmony instead of contradictions; cooperation instead of individual work; maximum productivity instead of limiting productivity; development of each individual worker to the maximum productivity available to him; maximum well-being." It is possible to single out the main provisions of his concept.

1. The division of production operations into constituent elements, the study of each of them. Development of standard methods for performing each operation and replacing them with old, established methods of work.

2. Selection of workers for each operation, taking into account the necessary abilities; training them in new working methods for the best performance of operations.

3. Establishment of differentiated wages depending on the implementation of established norms.

4. Cooperation between management and workers in the implementation of the new labor organization.

5. Equal distribution of labor and responsibility between the administration and workers.

F. Taylor advocated the separation of managerial functions of thinking and planning from the actual performance of work. He believed that a manager should think and a worker should work. He considered the main task of enterprise management to be the provision of maximum profit for the entrepreneur in combination with maximum welfare for each employed worker. F. Taylor emphasized that the true interests of both are not opposite, but coincide. The well-being of one in the long run cannot be without the well-being of the other.

The main contribution of F. Taylor to the science of management is as follows:

1) he laid the foundation for a thorough study of the labor process, its individual operations and works;

2) stressed the importance of selecting and training personnel for specific operations;

3) proved the importance of fair remuneration for the work performed.

Weaknesses of his theory:

1) F. Taylor saw in an employee only a performer of simple operations and functions, a means to an end;

2) he did not take into account the social context of the work and the higher needs of workers, other than material ones;

3) did not recognize disagreements, contradictions, conflicts between people;

4) was inclined to treat the workers as ignorant, uneducated people, ignored their ideas and suggestions. So, F. Taylor dealt mainly with the issues of production management in the shop, the rationalization of the labor of an individual worker. Alexander Bogdanov, Alexei Gastev, Osip Yermansy, Platon Kerzhentsev and others made a great contribution to the development of issues of organizing labor and production in relation to Russia.

But from the 20s, the development of more general principles of organization, approaches to enterprise management as a whole began. A. Fayol is considered the founder of this direction in the classical school. His main work is General and Industrial Management (1916). In it, A. Fayol develops general principles of administration. To manage, he argued, means to lead the enterprise to its goal, extracting the maximum opportunities from all available resources. In his opinion, administration is an integral part of management, which covers the broader activities of the enterprise and includes the following functions: production, commercial, financial, insurance, accounting and administrative. Analyzing the administrative function, A. Fayol identifies 5 of its elements: foresight, organization, command, coordination and control. It was the first attempt to present management as a single universal process consisting of interrelated functions.

A. Fayol developed the principles of management, which he considered universal, applicable to any administrative activity. However, in practice, the application of these principles should be flexible, depending on the situation in which management is carried out. These principles are:

1) division of labor;

2) power (the right to give orders and the force that compels them to obey);

3) discipline (following certain rules, principles in the organization);

4) unity of management (unity of command);

5) unity of leadership (one boss, one program);

6) subordination of private interests to the general;

7) remuneration of personnel (it should stimulate work with the highest return);

8) centralization;

9) hierarchy (building a chain of commands from the leader to the subordinate);

10) order (everyone should know their place in the organization);

11) justice (equality);

12) the constancy of the staff;

13) initiative (the ability to create and implement a plan. The initiative of everyone, joined to the initiative of the authorities, is a great strength for the enterprise);

14) unity of personnel (harmony and corporate spirit).

The further development of the classical school took place in two directions: the rationalization of production and the study of general problems of management. Here you can highlight the work of Harrington Emerson, Lindell Urvik, Max Weber.

2. Schools of Human Relations and Behavioral Sciences

The logical conclusion and implementation of the concepts of the classical school was the empire of Henry Ford. He, like G. Emerson, focused on the entire production process, but also used the principles of F. Taylor for the scientific organization of workers' labor. These principles he applied in mass production. G. Ford called his control system "terror machine". Strict regulation of the work of workers, the conveyor system, standardization of technology led to the fact that the enterprise acted like an automaton.

So, the representatives of the classical school developed the principles, recommendations and rules of the compulsory system of work, built on scientific norms. This system eliminates the influence of individual workers. Such a mechanical interpretation of the place of man in production could not lead to the unity of interests of entrepreneurs and workers. As the president of one company noted, "Every person has a body, mind and soul. Each of these parts, especially the soul, must be used to achieve maximum performance." This goal was sought to achieve by representatives of another school - human relations.

The theory of human relations draws attention to people. It provides knowledge about how people interact and respond to different situations in an effort to satisfy their needs. The school is trying to build models of behavior in contrast to the classical one, which built models of the organization.

The founders of a new direction in management theory are Elton Mayo and Mary Parker Follet. If F. Taylor promised managers an increase in labor productivity, then E. Mayo promised an increase in the prestige and devotion of subordinates.

The theory of human relations arose on the basis of a generalization of the results of experiments with groups of workers at the factories of the Western Electric company in Hawthorne, which lasted 13 years (1927-1939).

E. Mayo came to the conclusion that the productivity of workers depends not only on working conditions, material incentives and actions of the administration, but also on the social and psychological climate among workers. The main recommendations of this school come down to identifying the role of relationships in small informal groups and using the psychological and social characteristics of the group, establishing interpersonal relationships to increase job satisfaction.

Representatives of this school questioned a number of theses of the classical school. For example, the maximum division of labor, which led to the impoverishment of the content of labor, as well as coordination through the hierarchy. They believed that the direction of power only from the top down is not effective. In this regard, coordination through commissions was proposed. In a new way, they approached the principle of delegation of responsibility. It was viewed as a two-way process. The lower levels of the organization delegate up the functions of administration and coordination of activities, and the upper ones delegate down the right to make decisions within their production functions. The school paid much attention to motivation and communication.

Further, the concept of human relations was developed by the school of behavioral sciences. Its representatives were Abraham Maslow, Chris Argyris, Douglas McGregor, Frederick Herzberg. The goal of this school was to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources, which are the main resources of the organization. The school focused on studying and creating conditions for the fullest realization of the abilities and potential of each employee. Therefore, it is necessary to develop cooperation with subordinates. To establish it, it is useful to know the theory X and the theory Y of D. McGregor, in which he presented two main approaches to the organization of management. Theory X is characterized by the following view of man.

1. The average person is naturally lazy and tries to avoid work.

2. He lacks ambition, he does not like responsibility, lacks initiative, prefers to be led.

3. He is indifferent to the needs of the organization.

4. He is naturally resistant to change.

5. Aimed at extracting material benefits.

6. He is gullible, not too smart - an easy prey for a charlatan and a demagogue.

This view of the individual is reflected in the "carrot and stick" politics, which leads to an emphasis on control tactics, on procedures and methods that enable people to be told what they should do, determine if they do it, and apply rewards and punishments. Since the underlying assumption is that people should be forced to do what is necessary for the success of the organization, attention naturally turns to methods of management and control.

According to McGregor, people are not at all like that by nature and they have opposite qualities, which are presented in the theory of W.

1. People are not naturally passive and do not oppose the goals of the organization. They become so as a result of work in the organization.

2. People strive for results, they are able to generate ideas, take responsibility and direct their behavior to achieve the goals of the organization - all this is in people.

The duty of management is to help people recognize and develop these human qualities. Hence, in theory Y, much attention is paid to the nature of relationships, creating an environment conducive to the emergence of commitment to the organization, its goals, providing an opportunity for maximum manifestation of initiative, ingenuity and independence in achieving them; therefore, the emphasis is not on external control, but on self-control, which occurs when the employee perceives the goals of the company as his own.

In our country, the ideas of scientific management of labor collectives were developed by Alexei Gastev, Osip Yermansky, Nikolai Vitke.

The achievements of the schools of human relations and behavioral sciences were that they:

1) expanded the understanding and practical application of such organizational processes as motivation, communications, leadership, group dynamics;

2) viewed the members of the organization as people with rich abilities, and not as tools to achieve goals;

3) created models of behavior in which each employee could be used in accordance with his potential. A common shortcoming of the early schools of management - classical and human relations - is the lack of complexity of research, the study of any one element of the organization, the search for the only way to solve managerial problems. This shortcoming was the reason for the emergence of a new direction in the evolution of managerial thought - the school of social systems, or the systems approach. The school was founded in the late 1950s. Its representatives were A. Chandler, G. Simon, D. March, P. Drucker, and in Russia - V. G. Afanasiev, I. V. Blauberg, E. G. Yudin. They considered the organization as a complex set of interdependent and interacting elements, and the person as one of the elements. In addition, the school emphasizes that the organization is an open system embedded in a more complex system - the external environment with which it is in constant interaction. The system receives certain resources from the external environment, transforms them and returns finished products to the external world. At the same time, it is characterized by entropy and synergy. The system approach emphasizes the need to take into account in management activities the influence and interaction of many factors that are both inside and outside the organization and have either a direct or indirect impact on it.

The main parts of the system in this approach are: individuals, formal and informal groups, their relationships, types of statuses and roles in groups. Parts of the system are connected by organizational forms, which include formal and informal structures, communication channels, decision-making processes. The systems approach combined the contributions of all schools that dominated the theory and practice of management at different times. The School of Social Systems continued to develop modern theories of motivation, communications, leadership, and began to develop theories of decision making, conflicts, flexible organizational structures, and strategic management.

One of the most popular in the 1980s. system concepts of management is the 7-S theory developed by T. Peters, R. Waterman, R. Pascal and E. Athos. They believed that an effective organization is formed on the basis of 7 interrelated and corresponding elements. Changing one of them requires changing the others. It:

1) strategy - a comprehensive plan to achieve the mission and goals of the organization by ensuring consistency between the organization and its environment;

2) structure - the internal structure of the organization, which determines the place, rights, duties and responsibilities of each employee, unit in the organization; definition of subordination between them;

3) systems - procedures and routine processes occurring in the organization (control systems, information and motivation systems);

4) staff - key groups of personnel, characterized by age, gender, education;

5) leadership style - the manner of managing the organization and organizational culture;

6) qualifications - the distinctive capabilities of key people in the organization;

7) shared values ​​- the meaning and content of the main activities that the organization brings to its members.

3. Quantitative approach to management

Simultaneously with the systematic approach in the 1950s. there was a quantitative approach to management, or operations research.

He continued the direction of F. Taylor, but based on new achievements in mathematics, statistics, and computer technology. This direction developed decision-making models in the most difficult situations, where direct cause-and-effect relationship cannot be limited. The quantitative values ​​of the studied variables were substituted into the finished model and the optimal solution to the problem was calculated.

4. Systemic and situational approaches. Theory 7-S

In the late 60s, a situational approach to management began to be developed. It became a logical continuation of systems theory. The situational approach does not reject the above theories. It uses the possibilities of direct application of science to specific situations and conditions. The central point of this approach is the situation. A situation is understood as a specific set of internal and external circumstances (factors) that affect the organization at a given time. It is the situation that determines the functions of management, the choice of methods, styles, structures, principles of management to achieve the goals of the organization in the most effective way. From the point of view of the situation, there is no better way to manage. The situational approach attempts to determine which variables are significant and how they affect the performance of the organization.

The case-by-case approach methodology can be divided into 3 main parts:

1) the manager must be familiar with the basic concepts of management; he must understand the management process; individual and group behavior; system analysis; methods of planning and control; quantitative decision-making methods;

2) each of the management concepts has its strengths and weaknesses, they must be taken into account when applied to a specific situation, and it is also necessary to foresee the likely consequences of applying these concepts;

3) the manager must be able to correctly interpret the situation, determine which factors are most important in a given situation, and which variables can be neglected.

5. American, European and Japanese control models

All the considered concepts are implemented to a greater or lesser extent in specific management models. The main ones after the 1970s. are American and Japanese models. In 1981, U. Ouchi proposed Theory Z, which, as it were, complemented McGregor's idea of ​​the X and Y models. In Theory Z, Ouchi tried to combine the American and Japanese approaches to management and offer the best management model for any organization. The starting point of the concept is the position that a person is the basis of any organization and its effectiveness primarily depends on him.

6. "New management philosophy"

In a complex combination of different approaches and schools of management, the formation of a "new philosophy of management" took place, it is also called the policy of post-Fordism, which characterizes the current stage in the development of management science. The "new management philosophy" has three components.

1. The concept of group cooperation, which involves improving labor interaction, focusing on work in teams, project and target groups, creating a favorable climate in the team, cooperation with the administration.

2. The concept of humanization of labor associated with the adaptation of technology to the worker, the improvement of working conditions, the enrichment of the labor process, and the strengthening of creative elements in its content.

3. Democratization of management, which consists in the transition from rigid hierarchical structures to flat, flexible structures; in delegating down part of managerial powers, expanding the independence and responsibility of performers in solving problems that arise in the workplace.

The democratization of management is being consolidated by the use of more flexible wage systems and the participation of employees in the profits and property of the organization. These three components are necessary due to the fact that the organization operates in an uncertain environment and must develop the ability to adapt to changes in the environment. It must produce a variety of goods in small batches using multi-purpose equipment and skilled labor, while Fordism is characterized by the mass production of standardized goods based on the use of special (designed for one task and tied to one product) equipment and semi-skilled labor.

LECTURE No. 3. Internal and external environment of the organization

1. The content of the concept of "environment of the organization"

All businesses operate in an environment that drives their operations, and their long-term survival depends on their ability to adapt to the expectations and demands of the environment. Distinguish between the internal and external environment of the organization. The internal environment includes the main elements and subsystems within the organization that ensure the implementation of the processes occurring in it. The external environment is a set of factors, subjects and conditions outside the organization and capable of influencing its behavior.

Elements of the external environment are divided into two groups: factors of direct and indirect impact on the organization. The environment of direct impact (business environment, microenvironment) includes such elements that directly affect the business process and experience the same impact of the functioning of the organization. This environment is specific to each individual organization and, as a rule, is controlled by it.

The environment of indirect impact (macro environment) includes elements that affect the processes occurring in the organization not directly, but indirectly, indirectly. This environment is generally not specific to a single organization and is usually outside its control.

2. Internal environment and its variables: managers, employees, culture

The internal environment of the organization can be considered from the point of view of statics, highlighting the composition of its elements and structure, and from the point of view of dynamics, i.e., the processes taking place in it. The elements of the internal environment include goals, objectives, people, technologies, information, structure, organizational culture and other components.

People occupy a special place in the internal environment of the organization. Their abilities, education, qualifications, experience, motivation and dedication ultimately determine the results of the organization. The realization that the organization is, first of all, the people working in it, that they are the main resource of the organization, changes the attitude towards the staff. Managers pay great attention to the selection of people, their introduction into the organization, they are engaged in the training and development of employees, ensuring a high quality of working life.

People working in an organization, their relationships and interactions form the social subsystem of the organization. The production and technical subsystem includes a complex of machines, equipment, raw materials, materials, tools, energy, which processes incoming resources into a finished product. The main characteristics of this subsystem are: technologies used, labor productivity, production costs, product quality, inventory volume. The financial subsystem carries out the movement and use of funds in the organization. In particular, maintaining liquidity and ensuring profitability, creating investment opportunities. The marketing subsystem is associated with meeting the needs of customers in the company's products by studying the market, creating a sales system, organizing optimal pricing and effective advertising, as well as actively influencing the market in order to form new needs to increase the market share and increase the profitability of sales.

3. Organizational culture, its elements and types

The internal environment is permeated with organizational culture, which is its integrated characteristic. Organizational (corporate) culture is a set of main assumptions, values, traditions, norms and patterns of behavior that are shared by members of the organization and direct their behavior to achieve their goals. It can be consciously formed by the leading members of the organization or arise and develop spontaneously.

In modern enterprises, organizational culture should perform the following functions:

1) the formation of a certain image of the organization that distinguishes it from any other;

2) development of a sense of community, cohesion of all members of the organization;

3) strengthening social stability in the organization;

4) strengthening the involvement of employees in the affairs of the organization and devotion to it;

5) the formation and control of patterns of behavior that are appropriate from the point of view of this organization;

There are many approaches to identifying various attributes that characterize the content of a particular culture. So, F. Harris and R. Moran offer 10 meaningful characteristics.

1. Awareness by employees of themselves and their place in the organization (in some organizations they treat employees as colleagues, professionals, experts who have the knowledge and creativity to achieve the goals of the organization; in others, they see them only as performers who are required only to strictly follow orders manager).

2. Communication system and language of communication (use of oral or written, vertical or horizontal communications, the availability or inaccessibility of the manual for communication, the possibility of using jargon, profanity).

3. Appearance, clothing, self-presentation at the workplace (uniform, overalls, business, sports or evening styles, cosmetics, hairstyles, etc.).

4. Habits and traditions in catering (the presence or absence of cafes, canteens, buffets at the enterprise, food subsidies, the duration of the lunch break, the presence of privileged, closed places).

5. Attitude to time, its use (observance of the time schedule, the degree of accuracy of time and encouragement for this, monochronic or polychronic use of time).

6. Relationships between people (by age, gender, nationality, status and power, intelligence, the degree of formalization of these relationships, ways to resolve conflicts).

7. Values ​​and norms (landmarks of acceptable and unacceptable behavior in the organization, generally accepted standards of individual and group behavior that have developed over time as a result of the interaction of members of the organization).

8. Belief in something (faith in leadership, team, success, in one's own strength, in justice, in mutual assistance, etc.).

9. The process of employee development (availability of a system of adaptation, career guidance, continuous learning, career management of employees, the degree of their awareness).

10. Work ethics and motivation (designing work, attitude towards it and responsibility in the workplace, its cleanliness, quality of work, performance evaluation, remuneration).

4. External environment of direct and indirect impact. Characteristics of the external environment

The external environment of direct impact includes the following main elements: consumers, suppliers, competitors, the labor market, external owners, state regulatory and control bodies, strategic alliances of the enterprise with other firms. The macroenvironment of an enterprise is formed by economic, political and legal, socio-cultural, technological and international conditions.

The economic conditions of the environment reflect the general economic situation in the country or region in which the enterprise operates. It helps to understand how resources are formed and distributed. To do this, first of all, the value of GDP (GNP), its growth / fall rate, unemployment rate, inflation rate, interest rates, labor productivity, taxation rates, balance of payments, exchange rate, wages, etc. are analyzed. Changes in these macroeconomic indicators affect on the standard of living of the population, the solvency of consumers, fluctuations in demand; determines investment policy, price level, profitability, etc. Important factors in the economic environment are the monetary and fiscal policy of the state.

Sociocultural factors represent the social processes and trends taking place in society. These include: existing traditions, values, habits, ethical standards, lifestyle, people's attitude to work, consumer tastes and psychology. This includes the social structure of society, its demographic characteristics, such as the birth rate, average life expectancy, average age of the population, level of education, skills, etc. The current structure of the population determines the composition of the labor force, the level of demand, consumer preferences, the choice of markets for products . At the same time, both consumers and members of organizations are increasingly diverse.

The main modern trends that determine the tastes and values ​​of the population are: a negative attitude towards smoking, the use of strong alcoholic beverages, people's desire for a healthy lifestyle, consumption of foods with low cholesterol content, an increase in the purchasing power of children, etc.

The political and legal environment includes the characteristics of the political system, state regulation of business and the main relationship between business and government. It is important for three reasons. First, the legal system establishes the norms of business relationships, the rights, responsibilities, obligations of firms, including restrictions on certain types of activities. The correctness of the conclusion and observance of contracts, the resolution of disputes depend on the knowledge and observance of the adopted laws. In modern conditions, the role of laws on environmental protection, consumer rights, food safety standards, and fair trade is growing.

Secondly, the government's choice of priority areas for development and industries that will be supported, the mood in the government in favor of or against entrepreneurship affects its business activity. These sentiments affect the taxation of enterprise income, the establishment of tax incentives and preferential customs duties, control of prices and wages, regulation of relations between the administration and employees. In addition, it is important to know the lobbying groups, the possibilities of their influence on the adoption of certain laws.

Thirdly, political stability is taken into account when planning the activities of enterprises, especially those with relations with other countries. At the same time, it is necessary to find out the following basic characteristics of the political subsystem: political ideology that determines the policy of the government; how stable is the government; to what extent it is able to carry out its policy; what is the degree of public discontent; how strong are the opposition political structures; what parties, blocs, movements exist and what are their programs.

Technological factors include scientific and technological innovations that allow an enterprise to modernize old and create new products, improve and develop technological processes. Organizations must respond quickly to new developments in their industry and innovate themselves. This is the only way to maintain high competitiveness.

STP presents both huge opportunities for firms and equally huge threats. Many businesses fail to see new perspectives because the technical capacity to make fundamental changes is created outside of the industry in which they operate. Being late with modernization, they lose their market share, which can lead to negative consequences. In recent decades, the most significant innovations have been in the computer and telecommunications industries. In addition to them, science-intensive industries include: chemical and petrochemical, production of turbines and engines, machinery and equipment for light and food industries, nuclear energy, aerospace industry, genetic engineering, etc.

International factors show the degree of involvement or impact on the firm of business in other countries. In fact, every firm is under the influence of international factors, even if it operates in one country. It may use raw materials or products created in other countries, or face international competition in its domestic markets. In the Russian market in recent years, there has been a danger of competition from foreign firms and the displacement of Russian manufacturers by foreign ones that provide better quality goods, such as cars, computers, consumer electronics, and a number of food products. If the company operates at the international level, then the factors of the international environment affect all other elements of the external environment of the enterprise.

New customers, suppliers, competitors, government regulations, new rules, strategic alliances, etc. appear in the international environment. The organization studies the features of these factors, adapts to them, and in the end these factors change the organization itself.

5. Reactions of the organization to changes in the external environment

The external environment of direct impact (business environment) of the organization is formed in the course of its activities and changes over time. The environment changes if the product, markets, strategy, etc. change. The main driver of the business environment is the customer. These are all direct buyers and clients: trading companies, official distributors, shops, manufacturing companies, sales agents, individual buyers and clients. The influence of consumers can be expressed in various forms: in the establishment of a certain price level, the presence of special requirements for quality, design, technical characteristics of products, forms of payment, etc.

Manufacturers can influence consumers by setting lower prices, guaranteeing high quality and delivery times, offering unique products, and good service. Customers are very important to a company. They are the ones who determine its success. The modern goal of a business is to create its consumer. Studying buyers allows you to better understand which product of the company will be in the greatest demand, how much sales it can expect, what the product expects in the future, how much you can expand the circle of potential buyers.

A buyer profile can be compiled according to the following characteristics:

1) the geographical location of the buyer;

2) demographic characteristics (age, education, field of activity);

3) socio-psychological characteristics (position in society, style of behavior, tastes, habits, etc.).

By studying the buyer, the firm must determine its trading power. This strength is determined by factors such as:

1) the volume of purchases made by the buyer;

2) availability of substitute goods;

3) the level of awareness of the buyer;

4) the cost of switching to another seller;

5) price sensitivity.

Competitors are firms that sell products in the same markets or provide services that satisfy the same needs. They compete with each other for resources. And the most important of them is the ruble of the buyer. The company must know the strengths and weaknesses of a competitor and build its competitive strategy based on this. The competitive environment is formed not only by intra-industry competitors producing similar products. Competitors can be firms that produce a replacement product, and firms re-entering the market ("newcomers"). It is necessary to create barriers to the entry of potential "newcomers" (specialization, low costs, control over distribution channels, access to cheap sources of raw materials, a well-known brand of goods, etc.). In modern conditions, it is often not a fight with a competitor, but cooperation with it that allows you to effectively adapt to the environment and achieve your goals.

Suppliers of material and natural resources can influence the organization by creating resource dependence. This dependence gives power to suppliers and allows them to influence the cost, product quality, production time and, in general, the effectiveness of the organization. Setting unreasonably high tariffs for electricity and gas by monopoly enterprises, irregular supply or disconnection of these vital sources of income in case of non-payment put many organizations on the brink of survival or bankruptcy. Therefore, they try to maintain mutually beneficial relationships with their main suppliers, sometimes on a multi-year contract basis. If a firm has reliable suppliers, it can save on inventory holdings. Get rid of unreliable suppliers.

Supplier analysis should show what the supplier's competitive strength is and what its factors are. When analyzing, one should pay attention to the prices of goods and services, their quality, compliance with the terms, conditions and volumes of supplies, whether the supplier is a monopolist of this type of resource, whether a change of supplier is possible.

The labor market is people who have the necessary qualifications, who are able to realize the goals of the company and who want to work in it. In a modern organization, this is the main resource. This group includes everyone with whom the company interacts in order to provide itself with the necessary human resources: recruitment agencies, the employment service, educational institutions, labor exchanges, systems of retraining and retraining of personnel, trade unions. The study of the labor market allows you to obtain information about the availability of labor force (required specialty, qualifications, age, work experience, personal qualities) capable of working with the company.

The external environment of the organization is characterized by the following features: complexity, mobility, uncertainty and interconnectedness of all factors.

Uncertainty is the main characteristic of the external environment, which in turn depends on its complexity and mobility. Uncertainty refers to the incompleteness or inaccuracy of information about environmental factors, which results in the difficulty of determining its needs and changes. The higher the level of uncertainty, the more difficult it is to make effective decisions, the higher the risk. Therefore, the firm tries to reduce the level of uncertainty in its environment. To do this, two types of strategies can be used - adapting the firm to changes in the environment and influence, changing the environment itself to make it more compatible with the goals and needs of the organization.

Adaptation of the organization is implemented through the following tools.

1. Creation of an information system that allows receiving information about changes that have occurred with the main counterparties of the enterprise; reduce uncertainty at the inputs and outputs and protect, realize the interests of the enterprise in the environment. Information gathering activities are carried out by services such as supply, marketing, strategic planning, and logistics. The creation of these departments requires large financial investments on the part of the enterprise, but this activity can also be carried out with the involvement of consulting firms specializing in this type of work.

2. Forecasting trends in the development of the external environment and strategic planning of the activities of enterprises prepare the enterprise for possible changes in the market situation and unfavorable environmental influences. Strategic planning formulates the goals and strategy of the enterprise, which ensures compliance between the enterprise and its environment.

3. Mergers, acquisitions of new businesses, formation of strategic alliances with other businesses, including former competitors. The use of this tool provides the enterprise with full-fledged partners for the creation of promising, stable, integrated production, supply and marketing, investment and innovation structures. This reduces the uncertainty of the environment by creating a zone of stability; prepares the enterprise for hard-to-predict changes in the situation; limits the possibilities of opportunistic behavior of partners; reduces transaction costs; allows you to find a new place of the enterprise in the environment; ensures its flexibility and adaptability, creates the prerequisites for influencing the external environment and leads to the formation of synergistic effects. The synergistic effect arises as a result of increased subordination, coordination and integration in the networks of partner enterprises.

4. Flexible organizational structures, the significance of which as a tool for adapting an enterprise to the environment lies in the fact that the structure determines the nature and quantity of information and communication links both within the enterprise and between it and its counterparties. A flexible adaptive structure allows an enterprise to effectively respond to changes in the external environment and carry out internal transformations due to such features as the ability to quickly implement changes and focus on human potential as the main resource of the enterprise. Flexible organizational structures orient the enterprise towards the development of new products, new markets and new technologies. They make it possible to ensure partnership and cooperation between all participants in the economic activity of the enterprise, as well as with consumers of its products and resource suppliers.

5. Partnerships between the management of the enterprise and its personnel ensure the interaction of economic agents within the enterprise, the integration of the internal environment and the maintenance of internal integrity.

The enterprise not only submits to existing economic relations, but also forms them itself, forms the environment in which it operates. The impact of an enterprise on the environment is possible when it integrates a sufficient amount of resources and has a high socio-economic potential. The enterprise will prefer to influence the environment, when the next adaptation to changes in the external environment will be estimated by it as a more expensive process than changing the environment itself. The instruments of influence of the enterprise on the environment are listed below:

1. Advertising, which creates new needs, changes the environment for the functioning of the enterprise through signals about the quality of the goods, erecting barriers to entry into the market of competing enterprises, forming trusting relationships with consumers and suppliers.

2. "Public Relations" establishes and maintains a system of communications with counterparties of the enterprise in order to form a reputation, a favorable public opinion about the enterprise, its product, which strengthens trusting partnerships in the network of agents and counterparties interacting with the enterprise.

3. Permanent and stable relations with suppliers and consumers on the basis of long-term contracts change the external environment by limiting the reactions of partners to changing situations, increasing mutual obligations and trust, on the basis of which coordination and integration between them is enhanced. All this contributes to the formation of a stable network of interacting enterprises, which structures the external environment and allows you to control it.

4. Thanks to lobbying the interests of the enterprise in parliament, government, including local and other power structures, the enterprise becomes a participant, and sometimes an equal partner of the government in the formation of the legal framework and sectoral, microeconomic and macroeconomic policies. In order to obtain the possibility of lobbying, enterprises organize vertical or horizontal structures (associations and associations of producers of the same type of product) FIGs, which, in addition to economic power, acquire political power, the possibility of pressure and equal cooperation with the government and the Central Bank of Russia.

5. Professional associations - voluntary associations of various enterprises, created to provide assistance, support, promotion, protection and lobbying of their interests. Associations are usually formed to achieve non-commercial purposes. The need for their formation is due to the fact that the market involves the interaction of firms producing one product. The activities of associations are aimed at establishing interaction, coordinating enterprises - members of the association, providing information, marketing services, improving the professional level of managerial personnel, protecting rights and interests in legislative, executive, law enforcement bodies, informing the public, and influencing public opinion. First of all, it is organizational, methodological and consulting assistance, legal protection.

The following public associations of commodity producers operate on a nationwide scale: the Coordinating Council of Domestic Commodity Producers, the Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs (Employers), the Agro-Industrial Union of Russia. At the sectoral and regional levels, there are the Association of Financial and Industrial Groups, the League for Assistance to Defense Enterprises, the Union of Oil and Gas Equipment Manufacturers, the Association of Oil Refiners and Petrochemists, the Union of Gold Producers, the Association of Small and Medium Enterprises, the Union of Textile and Light Industry Entrepreneurs, etc.

LECTURE No. 4. Management ethics and social responsibility of the organization

1. The concept of managerial ethics. Criteria Approaches to Ethical Decision Making

Ethical business standards are becoming a subject of increasing interest on the part of managers and consumers. Companies pay great attention to the ethics of conduct in all aspects of their activities in order to avoid negative public opinion, the loss of the company's prestige both in government bodies and in business circles. Management ethics is a set of moral principles, requirements and values ​​that govern the behavior of people in an organization in terms of acceptable or unacceptable behavior. To be ethical, an organization needs to base its ideas about proper behavior on universal norms of behavior. It should not give its own definitions of good and evil.

2. Ways to improve the ethical behavior of managers and ordinary employees

The fundamental ethical concept is to ensure the personal dignity and well-being of people. Basically, we think and act towards others the way we want them to think and act towards us. Ideas about what is acceptable and what is not come from several sources. For many, religious beliefs are the main source of ethical leadership. The idea of ​​what is right and wrong in everyday life is influenced by family, school, etc.

To make ethical decisions, organizations create codes of ethics that set out the values ​​and principles of behavior needed to guide the decision-making process. Although they differ significantly across organizations in detail, most of these codes include four main philosophical approaches: utilitarian, individual, moral and legal, and just.

utilitarian approach. Its essence is that ethical behavior brings the greatest benefit, creates the maximum social result for the greatest number of people. This approach assumes that the one who makes the decision considers, calculates each alternative with the involvement of all interested parties, but also chooses the solution that satisfies the greatest number of people.

The concept of utilitarianism is often viewed as a cost-benefit analysis because it balances the costs and benefits of making a decision. One of the disadvantages of the method is the difficulty of accurately calculating profits and costs taken separately. Many factors can be measured in monetary terms (goods produced, sales, payroll, profits, etc.). However, the moral qualities of employees, psychological satisfaction, the value of human life cannot be measured in this way. The human and social costs remain the most difficult to quantify. Without such measurements, cost-benefit analysis remains incomplete, and an accurate answer to whether a given activity is ethical or not cannot be obtained. Another shortcoming of the concept of utilitarianism is that the majority can often override the rights of the minority.

Despite these shortcomings, the concept of utilitarianism in determining the ethical activity is widely used in organizations.

The individual approach proceeds from the fact that actions are moral if they contribute to the realization of long-term individual interests and goals of a person. Individuals calculate the best long-term benefits for themselves as a criterion for a high quality decision. But in the end, a common good is achieved, as people try to coordinate their long-term interests with each other, sometimes making concessions in the short term. Individualism forms behavior that takes into account the interests of other people.

The moral-legal approach is based on the premise that a person or a group of people have a right to something or have a right to be treated properly. A decision is considered unethical when it violates human rights. This principle prioritizes mutual respect, even if we disagree with someone or do not like someone. Such an ethical concept makes one value the individual. The following moral rights can be taken into account in the decision-making process:

1) the right of free consent. A person can only be affected by something with his full and free consent;

2) the right to privacy, secrecy, secret. Outside of work, a person can do whatever he wants. He can control information about his private life;

3) the right to freedom of conscience. A person is free to refrain from executing those orders, orders that contradict his moral or religious standards;

4) the right to freedom of speech. A person can criticize the correctness, validity and legality of the actions of other people, their compliance with ethics;

5) the right to proper reception. A person has the right to be impartially heard and the right to be treated fairly;

6) The right to life and security. A person has the right to protection of life, health and safety.

The main drawback of this approach is the dilemma that arises when opposing interests are reconciled. A classic example of this tension is the conflict between the employee's right to privacy and the employer's right to protect his firm's property by testing the employee's integrity.

A fair approach is that an ethical decision should be based on the principles of equality, honesty and impartiality, in other words, the benefits and costs should be fairly distributed among different groups of people. There are three types of fairness that matter to managers. Distributive justice requires that differences in people's remuneration should not be based on arbitrary characteristics and on gender, age, nationality, and other differences. Procedural justice requires that people's rights be controlled and protected. To do this, rights must be clearly defined and consistently and consistently enforced. Compensatory justice means that people should be compensated for the wrongs and insults. In addition, people should not be held responsible for events that are beyond their control.

3. Problems of ethics and social responsibility in domestic organizations

Organizations take steps to improve the ethical behavior of staff. Such measures include: personal example of leaders; development of ethical standards, moral codes of organizations; training in the ethical behavior of employees of the organization; establishment of ethics committees; conducting social audits.

The social responsibility of the organization lies in its obligations in relation to: environmental protection, taking into account the interests of the immediate environment and society as a whole, improving their well-being. The immediate environment of the organization are investors, shareholders, employees, customers and suppliers. The social responsibility perspective focuses on those business functions that are defined by issues that go beyond the mere achievement of economic efficiency. According to this perspective, the task of business is to satisfy social needs that are passed on to it by the government or caused by market imperfections (for example, the externality of economic activity). An example is the voluntary implementation of programs by companies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions that affect global warming. The role of business in society is to establish links between social responsibility and economic performance.

Managers build their ethical management concepts, taking into account two factors of formation of moral principles. First, it is the state that prescribes or prohibits certain social activities and creates incentives for certain types of policies. Secondly, it is actually ethics. Ethical principles provide a basis for assessing actions and policies as truly ethical. Management personnel, with the support of the government, should create an environment aimed at improving the quality of life.

LECTURE No. 5. Management decision making

1. The concept of a managerial decision and its place in the management process

A managerial decision is a product of managerial work, and its adoption is a process leading to the emergence of this product. Decision making is the conscious choice of a course of action from available options to achieve an existing goal. The decision is the form in which the control action of the subject of control on the object of control is carried out. Therefore, the quality of managerial decisions is a criterion for the effectiveness of a manager.

The solution must meet a number of requirements. Chief among them are validity, clarity of wording, feasibility, timeliness, economy, efficiency (the degree of achievement of the goal in comparison with the expenditure of resources).

As a rule, decisions should be made where a problematic situation arises; To do this, managers of the appropriate level must be given the appropriate authority, at the same time making them responsible for the state of affairs at the managed facility. A very important condition for the positive impact of a decision on the work of an organization is its consistency with those decisions that were made earlier (both vertically and horizontally (this, of course, does not mean the case when the task is to radically change the entire development policy) .

2. Classification of management decisions

Organizations make a wide variety of decisions. They differ in content, duration and development, direction and scale of impact, level of acceptance, information security, etc. With the help of classification, it is possible to distinguish classes of decisions that require a different approach to the process and methods of their adoption, which are not the same in terms of time and other resources (Table 1).

Table 1

Classification of decisions made in the organization

Programmable solutions are solutions to repetitive and well-defined problems. As a rule, these are standard tasks that repeatedly arise in the organization, about which there is sufficiently reliable and reliable information, as well as ready-made, developed and successfully applied earlier rules and procedures. The procedure establishes the order, sequence of actions, rights, obligations of the participants in the interaction in the decision-making process. As an example, we can cite the task of placing a periodic order for inventory for one of the workshops of an enterprise. To develop and optimize programmable solutions, formalized methods are used that have a clear algorithm for solving the problem in the form of economic and mathematical models, methods for analyzing and calculating data, computer programs that provide high accuracy in the quantitative assessment of the options being developed.

Non-programmable solutions involve new, complex, never-before-seen, unconventional, unforeseen problems that cannot be accurately quantified. As a rule, they are difficult to define and structure, they are characterized by an unclear formulation of the goal, inaccuracy and uncertainty of information, and the absence of clear rules and decision procedures. When developing non-programmable solutions, heuristic methods are used. They are characterized by the fact that the development of alternative solutions is not based on exact calculations, but on logic, judgment and inference. At the same time, professional knowledge, a high level of qualification, and the creative abilities of specialists in various fields are used. Non-programmed decisions include decisions related to setting goals and formulating an organization’s development strategy, changing its structure, forecasting work in new markets, etc. The number of such decisions increases as the scale and complexity of the organization grows, the dynamism and uncertainty of its external environment increase .

Intuitive decisions are choices made only on the basis of a feeling of being right. The decision maker does not weigh the pros and cons for each alternative, he does not evaluate the situation, but relies on insight, feeling. Intuition includes hunches, imaginations, insights, or thoughts that often spontaneously manifest themselves in consciously grasping a problem and in subsequent decision making. An intuitive approach can work well when analyzing urgent problems in a situation with difficult to define goals, inaccurate information and the inability to quantify.

Judgment-based decisions are choices based on knowledge and experience. A person uses knowledge of what has happened in similar situations before and predicts the outcome of an alternative choice. Here there is a danger of missing out on a new alternative, as the leader is guided by the old experience of solving similar problems.

Rational decisions do not depend on past experience. The process of their adoption involves the choice of such an alternative that will bring maximum benefit to the organization. The search for the best solution is underway. The rational decision-making procedure includes seven successive steps:

1) problem definition;

2) formulation of restrictions and criteria for decision-making;

3) identification of alternatives;

4) evaluation of alternatives;

5) choice of alternative;

6) implementation of the solution;

7) feedback.

3. Factors influencing the decision-making process

Problem definition. A necessary condition for making a decision is the problem itself: if there were no problems, there would be no need for solutions. Problems are usually of three types: favorable, crisis and ordinary.

Crisis and routine are clear issues that should be considered by managers.

Favorable ones, on the other hand, are usually veiled, and the manager must discover them.

Since most crisis and routine issues by their nature require immediate attention, a manager can spend a lot of time looking at them and not have time to deal with important new favorable issues.

Many well-managed organizations attempt to move away from crisis and routine issues and focus on longer-term issues by defining forward-looking goals, strategies, and planning programs.

The first phase of identifying a problem is recognizing the symptoms of failures or existing opportunities. These symptoms are:

1) low profit, sales, labor productivity, product quality;

2) high production and distribution costs;

3) numerous conflicts in the organization, high staff turnover, low motivation and dedication of the staff. The second phase of diagnosing a problem is to determine the causes of problems.

The next step is to rank the problem among other problems. The ranking can be based on the following factors:

1) impact on the organization;

2) urgency of the problem and time constraints;

3) support of the problem from the outside in favor of its solution;

4) the life cycle of the problem.

Formulation of constraints and decision criteria.

At this stage, resources for the implementation of the solution are taken into account. They must be realistic. Limiters can be time limits for the development and solution of the problem, the amount of funds allocated for this, the parameters of the effectiveness of achieving goals. In addition to constraints, the manager also defines the standards by which alternative choices must be evaluated. These are decision criteria. They have different content and form. The criteria are most fully developed for programmable solutions, where the use of methods of quantitative analysis and electronic data processing are possible.

The application of economic and mathematical methods to solving managerial problems makes it possible to use the target function as a selection criterion, which usually needs to be maximized or minimized; Therefore, such a choice is called an optimization one. Examples of optimization criteria are: maximization of profit, income, productivity, efficiency; minimization of costs, losses from marriage or downtime, etc. The optimal solution is selected based on a comparison of the quantitative value of the objective function for all possible options; the best solution is the one that provides the most desirable value of the target criterion. An example of such solutions is the optimization of equipment loading, inventory, material cutting, etc.

To evaluate options for semi-structured solutions, a system of weighted criteria is used. The possibilities of this approach to choosing the best option can be shown by a simple example. Suppose an organization is faced with the problem of choosing a supplier of the necessary materials. Several such firms were found, and all of them, during preliminary negotiations, agreed to cooperate with this organization. However, they offer different conditions regarding deliveries, prices, discounts, etc. You need to determine the most suitable supplier. To do this, a comparative analysis of the proposed options is carried out with a focus on the most significant criteria for the consumer organization. Suppose that in this case the following criteria are chosen as such criteria:

1) price per unit of supplied material;

2) the size of the minimum supply;

3) conditions for granting discounts and benefits;

4) the quality of the material;

5) geographical location of the supplier company;

6) the status of the latter.

In terms of their importance for the organization, they are not the same, so they must be "weighed" relative to the main criterion. Let the price of the supplied material be defined as such, and it is given the maximum numerical rating, for example, 10. The rest are evaluated by comparison with the highest rating (Table 2), as a result of which they are assigned the weights indicated in the table.

Table 2

Criteria weighting

In particular, attention should be paid to the fact that the organization attaches the same importance to the geographical location of the supplier firm as to the price of the supplied material. This is due to high transport tariffs for freight transportation. The table also shows that the organization in question is not very concerned about the minimum size of supplies and does not attach much importance to the status of the supplier, although it still takes it into account in the selection. According to the selected and weighted criteria, all possible solutions are evaluated. Conventionally, four supplier firms are considered, which are designated as A, B, C, and D. In fact, there may be much more of them, but they are either unknown or not taken into account (for one reason or another). At this stage, a comparative assessment of each firm is made for each criterion (the result is presented in Table 3); the maximum score is 10. If we sum up all the scores received by firms for all criteria, then firm A will receive a sum of 40, B - 38, C - 34 and firm D - 37.

However, it is too early to make a final decision. It is necessary to take into account the different "weight category" of each criterion, and only after that it is possible to determine the firm that will be given preference. The results of this stage are presented in table 4, and a somewhat unexpected conclusion follows from them: the highest total scores with a significant lead are received by firm G, which at the previous stage occupied the penultimate place.

Table 3

Weighting options by selection criteria

Table 4

Total weighting of options by selection criteria

The use of this approach is based on the assumption that it is possible to determine all the criteria and solutions, that the priorities are known and that they, like the weights given to them, are of a constant nature. Under these conditions, the option with the highest score is chosen.

Identification of alternatives. Theoretically, it is necessary to identify all possible solutions to the problem, but in practice, the manager rarely has the knowledge and time to do this. Therefore, the number of alternatives for further consideration is limited to a few options that are considered good enough to improve the problem situation. Often new, unique problems arise. Then the choice of alternatives becomes a complex creative process.

There are many methods of creative search for alternatives, the main purpose of which is to generate ideas: "brainstorming", group analysis of the situation, cause-and-effect diagram, morphological analysis, electronic brainstorming, etc. The task of the leader is to create a creative atmosphere for the search for alternatives .

The conditions for creating such an atmosphere can be:

1) motivation in the search;

2) providing all the necessary information to fully understand the problem;

3) free discussion and admission of any ideas to solve the problem, exclusion of criticism of proposals;

4) allocating time for nurturing ideas.

Evaluation of alternatives. At this stage, the advantages and disadvantages of the identified options for solving the problem are determined. To compare alternatives, the criteria established in the second stage are used. If a solution does not meet the criteria, it is not considered further. An important point in the assessment is to determine the likelihood of each alternative.

Choosing an alternative or making a decision. The best solution will be the one that is most consistent with the firm's goals and values ​​while using the least amount of resources.

If the problem has been correctly identified and alternative solutions have been carefully evaluated, it is relatively easy to make a decision.

However, if the problem is new, complex, and you have to take into account many probabilistic factors or subjective information, it may turn out that no choice will be the best.

In this case, you can rely on intuition and experience. You can also resort to experimentation and the use of ready-made decision models for especially difficult situations.

Solution implementation. This stage allows you to determine the correctness, optimality of the decision. To implement the decision, it must be brought to the performers. They should receive clear information about who, where, when and by what means should carry out actions consistent with this decision.

It is necessary to develop a plan for its implementation, which provides for a system of measures to ensure the successful achievement of the goals.

One of the planning mechanisms at this stage can be the so-called decision tree, which allows, by decomposition of the selected option, to present a set of goals and objectives to be achieved and solved. A hypothetical example is this.

Suppose, in the process of solving the problem of determining the organization's strategy for the future, the main strategic directions were chosen to ensure the achievement of the goal set by the management for this period: to survive in severe crisis conditions; maintain and strengthen its position in the market of competitive products; create the prerequisites for further intervention in the markets, as well as for maximizing and building the capacity of the organization. These directions are formulated as follows:

1) to concentrate efforts on the production of competitive products A, B, C, using both domestic and foreign markets for its sales;

2) develop and implement a program of cooperation with other enterprises and organizations directly or indirectly related to the production of products A, B, C, in order to attract equity investments;

3) change the management system of the organization in order to de-bureaucratize it, create the most favorable conditions for the development of creativity and the use of a team work structure.

Feedback. It is carried out in the form of monitoring the implementation of the decision based on information about the progress of its implementation, measurement, evaluation and comparison of actual results with planned ones.

Control can reveal not only deviations from the planned action plan, but also the shortcomings of the solution itself, which require timely elimination.

To reduce such shortcomings, the control function should be carried out at all stages of the decision-making process.

This may make it necessary to repeat the procedures of the previous steps. Decision making becomes an ongoing process.

It does not end with the decision-making stage, the choice of a single option. Feedback provides managers with information that can initiate a new decision cycle.

4. Group decision making

In most organizations, many decisions are made in teams, groups. Managers often face situations that require discussion in meetings. This is especially true for non-programmable problems, which are new, complex, and involve great uncertainty in the outcome. Solving such problems by one person is rarely accepted on a regular basis.

It requires special knowledge in a number of areas that one person usually does not possess. This requirement, along with the apparent reality that decisions made must be perceived and carried out by multiple parts of the organization, has expanded the application of the collective approach to the decision-making process.

There are many methods of group discussion of the problem and decision making. The main ones are: synectics, nominal group method, Delphi method, peer review method, consent planning, script writing. Let's take a closer look at synectics.

Synectics is a combination of different elements that do not correspond to each other. As a method, it involves the identification of opposite sides or trends in the object under consideration. Great importance is attached to the formulation of the problem. It is believed that premature formulation may hinder the search for original solutions. Therefore, the discussion often begins not with the formulation of the problem, but with the identification of the essence of the problem, the fundamental principles of the functioning of this object or process. This makes it possible then to move from the general range of problems to the study of the specific conditions of a given problem.

With a synector attack, constructive criticism is allowed. The main creative techniques used in synectics are various types of analogies: direct, personal, symbolic and fantastic.

In a direct analogy, the problem or object under consideration is compared with similar problems or objects from another field (biology, engineering, medicine, etc.). For example, if the problem of adaptation is being solved, then it is easy to draw a parallel with a chameleon that changes color, etc. In a personal analogy, the participants in a "synector attack" try to get used to the problem or object, merge with them together, look at them from the inside in order to to better understand the conditions and mechanism of action.

With a symbolic analogy, a concise semantic formulation is selected in the form of a brief definition that reflects the essence of the problem under consideration. For example, a flame is visible warmth, strength is a forced integrity, etc. With a fantastic analogy, the developer introduces into the problem being solved some fantastic creatures or objects (for example, Aladdin's magic wand or magic lamp) that could do what is required according to the conditions of the task. Thus, with the help of analogies, developers try, when solving a complex extraordinary task, to see what is already known in the unknown, which allows using familiar methods. If an ordinary problem is solved, then the analogy allows you to avoid stereotyped thinking and look at the problem from a new, unexpected side and find an original solution.

Synectics is a more developed and complex way of creative group activity, the purpose of which is to formulate a solution. The synectic group is formed from researchers trained in creative work methods who are highly qualified specialists from different professions or different disciplines.

The age of the participants does not matter, but experience has shown that the most suitable "synectors" are people aged 25-40 years. It is believed that before the age of 25 a person does not have enough experience, and after 40 years he is no longer so receptive to new ideas.

Members of the synectic group should be distinguished by creative maturity, rich imagination and fantasy, independence and impartiality of opinion, the ability to take risks, the ability to abstract from habitual judgments, think outside the box and highlight the essence of the phenomenon, be relaxed and free in their thoughts, favorably perceive other people's ideas, be able to stop development found ideas in order to look for new ones, be focused and believe in the possibility of solving the problem. As experience shows, the formation of a synectic group can take a whole year. It is created on an ongoing basis, unlike groups organized for a short period, to solve any complex problems that arise in the organization.

She works full time for the time it takes to resolve a problem. The group is led by an experienced specialist who knows well the techniques of synectics. The main task of the synectic group is to use the experience and knowledge from different areas that the team members have to search for ideas and develop possible solutions.

LECTURE No. 6. Strategic management

1. The concept of strategic management, its necessity and features

The term "strategic management" appeared in everyday life at the turn of the 1960s and 70s. He marked the differences between current management at the level of production and management carried out at the level of the corporation as a whole. The need for this distinction was due to changes in the business environment. These changes are:

1) an increase in the dynamism of the external environment of the organization;

2) the emergence of new needs;

3) increased competition for resources;

4) internationalization and globalization of business;

5) increasing role of scientific and technical progress and innovations;

6) availability of modern technologies;

7) development of information networks, which makes it possible to quickly disseminate and receive information;

8) changing the role of human resources in the organization.

The essence of the transition from operational to strategic management is to shift the focus of top management to the external environment. This allows you to respond in time to ongoing changes.

There are many definitions of strategic management in the literature. It can be defined as a management process consisting of the formulation and implementation of strategies that promote the establishment of the best competitive fit between an organization and its environment in order to achieve the organization's objectives.

Strategic management is a system of purposeful actions of the organization, leading to a long-term excess of the level of performance of the organization over the level of performance of competitors.

The task of strategic management is to prepare the organization for possible changes in the market situation, to withstand the adverse effects of the external environment in the long term.

The strategic management process, like any management process, is revealed through interrelated management functions: basic and specific. But the content of some basic functions changes and new specific management functions appear.

Thus, planning becomes strategic planning, and new functions appear, such as marketing, innovation management, public relations, logistics, human resource management, etc.

The planning process begins with goal setting. They perform organizing, motivating and controlling functions. A goal is a desired, possible, and necessary state of a managed entity.

The target beginning in the activities of the organization arises as a reflection of the goals and interests of various groups of people associated with its activities. These are the interests of the owners, employees of the organization, its customers, business partners, the local community and society as a whole.

The organization sets many different goals. These goals differ by levels, spheres, periods of time. There are four main levels of goals in an organization: mission, strategic, tactical and operational goals. At the top of the goal hierarchy is the mission.

Mission - a fundamental, unique, quality goal that emphasizes the features of the company's business, its difference from other firms in the industry.

It reveals the reason, the meaning of the existence of the company, its purpose. The corporate mission connects the organization and the external environment, it is there that the organization seeks its purpose. The mission can be determined by the range of needs met; set of consumers; manufactured products; competitive advantages; technologies to be used; growth and funding policies; the culture of the organization, which determines the relationship within the company, the requirements for employees. Many organizations express their mission through slogans, such as Saratovstroysteklo - "Through the quality of glass - to the quality of life."

The mission should not carry specific instructions on what, how and in what time frame the organization should do. It sets the main direction of the movement of the organization. The specific end states that an organization aspires to are fixed in the form of its goals.

Strategic goals are set by senior management based on the mission. These are general long-term goals that determine the future state of the organization as a whole. Unlike the mission, they indicate the timing of their achievement.

Tactical goals are set by middle and senior management for the middle level in the organization. They define the results that the main units of the organization must achieve in order to achieve the strategic goals. Thus, tactical goals are a means of achieving strategic goals.

Operational (production) goals are set by the lower and middle management levels for the lowest level in the organization. They refer to short-term benchmarks derived from tactical goals. These are specific, measurable results of the activities of departments, working groups, individual employees in the organization. They are a means to achieve tactical goals.

The organization defines goals for various functional units (production, marketing, finance, etc.); various performance results (product quality, labor productivity, production costs, sales volume, efficiency, etc.).

The main areas of goal setting are: profitability, markets, productivity, products, financial resources, production capacity, research and innovation, organization (restructuring), human resources, social responsibility.

Let's imagine a scheme of goals developed by Japanese companies.[1]

1. Basic goals:

1) sales volume;

2) growth rate (sales or profit);

3) tribal:

a) the amount of profit;

b) the rate of profit on all capital;

c) the ratio of profit to sales volume;

d) earnings per share;

4) market share;

5) capital structure;

6) Dividends;

7) share price;

8) wages of employees;

9) the level of product quality;

10) basic growth policy;

11) basic sustainability policy;

12) basic profit making policy;

13) basic policy regarding social responsibility. 2. Operational matters:

1) value-added assignments;

2) tasks for labor productivity;

3) investments per 1 worker;

4) capital turnover ratio;

5) policy in the field of cost reduction.

2. The essence and significance of strategic planning

Strategic planning is the process of developing strategies and basic methods for their implementation. This is an adaptive process, as a result of which regular (annual) adjustments of decisions made in the form of plans take place, a review of the system of measures for the implementation of these plans based on continuous monitoring and evaluation of ongoing changes within and outside the organization.

Strategic planning determines what the organization must do in the present in order to achieve the desired goals in the future, based on the fact that the environment and the organization will change. In other words, with strategic planning, it is as if a look from the future into the present is carried out.

It is legitimate to interpret strategic planning as a system of the whole variety of types of planned activities in an organization. It summarizes long-term, medium-term, annual, operational, functional planning. The main semantic load is assigned to long-term planning. Its purpose is to make operational management decisions justified not only from the point of view of the current situation, but above all from the standpoint of tomorrow.

In accordance with the goals set, strategic, tactical and production (operational) plans are developed.

To effectively manage the processes of setting goals, planning and monitoring the implementation of plans, the method of management by objectives (MPC) is widely used. Through the UPC, managers, together with employees, determine the goals of the organization, departments, and an individual and use them for subsequent monitoring of the results achieved.

The first stage is goal setting. This is the most difficult step in the UOC, it involves looking beyond current, daily duties to answer the question: "What are we trying to achieve in the short term, in six months, a year?" A joint agreement between managers and employees creates a strong commitment to achieve set goals. A well-formulated goal should be specific, realistic, have a time frame and specific performers.

The second stage is the development of action plans. These plans define the sequence of actions required to achieve the intended goals. They are developed both for divisions, departments, and for individual employees.

The third stage is monitoring, control over the implementation of plans and, if necessary, their adjustment. During the implementation of the plan, the leader must give subordinates freedom of action, for example, through the removal of current, daily control over their activities.

Instead, more attention can be paid to training and advising employees to achieve their goals. Control is usually carried out three, six and nine months after the start of the planning period. This periodic monitoring allows managers and employees to see how plans are being implemented and whether corrective actions are needed to achieve planned goals.

The fourth stage is the assessment of the results of activities, their compliance with the set goal. Estimates can be used as the basis of the personnel remuneration system. Evaluation of the performance of employees, departments, the organization as a whole serves as the basis for setting goals for the next year, and the cycle of the UOC is resumed.

The advantages of the UOC are that it:

1) focuses people's efforts on corporate goals, which increases the likelihood of their achievement;

2) expands cooperation between managers and workers;

3) makes tasks clear and precise for performers;

4) improves people's motivation;

5) allows you to identify talented managers for future promotion (as it focuses on the compliance of goals and plans);

6) increases the personal responsibility of performers. Disadvantages of the UOC:

1) it requires high professionalism of the leader;

2) poor relations between the administration and employees reduce the effectiveness of the UOC;

3) it requires a large amount of work, knowledge of the goals of the organization and departments;

4) the UOC procedure tends to define short-term goals;

5) there is a possibility of a conflict between operational and strategic goals;

6) The UOC conflicts with the mechanistic structure of the organization, which prevents the participation of employees in management.

3. Strategy, its elements and levels

Strategy - a comprehensive plan to achieve the mission and goals of the organization by establishing the best fit between the organization and its external environment.

A well-designed strategy has four components: scale, resource allocation, competitive advantage, and synergy. Scale refers to the type and number of markets in which the organization intends to compete. The choice of markets determines the structure and volume of production. The strategy includes a project for distributing the organization's resources among various divisions, business units, departments.

Competitive advantages are the unique tangible and intangible assets that a firm owns and that create its superiority over its competitors. Significant competitive advantages are provided to the corporation by its internal and external competencies. As a rule, they require a significant period of time and experience in a particular industry to create them. For example, internal competencies include the following:

1) R&D (KNOW-HOW, technologies, ability to create competitive products);

2) availability of proven and effective business processes (project management, logistics, sales, marketing, planning, staff motivation, etc.);

3) the presence of unique technologies that are inaccessible to competitors;

4) the availability of qualified personnel, which can not be easily found in the market and the training of which requires a considerable amount of time.

External competencies include:

1) relations with suppliers and consumers (agents, dealers, distributors);

2) lobbying opportunities;

3) the presence of a "promoted" trademark;

4) the ability to provide financing in the required volume and at an acceptable cost (relations with financial institutions and investors).

Synergy occurs when the joint activity of all parts of an organization produces an effect greater than the sum of their individual actions. Synergy emphasizes that the first three elements of the strategy are not only interconnected, but also complement, reinforce each other, and lead to the best interaction effect.

The strategy is formulated at three levels: corporate, business unit and functional.

4. Strategy formulation: main steps and tools

Strategy formulation is the process of developing and defining a strategy, i.e. the process of strategic planning. Each organization has its own specific approach to formulating a strategy, but there is a general sequence of steps in this process:

1) setting strategic goals;

2) organization analysis;

3) analysis of the external environment;

4) establishment of correspondence between the organization and the environment.

Analysis of the organization, its potential involves the diagnosis of its strengths and weaknesses in comparison with other organizations. The potential of an organization is usually assessed in areas such as marketing, finance, production, research and development, human resources, management quality, organization structure.

Analysis of the external environment involves the identification of opportunities and threats to the organization for all factors of the external environment. Such an analysis requires the use of information from a variety of sources.

After completing the analysis of the external environment and the enterprise, it is necessary to bring its strengths and weaknesses into line with the opportunities and threats of the external environment. The balance between the environment and the organization is established in such a way that the competitive advantages of the organization, its strengths are aimed at realizing the opportunities and eliminating the threats of the external environment, as well as the weaknesses of the organization. The considered method of analyzing the organization and its environment is called SWOT analysis.

In addition, to formulate a strategy, establish a correspondence between the characteristics of the organization and its external environment, you can use the SWOT matrix.

To study the environment, the method of compiling its profile can be applied. This method is useful for profiling separately the macro environment, the business environment, and the internal environment of the organization.

This method is used to assess the relative importance for the organization of individual environmental factors. The method is as follows.

Individual environmental factors are listed in the environment profile table. Each factor is given by expert way:

1) assessment of its importance for the industry on a scale: 3 - high value;

2 - moderate value;

1 - low value;

2) assessment of its impact on the organization on a scale:

3 - strong influence;

2 - moderate influence; 1 - weak influence;

0 - no influence;

3) assessment of the direction of influence on a scale: + 1 - positive direction;

- 1 - negative direction.

Further, all three expert assessments are multiplied, and an integral assessment is obtained, showing the degree of importance of the factor for the organization.

From this assessment, management can conclude which environmental factors are relatively more important to their organization and therefore deserve the most serious attention.

5. Variety of strategies: corporate strategy and its types; business strategy and its types; functional strategies of the organization

There are two main approaches to formulating a corporate strategy - formulating the main (fundamental) strategy and analyzing the business portfolio. The main strategy is a general program of actions developed at the corporate level.

It is usually formulated for an organization that competes in one market or several, but closely related. There are three main main strategies: growth, stabilization, reduction.

Growth can be generated from within. This includes concentrated growth strategies that involve product or market change:

1) strengthening positions in the existing market, increasing market share;

2) market development, development of new markets;

3) development of new products.

Growth can be based on external sources. These include the acquisition of other industries, mergers, consolidation of risky enterprises, the creation of strategic alliances. The second group of growth strategies is formed by integrated growth strategies.

These include forward and backward vertical integration strategies. Such growth is carried out both by merging, absorbing new structures, and by expanding from within. The third group of growth strategies includes diversified growth strategies. There are three of them:

1) the strategy of concentric diversification;

2) horizontal diversification strategy;

3) strategy of conglomerate diversification. The reduction strategies are:

1) liquidation strategy;

2) "harvest" strategy;

3) the strategy of cutting off the excess;

4) cost reduction strategy.

The first occurs when the firm is unable to conduct further business.

The "harvest" strategy involves abandoning the long-term view of the business in favor of maximizing revenue in the short term. It is applied to an unpromising business that cannot be sold profitably, but can generate income while reaping the rewards. The goal is to get the maximum possible cash after the termination of investment. Main methods:

1) reduction of material and technical maintenance of production;

2) curtailing promotional activities and research, making a profit from intangible assets (business connections, stable clientele, etc.);

3) reduction in the range of products;

4) reduction of wholesale channels;

5) refusal to serve small customers;

6) a decrease in the quality of services (reduction of sales assistants, an increase in the timing of order fulfillment, etc.).

A pruning strategy means that the firm closes or sells redundant divisions that are not profitable or do not fit well with other divisions.

The cost reduction strategy is to look for opportunities to reduce costs in order to increase the competitiveness of the company and survive in the long term.

Implementation is associated with a reduction in production costs, an increase in labor productivity, a reduction in hiring and even dismissal of personnel, a reduction in social programs, and the removal of unprofitable goods from production.

A stabilization strategy is being developed to maintain the status quo. The firm's strategic plan is to stay in business and protect itself from external threats.

This strategy is often used by firms that lack the resources to grow or have weak growing markets. A stabilization strategy is useful after implementing rapid growth or contraction strategies.

When a firm is diversified and has many different industries, activities, especially unrelated ones, a business portfolio approach is used to formulate corporate strategy. This approach presents a corporation as a collection of various divisions, strategic business units (SBUs), each of which has its own mission, product lines, competitors, markets, and its own competitive strategy.

The starting point for using a business portfolio is to identify each SBU that is part of a corporation. The next step is their classification and analysis of the current product portfolio.

The simplest, but rather abstract tool for classifying SBUs is the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix. It categorizes SBUs according to two criteria: its market growth rate and its market share.

The BCG matrix allows you to compare SBU positions within the same portfolio. With its help, you can identify market leaders and establish a balance between divisions in the context of the four quadrants of the matrix.

In theory, SBUs operating in fast-growing industries need a constant influx of capital to expand their capacity and maintain competitiveness. SBUs operating in slow-growing industries, on the contrary, should have an excess of cash.

Corporate portfolios must be balanced, providing the right mix of SBUs that need capital to grow with units that have excess capital.

Analysis of the current business portfolio involves answering the following questions:

1) whether the portfolio includes a sufficient number of business units in attractive industries;

2) whether the portfolio contains too many "question marks";

3) whether there are enough "money cows" to develop the "stars" and fund the "question marks";

4) whether the portfolio gives a sufficient amount of both profit and money;

5) whether the portfolio is highly vulnerable in the event of negative trends, unforeseen events;

6) are there many “dogs” in the portfolio that are weak in terms of competitiveness. Depending on the answers to these questions, the strategic portfolio of the corporation is formed. A business strategy is formulated for each business unit.

It aims to find the best methods of competition in its market. Even if an organization competes in only one market, it must develop a competitive strategy.

The main tools for developing this strategy are: five forces of competition; M. Porter's competitive strategies and product life cycle.

The structure of competition in the industry, according to M. Porter, is formed under the influence of the five forces of competition, which determine the level of profit in the industry. It:

1) penetration of new competitors;

2) the threat of the appearance of substitute goods on the market;

3) the ability of buyers to defend their interests;

4) the ability of suppliers to dictate their terms;

5) competition between companies that have already established themselves in the market.

Competitive strategies are formulated based on an understanding of the features and rules of competition that operate in the industry and determine its attractiveness. The goal of competitive strategy is to change these rules in favor of your company.

M. Porter presents three general competitive strategies that can be used by organizations to create competitive advantages and increase competitiveness. It:

1) leadership in cost reduction;

2) differentiation;

3) focusing.

Cost leadership is the most characteristic of the three general strategies. The company keeps costs lower than those of its competitors. The nature of cost leadership depends on the characteristics of the industry: it can be economies of scale, advanced technology, access to cheap sources of raw materials, a standardized product, a strong and cheap distribution system. However, the leader in cost reduction cannot afford to ignore the principles of differentiation.

Consumers should consider the company's products comparable to those of competitors. It should be noted that this strategy is vulnerable to changes in demand and can be easily imitated by competitors.

Differentiation means that the company strives for uniqueness in some aspect that is considered important to a large number of customers.

Achieving uniqueness reduces the power of buyers, but increases costs. The challenge is to reduce the total cost to consumers of using the product. This is achieved by increasing the convenience and ease of use and expanding the range of customer satisfaction. Differentiation may affect the product, its properties, delivery methods, after-sales service, etc.

A company relying on differentiation should not forget about ways to reduce costs, as it can lose competitiveness.

The point of focus is to select an industry market segment, a specific group of customers, and serve them better than competitors. There are two types of focus strategy: achieving cost advantages or increasing differentiation.

The product life cycle (PLC) is a concept that describes the sales of products, profits, customers, competitors and the strategy of the organization from the moment a product enters the market until it is withdrawn from the market. A typical LCP consists of four stages:

1) bringing the product to market;

2) growth;

3) maturity;

4) recession.

The goal during the introduction phase is to create a market for the new product. The growth rate of sales depends on the novelty of products and expectations, customer requests. At this stage, only one or two firms enter the market, and competition is limited. But production and marketing costs are high. There is no or very little profit. Buyers are offered one or two basic product models.

The purpose of the growth stage is to expand sales and the collection of new product modifications. New competitors enter the market, profits rise as sales increase and costs decrease. In order to stretch the period of market growth, a firm can use several strategic approaches:

1) improve the quality of the novelty, give it additional properties, release new models;

2) penetrate into new market segments;

3) use new distribution channels;

4) use persuasive mass advertising;

5) reduce the price in a timely manner to attract an additional number of consumers.

At the stage of maturity, the growth rate of sales slows down. The company is trying to maintain distinctive advantages for as long as possible. Competition at this stage reaches a maximum, as a result, profits in the industry as a whole per unit of production are reduced, as the system of discounts is extended. Some competitors are starting to leave the industry. Market modification, product modification, and marketing mix strategies are useful here.

The last stage of the ZHP is a recession, the volume of sales is declining. There are many reasons for this: changing tastes, the emergence of new products, increased competition, including foreign ones. The firm must either continue producing the product, discontinue it, or adopt a "harvest" strategy by cutting all possible costs (R&D, advertising, sales force, etc.).

Functional strategies focus on planning the functional activities of the organization, the SBU. Many organizations develop marketing, financial, manufacturing, human resource, and research and development strategies.

LECTURE No. 7. Management structure

1. The concept of the management structure and the factors that determine it

The category "structure" reflects the structure, the internal form of the system, the composition and interconnection of its elements. The structure is an indicator of the organization of the system. The way a system is organized affects its ability to adapt to changes in the external environment.

The structure of an organization brings together the constituent elements of its internal environment through communications, information flows and workflow.

The following elements are distinguished in the organizational structure: links (divisions, departments, bureaus, etc.), levels of management and links between its elements. The main types of links are vertical (links of leadership and subordination, their need arises when there are several levels of management) and horizontal (links of cooperation, coordination of equal elements).

Vertical connections are divided into linear, functional and mixed - linear-functional. The following definitions of structure can be given.

The management structure is an ordered set of stably interconnected elements that ensure the functioning and development of the organization as a whole.

The structure of an organization is the fixed relationships that exist between departments and employees of an organization.

The organizational structure is a unity of structural units that perform certain management functions and are interconnected and subordinate to each other.

2. Building a vertical structure: division of labor, chain of command, delegation of authority, norm of manageability, centralization and decentralization, coordination

The management structure acts as a form of the management process, and functions - as its content. Such a dependence implies the primacy of management functions and the secondary nature of the structure. Therefore, it is first necessary to determine which functions and to what extent will be necessary for control in given production conditions, and then create the necessary controls. To determine the volume and content of management functions, it is necessary to know the external environment and goals of the managed object, the production process, its type, scale and technology, the nature of products, the number of employees, the level of specialization, production cooperation, the level of automation of management work, the qualifications of workers, the efficiency of their work. .

Let's name the main factors influencing the design of the organizational structure:

1) the external environment, its dynamism, complexity, level of uncertainty;

2) management and production technology;

3) a strategy that determines the types of consumers, markets, territorial distribution of production;

4) ways of interacting with the environment to achieve the goals of the organization;

5) the behavior of employees, which is determined by the needs of people, the degree of their satisfaction, the qualifications and motivation of employees.

Organization design elements include:

1) division of labor and specialization (an excessively high level of specialization leads to the isolation of workers in the labor process, reducing incentives to perform a limited number of simple monotonous operations);

2) departmentalization and cooperation (departmentalization is the process of dividing an organization into blocks, which are called divisions, departments, sectors, departments. Depending on the criteria for dividing an organization into blocks, functional, territorial, product, project and mixed departmentalization are distinguished);

3) hierarchy and range of control (the hierarchy reflects the vertical subordination of management levels, shows who reports to whom, where and how decision-making powers are distributed. subordinates that can be effectively managed by the manager Narrow span of control means that the manager reports to a minimum number of subordinates, resulting in an increase in the number of levels of control in the organization Wide span of control means reporting to the manager as many subordinates as possible, which reduces the number of levels of hierarchy in the organization );

4) centralization and decentralization (centralization means the concentration of decision-making rights at the highest level of management, decentralization - the transfer of decision-making rights to lower levels of the hierarchy. Decentralization provides greater flexibility to the organization, as it allows you to quickly respond to changing conditions. Decentralization tool is delegation) ;

5) differentiation and integration (differentiation means such a specialization of units in which each of them performs a certain completed work. The need for differentiation is caused by changes occurring in the external environment. The higher the degree of differentiation of various parts of the organization, the greater the need for integration, i.e. in coordination of their actions and cooperation).

3. Departmentalization. Functional, divisional and matrix structures. Team structure and network structure

Types of organizational structures. Linear structure. The concept of a linear structure is associated with the division of the organization vertically from top to bottom and the direct subordination of the lower level of management to the highest. The essence of linear management is that at the head of each unit there is a head (body) that performs all management functions. Each member of the team is directly subordinate only to this leader (body). In turn, the latter is accountable to a higher manager (body). A superior manager does not have the right to give orders to employees, bypassing their immediate superior.

Advantages of linear control:

1) receipt by subordinates of consistent, interconnected orders, tasks;

2) full responsibility of each manager for the results of the work of his subordinate units;

3) ensuring the unity of leadership from top to bottom.

But in such a structure, each leader must be a highly qualified specialist and have versatile knowledge. In addition, linear structures do not have flexibility, adaptability, which does not allow them to solve complex problems of survival in a market environment. Nevertheless, the development of domestic small business, as a rule, begins with simple linear structures. Only then does the ongoing development of the organization, the accumulation or consolidation of equity capital, force organizations to restructure into other types of organizational structures.

Functional structure. With functional management, subordination is carried out within the limits of the implementation of a certain management function. This structure improves management efficiency through the participation of qualified specialists in specific areas of the organization. The functions of one line manager are performed by several functional managers. Employees, including subordinate managers, are subordinate to several functional managers. Such a structure allows line managers to relieve the need for detailed knowledge of all aspects of managing the organization, but violates the principle of unity of command, reduces responsibility for work, since the performer receives tasks from several functional managers.

Functional management does not completely exclude linear management, but narrows its role. Along with the linear hierarchy, a functional hierarchy is formed. This usually results in double submission. Often, functional managers tend to overestimate the importance of their area of ​​work. This leads to the emergence of a "disease" functionalism, in which the goals of functional units are placed above the overall goal of the organization, contradictions appear between units, and their isolation is created. The disadvantages of the functional structure grow as the complexity of management and the increase in the number of functional units.

In its pure form, the functional structure is practically not used. It is used in organic combination with a linear structure, forming a linear-functional structure. This structure is free from the disadvantages inherent in linear and functional structures. In such a structure, the line manager has a headquarters consisting of functional management bodies (departments, bureaus, groups, individual specialists).

The linear-functional structure requires the creation of special councils, boards in which line managers, together with functional managers and experts, can coordinate their actions and decisions. But this structure also has its drawbacks: sometimes there is an artificial expansion of the administrative apparatus, its separation from production, and an increase in management costs.

This structure is most appropriate in those organizations that produce mass-market products with a limited range, operate in stable external conditions and require the solution of standard, frequently recurring management tasks to ensure their functioning (firms in the metallurgical industries, industries producing raw materials). The general trend is to expand functional management as one rises to higher levels of management.

Management is currently developing divisional structures to cope with the new challenges of firm size, diversification, technology, and environmental changes. In such structures, the division of the organization into blocks occurs according to the types of goods or services, customer groups or geographic regions. There are product and regional structures, consumer-oriented structures. Such new elements as management by product, consumer, market, built into linear-functional structures, allow you to group work around the result. The development of product structures was associated with the emergence of multi-product diversified industries. The transition to a product structure begins with the realization that it is impossible to combine the growth of the organization, the strategic problems of its development with the current problems of product production.

Autonomous areas associated with the production of various products are allocated in the production link. Managers are appointed to these areas with full responsibility for the production of the product and making a profit. The sites are given appropriate functional maintenance.

A consumer-facing framework groups the work around the end user of the product. For example, goods for children, youth, pensioners or goods for the home, etc. If the organization's activities cover large geographical areas, especially on an international scale, then it may be appropriate to structure according to the territorial principle, i.e., according to the location of its divisions. The regional structure facilitates the solution of problems associated with local legislation, customs, and consumer needs. This approach makes it easier to connect with customers. Sales organizations of large firms can serve as an example.

Grouping work around a result (product, market, consumer, project) solved a number of problems that arose with the functional approach, where work is grouped around a resource, function. It was possible to eliminate the turnover from the work of the organization's management by separating the operational level of management from the strategic one. This was also facilitated by shifting responsibility for profit to the branch level, which freed top management time for strategic tasks. Increasing the responsibility of the head of the department contributes to the development of decentralization, initiative, autonomy.

Advantages of divisional structures:

1) the organization's quick response to changes in the external environment, as its flexibility increases, because each division works directly for its market and its consumer;

2) the separation of the current problems of managing the production of any product from the strategic problems of the survival of the organization as a whole, as a result of which the top management of the company concentrates on strategic planning and management;

3) transferring responsibility for profit to the level of divisions, which develops the breadth of thinking and entrepreneurial spirit of their leaders;

4) improved communications;

5) orientation of the organization to the final result;

6) a high level of coordination of the functional departments of each division, since the employees are grouped "under one roof" and must ensure the efficiency of the functioning of one product line;

7) reduction of management levels, which makes the decision-making process more decentralized.

Disadvantages of product divisional structure:

1) the emergence of a new "disease" - productivism - the opposition of the goals of the product to the overall goals of the organization, the emergence of competition for its resources;

2) low coordination of the activities of departments, disunity of headquarters services, weakening of horizontal ties;

3) increase in the number of personnel, duplication of work;

4) an increase in the cost of maintaining additional services, which reduces overall efficiency;

5) difficulty in exercising control from top to bottom;

6) preservation within the divisions of linear-functional structures and all their shortcomings.

If the problem of adaptation to the external environment is not solved within the grouping of work around the result or function, then the way out is the simultaneous grouping of work around both the result and the function. A matrix structure appears. This structure maximizes the benefits and minimizes the weaknesses of the functional and product approach.

In a matrix structure, employees are recruited from various functional units on a temporary basis to work on a specific project. Team members report not only to the project manager, but also to the heads of those functional units in which they constantly work. Project managers are generally responsible for integrating all activities and resources related to a given project. To this end, all material and financial resources for this project are transferred to their disposal. Project managers are also responsible for the planning of the project and the progress of its implementation in all quantitative, qualitative and temporal terms.

The heads of functional departments decide how and where this or that work should be done, approve the proposals of their specialists. Thus, the main principle of the formation of the matrix structure is a developed network of horizontal connections, the numerous intersections of which with the vertical hierarchy are formed through the interaction of project managers with the heads of functional and linear divisions.

The effectiveness of the matrix structure is based on the fact that functional knowledge permeates every job. Personnel are used more flexibly, management decisions are made more effectively.

Advantages of matrix structures:

1) high flexibility, adaptability to changes in the external environment;

2) integration of various types of company activities within the framework of ongoing projects and programs;

3) cooperation between different functional units;

4) more efficient use of resources, including human resources;

5) enrichment of the content of work tasks for employees;

6) strengthening the personal responsibility of a particular leader both for the project as a whole and for its elements;

7) strengthening of personnel motivation. Disadvantages of matrix structures:

1) high complexity, hence the confusion caused by the double command chain;

2) increase in time for meetings, discussions to solve problems;

3) the struggle for power, since within its framework the powers of authority are not clearly defined;

4) the need to train employees in the art of human relationships;

5) high overhead costs due to the fact that more funds are required to maintain a larger number of leaders, as well as sometimes to resolve conflict situations. It should be noted that the transition to matrix structures, as a rule, does not cover the entire company, but only some part of it. The scale of application of matrix structures or individual elements of the matrix approach in companies is quite significant.

LECTURE No. 8. Communications in the organization

1. The concept and role of communications in management

Communication can be defined as the process of exchanging and understanding information between two or more people in order to motivate or influence certain behavior. The purpose of the communication process is to ensure that the information is understood. However, the exchange of information itself does not guarantee such understanding and effective communication of the parties involved in the exchange. The exchange of information occurs only when one side offers information and the other perceives it. Therefore, effective communications require certain communication skills, abilities, mutual understanding from each of the parties.

2. Communication process, its elements and stages

To better understand the process of information exchange, the conditions for its effectiveness, we will name the elements and stages of the communication process. There are four elements in the information exchange process.

1. The sender, the person who decided to convey information (idea, message) or express emotions, feelings.

2. Message, actually information, a clearly formulated thought, encoded with the help of symbols. The message's meaning and meaning are the sender's ideas, facts, values, feelings, and attitudes. In this case, the sender expects that the message will be received with the same value that is embedded in it.

3. Channel, a means of transmitting information. With its help, it is sent to the specified addressee. Channels can be a telephone line, a radio wave, air that transmits oral speech, computer networks, channels for delivering written correspondence, etc. If a channel connects more than two organizational units at the time of transmission or exchange of information, it forms an information network.

4. Recipient, the person to whom the information is intended and who interprets it.

The stages of information exchange are as follows:

1) the birth of an idea, a message;

2) coding and channel selection. Encoding is the transformation of transmitted information using symbols into a message or signal that can be transmitted. The encoding forms are speech, text, drawing, deed, gesture, smile, intonation, etc. The sender also chooses a channel that is compatible with the encoding form;

3) transmission - the use of a channel to deliver a message;

4) decoding - translation of the sender's characters into the thoughts of the recipient. Decoding includes the perception of the message, its interpretation and evaluation. Efficient decoding involves understanding the idea by the receiver, which means that the meaning of the message is the same for the sender and receiver. The effectiveness of information exchange is enhanced by feedback, in which the sender and recipient change places and roles, and the communication process is carried out in the reverse order, going through all the stages of information exchange. Feedback is the recipient's reaction to the sender's message and the account of this reaction by the sender.

Feedback makes communication a dynamic two-way process. It can be viewed as messages to the sender that contain data on the effectiveness of the communication act.

Positive feedback informs that the desired result of the message has been achieved. Negative feedback indicates to the source that the desired outcome of the message was not achieved. From the point of view of improving the effectiveness of communication, negative feedback is more practical than positive feedback.

Ideally, feedback should be conscious, and therefore planned in advance, dressed in an optimal form that corresponds to the situation, the partner's ability to perceive (and not one's own convenience), established without delay, in response to a specific signal (especially if it is asked for) and characterized benevolence. Signals of conscious feedback in the oral transmission of information are clarification, paraphrase, generalization, expression of feeling. Since such signals can be quite weak, the reaction of partners must be carefully monitored.

According to S. Black, "the leader can count on understanding only 60% of the information that he is trying to convey to his deputy on any complex issue. In turn, the subordinate deputy will also understand no more than 60%. And so on until the last link in the chain of command. If the leadership consists of five levels, the most junior of the leaders will understand only 13% of the original order. Using written documents sent from top to bottom, the result can be even worse. "[2]

The information disseminated in an organization is influenced by a significant number of people. The American researcher of communication processes F. Machlup distinguishes six types of influence on the message transmitted in the organization and, accordingly, determines the subjects of this influence.

Carrier - delivers what he received without the slightest change.

Converter - changes the form of the message received by him without changing its content.

Translator - changes the form and content of the received message, but must at the same time, by an effort of imagination, recreate the message in a form that, by the nature of the impact, would not be inferior to the original message, as he perceived it.

The analyst - supplementing the generally accepted methods of transmission, uses his own thoughts and conjectures so widely that the message he transmits is very small or completely unlike the one he received.

The discoverer - puts so much of his own creative genius, creative imagination into the information received, that as a result, only a relatively weak connection can be established between the message received from others and the message transmitted by him.[3]

Encoding and decoding are potential sources of "noise". "Noise" is errors, unequal understanding of the symbols in the message, differences in perception, existing stereotypes that distort the meaning of the message.

3. Forms of interpersonal communications and their barriers

There are interpersonal and organizational forms of communication, the latter ultimately also come down to interpersonal. Depending on the transmission channel, interpersonal communications are divided into oral and written.

Oral communications take the form of discussions, conversations, dialogues, telephone calls, and the symbol for encoding information here is the spoken word, speech and non-verbal information (gesture, facial expressions, facial expressions, smile, intonation and other non-verbal information). This form of communication has two main advantages:

1) it is easy to use, does not require special training and means of communication;

2) provides quick feedback and information exchange between the sender and the recipient through the question asked, consent, gesture, voice and other non-verbal information.

This information conveys thoughts and feelings much more effectively than any carefully chosen words. Disadvantages of oral communication are:

1) the impossibility of storing information, since such communications do not leave documents, records, notes;

2) the emergence of certain barriers in the way of oral communications, which will lead to inaccuracies, errors, misunderstandings.

As such barriers we name: different perceptions, stereotypes, inability to listen, semantic and non-verbal.

Perception is a process of receiving and transforming information that provides a person with an understanding of reality and orientation in a situation. Perception affects people's expectations. People react not to what is actually happening, but to what is perceived to be happening.

Perception can be influenced by: level of education, age, accumulated experience, values, ideology, socio-psychological climate in the team. In an atmosphere of trust, information flows and the accuracy of information in exchanges between people grow. And, on the contrary, information that contradicts our experience, values, attitudes, is often either completely rejected, or partially perceived, or distorted in accordance with experience and ideas. It helps to overcome this barrier and active listening as a way to bring a reaction to the information being communicated (showing interest, asking questions, briefly retelling what was said and other forms of feedback with the sender to complete the communication cycle).

Stereotypes are fixed opinions about people and situations that allow one to judge them by association. Both the sender of information and its recipient can be addicted to stereotypes, therefore, when communicating, it is necessary to make sure that the partners really understand the essence of the problem, and not be limited to the traditional question "How did you understand?", Which is usually answered in the affirmative anyway.

The inability to listen is a serious barrier at the stage of receiving a message. To understand a message, it must be heard. The ability to listen is understood as the ability to receive messages, clearly highlighting the facts and sensations contained in them, and correctly interpret their meanings. Only then the recipient has the opportunity to give an adequate response to the original sender, that is, to create feedback and close the communication circle. The ability to listen requires attention, energy and experience from a person.

The management literature provides some tips for effective listening:

1) stop talking, do not interrupt the speaker;

2) create a relaxed atmosphere for the speaker, find interesting topics;

3) show the speaker that you are ready to listen;

4) be patient, responsive;

5) ask questions, keep the interlocutor interested;

6) do not allow disputes and criticism, evaluate the essence, not words. Semantic barriers are associated with different meanings of the same words and sentences. This is especially true for summaries, technical and professional terms. Therefore, the manager needs to achieve an understanding of the meaning that he puts into the words. For example, the word "organization" means both an enterprise, an institution, and the process of their design. Studies have shown that workers and managers attach different meanings to such words as incentives, cooperation, trust, profit, cost-benefit, budget, etc. Therefore, the manager must use clarifications, deciphering the terms used, if possible, exclude ambiguous words, phrases.

Non-verbal barriers are caused by the incorrect use of symbols other than words in communication. Such symbols are: gestures, facial expressions, eye movements, touches, postures, intonation, remote proximity in communication, etc. Often non-verbal transmission occurs simultaneously with verbal and can enhance or change the meaning of words. The same question "Do you have an idea?", asked with different intonation: interested, approving and threatening, will give a different perception of it. In many cases, how we say is more important than what we say. Therefore, incorrect non-verbal symbols often completely suppress verbal ones. Hence the conclusion: it is necessary to ensure that non-verbal symbols correspond to the meaning of the message that is being transmitted. Otherwise, there is "noise" that prevents the correct understanding of the information.

The second form of interpersonal communications is written communications in the form of a report, report, letter, memorandum, presentation, order, etc., where the written word acts as a symbol of information encoding. Benefits of written communications:

1) greater accuracy and thoroughness in the formulation of messages;

2) the ability to store information. The disadvantages are that they:

1) require more time to collect, think about and formulate messages;

2) hinder the establishment of feedback and the exchange of information.

When choosing a form of interpersonal communication, one can be guided by the rule: oral communication is preferable for personal, new, non-routine, ambiguous, emotional and short messages (personal meetings, conversations, telephone conversations), and written communication is usually more effective for impersonal, simple, routine and long messages ( official letter, memorandum, e-mail).

To enhance the benefits of each of these forms, they can be combined. For example, a short phone call can alert you to the meeting time and get an immediate response, while a reminder note about the time and agenda ensures that the recipient remembers the meeting, prepares for it, and shows up. New means of communication - mobile phones, faxes, computer networks - blur the distinction between oral and written forms of communication and make each more efficient.

4. Forms of organizational communications, their barriers

Forms of organizational communications:

1) communication with the external environment;

2) vertical communications within the organization;

3) horizontal communications within the organization;

4) informal communications;

5) communication networks.

Each of these forms involves the use of oral or written forms of communication.

Vertical communications are carried out along formal descending or ascending lines between managers and subordinates and may involve several levels in the organization in the process of information exchange. Downward communications convey messages about goals and strategies, current tasks, new procedures and rules, job descriptions and upcoming changes in the organization, feedback on performance, etc. Upward communications receive messages about emerging problems, ideas and suggestions, reports on results activities and other control information, complaints and requests, etc.

Horizontal communications are the exchange of messages between different departments, departments at the same level in the organization, and between work colleagues within these departments. The purpose of these communications is to coordinate and cooperate with the work of interconnected departments, solve problems within departments, consult each other. To coordinate the work of different departments, special groups, committees, commissions are sometimes created, consultants are appointed, and matrix structures are created in which horizontal connections play an important role.

Informal communications are not associated with formal channels or hierarchies in the organization. They arise spontaneously, not as prescribed by management, are a random exchange of information between people when they meet and connect all employees of the organization. There are two types of informal channels: gossip ("vine") and "going out". Rumors are unverified information that usually circulates within an organization (internal rumors) or in the organization's external environment (external rumors). Rumors allow employees to fill the information vacuum, clarify management decisions. They are activated when there is change in the organization, there is excitement, anxiety, or when the economic situation worsens.

Research shows that the effectiveness of the "vine" depends on just a few people. In a simple chain of rumors, one person breaks some news to many others. In a cluster chain, information is transmitted by several people. The smaller the number of "transmission links", the more accurate the information. At least 75% of the rumors are accurate. Therefore, through the channels of rumors, the manager can disseminate information about upcoming staff cuts, relocations and appointments, new wage rates, upcoming changes in the organization. Rumors can be divided into four categories.

Dreams and aspirations. They reflect the desires and hopes of those who initiate the rumors. These are the most positive rumors, as they encourage creativity on the part of others. Production problems are often resolved as a result of employees expressing their desire for change. Such improvements sometimes improve the efficiency of some parts of the organization. While the tone of the rumors is positive, they nonetheless indicate workers' concerns.

Rumors - "scare". Arise on the basis of fears and fears of employees, causing concern in the team, for example, during the period of budget cuts. In such cases, employees share their fears with colleagues. These rumors are sometimes damaging (such as the possibility of downsizing) and require a formal denial by management.

"Drive in wedges". The most aggressive type of rumors. They divide groups and undermine loyalty. Such rumors are dictated by aggressiveness and even hatred. These are negative rumors that cause a split. As a rule, they are humiliating for a company or an individual and are capable of damaging the reputation of others. Examples of such rumours: Someone at Company X said that Company Y's logo was the mark of the devil; an employee told colleagues that one of the employees was diagnosed with AIDS, or that “Louise, the new manager of the office, was seen the other day with a new accountant. They left Motel Six together in a car; "Mary got a promotion because she's the boss's mistress."

Final rumor. This is a rumor about foreseeing some kind of action. It occurs when employees have been waiting for an event to occur for a long time. Perhaps there is only one step left before this, which adds to the ambiguity of the situation.

"Going out to the people" is a form of communication in which even a senior manager is not content with only written reports from his immediate subordinates, but prefers to receive first-hand information about the life of the company, from conversations with ordinary employees. This creates a favorable climate in the team, helps to strengthen upward and downward communications. The manager has the opportunity to convey his ideas and values ​​to employees and hear about the problems, ideas and complaints that concern employees.

5. Types of communication networks

A communication network is a connection of people participating in the communication process in a certain way with the help of information flows. The members of the group communicate through the network. From how communication networks are built, the activities of the group may differ in greater or lesser efficiency. The main networks are "star" ("wheel"), "spur" and "circle" ("all-channel"). Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of a particular communication network depends on the tasks that the group faces, the desired results, time, motivation and qualifications of employees, and other factors.

"Star". In such a network, the leader controls the activities of subordinates. The number of channels may vary, but there is always a center to which they converge.

The advantages of the "star" are as follows:

1) there is a recognized leader who is responsible for the operation of the network. Here, the bonds between superior and subordinate are strong;

2) the "star" is more stable than other networks, all official information comes from the center and goes to the center;

3) allows you to quickly start completing tasks, since information and instructions from the center can be sent simultaneously to all members of the group;

4) there is more order and accuracy in the performance of tasks, since the center controls the entire network. But if there is an incompetent person in the center, the "star" becomes ineffective. Therefore, the choice of the leader is of primary importance in the "star". The main disadvantage of the "star" is considered to be its rigidity, the impossibility of displaying the initiative of subordinates. In no other network is the chain of command so clearly expressed, and for the work here to go smoothly, it must be strictly observed. Therefore, the quality of such a network is determined in the center. It cannot be higher than the level of work of the head.

Zvezda is a centralized network and is most effective for solving simple, current tasks.

"Circle" can be called the complete opposite of the "star". Members of the group freely communicate with each other, equally process information and make decisions. Here, there is no formal leader who controls the activities of the network. This does not mean that there are no lines of force or purposeful influence in it.

The advantages of the "circle" is that it:

1) creates a more favorable moral and psychological climate in the group and provides higher motivation and activity of its members;

2) educates leaders, since the abilities of each person are in sight, and he is interested in showing himself from the best side;

3) limits the "sifting" of information;

4) favors creative work;

5) has more control points, since information comes from all network participants.

Circle Disadvantages:

1) the phenomenon of "groupthink" may arise;

2) a possible gain in flexibility may threaten stability and order;

3) the possible gain from incomplete sieving of information and a larger number of control points can be achieved by reducing the control functions of the channels.

"Circle" is most effective for solving complex creative problems.

"Spur" outwardly looks like a "star", it is also a centralized, rigid network, but there are differences: the structure of the "spur" has three levels, not two, as in the "star". The man in the center still occupies a leading position, but has his own boss. Point B is the center of real power in the Spur. This power can be used in the interests of A, in the interests of B, or in the interests of ordinary workers at the ends of the rays. B retains his positions as long as he satisfies A. The main problem of such a network is the selection of a person for position B.

Secondary communication networks are: "tent", "tent" and "house" (Fig. 1)

Rice. 1. Secondary communication networks

"Tent" is a very common, strong and stable, like a "star", communication network. Has a minimum number of informal employee interactions.

The "tent" arises from the "tent" when the channel B-C is formally established (it can exist unofficially with the knowledge of A). The "tent" is formed when manager A decides that his senior subordinates need to coordinate their actions and matters of mutual interest before passing them up to him. Such a network can be a very efficient and effective structure if the rights and obligations of B and C are clearly defined.

When a new official channel b - c appears in the "tent", a "house" is obtained. This is a completely closed system, where anyone can communicate with any other point through multiple channels, without having to follow the usual established chain of command.

There are three circles of communications here: a large one, uniting all members of the network, and two small ones.

From an organizational point of view, "home" can be the most dangerous of all information networks due to the many official channels through which information is transmitted from one to another.

Information overload can occur. Difficulties are generated by the false idea that the greater the amount of information transmitted and the easier it is to directly process it, the better.

The free exchange of information between people who can benefit from it is good, but when the direct exchange leads to a "short circuit" of the flow or the information does not get to those who should receive it, it is bad.

6. Management of communications in the organization

Organizational communications management involves knowledge of communication barriers and ways to overcome them. The latter are related to the design of the organization in such a way as to ensure and maintain effective communications both at the level of an individual and at the level of divisions, departments of the organization. Such design also includes the development of individual skills, experience, and the ability to communicate with people.

The main communication barriers at the level of organizational units include: differences in status and power; different goals and needs of departments; mismatch of communication networks and tasks and lack of formal channels.

Differences in status and power lead to a distortion of information coming from the lower levels of the organization up the hierarchy.

This is due to the fact that subordinates who have little power in the organization may be reluctant to transfer information about problems, mistakes to their leaders. Therefore, the latter have an incorrect, embellished idea of ​​the state of affairs in the workplace.

Managers with a lot of power may not feel or pay attention to the fact that workers with low status have no incentive to cooperate. This barrier can be removed by "going out to the people", creating a climate of trust, openness, encouragement of initiative, and sometimes mistakes.

Differences in the goals and needs of departments lead to contradictions between them, the struggle for organizational resources, following primarily the local goals of departments, and not the goals of the organization as a whole. To overcome this barrier helps to improve the structure of the organization, the use of special teams, departments, curators, additional communication channels aimed at coordinating, uniting the efforts of different departments.

Mismatch of communication networks and tasks. The amount of information and its exchange should correspond to the volume and content of the tasks to be solved. This means that in order to solve a difficult, creative, innovative task, decentralized communication networks of the "circle" type should be used, which encourage participation, discussion of the problem, and the manifestation of the initiative of employees.

Lack of formal channels. The absence of formal channels reduces the effectiveness of communications. The organization should have sufficient upward, downward and horizontal communications in the form of employee surveys, a solicitation system, newsletters, an open door policy, etc.

An employee survey is a variant of a feedback system. Such surveys can be conducted to obtain information from managers and workers on literally hundreds of questions:

1) whether the goals of their activities are clearly communicated to them;

2) what potential or actual problems they face or may face;

3) whether they receive accurate and timely information they need to work;

4) whether their leader is open to suggestions;

5) whether they are informed about the upcoming changes that will affect their work.

Suggestion collection systems are designed to facilitate the flow of information to the top. At the same time, all employees get the opportunity to generate ideas regarding the improvement of any aspect of the organization's activities. The purpose of such systems is to reduce the severity of the tendency to filter or ignore ideas on the way from the bottom up.

Most often, such a system is implemented in the form of suggestion boxes, where employees of the company can anonymously submit their proposals.

Unfortunately, this option is not very effective, because often there is no mechanism for confirming the fact that proposals have been considered, as well as stimulating employees whose proposals have benefited the organization.

The proposal collection system can be created in another way. An organization may deploy a private telephone network through which employees can make anonymous calls and inquire about appointments and promotions. Sometimes managers work on the line, immediately answering questions.

Responses are either sent directly to employees (unless the question is anonymous) or printed in the firm's newsletter.

Newsletters, publications and videos of the organization. Relatively large organizations usually publish monthly newsletters that contain information for employees. Such monthly newsletters may include articles reviewing management proposals, employee health topics, a new contract, a new type of product or service that will be offered to consumers soon, an employee of the month selection, management answers to questions from ordinary employees.

LECTURE No. 9. Motivation of personnel in the organization. Management methods

1. The concept and model of motivation

Motivation - one of the main functions of management, i.e., a separate type of activity, is a process of encouraging oneself and others to activities aimed at achieving the goals of the organization. The development of motivation leads to an increase in labor productivity to no lesser extent than technological re-equipment.

A simple model of motivation contains 4 main elements: needs, behaviors, rewards and feedback. Need is a need, a need for something; this is a state of dissatisfaction of the subject with the presence or absence of any object; it is a state of contradiction between what is and what is desired, what is and what is necessary. A person's awareness of a need makes him take certain actions aimed at removing the state of dissatisfaction, to carry out behavior aimed at obtaining a valuable reward that can satisfy the need. A person's assessment of his behavior as acceptable and its repetition in the future depends on the reward received. People tend to repeat the behavior associated with the satisfaction of the need.

The value of motivation is determined by the fact that managers, relying on it, have the opportunity to achieve behavior from subordinates that corresponds to the goals of the organization. If the level of motivation of employees to achieve organizational goals is insufficient, managers need to review the system of remuneration for work.

The most important concept of the concept of motivation is the motive. The structure of the labor motive includes: the need that the employee wants to satisfy; a good that can satisfy this need; labor action necessary to obtain a benefit; price - costs of a material and moral nature associated with the implementation of a labor action. Of great importance for the formation of labor motives is the assessment of the probability of achieving goals. If obtaining the desired benefit does not require special efforts or this benefit is very difficult to obtain, i.e., extra efforts are required, then the motive for labor is most often not formed. In both cases, the worker is passive. If the good forms the motive of labor, it becomes the stimulus of labor. Thus, incentives can be any benefits that satisfy significant human needs, if their receipt involves labor activity. Incentives act as levers of influence that cause the action of certain motives.

The strength of the motive depends on the degree of relevance of the needs for the employee. The more urgent the need for this or that good, the stronger the desire to receive it, the more actively the worker acts. Motives for work are varied. They differ in the needs that a person seeks to satisfy through labor activity, in the benefits that a person needs to satisfy his needs, in the price that the worker is willing to pay for obtaining the desired benefits.

Several groups of labor motives can be distinguished, which together form a single system. These are the motives of the content of labor, its social utility, status motives associated with public recognition of the fruitfulness of labor activity, motives for obtaining material benefits, as well as motives associated with the desire to work in this particular organization and focused on a certain intensity of work.

2. Development of the concept of motivation by different schools of management

The development of the modern concept of motivation began with the discoveries of the school of human relations, although they did not create models of motivation, but their conclusion about the importance of social interaction and group behavior made it possible to reconsider the importance of economic incentives to work. This marked the birth of the concept of the social man. The School of Behavioral Sciences and the approach to employees from the position of human resources were a further development of the concepts of "economic man" and "social man". They proposed the concept of a "holistic person", according to which the leverage for increasing the productivity of subordinates is the attitude of managers towards them as competent employees striving for high achievements. The concept of human resources is the foundation of modern approaches to employee motivation.

The modern concept of motivation includes content and process theories of motivation, as well as the concept of participatory management and reinforcement theory. Content theories focus on the needs that motivate people to act. Process theories explain how people behave in order to satisfy their needs, why they choose this or that type of behavior, trying to satisfy the need. Reinforcement theories focus on rewards in order to teach workers acceptable behavior patterns in the work process.

3. Content theories of motivation: A. Maslow's theory of the hierarchy of needs; two-factor theory of F. Herzberg; McClelland's theory of acquired needs; ERG theory by K. Alderfer

Content theories of motivation. One of the earliest content theorists was Abraham Maslow. His theory of the hierarchy of needs (1943) suggests that a person's motivation is based on a complex of needs, and the needs of a particular person can be represented as a strict hierarchy. The system of needs is characterized by constant dynamism - as some are satisfied, others become relevant. A. Maslow singled out five levels of needs and believed that the needs of the lower levels affect a person before the needs of the upper levels.

1. Physiological needs include the needs for food, clothing, housing, sex, health. In an organizational environment, these include the need for clean air and work space, adequate heating, catering, good domestic and medical care, and a base salary that guarantees reimbursement for the cost of living in the country.

2. Security needs are the needs for public order, the absence of threats from the environment, crime. In relation to the organization, these are the needs for safe working conditions, additional benefits that increase confidence in the future, and a guarantee of maintaining a job.

3. Social needs, needs of belonging, belonging reflect the desire of a person to be a member of a group, to have friends, to be loved. In organizations, these needs are met as a favorable moral and psychological climate is formed in the team, maintaining good relations with management, participating in working groups, and interacting with the company's customers.

4. Needs for respect and self-respect are associated with approval, respect and recognition from family, friends, society. Within the organization, they are realized through the recognition of merits, raising the status of an employee, increasing his responsibility in the workplace, obtaining a credit of trust to work for the benefit of the company.

5. Needs for self-realization, self-actualization are manifested in unlocking the potential of people, increasing the level of competence and personal growth. In organizations, they are satisfied in the process of learning, promotion, performing complex, creative work, participating in decision-making.

According to the theory of A. Maslow, the needs of the lower levels must initially be satisfied. As they are satisfied, there is a transition to the next stage of needs, which will have a greater influence on human behavior, since a satisfied need ceases to be a stimulus. The need for self-realization can never be fully satisfied, because with the development of a person, his potentialities expand. Therefore, the process of motivation through needs is endless.

In order for a higher level of needs to begin to influence human behavior, it is not necessary to satisfy the needs of a lower level completely. For example, people experience the need for social interactions long before their safety or physiological needs are fully satisfied. In other words, if a certain need dominates at the moment, a person's behavior can be determined not only by it.

A. Maslow's theory provided managers with a tool to motivate employees - their needs. In order to encourage a particular person, it is necessary to create conditions for meeting his individual needs, and through such actions that contribute to the achievement of the goals of the organization. In modern organizations, the best motivating factors are the needs of higher levels.

Based on the concept of A. Maslow, Frederick Herzberg created a two-factor theory of motivation (1959). He conducted a series of studies that revealed the different nature of the impact of needs on the level of job satisfaction. Part of the needs influenced dissatisfaction more than satisfaction. Therefore, from the point of view of factors, the process of gaining satisfaction and increasing dissatisfaction was divided by him into two independent processes: "satisfaction - lack of satisfaction" and "dissatisfaction - lack of dissatisfaction".

The process "satisfaction - lack of satisfaction" is mainly influenced by factors related to the content of the work, i.e., factors internal to the work. These factors have a strong motivating effect on a person. If they are absent, then there is no strong dissatisfaction. This group of factors is called motivators. These include all needs that can be classified as needs for growth and recognition. F. Herzberg has six of them:

1) labor successes of the employee (achievements);

2) recognition of merits (recognition);

3) expansion of independence (responsibility);

4) career growth (promotion);

5) professional excellence (personal growth);

6) the creative nature of labor (the work itself).

If these needs are satisfied, then a person experiences satisfaction, joy, a sense of personal achievement, which means that the motivation for work activity increases.

The process "dissatisfaction - lack of dissatisfaction" is determined by factors, mainly related to the environment in which the work is carried out. These are external factors. Their absence causes a feeling of dissatisfaction among employees, but their presence does not necessarily cause a state of satisfaction, i.e., these factors do not play a motivating role. They seem to be connected with the elimination of "pain", "suffering". They are called hygienic factors or health factors, which emphasizes that they create normal, healthy working conditions. These factors include: working conditions; salary; workplace safety; rules, regulations and working hours; relationship with management; relationships in the team.

Conclusion: if employees have dissatisfaction, the manager must pay attention to the factors that cause dissatisfaction in order to eliminate it. When a state of dissatisfaction is reached, it is necessary to motivate employees with the help of growth factors.

Many organizations have attempted to implement these theoretical insights through enrichment programs. These programs provide for the expansion of labor functions, their complication, the exclusion of monotonous, routine operations, job rotation, increased responsibility, and independence in decision-making. The enrichment of labor was aimed at increasing job satisfaction among performers who moved on to perform more complex and significant tasks.

F. Herzberg proposed the following technologies of "labor enrichment":

1) participatory management - a technology that is very popular and contains a number of measures to expand the participation of ordinary employees in managerial decision-making;

2) autonomous working groups - a team method of work, in which team members are endowed with both great powers and great responsibility for the process and results of joint activities;

3) expansion of duties and responsibilities, leading not so much to an increase in the overall workload, but to a greater variety of actions performed by the employee;

4) rotation - change of jobs and operations during the day or week. This technology not only expands the powers of employees, but also diversifies the nature of their activities;

5) flexible work schedule - free choice of the start and end time of the working day, in which the total amount of workload is set (in hours per week), and the decision on when the employee will perform his functions remains with him (not suitable for all types of organizations and professions)

6) periodic professional transfers - the work of the same person in different positions, in different departments or the performance by him of the functions of different specialties;

7) combination of related professions - mastering by one person the skills of working in several specialties enhances the employee's motivation for cognitive activity, and the professional - for self-improvement;

8) internal combination - the work of one person at several jobs;

9) compensatory methods - the complication of the rhythmic pattern of work (functional music, industrial gymnastics, reorganization of communication in the workplace). Applying the theory of F. Herzberg in management practice, managers noticed that, firstly, for different people, the same factors can be motivating and demotivating, and, secondly, there is no rigid relationship between job satisfaction and an increase in labor efforts, an increase in labor productivity (as F. Herzberg assumed). Salary, for example, can be included in the group of "motivating" needs if its size fluctuates depending on the significant success of the employee compared to the results of his colleagues. In other words, salary in this case turns into a measure of specific successes, achievements of an employee, and thus goes into a group of motivating needs.

The third meaningful theory of motivation is the theory of ERG (1972) (from the English existence - "existence", relatedness - "relationships" and growth - "growth") by Clayton Alderfer. Unlike A. Maslow, he combined human needs into three groups:

1) the needs of existence, which include two groups of needs A. Maslow - physiological and security;

2) needs for relationships - these are needs for social contacts, interactions;

3) the needs of growth are associated with the development of the internal potential of a person, correspond to the needs for self-expression by A. Maslow.

The second difference in these theories is that, according to A. Maslow, the movement from need to need occurs only from the bottom up. K. Alderfer believes that the movement goes in both directions: up, if the need of the lower level is satisfied, and down, if the need of a higher level is not satisfied. In case of dissatisfaction of the need of the upper level, the action of the need of the lower level is intensified, which switches the person's attention to this level. The presence of two directions of movement in meeting the needs opens up additional opportunities for motivating people in the organization.

The last substantive theory of motivation is David McClelland's acquired needs theory. The theory assumes that certain types of needs, the satisfaction of which is important for the organization, are acquired by people during their lives under the influence of training, experience, and life circumstances. These are the needs of achievement, attachment (involvement) and power.

The need for achievement is manifested in the desire to accomplish something difficult, new, to achieve high success rates in solving problems, to overtake, surpass other people, oneself. A person strives to achieve the goals facing him more effectively than he did before. People with a high need for achievement prefer to set goals on their own. However, they usually choose moderately difficult goals and objectives based on what they can achieve. These people easily take on personal responsibility, but it is difficult for them to engage in work that does not have a clear and tangible result that comes quickly enough. They prefer the individual result, the collective result suits them less.

The need to connect is manifested in the desire to establish close personal relationships with others. People with this need try to establish and maintain good friendships, avoid conflict, seek approval from others, and are concerned about how others think of them. Such people work well in those positions in the organization where active interactions with both colleagues and customers are necessary.

The need for power is expressed in the desire to control resources, processes, other people, to influence their behavior, to be responsible for them, to be an authority for them. Persons with high dominance motivation can be divided into two groups. In the first group, people seek power for the sake of power. They are attracted by the very possibility of commanding other people. The goals of the organization often fade into the background, as attention is focused on the leadership position in the organization, on the possibility of dominating.

The second group includes people who seek power for the sake of solving problems. These people satisfy the need of power through setting goals, tasks for the team and through participation in the process of achieving goals. They strive not for imperious self-affirmation, but for the performance of responsible leadership work. It is this need for power of the second type, according to D. McClelland, that is the most important for managers.

In practical activities, managers, on the one hand, must take into account the needs of achievement, accession and power, and on the other hand, form them. It is necessary to design tasks in such a way that the employee satisfies the dominant needs and, therefore, performs the appropriate type of behavior. In addition, the employee must understand the conditions for his further career growth, his own prospects in the organization. Then there will be additional motivation factors.

These substantive theories of motivation help to understand what motivates people to do their job better and strive for high results. These theories are confirmed by empirical research and have been used in management practice for quite a long time. To the greatest extent, this statement refers to the theories of A. Maslow and F. Herzberg. However, these theories focus on the analysis of the factors underlying motivation, but do not analyze the process of motivation. This is a major shortcoming of meaningful theories of motivation. They do not explain how people choose one or another type of behavior in different situations. After all, people's behavior is determined not only by needs, but also by the environment, a person's expectations, his assessment of the consequences of the chosen type of behavior.

4. Process theories of motivation: the theory of justice, the theory of expectations; model

Factors in human behavior take into account process theories of motivation. They describe how people choose the type of behavior that will lead to the satisfaction of needs, and how they determine whether this choice was successful. The most famous are the theory of justice, the theory of expectations and the complex theory-model of motivation of Porter-Lawler.

Equity theory, developed by Stacey Adams (1963), focuses on people's perception of the fairness of their rewards compared to other people. The essence of the theory of justice is that employees compare their efforts (labor costs, contributions) and rewards with the efforts and rewards of other people in similar work situations. The theory is based on the assumption that people who work for remuneration received from the organization are motivated by the desire to receive fair remuneration for the work they perform. Employees evaluate the fairness of their remuneration by the correspondence of costs (efforts) and results.

Job related costs include education, experience, qualifications, abilities, labor effort, length of service, commitment to the organization, etc.

Outcomes include salary, profit share, recognition, promotion, fringe benefits, etc. The cost-benefit ratio is compared to that of other people. Equity is established when the ratio between results and costs is the same for different people.

If the balance of the cost-benefit ratio is disturbed, for example, the employee believes that a colleague received more for a similar job, he has a feeling of injustice, resentment, dissatisfaction, psychological stress.

To restore justice, the employee takes certain actions: he can reduce the effort expended, or try to increase his level of remuneration, or decide to quit and look for a new job, where there will be a more equitable ratio between costs and results. The manager must get ahead of the employee and motivate him in such a way as to correct the imbalance between costs and results and eliminate inequities. People should consider the remuneration received as fair, equivalent to the effort expended. Otherwise, the motivation to work is reduced.

Theory of expectations. One of the most popular explanations of expectation motivation was developed by Victor Vroom (1964). Vroom defined motivation as a process that governs the choice of alternative forms of volitional activity. In his opinion, most of the types of behavior are under the volitional control of the individual and, therefore, are motivated.

Expectancy theory suggests that motivation depends on an individual's expectations that doing a particular job will result in desired rewards. According to the theory, the presence of an active need is not the only necessary condition for motivating a person to achieve a certain goal. A person must also hope that the type of behavior he has chosen will actually lead to the satisfaction or acquisition of the desired.

Expectation is a person's estimate of the likelihood that a particular action will be followed by a particular outcome. When analyzing motivation, expectancy theory emphasizes the importance of three relationships:

1) labor costs-performance, the level of performance of work tasks (the results of the first level). These outcomes include productivity, quality, absenteeism, employee turnover, etc. (R-R);

2) performance-reward (second level results). These are the rewards or punishments likely to result from level one outcomes, such as a deserved raise, recognition or rejection in a group, a promotion (P-B);

3) valency - the value of a certain reward. It should evoke a sense of satisfaction. If the reward is highly valued by a person, then it has a positive valence, but if the reward is not valuable for a person, then it has a negative valence for him. The reward valence can be zero if the person is indifferent to it.

If people expect that increasing effort will lead to the desired outcome of the first level, then they will increase effort (upgrading skills in order to get to a higher position). If people feel that there is no direct connection between labor costs and performance, then motivation will weaken.

If people expect a match between performance and reward, then motivation grows (a higher position will lead to an increase in status, an increase in the number of subordinates, and other additional benefits). But if there is no clear connection between performance and remuneration, then motivation weakens (the new position, apart from the hassle, brought nothing - neither money nor status). In addition, the reward should cause a feeling of satisfaction. For different people, this feeling is caused by different forms of reward. If the reward valence is low, then motivation is weakened.

The ratio of these factors in motivation can be expressed by the formula:

motivation \uXNUMXd (Z-R) X (R-B) X valence.

To apply this theory in practice, it is necessary to compare remuneration with the needs of employees, remembering that different people have different needs, and therefore they evaluate rewards differently. In addition, there should be a correspondence between the level of performance achieved, the achievement of organizational goals (performance) and remuneration.

Model-Theory of Motivation by Porter-Lawler (1968). Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler developed a comprehensive model of motivation that includes elements of expectations theory and equity theory. This is not a new theory, but a new model of motivation that has made a major contribution to its understanding. Their most important conclusion is that productive work leads to satisfaction. This conclusion is in contrast to the findings of the human relations and behavioral sciences, which believed that satisfaction leads to high performance.

The model of these authors shows the need and importance for motivation to combine many factors that influence human behavior. These are factors such as effort, ability, results, rewards, satisfaction, perceptions, expectations, working conditions, values ​​and attitudes. Consider the mechanism of motivation in this model. The results achieved by an employee depend on three variables:

1) effort expended;

2) abilities, values ​​and views of a person;

3) working environment factors.

The level of effort expended, in turn, depends on the value of the reward. These can be internal and external rewards. The worker evaluates their fairness, and if, in his opinion, they are fair, they lead to satisfaction. It will influence the person's perception of future situations.

The concept of participatory management. A person in an organization manifests himself not only as a performer. He seeks to participate in the processes taking place in the organization that are related to his activities, but go beyond his competence, beyond the scope of his work, functions, and tasks to be solved.

The concept of participatory management proceeds from the fact that if a person in an organization is interested in participating in various corporate activities, then he gets satisfaction, works with greater efficiency, more efficiently and effectively. This is due to the fact that, firstly, the employee gets access to decision-making on issues related to his work, and this motivates him to do it better. Secondly, participatory management contributes not only to better performance of work, but also leads to an increase in the contribution of the individual employee to the life of the organization, i.e., there is a more complete use of the potential of human resources in the organization.

Participatory management can be implemented in the following areas:

1) employees acquire the right to independently make decisions about how to carry out their activities (mode of operation, choice of means for its implementation);

2) employees are involved in making decisions about the work they perform. In this case, the manager consults with the employee about what and how to do it, that is, the employee is involved in setting goals, tasks that he will have to solve;

3) employees are given the right to control current activities, the quality and quantity of work performed, and responsibility for the final result is established;

4) wide participation of employees in rationalization activities, in making proposals for improving their work and the work of the organization as a whole is expected;

5) employees are given the right to form working teams from those members of the organization with whom they would like to work together, that is, they are given the right to make decisions about cooperating in a group.

In real practice, these areas of participatory management are usually used in combination, since they are closely related and complement each other. The most obvious example of this is the Japanese quality circles.

The ideas of participatory management can be correlated with the ideas of content theories of motivation. Participation in decision-making, in setting goals contributes to the satisfaction of needs for achievement. Wider participation in solving the issues of the life of the organization contributes to the satisfaction of the needs for self-realization and self-affirmation. There is a certain connection between participatory management and the theory of expectations, since participation in decision-making makes the employee's expectation of the result of his activity and its remuneration more real and clear.

Reinforcement theory leaves aside questions of the needs and thinking of employees and draws the attention of management to the analysis of the relationship between the behavior of employees in the organization and its consequences. Reinforcement is an important learning principle. Reinforcement is defined as any action that causes the repetition or, conversely, the suppression of certain patterns of behavior. There are four main types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, moralizing rejection, punishment, and extinction.

Positive reinforcement is a reward for the desired behavior of the employee, which stimulates him to repeat similar actions. Monetary rewards are not the only form of positive reinforcement that has proven effective. Non-financial incentives (recognition of merit, vacation, time off, gifts) can also be used. Respect for colleagues, a sense of belonging and pride can bring the same desired results as monetary incentives. A powerful motivator is a combination of financial and moral incentives.

The rejection of moralizing means that the desired behavior of the employee leads to the fact that the manager refuses to apply any negative influences to him. This method is called negative reinforcement. Such reinforcement enhances the desired response because it removes or avoids certain painful or unpleasant stimuli. For example, an increase in work effort may be negatively reinforced by an unwillingness to listen to the remarks and nagging of the boss. By working diligently, the worker can get rid of his moralizing.

Punishment is the negative result of an employee's actions when he behaves in a way that is highly undesirable for the organization. The application of punishment instructs (transmits a message) not to do something. Of course, this is a controversial method of behavior modification. Some people believe that punishment is the opposite of reward and is just as effective in changing behavior. Others see punishment as a bad method of teaching and explain it this way:

1) the results of punishment are not as predictable as the results of rewards;

2) the influence of punishment is less constant than the influence of encouragement;

3) punishment is often accompanied by a negative attitude of the employee towards the manager who punished him and towards the activity, failure in which led to punishment;

4) the punished employee does not receive information about how he should have behaved.

Cancellation involves the manager's complete renunciation of the use of positive rewards. Thus, the pattern of behavior demonstrated by the employee remains without reinforcement, which means that it is unlikely to be repeated. If an employee who is constantly late for work is deprived of encouragement (bonus or promotion), he will soon realize that his behavior does not allow him to achieve the desired results. Quenching reduces the frequency of unwanted behavior.

The essential basis of these four types of reinforcement is the law of the Thorndike effect: “Of several responses to the same situation, those responses that are accompanied or soon followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) ... have a greater probability of repetition; responses that are accompanied or soon followed by inconvenience (punishment) are less likely to occur."[4]

The considered theories of motivation allow us to determine the methods of management. Their totality is determined by the goals of management, the features of objects and subjects of management, as well as the situation.

5. The concept and classification of management methods

A management method is a set of techniques, methods for implementing a targeted impact on the production team and ways to solve management problems. This is a set of tools, techniques, implementation of motivation.

Management methods differ primarily in their motivational characteristic, which determines the direction of influence on the object of management. The following areas of influence are distinguished.

1. A direction focused on a sense of duty, a conscious need to observe labor discipline, subordination of one's activities to the general goals of the organization, the desire to work in this organization. Such influence is based on power, responsibility, discipline and forms the unity of views, interests and actions of the staff. It is direct, immediate and is not able to fully mobilize the creative activity of the team.

2. Impact on material interests when using material motivation. Both material rewards and material sanctions apply here.

3. Moral impact, impact on spiritual interests. Social motivation is based on political, moral, national, family, ideological and other social interests. The role of this direction is growing. The use of social motivation is complex and more uncertain in the final effect compared to other areas of influence.

The classification of management methods according to their motivational characteristics includes three groups of methods. The first group is organizational and administrative or administrative methods of management. They are focused on the first group of motives for the behavior of people in the organization. They are distinguished by the direct nature of the impact. These methods are implemented in the form of orders, orders, norms, rules, principles, commands, regulatory and administrative acts. These methods determine the place of workers in the process of production and management, their rights, duties, responsibilities, relationships in the process of production and management, coordination of actions, evaluation of labor efficiency. The implementation of these methods presupposes the existence of an organizational structure with channels of direct and reverse influence.

The second group of methods is economic. They have an indirect impact on the control object, so it is difficult to determine the strength of the impact and the final effect. These methods create favorable conditions for the manifestation of the creative activity of the staff. These methods combine all forms of material incentives. It must be remembered that unreasonable material reward leads to negative results, reduces the overall impact. Here it is important to determine the "sensitivity threshold" of the bonus. This is the minimum amount of material remuneration that encourages an increase in labor activity. The threshold of sensitivity, even for the same person, changes under the influence of a large number of factors (the possibility of a more complete satisfaction of needs, the nature of needs, the cost of labor and working time, as well as the state of the economy as a whole, in particular the consumer market).

The third group is socio-psychological methods of management. They are based on the use of the social mechanism of the collective. It includes informal groups, the role and status of the individual, systems of relationships, social needs and other social aspects. Socio-psychological methods are directly or indirectly aimed at increasing the creative activity and initiative of all those working in the organization. This is the encouragement of inventive and rationalization activities, the education of group self-awareness of the team, the preservation and development of the traditions and customs of this organization, the establishment of a favorable psychological atmosphere in the team, the involvement of employees in management, comfortable working conditions, employee training, etc.

The condition for effective management is the integrated use of all three groups of management methods. Although it must be emphasized that the improvement of managerial culture presupposes the rejection of the widespread use of administrative methods and the mastery of a rich arsenal of socio-psychological methods of management.

6. Basic principles of management

Basic principles of people management.

1. Maintaining a sense of self-esteem and self-confidence in subordinates. When people feel confident, their work efficiency increases. This principle can be followed even when it is necessary to convey to the employee a signal about the presence of negative deviations in his work. Experienced managers first note the positive results, and then discuss those aspects of the work that need to be improved. At the same time, they express confidence in the ability of the employee to achieve these improvements. This increases the chances of success. Conversely, undermining employees' self-respect guarantees bad results.

2. Concentration of attention on the problem, and not on the personality of the subordinate. This makes it possible for a person not to go on the defensive, but to work together to solve the problem.

3. Using the reinforcement method. Desirable behavior is reinforced and undesirable behavior is discouraged. The most common form of reinforcement is a negative response to unwanted behavior. It should be the other way around. Positive reinforcement has a greater chance of success.

4. Active listening. This refers to ways of bringing to the interlocutor a reaction to the information being communicated and the feelings expressed.

5. Making clear demands and maintaining contact with workers. Concluding a conversation with an employee, you need to make sure that the goals have been correctly understood. Always set a specific performance review date so that you can reward the worker as they complete the task.

LECTURE No. 10. Leadership in the organization

1. The nature of leadership and its basis

Any organization can be considered from two sides: as formal and informal. Two types of relations arise in them: formal - official, functional and informal - emotional, psychological. Leadership is a phenomenon of formal, official relations, and leadership is a phenomenon generated by the system of informal relations. The head is appointed from the outside, by the higher management, receives the appropriate powers. The leader is nominated from among the people around him, equal to him in status.

Leadership is a type of managerial interaction based on the most effective combination of various sources of power for a given situation and aimed at inducing people to a common goal. Leadership characterizes relationships based on trust, recognition of a high level of qualification, readiness to support in all endeavors, personal sympathy, and the desire to learn from positive experience.

According to J. Terry, leadership is an impact on groups of people that encourages them to achieve a common goal. R. Tannenbaum, I. Weschler and F. Massaryk defined leadership as interpersonal interaction, manifested in a certain situation with the help of a communicative process and directed towards achieving a specific goal. P. Drucker noted that leadership is the ability to raise human vision to the level of a broader outlook, to the level of higher standards, as well as the ability to shape a personality. Most authors recognize that leadership means the ability to influence people, groups, directing their efforts towards achieving common goals.

Influence is a purposeful influence of one person on another, which changes the behavior, attitudes of this other person.

2. The balance of power and its forms

In order to have an effective influence on people, the leader must have power. Power is the ability to influence other people, the ability to carry out their activities at their own discretion.

Power and influence are the basis of leadership, a necessary condition for changing the behavior of people and achieving the goals of the organization. Power is the relationship, interdependence between the participants in the management process. The greater the dependence on another person, the greater the power of that person. Political scientist Robert Dale explains this relationship as follows: "A has power over B to the extent that he can make him do what B would not otherwise do."[5] Possession of power is the ability to influence the satisfaction of someone's needs, desires.

In modern organizations, there must be a balance of power, since subordinates also have power over leaders. Managers depend on subordinates in such matters as providing reliable and timely information, quality assignments, maintaining a favorable psychological climate in the team, informal contacts with people in other departments whose support the manager needs, the ability to influence their colleagues, cooperation. Since subordinates also have power, leaders should not abuse their power, because subordinates can demonstrate their power in return. Subordinates should not experience a feeling of hopelessness, uselessness, complete dependence on the will of the leader: this leads to resistance, rebelliousness, destroys a favorable climate in the team, and reduces the effectiveness of the organization.

An effective leader tries to maintain a balance of power, and his power will never be exercised in a rigid, commanding manner that expects submission. The leader can influence the behavior of other people without relying on force, coercion.

Power can take many forms. In the management literature, there are eight main forms of power.

Power based on coercion implies influence through fear, through a threat to the satisfaction of human needs. At the same time, the manager uses various forms of punishment: a hint of dismissal, deprivation of some authority, blocking promotion, demotion, reprimand, fine. There are also more subtle forms of using fear and coercion: a casual remark that hurts self-esteem, giving vacation at an inconvenient time, comparison with other employees who are better at tasks. This emphasizes the low evaluation of the employee, his disrespect from the manager and the need to work harder.

But coercion, fear rarely lead to the desired results, although they can bring temporary improvements. Fear limits initiative, creativity, reduces job satisfaction, generates alienation, resistance, revenge.

Reward power is based on the leader's ability to provide what people would like to have. This is one of the most ancient and widely used ways to influence people. If employees agree to accept remuneration (gratitude, recognition, bonus, salary increase, appointment to a good position, additional leave, a separate office, etc.), then they will obey orders, requirements and instructions. The difficulty is to correctly determine the remuneration for each employee. Money and a more prestigious position do not impress every person and may not affect his behavior.

Legitimate (legitimate, traditional) power is based on the willingness of subordinates to recognize the authority of the leader by virtue of his position. People react not to a person, but to the position, official position of the leader. They are aware of the need to obey the authorities, maintain discipline, comply with the norms, rules, traditions of the organization. This increases its stability, predictability, since it does not depend on the abilities of a particular person.

Subordinates play a major role in the exercise of legitimate power. They obey if they are convinced of the legality of the orders. The limits of legitimate power are limited by factors such as culture, customs, and value systems specific to the organization. In return, subordinates get a sense of belonging to a social group, security. Influence through tradition, official authority can greatly simplify the decision-making process. In an organization where traditions are very strong, and often spelled out in the form of "commandments", principles, "what is good and what is bad" is precisely defined.

The danger of influence through tradition is associated with the possibility of not noticing the new, and sometimes resistance to change, which leads to the fact that the organization does not have time to fit into the changing environment. In addition, traditions have a better effect on people who are motivated by security and belonging. And for modern personnel, the needs for respect, success, self-realization come to the fore.

The power of information is based on the ability to access the necessary and important information and the ability to use it to influence other people. Coordination of information flows and control over the communication network make a person powerful. Such power is possessed not only by people holding certain positions, but also by their assistants, secretaries.

The power of example, referential power is based on the charisma inherent in the personal qualities or style of human behavior. "Charisma" is a term used to describe the attractive personality traits of some people. Many people fall under the influence of a certain person due to his special personal qualities. The charm of this person (charisma) is the basis of referential power. A person with charisma causes admiration, a desire to imitate him, he serves as an example for others, an ideal, an idol, an indisputable authority.

The power of an expert is exercised through the influence on the behavior of subordinates through the manager's specialized knowledge, high educational level, experience, talent, and skills. Expert power is not rigidly tied to the position. Its level is determined by the level of competence of the manager, specialist, and perhaps the performer. Taking on trust the opinion of a subordinate whom the manager considers an expert in his field, the manager saves time, and, more importantly, creates a favorable business atmosphere.

But we must keep in mind that the formation of reasonable faith will take some time, it is less stable than blind faith (based on charisma), and in some cases reasonable faith can lead to less effective decisions. This is possible when subordinates, considering the leader as an expert, do not express their opinion, do not share information, doubts and ideas.

In many modern organizations, where subordinates have a high educational level, the intellectual gap between them and managers has been eliminated. Under these conditions, it becomes difficult to exercise influence in the listed forms of power. There is a need for cooperation from subordinates.

Two modern forms of influence encourage such cooperation - persuasion and participation.

Power based on persuasion is influence through the active transmission of one's point of view. It can be based on example, charisma, the power of an expert. But here the performer understands what he is doing and why.

Power is built on the recognition by the head of dependence on the performer, his competence, on the transfer of part of the power to him. Moreover, the leader increases his power by transferring it to the subordinate.

The weaknesses of persuasion are slow impact, uncertainty, one-time action.

Power based on participation in decision-making presupposes, even more than in the case of persuasion, the recognition of the power of executors.

Modern management practice virtually excludes decision-making by one person, so not only managers can influence a specific decision. They do not impose their point of view, but create conditions for the free exchange of information. This form of influence implies the willingness of the leader to give up his authority and the presence of subordinate needs of the highest level: in success, respect, growth, self-expression, power.

3. Effective leadership style: approach from the standpoint of personal qualities; behavioral and situational approaches

An effective leader knows and uses, depending on the situation, all forms of power. In addition, the style of his behavior with subordinates is very important.

The leader's style is a set of certain principles, the most characteristic and sustainable methods for solving problems and problems that arise in the process of implementing management functions.

There are three approaches to defining effective leadership. The first approach, from the standpoint of personal qualities, assumes that a leader must possess a certain set of fairly stable qualities, including inborn ones. Different researchers identified different groups of leadership qualities. They can be combined into five groups: physiological, psychological (emotional), intellectual, personal-business and moral.

Let's name the necessary qualities of an effective leader: persistently strives to manage people; educated, has unconventional thinking; admits that he does not know everything himself; informs subordinates about the nature of the work; boring work turns into creative; self-assured; initiative; knows how to value the time of subordinates; demanding and strict; knows how to encourage and punish; balanced, polite and affable; has a sense of humor; can speak and listen; knows how to rejoice in other people's successes; honest and incorruptible; self-reliant and independent; capable of taking risks and responsibilities.

Of course, a leader must have a certain set of personal qualities. However, this set cannot be constant, suitable for all managerial situations and inherent in all managers. In different situations, leaders reveal different personal qualities. As a result, the list of potentially important personality traits cannot be definitive. More and more new characteristics are added (zodiac sign under which this or that leader was born, handwriting, origin, etc.) necessary for effective leadership.

The second approach to the definition of effective leadership is behavioral, based on the study of the behavior of the leader and the means of his influence on subordinates. This approach, like the first one, also tries to find one, the best type of effective leadership. But the criterion for selection here is different - leadership behavior. If the first concept is based largely on the innate qualities of a leader, then the second implies the possibility of training leaders according to special programs. The main thing is to find an answer to the question of what and how leaders do, and not to the question of who is the leader.

The most well-known concepts are:

1) three leadership styles;

2) Michigan State University Research: Work-Oriented Leadership and Employee-Oriented Leadership;

3) Ohio State University research: structure formation and attention to subordinates;

4) the managerial grid of Robert Blake and Jane Mouton;

5) substitutes for leadership.

4. Classification of leadership styles in the behavioral approach. R. Blake's management grid

The first studies of the three leadership styles were carried out by Kurt Lewin and colleagues at Iowa State University. There were autocratic, democratic and liberal leadership styles.

The autocratic style is characterized by the concentration of power in the hands of the leader, who determines the goals and means to achieve them. The strengths of this style are the accuracy and speed of the task, the ability to predict the result. The weak side is the ability to curb the initiative of subordinates.

The democratic style is distinguished by the division of power and the participation of employees in management, providing subordinates with the opportunity to take the initiative. However, this style of leadership requires a lot of time to discuss and agree on different points of view on solving the problem.

Liberal style means non-intervention, "freedom of hands" (from French laissez faire - "do not touch"; let it go as it goes; let it go by itself). The liberal leader does just that, he rarely uses power. Subordinates are given almost complete freedom in setting their goals and controlling their activities. The weak side of this style is the possibility for the worker to lose speed and direction of movement without the intervention of the leader.

In his study, K. Levin found that an autocratic leader achieved more work than a democratic one. However, on the other side of the scale were low motivation, less originality, less friendliness in groups, more aggressiveness towards both the leader and other members of the group, more anxiety and, at the same time, more dependent and submissive behavior. Compared to democratic leadership, under liberal leadership, the amount of work is reduced, the quality of work is reduced, and polls show a preference for a democratic leader.

More recent research has partly supported the findings that autocratic leadership resulted in higher productivity but lower satisfaction than democratic leadership. Nevertheless, K. Levin's research provided the basis for further searches for a behavioral style that could lead to high labor productivity and high satisfaction of subordinates.

5. Situational theories of leadership by Fiedler, Hersey-Blanshard, Reddin, Vroom-Yetton

The management grid of R. Blake and D. Mouton has recently received the greatest popularity among the concepts of behavioral styles of a leader (Fig. 2). This two-dimensional theory of leadership is based on research at Ohio and Michigan State Universities. R. Blake came to the conclusion that any result is achieved in the "force field" between production and man. The first "line of force" leads to the maximum volume of production, expressed in a variety of goods and services. The permanent goals here are: maximizing profits, reducing production costs, increasing labor productivity, improving product quality, etc.

The second "line of force" is directed at the person. It aims to ensure that working conditions meet his needs and desires. Good health and job satisfaction are the second group of goals. There is a contradiction between these "lines of force". In this case, a certain "field" is formed, which is demarcated. Blake and Mouton identified nine gradations on each field line, which made it possible to identify five main types of leadership behavior. each of which is numbered. For example, code 9.1 means a management style that is production-oriented and pays little attention to specific employees. This is a "hard" administrator, for him the main thing is a high production result, and a person is at best a performer, but essentially no one.

Naturally, under such conditions, work does not bring satisfaction to anyone, so everyone tries to escape from the constant pressure. The administrator's answer is ubiquitous control. Most of his time is absorbed by supervisory functions. Everything happens according to the rule: "The cat is out the door, the mice are on the table." The reaction of employees to such leadership is to refuse to participate in the search for solutions to the problems at hand, from the willingness to share responsibility. This position, in turn, strengthens the "tough administrator" in his dismissive attitude towards employees. He himself is constantly in stressful situations. As a result, the "guiding pressure" is getting stronger and stronger. Staff turnover is increasing, the best are leaving, many are getting sick. Manager type 9.1 is a bad manager.

Rice. 2. Management grid R. Blake and D. Mouton

The opposite type of leader is indicated by the code 1.9. This style of management emphasizes being attentive to the needs of people in order to establish a relationship of satisfaction that leads to a friendly atmosphere and pace of work in the organization. Productivity is in the background. Employees, having no incentives, become less proactive and lose interest in creativity. This is also an inappropriate type of manager, although it is possible that many employees will glorify the atmosphere he created in the team until the misalignment that he has created becomes obvious to them.

In the center of the grid is style 5.5. Managers who conform to this position strive for a reliable average level, and they are satisfied with the average result. Their motto is: "Not enough stars from the sky." Both "hard" and "soft" leaders, in their opinion, go too far: a golden mean is needed. But the results of such management are 50% of what is possible with half the same interest in labor.

In the left corner of the grid are placed those who do not strive for anything - neither for production results, nor for the establishment of humane conditions for production. This is style 1.1. Apparently, it is impossible for such people to hold leadership positions for a long time. But a similar phenomenon occurs on the part of ordinary employees: to work so as not to be fired, and not to care about anything. It is most often a reaction to a 9.1 management style, as pressure causes opposition.

Now let's look at the upper right corner of the grid: the highest results with the maximum consideration of the needs of people. This is an ideal to strive for. The key to this is in real human needs and motivations. Success, recognition, the prospect of growth are the main possible motives. A person realizes himself in the results of his work. Management style 9.9 consists in the ability to build work in such a way that employees see in it opportunities for self-realization and confirmation of their own significance.

A survey of a significant number of managers confirmed the hypothesis of the authors of the managerial grid that, regardless of the situation, style 9.9 is the best. This grid has gained high popularity among managers. It is used by them to develop better leadership behavior through participation in training programs specifically designed to develop the 9.9 style. If style 9.1 prevails among managers, it should pay more attention to training in the field of personnel development, motivation, communication, etc. The prevalence of style 1.9 may require training in such areas as decision making, planning, organization, control, work operations. With style 5.5. training in most of these areas may be required to some extent. Style 1.1 raises doubts about the possibility of changing the manager's behavior, including through training.

The situational approach to defining effective leadership examines the interaction of various situational factors in order to discover causal relationships in leadership relationships that predict the leader's possible behavior and the consequences of this behavior. Situational factors include the personal qualities and needs of subordinates, the nature of the task, the characteristics of the environment, the amount of information available, etc. Therefore, modern leadership theories try to determine the behavioral styles and personal qualities of the leader that are most effective in certain situations. This means that the leader must behave differently in different situations.

Thus, the components of the situational approach are the leader, the group and the situation. Leadership acts as a function of the leader's personal qualities (LC), characteristics of the group (HG) and the situation (S): L = f (LK; HG; S). The variable factor "situation" is of primary importance, since it affects how the manager can perform the tasks assigned to him.

Two of them have received the greatest popularity among situational theories of leadership: the probabilistic theory of Fred Fiedler and the life cycle theory of Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard.

F. Fiedler's leadership theory determines the effectiveness of leadership based on the interaction between leadership style and the favorable situation. Fiedler was interested in the question of how it is possible to assess the makings of a person to become a leader. To do this, he compiled a scale of the least preferred employee (NPS). In accordance with this scale, respondents, marking points for each of the scale items, must describe a hypothetical person with whom they could work the least successfully.

To describe the situation, F. Fiedler introduces three situational factors: manager-subordinate relationships; task structure and managerial authority.

The relationship between the leader and subordinates evaluates the atmosphere in the team, the attitude of subordinates to the manager. If employees trust the leader, respect him, are confident in him and are ready to cooperate with him, these relationships are assessed as good.

The structure of the task reflects the quality of the formulation of the task assigned to the employee, the need to perform specific procedures, the presence of clear and precise goals, as well as feedback on the successful completion of the task. Well-defined tasks from the category of assembly line workers have a high level of structure. The new creative tasks of the employees of the strategic planning department are characterized by a low level of structure. A situation with highly structured tasks is seen as favorable for the manager and vice versa.

Official authority is the level of formal power of a leader over subordinates. Strong official powers imply that the manager has the right to plan and manage the work of employees, evaluate their work, encourage and punish employees, and influence their promotion through the ranks. Weak official authority of the leader means that he does not have the right to evaluate the work of subordinates, encourage or dismiss them, etc. How favorable is the situation when the manager has strong official authority.

Person-centered styles are most effective in moderately manager-friendly situations. In them, the leader does not have enough power to ensure full cooperation with subordinates. The manifestation of care improves relations with the team, stimulates the interest of subordinates in a particular job.

The practical use of this theory is carried out in the following areas. The theory allows you to select a leader in accordance with the situation in the organization or group. The theory also suggests a way to change the situation if it is impossible for some reason to change the leader. In addition, the leader himself can do something to change the situation in his favor.

According to Hersey-Blanshard's life cycle theory, the most effective leadership styles depend on the "maturity" of the performers. Maturity is not determined by age, but by the level of education, experience in relation to the task to be performed, the ability to take responsibility for behavior, the desire to work to achieve the goals of the organization, devotion to this organization.

The maturity of a person or group is not a permanent quality, but depends on the situation, task, past work experience. The leader must determine the relative maturity of the individual or group.

The authors of this theory identified four degrees of maturity of subordinates (Fig. 3): M1 - employees are not able and unwilling to work, they are either incompetent or not self-confident; M2 - employees are not able, but willing to work, they have motivation, but no skills and abilities; M3 - people are able to complete the task, but do not want to work, they are not attracted to what the leader offers; M4 - people are able and willing to do what the leader offers them.

Rice. 3. Hersey and Blanchard's life cycle theory

According to the four degrees of maturity of subordinates, four effective leadership styles are distinguished: directive, persuading, participating and delegating.

The directive style (S1) requires a combination of high task orientation and low human relationship orientation. It is best in case of low maturity of subordinates who either cannot or do not want to take responsibility for the task. Such performers need detailed instructions and tight control.

Persuasive style (S2) is characterized by a double high orientation of the leader - both on the task and on the relationship. It is best for players with a moderate degree of maturity. Subordinates want to take responsibility, but they can't. The leader both gives instructions and encourages the responsibility of subordinates.

The participating style (S3) corresponds to a moderately high degree of subordinates' maturity and is characterized by a high relationship orientation and a low task orientation. In this situation, subordinates can, but do not always want to be responsible for completing tasks, additional motivation is needed through involvement in decision-making. Subordinates know what to do, but maybe they do not dare to show independence. From the side of the leader, assistance, consultations, additional motivation through higher needs should be provided.

The delegating style (S4) is characterized by a double low orientation of the leader: both on the task and on the relationship. He is best for leading highly mature subordinates who are both able and willing to take responsibility. They don't need directions or tips.

In the sixth edition of the work of P. Hersey and C. Blanchard use the concept of "readiness". It is defined as the ability and willingness of people to take responsibility for controlling their own behavior. There are two types of readiness - production and psychological. High production readiness implies the possession of knowledge and ability to perform work without the control and guidance of the manager.

A person with high psychological readiness has self-motivation and a desire to perform work with high quality. It also doesn't need direct control. In 1985, C. Blanchard changed the terminology and introduced the concept of "level of development" instead of "readiness".

It is noted that managers show great interest in this theory due to its relative simplicity and flexibility in choosing the required style in accordance with the level of development of employees.

6. Women's leadership

There is a growing belief that women are capable of performing managerial functions at least as well as men. Despite this, they are still a minority in the middle and upper levels of government (5% and 1%, respectively, in the US). In Russia, only 7% of women become leaders, while among men every second becomes a leader.

Directions of research in the field of gender aspects of leadership can be divided into three classes. In the first, the gender factor is considered the main one, in the second - leadership qualities are preferred, in the third - both aspects are considered as equal.

1. The concept of gender flow was put forward by Barbara Gutek, who considered the gender factor to be dominant. According to this concept, the perception of leaders by followers depends primarily on their gender.

2. The theory of gender selection of leaders (J. Bowman, S. Sutton) is based on the assumption that people both in organizations and in private life make different demands on leaders of different sexes. In relation to women, these requirements are higher: in order to get a leadership position, a woman must demonstrate much more competence than a man. Because it is difficult, there are fewer recognized women leaders.

3. The concept of tokenism (R. Kanter) assumes that group dynamics is significantly influenced by the proportion in a group of representatives from different cultural categories (by gender and race). The members in the group who make up the majority according to some of the indicated signs were called dominants, and the minority were called tokens (symbols). The latter, due to their small number, are more noticeable, their characteristics are exaggerated, they are perceived more stereotypically. Thus, women in a male group or male business world should fit one of the varieties of social stereotypes:

1) "mothers" - they expect emotional support from her, not business activity;

2) "seductresses" - the token acts in the organization only as a sexual object with a high official status;

3) "toys, talisman" - not so much a leader as a woman who brings good luck;

4) "iron lady" - unfeminine rigidity is attributed to such tokens, they are feared and kept at a distance from them. The mechanisms described in the concept of tokenism are actually

actually prevent a woman from taking an equal position with other dominants of the organization, hinder her fruitful activity.

However, these stereotypes are gradually being overcome, and women are increasingly being promoted to high management positions in modern organizations. This leads to a change in management style and corporate culture. Women leaders have many masculine qualities: energy, initiative, aggressiveness, self-confidence, determination, etc. However, in leadership they tend to rely on consensus, involving employees in solving the problems of the organization. They show more care, sympathy, attention to people than men. This helps employees see that their personal interests and those of the company are aligned. Women are more willing to share power, provide greater independence, the opportunity to express themselves, which increases the self-esteem of subordinates. All these qualities are essential for effective leadership in modern organizations.

LECTURE #11

1. Groups in the organization and their types

Every organization has a complex intertwining of formal and informal groups. They have a strong impact on the quality of activities and the effectiveness of the organization. The manager must be able to interact with them. A group is two or more people who interact with each other to complete tasks, achieve a common goal. At the same time, each person influences others, and is himself under their influence.

Formal groups are created by the management of the organization to perform specific tasks, to achieve certain goals. They are part of the formal structure of the organization. A formal organization is understood as a planned system of joint efforts, in which each participant has his own, clearly defined role, tasks, and responsibilities. They are distributed among the participants in the name of achieving the goals of the organization. There are three main types of formal groups: vertical, horizontal and ad hoc task forces.

A vertical group is created by a manager and his subordinates with a formal chain of command. This group is sometimes referred to as the functional group, leader group, or command group. It includes 3, 4 levels of hierarchy in the functional unit. For example, team groups will be departments: product quality control, human resource development, financial analysis, etc. Each of them is created to achieve certain goals by combining the efforts of the people in the group and their interaction.

A horizontal group is created from employees who are at the same hierarchical level of the organization, but work in different functional areas. Such a group is formed from employees of several departments. They are given a specific task, and when this task is solved, the group can be disbanded. There are two main types of horizontal groups: a working or task force and a committee.

A working group is sometimes called a cross-functional. It can be used to create a new product in a manufacturing organization or write a textbook at a university. An example of such groups are quality circles or groups in matrix management structures working on the implementation of a new project. Working groups also have a leader, but they differ from command groups in that they have more independence and the ability to solve their problems.

A committee is a group within an organization that is delegated authority to carry out a task. Sometimes it is called a council, commission, team, task force. This form involves group decision making. There are two main types of committees: ad hoc and permanent.

A special committee is a temporary group formed to fulfill a specific purpose.

A standing committee is a group within an organization that has a specific goal, constantly emerging tasks. Most often, they advise the organization on important issues, such as the Board of Directors of the company, the audit commission, commissions for reviewing wages, reviewing complaints, reducing costs, etc. The committee has either staff or line powers.

Special task forces are created outside the formal organizational structure to develop a project of particular importance, complexity, risk, or involving the implementation of the creative potential of the performers. These groups have a lot of freedom of action.

An example of such groups are the so-called venture teams.

Within the framework of a formal organization created by management, an informal organization arises. This is due to the fact that people interact in groups and between groups not only according to the instructions of the leadership. They communicate during meetings, lunch, corporate holidays, after work. From such social interaction, many friendly, informal groups are born. Their unity forms an informal organization.

2. Informal groups and the reasons for their emergence. Informal group management

An informal organization is a spontaneously formed group of people who interact regularly to achieve a specific goal. In a large organization, there are many informal groups. Informal organizations, just like formal ones, have a hierarchy, leaders, tasks, and norms of behavior.

The main reasons for the emergence of informal groups are:

1) unsatisfied social needs for belonging, belonging;

2) the need for mutual assistance;

3) the need for mutual protection;

4) close communication and sympathy;

5) a similar way of thinking.

Affiliation. One of the highest human needs, which is satisfied through the establishment and maintenance of social contacts and interactions. But many formal organizations deprive people of social contacts. Therefore, workers turn to informal organizations.

Mutual assistance. Help, support, advice, advice, employees should receive from their immediate superiors. But this does not always happen, because the leader is not always able to create an atmosphere of openness and trust when the performers want to share their problems with him. Therefore, often people prefer to resort to the help of their colleagues. This interaction has a double benefit. The one who provided it acquires a reputation as an expert, prestige, self-respect. Who received - the necessary guidance for action, belonging to an informal organization.

Mutual protection. Members of informal organizations protect their interests and each other from superiors, other formal and informal groups. For example, they protect each other from unfair decisions, harmful rules, poor working conditions, invasion of their zone of influence by other departments, lower salaries, and dismissal.

Close communication. Thanks to the formal organization and its tasks, the same people come together every day, sometimes for many years. They are often forced to communicate and interact, as they solve the same tasks. People want to know what's going on around them, especially when it comes to their work. But sometimes leaders deliberately hide information from subordinates. Subordinates are forced to resort to an informal channel of communication - rumors. It satisfies the need for security, belonging. In addition, people want to be closer to those they sympathize with, with whom they have a lot in common, with whom they can discuss not only work, but also personal matters. Such relationships often arise with those who are nearby in the workspace.

Similar way of thinking. People are united by the same shared social and ideological values, common intellectual traditions, professed philosophy of life, common hobbies, etc.

It is necessary to know the main characteristics of informal groups that have a great influence on the effectiveness of a formal organization and which must be taken into account in management. These characteristics are:

1) exercising social control;

2) resistance to change;

3) the emergence of an informal leader;

4) spreading rumors.

social control. Informal groups establish and reinforce norms of acceptable and unacceptable behavior within the group. This may concern both clothing, manners, and acceptable types of work, attitudes towards it, and the intensity of work. Those who violate these norms are subject to alienation and other sanctions. These norms may or may not correspond to the norms and values ​​of the formal organization.

Resistance to change. This phenomenon is also characteristic of formal groups, since changes disrupt the usual, well-established rhythm of work, the distribution of roles, stability, and confidence in the future. Changes can pose a threat to the continued existence of an informal group. Reorganization, the introduction of new technology, the expansion of production, the elimination of traditional industries can lead to the disintegration of informal groups or a reduction in the ability to meet social needs and realize common interests.

Leadership must reduce resistance to change using a variety of methods, including participatory management.

informal leaders. Informal organizations, as well as formal ones, have their own leaders. To influence the members of the group, they apply to them the same methods as the formal leaders. The only difference between these two leaders is that the leader of a formal organization has the support of delegated official authority and usually operates in a specific functional area assigned to him. The support of the informal leader is the recognition of his group. In his actions, he relies on people and their relationships. The sphere of influence of the informal leader may go beyond the administrative framework of the formal organization.

The main factors determining the opportunity to become the leader of an informal organization are: age, official authority, professional competence, location of the workplace, freedom of movement in the work area, moral qualities (responsiveness, decency, etc.). The exact characteristics are determined by the value system adopted in the group.

Informal organizations interact with formal ones. This interaction can be represented as a Ho-mans model. The model demonstrates how an informal group arises from the process of interaction between people performing certain tasks.

In an organization, people perform the tasks assigned to them, in the process of performing these tasks, people interact, which in turn contributes to the emergence of emotions - positive and negative in relation to each other and superiors. These emotions influence how people will carry out their activities and interact in the future. Emotions, favorable or unfavorable, can lead to either an increase or decrease in efficiency, absenteeism, staff turnover, complaints and other phenomena that are important for assessing the performance of an organization. Therefore, even if an informal organization is not created by the will of the leadership and is not under its complete control, it must be managed so that it can achieve its goals.

To ensure effective communication between formal and informal groups, the following methods can be used:

1) recognize the existence of an informal organization, refuse to destroy it, realize the need to work with it;

2) identify leaders in each informal group, involve in the decision-making process and take into account their views, encourage those involved in solving production problems;

3) check all managerial actions for their possible negative impact on the informal group;

4) to reduce resistance to change, involve group members in making management decisions;

5) quickly provide accurate information to prevent the spread of false rumors.

In addition to organizational factors, the effectiveness of the work of groups is also influenced by specific factors. They can be divided into two groups:

1) characteristics of the group;

2) group processes.

3. Characteristics of groups and their effectiveness

The characteristics of the group include its size, composition, status, and the roles of the group members.

Group size. Many management theorists have devoted attention to determining the ideal group size. Summing them up, we can say that such a group will be a group of 5-12 people. The explanation for this is that in smaller groups there is less opportunity to realize the benefits of group decision making, to benefit from differences of opinion. In addition, group members may be concerned about too much personal responsibility for the results of the work, decisions made.

In larger groups, communication between members becomes more difficult, and it becomes more difficult to reach agreement on issues related to the activities of the group. There may be difficulty, timidity in expressing one's opinion in front of a large number of people. Participation of everyone in the discussion of the issues to be resolved is limited.

Group members. The composition is understood as the degree of similarity of personalities, points of view, approaches in solving problems. The group should be composed of dissimilar personalities, with different knowledge, abilities, skills, ways of thinking, in order to work with greater efficiency.

The status of group members is the position, the position of a person in a group. It can be determined by a number of factors: position, office location, education, social talents, awareness, accumulated experience, moral qualities. These factors can either raise or lower status, depending on the values ​​and norms of the group. In order to make effective decisions, it is necessary to exclude the dominant influence of members with a higher status.

Roles of group members. A role is a set of rules of behavior expected of an individual in a particular situation. There are two main directions of roles for creating an effective group: target roles, which are aimed at the selection and setting of group tasks and their implementation, as well as supporting (social) roles, which contribute to the revitalization of the group. Most American managers perform targeted roles, while Japanese managers perform targeted and supportive ones.

Target roles:

1) initiation of activities, i.e. the proposal of new solutions, ideas, the search for new approaches to their solution;

2) search for information necessary to solve the tasks set, to clarify the proposals put forward;

3) collecting the opinions of group members, clarifying their attitude to the issues under discussion. Clarification of their ideas, values;

4) generalization, i.e., linking various ideas, proposals for solving the problem and generalizing them in the final solution;

5) study - clarification of the decision, forecasting its fate, if it is accepted;

6) motivation - stimulating the actions of the group when the interests and motives of its members fade away. Supporting roles:

1) encouragement is praise for the ideas expressed, a positive assessment of their contribution to solving the problem, maintaining a friendly atmosphere;

2) harmonization, which consists in reducing emotional tension, resolving conflicts, reducing disagreement and reaching agreements;

3) ensuring participation - creating an atmosphere of trust, openness, freedom of communication, so that each member of the group can and wants to contribute their ideas, proposals;

4) loyalty, support - this is the ability to hear and agree with other ideas, to go along with the group;

5) willingness to compromise - the ability to change one's own mind in order to maintain harmony in the team. If the majority of group members fulfill social roles, the team becomes socially oriented. Its members do not conflict with each other, do not impose their opinions on others and do not particularly strive to fulfill the tasks of the team, because the main thing for them is to keep the team united and happy, to harmonize relationships. Members of such teams may experience high individual satisfaction, but usually at the expense of reduced productivity.

The other extreme is a team consisting mainly of "specialists". In it, everything is subordinated to one goal - the result. Such a team will be effective in the short term, but in the long term, the degree of satisfaction, and hence the motivation of its members, decreases, since the social and emotional needs of its members are ignored.

Some team members play a dual role. These people are focused on both the task and the emotional needs of the other participants. These people can become team leaders because all members of the group are equal to them, satisfying both types of needs. Finally, there is one more role - the role of an outside observer who does not overwork either in solving team problems or in meeting social needs. Such team members do not enjoy the respect of its members.

It is important for managers to remember that effective teams must be well balanced, with people performing both roles: to achieve goals, solve production problems, and to create social cohesion.

4. Group processes. Creation and management of teams

Group processes include the stages of group development, cohesion, norms and conflict. Group development stages

Studies show that the group does not develop spontaneously, but passes through certain stages. There are several models of team development. They include five stages. In teams that work under time constraints or that exist for only a few days, stages change very quickly. And each leader and team member has their own unique challenges.

Formation is the stage of orientation and acquaintance. Group members evaluate each other's abilities, the ability to achieve goals, the possibility of establishing friendships, acceptable types of behavior for others. This is a stage of high uncertainty, and group members usually accept any authority offered by formal or informal leaders. At the formation stage, the team leader should give the participants time to get to know each other and encourage informal communication.

The stage of disagreements and contradictions reveals the individual characteristics of people. They are established in their roles and are aware of what the team expects from them. This stage is marked by conflict and disagreement. Members may disagree with the understanding of the goals of the group and how to achieve it, create coalitions with common interests. The team has not yet reached cohesion and unity. And until she overcomes the odds, her performance is at a low ebb. At this time, the team leader should encourage its members to participate in management, discuss goals, objectives, and put forward new ideas.

Achievement of a normal state. At this stage, conflicts are resolved, a state of mutual recognition is reached. The team is strengthened, there is agreement on the distribution of roles and power in the group. There is a sense of trust and unity. The leader must focus on unity, harmony in the team and help its members understand its norms and values.

Functioning. At this stage of the work, the main thing is to solve problems and achieve the intended goals. The members of the team coordinate their efforts, the arising disagreements are eliminated in civilized ways in the interests of the group and its goals. The leader must focus on achieving high results. This requires the fulfillment of both roles aimed at achieving goals and social interaction.

Disbandment takes place in groups such as committees, task forces and special task forces after they have completed their tasks. Attention is paid to curtailing and slowing down group processes.

Team members may experience emotional upsurge, feelings of attachment, depression, regret over the disbandment of the group. They may be satisfied with the achievement of planned goals and saddened by the upcoming parting with friends and colleagues. To mitigate the negative consequences, the leader can announce the termination of the team's activities at a solemn meeting, distribute awards, bonuses or commemorative badges.

Team cohesion is a measure of the attraction of group members to each other and to the group. A highly cohesive group is a group whose members are strongly attracted to each other and see themselves as like-minded. Such groups have a good moral climate, a friendly atmosphere, joint decision-making. These groups are more effective if their goals are aligned with those of the organization. Working in a group of friends and like-minded people is more satisfying. A group with a low level of cohesion does not have an interpersonal attraction for its members.

A potential negative consequence of a high degree of cohesion is groupthink. This is a tendency for an individual to suppress his real views, to refuse to express opposing points of view so as not to disturb the harmony in the group.

As a result, the problem is solved with less efficiency, since alternative proposals are not discussed and all available information is not evaluated.

Group norms are generally accepted standards of individual and group behavior that have developed over time as a result of the interaction of group members. These are stereotypes of behavior that are instilled in all members of the group through the approval or disapproval of its members. Only the fulfillment of these norms allows one to count on belonging to a group, its recognition and support. Group norms can be both positive and negative.

Positive norms support the goals of the organization and encourage behavior directed towards achieving these goals.

Positive group norms:

1) pride in the organization;

2) striving for the highest results;

3) profitability;

4) customer orientation;

5) collective work and mutual assistance;

6) continuous development of personnel;

7) professional training of personnel;

8) career management of employees;

9) encouragement of innovations;

10) respectful, kind attitude towards each other;

11) interest in the opinion of colleagues;

12) concern for people on the part of management.

5. Advantages and disadvantages of working in teams

When deciding on the possibility of using a group to perform certain tasks, the manager must weigh their advantages and disadvantages.

Team Benefits

The increase in individual labor efforts is associated with the objective emergence of competitiveness, the desire to excel, or at least keep up with other people. The presence of other people causes additional energy, enthusiasm, which leads to an increase in motivation, productivity and quality of work, and the disclosure of the creative potential of employees.

Satisfaction of group members. It is work in a group that allows you to satisfy the needs for belonging, belonging, social interaction. Cohesive groups reduce loneliness, contribute to the development of self-esteem, significance, as people are included in group work with special goals. Such work is more likely to bring pleasure.

Expansion of working skills and knowledge. People with extensive experience, skills and secrets of mastery pass them on to all members of the group, teach them the necessary operations, work to complete the tasks of the group. In addition, the teams are delegated the authority to solve production problems. This enriches the work and increases the motivation of employees.

Increasing organizational agility. Traditional organizations have a rigid structure, where each employee performs only one specific job, function. In teams, its members can perform each other's duties. If necessary, the task of the team can be changed, and employees are redeployed, which allows increasing the flexibility of production and quickly responding to changing customer needs.

Team weaknesses.

Redistribution of power. When a company creates self-managed work teams, the main losers are the lower and middle managers. It is difficult for them to adapt to a new situation: they do not want to share their powers, they are afraid of losing their status or even their job. Some of them are unable to learn the new skills they need to survive.

The free rider problem. This term refers to a team member who enjoys all the benefits of being a member of a team, but does not contribute proportionately to the work of the team, hiding behind other people's backs. Sometimes this phenomenon is called social dependency. In large groups, some people work with less output than when working individually or in a small group.

Coordination costs are the time and effort required to coordinate the activities of the members of a group in order to ensure that its objectives are met. In addition, teams need to spend time preparing for collaboration to decide who will perform certain work tasks and when.

So, an effective group is a group whose size corresponds to its tasks, which includes people with dissimilar traits of character and way of thinking, whose norms correspond to the achievement of the goals of the organization and the creation of high morale, where both target and social roles are well performed. and where the high status of group members does not dominate.

High morale is such a psychological state of a person that encourages him to actively participate in the work of the group and direct all his energy to the fulfillment of its tasks.

LECTURE No. 12. Managing conflicts and stresses

1. The nature and types of conflicts in the organization

There are no conflict-free organizations. Moreover, the more active and dynamic the organization, the more often it has causes for large and small conflicts. Therefore, understanding the origins of the conflict and being able to manage its course and resolution is an integral part of the leader's professionalism.

There are two main approaches to conflict. Within the framework of the first approach, the conflict is defined as a clash of interests, contradiction, struggle and opposition. The origins of this approach are proposed by the sociological school of T. Parsons, one of the leitmotifs of which is the harmonization of organizational structures. From the standpoint of the second approach (G. Simmel, L. Koder), the conflict is seen as a process of development of interaction, which has a number of invaluable advantages in terms of the development of the organization.

For greater clarity, we will give several definitions of the conflict. A conflict is a clash of opposing goals, interests, positions, opinions, or views of two or more people.

A conflict is such an interaction between subjects that is characterized by their confrontation based on oppositely directed motives (needs, interests, goals, ideals, beliefs) or judgments (opinions, views, assessments).

A conflict is a lack of agreement between two or more parties, which can be both specific individuals, groups, and organizations as a whole, and this disagreement between the parties leads to the fact that the conscious behavior of one of the parties conflicts with the interests of the other party.

The modern point of view on conflicts in the organization - they are not only possible, but may be desirable. The conflict helps to identify a variety of points of view, provides additional information, allows you to identify a greater number of alternatives, problems. This makes the decision-making process in the organization more efficient.

Thus, the conflict can be functional and lead to an increase in the efficiency of the organization and dysfunctional, i.e. lead to a decrease in the effectiveness of the organization, personal satisfaction, group cooperation. Destructive consequences occur when the conflict is at a very low or very high level. When the conflict is small, they try not to notice it and do not try to find ways to resolve it. Disagreement seems small enough to induce the parties to change their decision or a common decision. But a joint decision that does not take into account all positions is less effective in terms of his motivation.

A high level of conflict is accompanied by the development of stress in the participants. This leads to a decrease in morale and cohesion. Communication networks are destroyed, which leads to the concealment of information and the adoption of wrong decisions. The organization may die.

Functional conflicts appear when the level of conflict is sufficient to motivate people. Such conflicts arise on the basis of differences in goals, objectively determined by the work performed. The parties differently see the desired state of the managed system in the future. The development of the conflict is accompanied by an active exchange of information, the coordination of different positions and the desire to understand each other. When discussing differences that cannot be ignored, but also cannot be combined, a compromise solution is developed based on a creative approach to the problem.

Positive functions of conflict.

1. Détente between the parties.

2. Team building in front of an external enemy. It is widely known that it is easier to be friends against someone.

3. Undoubtedly, an external enemy can help to strengthen the consolidation of group members.

4. Obtaining new information about the opponent and the surrounding social environment.

5. Great disposition to cooperate in the future.

6. Removal of the syndrome of submissiveness in subordinates.

Rulemaking is the fixing of new rules for the relationship between the subjects of the conflict and third forces, whose interests also figured in the course of it.

Creation of new social institutions. The conflict is one of the "ancestors" of new organizations and activities. Most organizations came into existence in the process and as a result of the separation of groups of employees from the parent organization. It was the conflict that allowed them to unite and realize the difference between their interests and the interests of other employees and managers.

Negative functions of conflict.

1. Large emotional and material costs of participating in the conflict.

2. Growing dissatisfaction, poor morale.

3. Decrease in labor productivity, growth of staff turnover.

4. The idea of ​​the other side as an enemy.

5. Decrease in cooperation after the end of the conflict.

6. Difficult restoration of business relations ("trail" of the conflict).

7. Strengthening the trend towards authoritarian leadership.

The role of conflict in an organization depends on how effectively it is managed. To manage, one must know the components of the conflict, their types, causes, the process of resolution and methods of conflict resolution.

The conflict can be divided into the following components:

1) participants (opponents) with their different goals;

2) intermediary (may be absent);

3) object (subject of conflict);

4) pre-conflict situation;

5) incident;

6) conflict actions of opponents;

7) conflict phase;

8) measures to resolve the conflict;

9) end of the conflict.

The question arises about the necessity and sufficiency of each of these components. So, participants are a necessary component, and an intermediary is not always present. A pre-conflict situation can always be singled out, even if it is short-lived. It is believed that a conflict is a pre-conflict situation plus an incident. A pre-conflict situation may exist without going into the incident stage, but an incident cannot occur without a pre-conflict situation.

Currently, there is no single classification of conflicts. The most common criterion for classifying organizational conflicts is scale. According to this criterion, intrapersonal, interpersonal, conflict between the individual and the group, intragroup and intergroup conflicts are distinguished.

Intrapersonal conflict is a clash within the personality of equal in strength, but oppositely directed motives, needs, interests. This is a conflict of choice between the lesser of two evils. For example, an employee was assigned an urgent interesting job, and his house is undergoing major repairs and needs to leave work. The reasons for this conflict can be:

1) non-compliance of service requirements with personal needs, goals, values;

2) presentation of contradictory requirements to the employee;

3) violation of the principle of unity of command;

4) overload or underload, resulting in job dissatisfaction;

5) awareness of their insolvency.

Interpersonal conflict involves two or more people. This is the most common conflict. An example is the struggle between two leaders for the resources of the organization or the struggle between two applicants for a promotion. The reasons for the conflict may be differences in goals, attitudes, values, character traits, behavior, work methods.

The conflict between the individual and the group arises for the following reasons:

1) discrepancy between the norms of behavior adopted in the group and the norms of behavior that the employee adheres to;

2) incorrect distribution of duties;

3) different positions of the group and the individual in solving some problem;

4) change of leadership;

5) the emergence of an informal leader.

An example of such a conflict is a conflict between a leader and a group, or a conflict between a group and its new member.

Intra-group conflict is a clash between parts or all members of the group that affects the results of the work of the group as a whole. In terms of scale, this conflict is greater than the sum of interpersonal conflicts. The main reasons for the conflict are:

1) a change in the balance of power in the group due to a change in leadership;

2) the emergence of an informal leader;

3) the emergence of coalitions.

2. Causes and consequences of conflicts

Intergroup conflict is a confrontation between two or more groups in an organization. Such a confrontation can have, firstly, a professional-production basis. Examples of this conflict are conflicts between various functional units - the design department and the marketing and production departments; between leaders of different levels of management; between headquarters and line management. The reasons for the conflict are:

1) differences in goals;

2) incorrect distribution of power in the organization;

3) different levels of professionalism;

4) bad communications.

Second, intergroup conflict may have a social basis. These are conflicts between employers, owners, managers, on the one hand, and employees, on the other. For example, the conflict between the administration and the trade union. Reasons: different positions in the organization, which cause differences in interests, goals, powers.

The third basis of intergroup conflict is emotional. An example would be the conflict between the so-called "lazy" and "workers".

So, the main causes of conflicts are:

1) limited resources to be distributed;

2) interdependence of tasks, incorrect distribution of powers and responsibilities;

3) poor communications;

4) differences in goals, values, behavior, work methods;

5) psychological incompatibility;

6) different level of education, unprofessionalism;

7) low level of executive discipline;

8) unfulfilled expectations;

9) unequal contribution to the case;

10) bad moral and psychological climate in the team;

11) violation of ethical standards (rudeness, arrogance, ignoring the opinions of others);

12) violation of labor legislation.

Conflict management is a purposeful impact on the elimination of the causes of the conflict or on the correction of the behavior of the participants. Methods of management and conflict resolution are divided into three groups: intrapersonal; structural and interpersonal.

Intrapersonal methods affect an individual and consist in the correct organization of one's own behavior, in the ability to express one's point of view without causing a defensive reaction from the opponent.

Structural methods change the structure of tasks for employees or the structure of an organization. Structural conflict resolution methods include the following.

1. Explanation of job requirements. Employees must know the parameters and level of results expected from them, the system of authority, responsibility and interaction with other performers and management, the rules and procedures used to complete tasks.

2. Use of coordination and integration mechanisms that improve alignment between departments and individuals. These include a hierarchy of authority that streamlines people's interactions, decision making, and information flows within an organization; the principle of unity of command, which facilitates the use of hierarchy to manage conflict; special services that communicate between functional units; meetings shared by several departments; cross-functional and target groups; curators who, if necessary, can intervene in the conflict and help resolve controversial issues; merging different departments and giving them a common task.

For example, combining the department of labor and wages and the personnel department into the department of personnel development.

3. Setting corporate goals. Their implementation requires the joint efforts of two or more employees, groups, departments, divisions. The idea that is embedded in these higher goals is to direct the efforts of all participants to achieve a common goal. Such goals at the firm level are formulated as a mission, the highest values.

4. Using a reward system to encourage behavior aimed at avoiding the negative consequences of conflicts. In a broader sense, the system of remuneration and work incentives can be seen as the basis for conflict prevention. These forms of labor incentives include the following:

1) reconstruction of the labor process: expansion of the set of labor functions, creation of attractive jobs, intellectualization of labor, creation of socio-technical systems, work at home;

2) participation in decision-making: participation in the development of production policy, expanding the independence of production units and their employees in solving problems that arise in the workplace;

3) development of a sense of ownership: participation in profits, participation in the capital of the enterprise;

4) flexible working hours: flexible working hours, part-time work.

3. Methods for resolving a conflict situation

Interpersonal methods of conflict resolution were proposed by C. W. Thomas and R. H. Killman in 1972. They identified five methods of conflict resolution, presented in the form of a matrix, which is built on the basis of two variables: self-interest and interest in others. Interest is measured as low and high. The level of focus on one's own interests or the interests of the opponent depends on three conditions:

1) the content of the subject of the conflict;

2) values ​​of interpersonal relationships;

3) individual psychological characteristics of the personality.

1. Evasion, avoidance of the conflict is associated with the lack of desire to cooperate with others or solve the problem that has arisen, so as not to get into a situation fraught with disagreements. Ignoring disagreement can cause dissatisfaction on the other side. With this approach to the conflict, both sides lose, so it is acceptable as a temporary way out of the situation.

2. Coercion, conflict resolution by force is characterized by great personal involvement in conflict resolution, but without taking into account the opinions of the other side. This style is effective in situations where the leader has great power over subordinates, but it suppresses the initiative of subordinates, can cause their resentment, as it does not take into account their point of view on the situation that has arisen. It's a win-lose style.

3. Smoothing. The method is based on the desire to cooperate with others, take into account their opinions, but without introducing one's own strong interest. This method helps to realize the desires of others, maintains a favorable climate in the team, emphasizes the commonality of interests and downplays their differences. Unfortunately, sometimes the problem underlying the conflict is forgotten. This is a win-win style.

4. A compromise is characterized by a moderate consideration of the interests of each of the parties. The implementation of this method is associated with negotiations, during which each of the parties makes concessions, a certain middle way of interaction between opponents is found, more or less satisfying to both. However, there is a danger of concessions on fundamental issues, then a compromise solution will not resolve the conflict situation in an effective way. In a compromise, there is no mutual satisfaction of the parties, but there is no dissatisfaction either. It's a no-win-no-lose style.

5. Cooperation is based on the recognition of differences in the opinions of opponents and the readiness to get acquainted with other points of view in order to understand the causes of the conflict and find methods of solving the problem acceptable to both sides. In this case, there is a search for the best solution to the conflict situation. With this approach, each side wins. Alan Philley[6] proposed the following methodology for resolving conflict through cooperation:

1) define the problem in terms of goals, not solutions;

2) after the problem is identified, determine solutions that are acceptable to both parties;

3) focus on the problem, not on the personal qualities of the other party;

4) create an atmosphere of trust by increasing mutual influence and information exchange;

5) During communication, create a positive relationship with each other, showing sympathy and listening to the views of the other side, as well as minimizing the manifestation of anger and threats.

4. Causes of stress and its reduction

In addition to unmanageable conflicts, excessive stress negatively affects the organization. The leader must learn to neutralize them. Stress (from the English stress - "tension") - a state of stress that occurs under the influence of strong influences. This is a non-specific reaction of the body to the demands placed on it. Stress is an adaptive reaction, mediated by individual differences and (or) psychological processes, which occurs as a result of the influence of the environment, circumstances or events that impose excessive psychological and (or) physical demands on a person.

People vary greatly in their tolerance for stress. The most vulnerable are the strongest and the weakest. The reaction of the former is dominated by anger, the reaction of the latter by fear, and both of these emotions are destructive to health. People of the so-called intermediate types are better equipped to withstand stress. Their reactions are more healthy, they are able to dose stress, accepting the inevitable and avoiding the excess.

Physiological signs of stress are ulcers, hypertension, migraine, heart pain, heart attack. Psychological signs: depression, irritability, loss of appetite.

Stress reduces the quality of life of workers and the efficiency of their work, therefore, it is costly for the organization. Different factors can cause stress, they can be combined into two groups: organizational factors that are associated with work in an organization, and personal factors associated with a person’s personal life, his characteristics.

organizational factors.

1. Overload or underload of an employee, which leads to the accumulation of physical and mental fatigue, increased dissatisfaction, and a sense of material loss.

2. The dynamism of events, the need for quick decision-making.

3. Critical circumstances or risk in decision making.

4. Constant haste. There is no time to stop, to delve deeply into the problem, to make an informed decision so as not to return to the same issue. Hence - dissatisfaction with oneself, irritation.

5. Contradictory or vague demands from the manager or different managers.

6. Inconsistency of the norms and values ​​of the individual with the norms and values ​​of the group, the realization of one's insolvency.

7. Uninteresting, routine work, lack of prospects. Hence - the feeling of uselessness, the inability to realize their production and creative potential.

8. Major changes at work, in the organization.

9. Poor working conditions: noise, low lighting, stuffiness, deviations in temperature.

Personal factors:

1. Death of loved ones.

2. Divorce.

3. Dismissal from work.

4. Failures of loved ones.

5. Getting married.

6. The appearance of a new family member.

7. Retirement and others.

So, the level of excessive stress must be reduced. This process should be managed by both managers and employees themselves.

Self-management, the rational use of your time, helps to avoid or reduce the level of stress. For example, setting personal and professional goals, prioritizing work, delegating tasks. In addition, you need the ability to prove to the manager your opinion regarding your workload, conflicting requirements, and the content of the work. And, of course, you need to be able to relax, recuperate, lead a healthy lifestyle, and maintain good physical shape. The body's resistance to stress increases regular and nutritious nutrition, vitamins, herbal remedies, nutritional supplements, sports, breathing exercises, meditation.

LECTURE #13

1. Nature, model and stages of the change management process

Modern organizations operating in a complex, dynamic environment with a high level of uncertainty must constantly change. The ability to make these changes, to rebuild, to adapt to an ever-changing environment, or, more importantly, the ability to change the environment itself, is the most important characteristic of today's organizations that ensures their competitiveness and survival in the long term.

Organizational change can be defined as the process of mastering a new idea, type of behavior, or as any relatively independent modification of some of its elements. Examples of major changes can be the development of improved technology, the creation of a new product needed by the market, the improvement of the organizational structure, the training and advanced training of employees, the formation of an appropriate corporate culture with new values, traditions, and management style.

2. Types of organizational change

All changes in the organization can be reduced to two types: operational changes associated with the improvement of production processes, procedures, and transformational changes aimed at updating the organization as a whole, reorienting its functioning. The main types of change are changes in mission and goals, strategy, technology, structure, product, people and culture.

There are planned and spontaneous changes. The first are carried out in accordance with the developed strategy, a plan in which the organization tries to predict its actions taking into account future events. To do this, we study the trends in the development of the external environment, its opportunities and threats, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the organization. The purpose of such plans is to prepare the organization for possible changes in the environment, to resist the adverse effects of random factors.

Spontaneous (reactive) changes are unforeseen responses of the organization to unforeseen circumstances as they arise. Therefore, as a rule, they are carried out in conditions of lack of time, are not well thought out and do not allow effective adaptation to the environment. Often after such changes, the need for managed change increases.

The planned change model is shown in Figure 4. It breaks down the change process into five successive steps:

1) the organization is affected by internal and external forces that cause the need for change;

2) managers study these impacts and recognize the need for change;

3) the conscious need for change induces, initiates the search for innovations and their implementation;

4) changes are being implemented;

5) changes are fixed on the basis of positive results, they become a necessary element of the organization.

Rice. 4. Model of the change management process

Let's consider the presented model in more detail. The impact of the external environment, the emergence of opportunities and threats to the development of the organization is associated with a change in any of its factors of direct or indirect impact. Namely: consumers, competitors, suppliers, owners, the labor market, supervisory and regulatory authorities, as well as the state of the economy as a whole, socio-cultural, political, legal, technological and international factors.

Internal impacts that require changes are related to the organization's production activities, its goals and opportunities to achieve them. It reveals the potential of the organization, its strengths and weaknesses in different functional areas.

A comparison of external and internal impulses, awareness of the discrepancy between the environment and the organization, existing and required levels of productivity, efficiency and quality lead to an understanding of the need for change. This understanding predetermines subsequent actions to create a new product, introduce modern technology, a personnel motivation system, form cultural values, restructure the management structure, etc.

After realizing the need for reorganization, the third decisive stage of change management comes - initiating changes. Here, ideas for future changes are developed to eliminate the mismatch between the organization and the environment, or a smaller mismatch of existing operations and procedures with the standards adopted by the organization.

There are different ways to stimulate the search for ideas. The following are most effective:

1) study of existing experience in solving similar problems;

2) promotion of creativity, innovation, initiative;

3) defending the idea, bringing it to the stage of implementation;

4) creation of venture teams.

The first method involves the study of all available developments, both inside and outside the organization, that can be used to implement the necessary changes. This method does not exclude the invitation of an experienced consultant to solve similar problems. However, this method has certain limitations. They are associated with the danger of applying old solutions to new problems and the fact that many changes cannot be implemented on the basis of existing knowledge and experience. Therefore, the organization must look for new unique solutions to its problems.

The need to initiate new original solutions to identified problems means that the ability for creativity, innovation of both individuals and entire departments must be built into the organization. Such organizations are freely structured, decentralized, have open communication channels and effective systems for submitting rationalization proposals and inventions. Their corporate culture is characterized by openness, freedom of communication, goodwill, participation in the discussion of new ideas, encouragement of mistakes. The reward system in such organizations supports innovation. Many participatory management programs were born out of a desire to stimulate creativity and innovation in an organization.

Everyone has the ability to be creative, but there are especially gifted people who are able to see unique, unusual opportunities for the development of an organization even in ordinary situations. Such workers must be specially sought out and all conditions for work must be created for them. The literature gives the characteristics of especially creative people, including professionalism, originality of thinking, openness to new concepts, ideas, curiosity, independence, lack of authority, purposefulness, perseverance, optimism.

If a creative atmosphere is created in the unit and new ideas are generated, then there is a need for their propaganda, promotion and implementation. At this stage, a person should appear who realizes the fruitfulness of the idea, explains and defends it, brings it to the stage of implementation, since changes do not occur by themselves. Often a new idea is rejected by management without proper development.

The final way to initiate change is through the creation of venture teams, a new modern form of promoting innovation in an organization. The venture team is a separate, independent structural unit that exists outside the hierarchical pyramid of the organization, which is responsible for the development of basic inventions and innovative projects. Members of such teams have greater creative freedom and are relieved of having to follow the rules and procedures adopted by the organization. Venture teams are small and separate from the company to eliminate bureaucratic interference.

The fourth stage of change management - the implementation of changes involves knowing the reasons for resistance to change and skillfully overcoming it.

There are several such reasons:

1) uncertainty. People may have a negative attitude towards change only because of the lack of information about the consequences of change, suspecting a threat to their position in the organization. After all, uncertainty is always scary;

2) feeling of loss. People resist changes if they assume that they will lead to personal losses: authority, power, status, prestige, pay, additional benefits and privileges, social contacts, i.e., to a decrease in the satisfaction of any need;

3) lack of understanding and trust. Employees often do not understand the intention of changes or doubt their positive consequences, do not trust leaders, as they have already had negative experience;

4) the belief that changes will not bring anything good, will not solve existing problems, and may bring new ones with them;

5) different assessments and goals. The creators of the ideas, their followers and the people who will have to undergo change assess the situation differently. Managers of different departments have their own local goals, and innovations can detract from the performance of any department;

6) lack of necessary skills and abilities to cope with changes;

7) built-in elements of resistance to change: existing rules, procedures, policies, norms, working methods, traditions, top management philosophy.

These elements have been formed over a long period of time, have become familiar, necessary, so they are not easy to give up. There are two main approaches to overcoming resistance to change:

1) analysis of the "force field", which involves the identification and study of factors that promote and hinder change;

2) the use of existing methods to reduce or completely eliminate resistance.

The "force field" analysis was proposed by Kurt Lewin, who suggested that changes are the result of a "struggle" between driving and opposing forces. When a change is proposed, some forces push it forward, others block the change. The manager must analyze these forces and change the ratio between them in favor of the driving forces. This can be done in three ways:

1) strengthen existing driving forces;

2) weaken the existing opposing forces;

3) add new driving forces.

Moreover, management should know that the best time to overcome resistance to change is the period before they occur.

3. Methods for resolving a conflict situation

If the forces of resistance cannot be sufficiently reduced or the driving forces sufficiently increased, changes should not be made, they will not achieve the desired goal. However, if these forces are manageable, the next challenge is to develop methods to reduce or overcome resistance to change. These methods include:

1) providing information, explaining the essence of the changes. Improving communications within the organization to increase people's awareness. This refers to the discussion of new ideas, proposals, events in labor collectives, the provision of information about problems in the organization and the consequences of change. This will convince employees of the need for changes before they are implemented;

2) involvement of employees in decision-making. This will make them participants in solving problems, convince them of the need for change, turn the attention of employees to the search for a better implementation of change, make them active supporters of change;

3) support, which means helping employees to adapt to the new environment. It can be expressed in increased attention to subordinates, their difficulties, fears, suspicions, or in the organization of additional professional training and advanced training;

4) negotiations and agreements to ensure the approval of the new. The consent of people is provided in exchange for some benefits, benefits: additional pay, a new position, promises to keep the team and other privileges;

5) co-optation - granting a negatively minded employee, who plays the most active role in resistance to change, the right to make decisions about the introduction of innovations and their implementation;

6) maneuvering - selective use of information, dosing it, wishful thinking or drawing up a clear schedule of activities to influence subordinates;

7) coercion - the use of formal power to end resistance under the threat of dismissal, lower wages, deprivation of promotion prospects, etc. The last stage of change management is the reinforcement of new behavior, relationships based on focusing on high results. The new becomes a stable, habitual state of the organization. Employees must finally be convinced that the change is beneficial both to the organization and to them personally. Possible ways of reinforcement: praise for achievements based on innovations, promotions, higher pay for higher productivity and quality.

4. The concept of organizational development

The modern organization must be ready to accept continuous changes, so the leadership in designing and managing the organization must build this susceptibility into it. Awareness of this process led to the creation of the concept of organizational development (OD). The concept originated in the late 1960s. It emphasizes the need for a systematic review of the organization, planning and implementation of continuous organizational changes. Organizational development is a modern concept of continuous planned changes in an organization that uses the knowledge of behavioral sciences to improve the moral and psychological climate in the organization and increase its efficiency through the development of the ability to adapt to changes in the external environment, skills for solving emerging problems, improving internal relationships. The concept of OR is mainly focused on people who are the main difficulties in implementing changes due to their unforeseen reactions to organizational changes.

For the process of change to be successful, it must be preceded and accompanied by certain actions, activities for organizational development. The most common OR activities include:

1) diagnostics - a systematic collection of information about the state of the organization through interviews, questionnaires, meetings, observations, work with documents of the organization. Based on this information, plans are developed for future changes, renewal of the organization;

2) training and advanced training. These processes concern both professional skills, abilities, and skills of social interaction. Large organizations carry out a continuous process of training of personnel in order to prepare them for possible changes;

3) the creation of teams and special groups that contribute to the active interaction, cooperation and cohesion of its members and increase the efficiency of the organization as a whole. Team building improves communication skills, group decision making and conflict resolution;

4) intergroup interaction. We are talking about informal meetings and seminars on the effective interaction of groups and departments designed to carry out joint work tasks. Emphasis is placed on the ability to resolve conflicts, improve coordination and improve methods of joint activities;

5) measures to change the organizational and production structure. They are aimed at increasing the flexibility, adaptability of the organization and streamlining operations and procedures;

6) counseling. PR consultants are called upon to assist the company's management in understanding the peculiarities of human relationships within the organization and managing them, evaluate them from the standpoint of cultural values, leadership, communications, intragroup and intergroup cooperation.

LECTURE No. 14. Self-management

1. The need, nature and benefits of self-management

A manager in his daily work spends a lot of time and energy on routine duties: participating in meetings, instructing subordinates, preparing and reading reports, answering phone calls, viewing e-mail and current correspondence, monitoring and evaluating the results of subordinates, etc. These cases, many of which were not planned in advance, fill the working day, and the manager only has to react to them, and not get ahead of events. In such conditions, there is a high probability of errors: priorities are chosen incorrectly, minor matters are not delegated, and the focus is on the process of activity, and not on the result.

To all the current, routine duties of the manager, rational procedures, proven and tested methods can be applied to eliminate the causes of waste of time and help the manager achieve the company's goals faster and at lower cost.

Self-management is the application of rational procedures, effective methods of work in daily, current activities in order to make the best use of one's time. The main goal of self-management is to maximize your potential both at work and in your personal life, overcoming adverse circumstances and consciously managing your life.

Self-management allows you to achieve the following benefits:

1) doing the job with less time and effort;

2) better organization of work and better results;

3) less haste and stress;

4) greater satisfaction from the work performed;

5) greater motivation of the work of the manager and employees;

6) less workload;

7) growth of qualifications of the manager and staff;

8) achieving professional and personal goals in the shortest possible way.

It is necessary to start self-management with an analysis of the practiced style of work, with an inventory of your time. It is carried out over several working days (usually a week) in order to determine the causes of emerging time deficits.

At the first stage, an inventory list of all types of activities in which the manager participates is compiled:

1) analysis of activities and time consumption;

2) a sheet of "daily disturbances", breaks in work.

The second stage is the analysis of the inventory of time from the standpoint of the strengths and weaknesses of the leader. To do this, it is necessary to analyze the work performed during the week according to the following criteria:

Was the job necessary? (yes; no. The answer "no" should also be entered in columns "B" and "C").

B - Were the time justified? (Not really). Q - Was the time interval deliberately set for the work to be done? (Not really).

Next, you need to calculate:

1) the total duration of the corresponding day (OPD);

2) the duration of the work for which the manager answered "no" (PA, PB, PV);

3) ratio:

a) PA / OPD x 100%;

b) PB / OPD x 100%;

c) PV / OPD x 100%.

If it turns out that more than 10% of the manager's activities were optional, then this means that the manager has problems with delegation of affairs and with setting priorities.

If in more than 10% of cases the time consumption was too high, then the manager should analyze the reasons for this overspending (maybe poor self-discipline, irrational techniques, etc.)

If in more than 10% of cases the moment of work performance was determined spontaneously, then the manager has problems with planning working time (drawing up plans for the day, preparing for work, etc.).

The third stage is the processing of data from the "Daytime Interference Sheet" table in order to identify their causes.

2. Symptoms and causes of irrational organization of work of managers

Identify the top five causes of temporary losses that recur. We note the most significant "sinks" of time:

1) fuzzy goal setting;

2) lack of priorities in cases;

3) trying to do too much at one time;

4) poor planning of the working day;

5) personal disorganization, "littered" desk;

6) lack of motivation (indifferent attitude to work);

7) disruptive phone calls;

8) unscheduled visitors;

9) incomplete, belated information;

10) inability to say "no";

11) lack of self-discipline;

12) protracted meetings;

13) haste, impatience;

14) lack of communication (communication) or poor feedback;

15) chatter on private topics;

16) inability to delegate things, etc.

3. Self-management tools: "life curve", time series for ranking life goals, analysis of one's strengths and weaknesses, setting priorities using ABC analysis and the Eisenhower principle

The functions of self-management, as well as any management process, are planning (setting personal and professional goals, developing plans for their activities), organization (drawing up a daily routine and organizing a personal labor process in order to achieve their goals), motivation (motivating oneself to activities aimed at achievement of goals), control (self-control and control of results, if necessary - adjustment of goals).

Setting a goal means looking to the future, focusing and concentrating on what should be achieved, what results. Goals should have a hierarchy, a higher goal and sub-goals, intermediate goals on the way to the main one. Goals must be accurately described.

To do this, it is useful to draw a "life curve", where the successes and failures in the past and the desired successes in the future are marked. The "curve" of life should reflect:

1. How has your life been so far?

2. What were your biggest successes? Where were the defeats in the professional sphere? In a personal?

3. How do you imagine your future?

4. Until what age would you like to live?

5. What else do you want to achieve?

6. What blows of fate and defeats are possible?

The point where the person is located is marked on the curve, and key words are written next to the extreme points of the "life curve" that characterize the corresponding successes or failures. Next, five major goals are formulated that a person wants to achieve before the end of his life, and these goals are differentiated according to temporal criteria. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the persons of the immediate environment (partners, children, parents, friends, boss), since it is necessary to reckon with the events in their lives. You can make a time series to find personal goals.

Then write down on a separate piece of paper all the desired goals for the near and distant future:

1) long-term goals - guidelines for what a person wants to achieve in life;

2) medium-term goals - specific results that a person wants to achieve in the next 5 years;

3) short-term goals - specific results that a person wants to achieve in the next 12 months. Formulated goals are divided into personal and professional. Setting goals involves fixing deadlines and results.

After clarifying for yourself questions about personal and professional goals, you need to determine the means to achieve them. To do this, you need to determine your strengths and weaknesses. To this end, we can again turn to the "curve of life" and analyze the causes of success and failure. At the same time, it is important to establish those abilities, knowledge, experience that led to the corresponding result. This can be special knowledge (knowledge of production, management, general erudition), personal qualities (purposefulness, sociability, balance, initiative, perseverance, tact), intellectual abilities (creativity, intuition, logical thinking, prudence), etc. Analysis abilities will allow you to determine the potential that a person has and which needs to be developed in order to achieve his goals.

At the same time, you should know your weaknesses in order to avoid actions that may contribute to the manifestation of such qualities, or to take measures to get rid of these shortcomings. Knowing your weaknesses means strengthening your strengths.

Knowing the strengths and weaknesses (what can I do?) will allow you to determine the means to achieve the goals (personal, financial, time resources). At this stage, the answer to the question should be found: "What exactly does a person start?" To do this, plans are made to achieve the goals. From life plans, long-term plans follow annual, quarterly, monthly, ten-day, which are specified in the business plans of the day. Time planning brings a gain in time.

The daily plan is the most important step in planning time and achieving your goals. When making plans, it is necessary to prioritize goals and objectives. A well-known story called "The $25 Advice" is often cited to illustrate this simple principle.

Charles M. Schwab, as president of the Bethlam Steel Company, gave Yves Lee, business advisor, an unusual challenge: "Show me the best use of my time. If you succeed, I will pay you any reasonable fee." Lee offered Schwab a sheet of paper and said, "Make a list of the most important things you have to do tomorrow and number them in order of importance. Tomorrow morning, start with task number 1 and work on it until it is completed. Then double-check your priorities again and move on to #2, but don't move on until you've completed that as well, then move on to #3, etc. Even if you can't complete your entire plan for the day, it's not a tragedy By the end of the day, the most important things will be at least completed before you waste time on less important tasks The key to success is to do the following daily: cross-check the relative importance of upcoming tasks, make decisions about priorities, make a list of them , reflect it in the plan of the day and stick to it. Make it a habit of every working day. If you are convinced of the value of this system, "pass" it on to your employees. Try it for as long as you see fit, and then send me a check for what you think the system is worth."

A few weeks later, Schwab sent Lee a check for $25. He later said that this lecture he listened to was the most rewarding of all that he learned during his management.

Benefits of prioritizing.

1. Work on really important and difficult cases.

2. Resolving issues in accordance with their urgency.

3. Concentration on completing only one task.

4. Exclusion of cases that can be performed by others. Positive effects of work on priorities.

1. Deadlines are respected.

2. There is greater satisfaction from the working day and the results of work.

3. Greater satisfaction is received by subordinates and colleagues.

4. Manages to avoid conflicts and stressful overloads.

Methods such as the Pareto principle, ABC analysis, and the Eisenhower principle are used to prioritize important cases.

The Pareto principle (ratio 80:20) generally states that within a given group or set, individual small parts show a much greater significance than their relative share in this group corresponds to. In relation to the rational use of time, this means that if all work functions are considered in terms of the criterion of their effectiveness, then it turns out that 80% of the final results are achieved in only 20% of the time spent, while the remaining 20% ​​of the final results "absorb" 80% of the worker. time. These are just numerous minor problems.

Therefore, you should not take on the easiest, most interesting, or least time-consuming tasks first. Issues need to be addressed according to their importance and significance.

The application of the Pareto principle is concretized in the analysis of ABC (Fig. 5). Here all tasks are divided into categories ABC according to their share in the final result.

Rice. 58. ABC analysis

ABC analysis is based on the following patterns:

1. The most important tasks (category A) make up approximately 15% of the number of all tasks and cases that the manager is busy with. The self-importance of these tasks (in terms of contribution to the achievement of the goal) is approximately 65%.

2. Important tasks (category B) account for an average of 20% of the total number and also 20% of the significance of the tasks and affairs of the leader.

3. Less important and unimportant tasks (category B), on the contrary, make up 65% of the total number of tasks, but have insignificant intrinsic importance in the affairs of the manager - only 15%.

According to the conclusions of the ABC analysis, it is recommended that the most important, i.e., bringing the greatest result, cases A be taken first of all in order to achieve most of the overall effect with the help of a few actions. These cases are not transferable. The next most important task B also accounts for a significant part of the total result. They can be partially entrusted to other persons. Tasks B are less important, give a little overall result. They need to be delegated and reduced.

American General Dwight Eisenhower proposed a simple tool for choosing priorities in solving problems. According to his rule, priorities are established according to criteria such as urgency and importance of the case.

Depending on the degree of urgency and importance of tasks, there are four possibilities for their evaluation and implementation:

1. Urgent / important matters. They should be done immediately and by yourself.

2. Urgent / less important things. Here there is a danger of falling under the "tyranny" of haste and, as a result, completely surrendering to the solution of this task, because it is urgent. But it is not so important, it does not require any special qualities for its implementation, so it should be delegated.

3. Less urgent/important tasks. They do not need to be done urgently, they can wait. Difficulty can arise when these tasks become urgent and must be solved by the manager as soon as possible. Therefore, it is necessary to set a deadline for completing the task or double-check the degree of its importance and entrust all or part of it to employees.

4. Less urgent / less important things. It is these cases that often end up on a desk that is already littered with papers. Such tasks often require a wastebasket.

4. Delegation: meaning, rules, reasons for the resistance of subordinates and leaders

Delegation is a good tool for rational use of manager's time. Delegation refers to the transfer to a subordinate of a task from the sphere of action of the leader. Simultaneously with the work task for its implementation, authority and responsibility for the task should be delegated.

Authority is a limited right to use the resources of an organization and direct the efforts of some of its employees to accomplish a task. This right is associated with making decisions to complete a task. Powers are delegated to the position, not to the individual who occupies it. They are always limited. The limits of authority are determined by procedures, rules, job descriptions or are transferred orally to a subordinate.

Responsibility - the obligation to perform tasks and be responsible for their satisfactory solution. The employee is responsible for the results of the task to the one who delegates authority to him. It must be emphasized that only functional responsibility for solving a specific problem is delegated, and managerial responsibility for management cannot be delegated, it remains with the manager.

Delegation always means self-unloading and gaining time to perform really important tasks of category A. Basic rules of delegation:

1) selection of suitable employees;

2) distribution of the sphere of responsibility;

3) delegation of the work task in full.

This increases the responsibility for its implementation, creates additional incentives to take the initiative and facilitates monitoring of results; ensuring a balance of power and responsibility; coordinating the implementation of assigned tasks.

Stimulating, instructing and advising subordinates. They must have the necessary information to understand their task and the expected results in time to receive answers to emerging questions. Required: control of the work process and its results; suppression of reverse or successive delegation attempts; appraisal and reward.

For subordinates, delegation also implies specific responsibilities: independently carry out delegated activities and make decisions under their own responsibility; inform the manager in a timely and detailed manner, inform him of all unusual cases; coordinate their activities with colleagues and take care of the exchange of information; improve qualifications in order to meet the requirements.

First of all, the following are to be delegated: routine work, specialized activities, private issues and preparatory work.

Such managerial functions as setting goals, formulating a strategy, monitoring the performance of subordinates, managing employees and motivating them, tasks of special importance, tasks of a high degree of risk, unusual, exceptional cases, urgent matters that leave no time for explanation and rechecking are not subject to delegation.

There are reasons why leaders may be reluctant to delegate authority and subordinates may shy away from additional responsibility. The first ones include:

1) the manager's confidence that he will do the job better and faster than his employees, and thereby save time;

2) lack of ability to lead, ignorance of the problems, ignorance of what can and should be delegated to employees and how to do it;

3) Lack of trust in subordinates and unwillingness to take risks;

4) Fear that subordinates will do a better job than the leader (competition from subordinates);

5) Excessive workload (visitors, phones, meetings, etc.), which does not leave time to explain delegated tasks and monitor their implementation. Subordinates avoid delegation for the following reasons:

1) lack of knowledge and skills, lack of confidence in their abilities, which are expressed in fear of responsibility;

2) fear of criticism for mistakes;

3) Lack of necessary authority to solve the problem (lack of information, resources, power);

4) The subordinate is not offered any incentives to take on additional responsibility;

5) A lot of workload or a subordinate thinks so.

Delegation is the main method of decentralizing management in an organization. Decentralization brings a number of benefits.

1. Decisions are made at the right level, i.e. where problems arise.

2. Increasing flexibility, adaptability of the organization.

3. Additional motivation is created for employees of lower levels of the hierarchy.

4. Promotes the disclosure of initiative, independence, abilities of subordinates.

5. Professional knowledge and experience of employees are better used, their competence is growing.

6. There is a self-unloading of the leader to perform important tasks of group A.

LECTURE No. 15. Human resource management

1. Changing the place of human resource management in the organization

Human resource management is a specific management function. Recently, this function has become increasingly important, since the effectiveness of an organization, its competitive advantages depend on the efficiency of using its main resource - a person. In this regard, the requirements for the employee are increasing, the importance of a creative attitude to work, a high level of professionalism is increasing. The function of human resource management is becoming more complicated, the role and place of the head of the organization's personnel service is changing. He becomes one of its main leaders.

The content of the HR management function changed along with the change in production conditions and management goals. So, at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. and up to the 20s of the XX centuries. actions in the field of HR management were limited to the creation of disciplinary systems, training and stimulation of personnel, since the main concern of management during this period was the task of increasing the productivity of an individual worker and the efficiency of production as a whole.

In the 50-60s of the XX century. the main concern of management is the creation of "human relations" in the organization, therefore, the main actions in the field of HR management are the creation of a favorable climate in the team, the establishment of group cooperation, and for this, managers are trained in terms of educating sensitivity, delicacy, tact.

In the 60-70s. the problem of "participation" comes to the fore. Therefore, special attention is paid to participatory management, tools for involving employees in the decision-making process. The problem of "participation" required highly skilled workers, which led to the development of programs for training, retraining and development of personnel.

In the 70-80s. the main task of HR management is to challenge subordinates who need complex creative work. During this period, programs for the enrichment of labor, the creation of specialized and venture teams are being developed.

In the 80-90s. there is a problem of job cuts, displacement of workers as a result of economic downturns, technological shifts, international competition. Measures were needed to mitigate the stress associated with the loss of a job: various compensations, special seminars for laid-off workers, "early retirement", as well as the development of retraining programs, orientation of workers in new areas of the economy.

In 1990-2000 the main problem is changes in the labor force and its shortages. Management functions such as the strategic management of the HR, the implementation of the rights of employees, their development, flexible working schedules and benefits, as well as computerization are coming to the fore.

In Russia, the function of personnel management throughout the history of the socialist state was performed by the employment authorities and the personnel services of enterprises. They were engaged in solving a single state task - providing the branches of the national economy with the necessary personnel, as well as realizing the right of citizens to work. The activities of the personnel services of many organizations to this day are mainly limited to solving the issues of hiring and dismissing employees, and issuing personnel documentation. Therefore, these services do not meet the new requirements of personnel policy, the new functions of HR management. There is no unified HR management system, primarily a system of scientifically based study of abilities and inclinations, professional and job promotion of employees in accordance with their business and personal qualities.

The urgent task of most enterprises is the restructuring and enhancement of the role of personnel services, the creation of departments for the management of the HR, which is caused by a change in the economic and social conditions for the functioning of enterprises.

2. Goals and functions of HR management

Human resource management is the design of the formal systems of an organization that ensure that human knowledge, skills, and talents are used effectively to achieve organizational goals. Human resources

represent the totality of knowledge, experience, skills, abilities, contacts and wisdom of people working in an organization.

The ultimate goal of HR management coincides with the ultimate goal of the organization as a whole. This is to ensure the stable functioning and sustainable development of the organization in the long term. The immediate goal of HR management is to provide the enterprise with the necessary personnel, to create a cohesive, efficient team capable of achieving the planned goals.

3. Strategic and operational roles of HR management

HR management has two roles in the organization: strategic and operational. Strategic role - global, long-term, innovative. It proceeds from the fact that people become the key resource of the organization, and it is with this resource that the competitive advantages of the organization are associated, if it is properly managed. This role is realized through activities such as HR planning; development of legal problems related to the management of people; study of labor force trends; solving mergers and acquisitions problems; promoting restructuring and downsizing of enterprises; reward management. Strategic HR management provides the organization with a strategy for the planned development of human resources, which makes it possible to have trained personnel in accordance with the needs of the organization.

The operational role is more in line with the traditional view of HR management. This is an administrative, short-term role associated with a variety of ongoing people management activities and aimed at implementing the developed strategies. This role is realized through the following activities: recruitment and selection of personnel to fill existing vacancies; implementation of professional and social orientation and adaptation; consideration of reports on safety in case of accidents; managing fringe benefits programs; creation of favorable labor relations in the team between staff and management; handling complaints; evaluation of labor activity.

4. Stages of HR management

Let us note the stages of CR management.

1. HR planning - developing a plan to meet future human resource needs.

2. Recruitment - creation of a reserve of potential candidates for all positions.

3. Selection - evaluation of candidates for jobs and selection of the best from the reserve created during the recruitment.

4. Determination of wages and additional benefits in order to attract, hire, motivate and retain the necessary workers.

5. Professional orientation and social adaptation - the introduction of hired workers into the organization, developing their understanding of what the organization expects from them and what kind of work it receives recognition.

6. Training - the development and implementation of training programs for the work skills necessary for the effective performance of work.

7. Evaluation of labor activity - development of methods for evaluating activities and bringing them to the employee.

8. Promotion, demotion, transfer, dismissal - the development of methods for moving employees to positions with greater or lesser responsibility, the development of their professional experience through rotation.

9. Training of management personnel, career management - development of programs aimed at developing the abilities and improving the efficiency of the work of managers.

5. Attracting an efficient workforce. HR planning, sources, methods and criteria for recruitment and selection of personnel

HR planning includes three stages:

1) determination of the future needs of the enterprise in the labor force arising from production plans, sales forecasts, the general strategy of the enterprise;

2) assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the available labor resources, analysis of their compliance with the changing needs of the enterprise;

3) development of programs to meet the future needs of the enterprise in the Czech Republic.

They should include a schedule and arrangements for attracting, hiring, training and promoting the people necessary to achieve the goals of the organization.

A feature of HR planning in Russia is the change in the external environment of enterprises and their goals. Enterprises must operate in conditions of instability, competition and risk. And this places special demands on the staff. Entrepreneurial skills that allow you to survive in such conditions, the ability to take risks, create a new product, service, offer a new idea, take the initiative, be creative, and marketing skills become valuable.

Recruitment and selection of personnel is aimed at finding the right person for a specific job. The modern selection process is seen as a process of ensuring fit between the candidate and the organization and between the candidate and the job. The requirements and values ​​of the organization and the candidate must match. To do this, it is necessary to have an accurate idea of ​​the content and nature of the work, the qualifications and qualities of the applicant, which are required for its implementation. Information is collected in the following areas:

1) labor actions for the performance of this work and the required behavior;

2) interaction with other people;

3) performance standards;

4) used machines and equipment;

5) working conditions;

6) leadership, authority and responsibility received;

7) necessary knowledge, skills and abilities;

8) the minimum requirements that the applicant must meet, since not in all cases it is possible to select the ideal candidate.

Based on this information, a search is made for a person who will meet these criteria. Such a search includes a set of potential candidates for existing vacancies in the organization and the selection of the most suitable of them.

Traditionally, recruitment comes from internal and external sources. You need to know their pros and cons. Internal sources - promotion of their employees, organization of competitions among interested candidates, from which the best is selected - are cheap, stimulate other employees, improve the moral and psychological climate in the team. But new people do not come to the enterprise, with different experience, a fresh look, new knowledge. And this can lead to a loss of flexibility and mobility of the enterprise, its aging. In addition, internal hiring requires costly training and development programs and has fewer choices. Therefore, human resources departments must establish contacts with various external organizations from which workforce may come.

Russian enterprises need new generation specialists: economists, managers, marketers, psychologists, etc., who are able to work in a new economic environment. Therefore, enterprises should primarily use such external sources of recruitment as colleges, universities, institutes for advanced training. Contracts with educational institutions should become the main form of attracting the necessary specialists and skilled workers.

Other sources and means of recruitment are public employment and retraining services, youth employment centers, private employment agencies. A good source of recruitment can be customers and suppliers of the enterprise. The candidates proposed by them can contribute to the creation of cooperation, business relations with counterparties of the enterprise.

A common source of recruitment is random applicants applying for jobs on their own. They should be entered into a card index or database of external candidates. This is a reserve that cannot be neglected.

And finally, advertisements that can complement the listed sources of recruitment or be the main sources. They should be perceived as a "public relations" event. A well-designed ad can enhance a firm's reputation and vice versa.

The advantages of external sources of recruitment include wide opportunities for choice, new impulses for the enterprise: people from outside bring new knowledge, experience, ideas, perspectives. The disadvantages include high recruitment costs, blocking promotion opportunities for "veterans", increased risk when hiring a new employee, worsening moral climate among long-term employees, etc.

Methods for selecting suitable candidates can be questionnaires, interviews, tests, assessment centers, references and resumes. These methods can be combined, especially if the candidate is selected for senior positions.

The most common are questionnaires, interviews and testing. They allow you to collect detailed information about the candidate, decide how well he will fit into the existing team, and provide him with detailed information about the upcoming work.

The content of questions for questionnaires or filling out a personal sheet on personnel records should contain the following information:

1) individual information (name, address, age, marital status, living conditions);

2) education;

3) career (previous jobs, salary level);

4) state of health;

5) interests and hobbies in free time;

6) information about why the candidate wants to get this particular job;

7) names of guarantors.

The interview requires careful preparation and skills to conduct it. The accuracy of the interview is increased by a pre-compiled structured list of questions. Its points may repeat the questions of the questionnaire, but here a personal impression of communication is added. It is important to get an idea about health, demeanor, personal qualities, intelligence, ability to speak, interests, leadership ability, sense of responsibility, sociability, the impact of work on personal life, etc.

The most famous system of questions for the interview is the "Seven Point Plan", developed by the National Institute of Industrial Psychology (Great Britain).

1. Physical characteristics (health, appearance, manners).

2. Education and previous work experience (detailed).

3. Intelligence (general outlook, ability to grasp the essence of the problem, reaction).

4. Ability for physical labor, oral speech, counting.

5. Interests, hobbies that may characterize the personality of the candidate.

6. Disposition - leadership, sense of responsibility, sociability.

7. Personal circumstances (how work will affect personal life).

In addition to the activities of the employer, the activity of the employee in finding and applying for a job is becoming increasingly important. If we summarize the advice contained in the modern Russian literature on personnel selection, we can formulate them as follows:[7]

1) you should always look for a job (no matter how good the current job is, it can be lost tomorrow due to circumstances completely beyond your control);

2) you have to fight to get a job;

3) be prepared to change activities so that you can cope with the new job and get satisfaction from it;

4) if you have determined for yourself what kind of work you are looking for, explain it to everyone around. The more "eyes and ears" helping you, the better;

5) look for work intensively, remember that any meeting can have the most decisive (and sometimes completely unexpected) impact on getting a job;

6) personal communication is preferable to written;

7) in case of refusal, show gentle persistence, reminding yourself after a while and asking if the situation with the job has changed for the better.

Tests are one of the most reliable methods for selecting suitable people for a particular position. The main characteristic of tests is the independent performance by the candidate of certain tasks with their subsequent evaluation. When selecting personnel, six main types of tests can be used: physical, qualification, personality assessment, verification of mental abilities (intelligence test), achievement test and work task.

Determination of wages and additional benefits. The remuneration of personnel consists of two parts - wages (salary), i.e., monetary remuneration for the work performed, and additional benefits - non-monetary forms of employee remuneration. There are a large number of such benefits, the main of which are: health insurance, life insurance, paid vacations, additional pensions, housing, a personal car, payment for children's institutions, physical rehabilitation programs.

Market conditions require flexible systems of remuneration for work and new principles of the very approach to solving the problem, how and for what people's work should be paid. And first of all, the results of labor should be paid: the work performed, productivity, efficiency, quality. Innovation, skill, initiative, combination of professions, labor activity, group cooperation to achieve the goals of the enterprise should be encouraged.

The fixed part of wages should be sufficient to attract and retain qualified workers in the enterprise. The variable part should take into account and stimulate an increase in labor productivity, labor results, efficiency at the level of the group and the enterprise as a whole.

6. Formation of an effective workforce. Staff training and development. Career Management

An important stage in the management of HR is the development of personnel, which includes professional orientation and adaptation in the team, as well as training and retraining of personnel.

When a new person enters an organization, he brings with him a different experience, knowledge, norms of social interaction that may or may not fit into the new framework. Therefore, it is necessary to adapt it to the new corporate culture, its values, traditions, rules of conduct. A number of methods are used for this.

1. Self-hiring, when the organization, during the recruitment of applicants, provides complete and truthful information about itself so that people's expectations are not overstated. With this information, people decide whether the organization is in line with their needs, goals, and values.

2. Training in special labor skills, social norms and company values.

3. Mentoring, when a newcomer is assigned to an experienced employee who introduces him to the specifics of the work, professional requirements for employees and social norms.

In addition to orientation and adaptation, continuous training of personnel is necessary. It is an important method for managing the activities and performance of employees throughout their careers. The problem is to find a mechanism for the continuous improvement of the skills of all those employed in the process of transition from one set of required knowledge and skills to another.

The learning process can be defined as the systematic acquisition of knowledge, skills, roles, which are embodied in the improvement of the performance of labor functions and job responsibilities in the workplace. The ultimate goal of training is to provide an organization with a sufficient number of people with the skills, abilities and knowledge necessary to achieve the goals of the organization. This requires continued capital investment in the human resource development program.

7. Maintaining high workforce efficiency. Determination of the personnel remuneration system. Dismissal

The next stage of HR management is the assessment of the activities of employees and their results. Performance appraisal is the process of determining how well employees perform their duties in accordance with established standards, job descriptions, and communicating this information to employees. There are many purposes of performance appraisal:

1) improving the performance of duties;

2) determination of the basis for the differentiation of wages;

3) stimulation of individuals and groups in general;

4) collection of information for making decisions on promotion, downgrading, transfer, dismissal;

5) informing about the need for retraining and education;

6) formation of new standards, criteria and goals for the performance of work.

These goals can be grouped into three groups:

1) administrative purposes;

2) information;

3) motivational.

The training of leadership personnel is aimed at developing the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for leadership positions. Management training methods are: lectures, discussions in small groups, analysis of specific business situations, role-playing training, job rotation, business games. For leadership development, many companies develop career management programs that aim to unlock the talents of employees and use them to the benefit of the organization.

HR management in developed countries involves the creation of programs to improve the quality of working life. The quality of working life is understood as the degree to which a person's important personal needs are met through his work in an organization.

The concept of "high quality of working life" includes such components as:

1) interesting, meaningful work;

2) fair remuneration and recognition of merit;

3) good working conditions (cleanliness in the workplace, low noise level, good lighting);

4) minimal oversight by management;

5) participation in decision-making concerning the work of subordinates;

6) ensuring the guarantee of work, employment;

7) favorable climate in the team, friendly relations with colleagues;

8) availability of household and medical services for employees.

LECTURE No. 16. The nature of control in the organization

1. The concept of control, its goals and areas

Control is a feedback function in the control process.

Control is the observation and regulation of the processes and activities of people in an organization in order to achieve planned goals. It is the process of ensuring that an organization achieves its goals.

The purpose of monitoring is to provide managers with information to evaluate the performance of the organization's planned performance indicators and compliance with the developed plans in a certain period of time.

Control helps the organization to adapt to changing conditions, reduces cumulative errors.

Control in an organization can be focused on several areas of its functioning.

There are two criteria for defining these areas: resource and level.

Management, and therefore control, includes the distribution and combination of the following main resources of the organization: material, human, financial and information.

The control of material resources includes the control of stocks of raw materials, materials, work in progress and finished products in the warehouse of the organization and in trade. These stocks should not be excessive in order to minimize losses from rising costs of storage, insurance, damage and theft, as well as from deadening some of the firm's capital that could be placed in profitable securities.

However, stocks must be sufficient to ensure the continuity of production and sale of products.

In addition, the control of material resources includes control of product quality and equipment specifications.

The control of human resources includes the assessment and control of the quality of selection, distribution of employees in the organization, their training and development, evaluation of activities and its results, levels of remuneration of personnel and its fairness.

Control of information resources includes marketing and sales forecasts, production plans, analysis of the external environment, economic forecasts and public relations.

Financial resources are in the center of the figure, since all listed resources have a cost estimate, and therefore financial resources are interconnected with their control. Financial resources are the funds of an organization that are formed during its formation and are replenished as a result of production and economic activities through the sale of goods and services, retired property, as well as by attracting external sources of financing. They ensure the movement and use of all other resources in the organization.

Financial resources should be sufficient to ensure the current functioning and sustainable development of the organization in the long term.

The level approach to the classification of control distinguishes three types of control: production, organizational and strategic.

Production (operational) control focuses on one or more production systems in an organization. Quality control is one of the types of production control.

Organizational control is related to the functioning of the organization as a whole. It regulates its activities in accordance with the goals, plans and normative indicators.

Strategic control monitors the process of adaptation of the organization to the external environment, maintains a balance in the "organization-environment" system and contributes to the achievement of the mission and strategic goals of the organization. It focuses on the four elements of strategy implementation presented in Topic 6.

2. Stages of the control process

Regardless of the types and number of control systems an organization needs, there are four main steps in any control process.

The first step in the control process is the setting of standards.

A standard is a standard, a norm, a requirement, a control figure, with which the results of the activities of people and the organization as a whole are compared. They should be developed based on the goals and objectives of the organization. In a broader sense, standards reflect organizational strategy.

The second stage in the control process is the measurement of the actual results of the activity of the controlled object. At this stage, it is necessary to define qualitative and quantitative methods of measurement. This problem is complex, since the results of some activities, such as management, cannot be directly measured.

The third stage is a comparison of the actual results and the standards developed in the first stage.

The results achieved may exceed, fall below or meet the developed standards.

Before taking corrective action, it is necessary to decide what deviation from the standards is acceptable and what needs to be eliminated.

The final stage in the control process is the evaluation of the results and the implementation of corrective actions. This step is guided by the comparison made in the previous step. After the assessment, there are three options for action.

1. Maintenance of the status quo, when the achieved indicators correspond to the standards or the deviation from them is acceptable.

2. Correction of deviation of actual results from the standard.

3. Changing standards, which may be either too high or too low.

3. Forms of operational control

Forms of operational control are preliminary, current and final control.

Preliminary control monitors the quality and quantity of resources entering the organization before they become part of the production system.

Current control is carried out during the process of converting the resources that the organization has as inputs into the products that it has as outputs.

The final control is focused on the outputs of the organization, here the results of the organization's activities after the completion of the production process are checked. The final control is generally not as effective as the first two forms of control, as it is carried out after the final result is obtained. However, it provides managers with important information for future planning and creates a basis for rewarding employees.

4. Forms of organizational control

Forms of organizational control - bureaucratic and clan (decentralized). Most organizations combine the characteristics of both forms of control.

Bureaucratic control is characterized by formal, rigid, mechanical structural elements. These include prescribed rules, hierarchy of authority, written documentation, instructions, bonus systems and other formal mechanisms for influencing the behavior of employees of the organization and evaluating the results achieved.

Clan control is based on informal, organic structural elements. These are social values, traditions, norms and trust that contribute to the formation of commitment to organizational goals. Employees enjoy the trust of managers who are confident that the members of the organization consciously want to fulfill the duties assigned to them.

It is assumed that minimum guidelines and standards are sufficient to complete work assignments, and employees can participate in setting performance targets and designing the control system.

Notes

1. Kono T. Strategy and structure of Japanese enterprises. M., 1987. S. 329-330.
2. Black S. Public Relations. What it is? M., 1990. S. 28.
3. Petrov L. V. Mass communication and art. M., 1994. S. 34-35.
4. Thorndike EL Animal Intelligence. NY, 1911. P. 244.
5. Dahl R. The Concept of Power. behavioral science. July 1957 P. 203-204.
6. Filley AC Some Regulatory Issues in Conflict Management // California Management Review. 1978 Vol. 21. P. 61-66.
7. See: Management of a modern company / Ed. B. Milner and F. Liis. M., 2001. S. 448.

Author: Dorofeeva L.I.

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