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Table of contents

1. Psychology as a science (Subject of psychology. Branches of psychology. Research methods. Formation of psychology as a science)
2. Mental processes (Activity. Feeling. Perception. Attention. Memory. Thinking. Speech. Imagination)
3. Personality properties (Temperament. Abilities. Character. Will. Emotions and feelings)
4. Psychology of age differences (Mental development of a child of infancy. unconditioned reflexes of atavistic reflexes. Features of the psyche and behavior at an early age. Psychology of a preschooler. Psychological characteristics of a younger student. Psychological characteristics of adolescence and youth)
5. Man and society (Human consciousness. Small group and team. Communication. Personality in a group)

LECTURE No. 1. Psychology as a science

1. The subject of psychology. Branches of psychology. Research methods

1. Definition of psychology as a science.

2. The main branches of psychology.

3. Research methods in psychology.

1. Psychology is a science that occupies a dual position among other scientific disciplines. As a system of scientific knowledge, it is known only to a narrow circle of specialists, but at the same time, almost every person who has sensations, speech, emotions, images of memory, thinking and imagination, etc., knows about it.

The origins of psychological theories can be found in proverbs, sayings, fairy tales of the world and even ditties. For example, they say about a person "There are devils in still waters" (a warning to those who are inclined to judge a character by appearance). In all peoples one can find similar worldly psychological descriptions and observations. The same proverb among the French sounds like this: "Do not dip your hand or even a finger into a quiet stream."

Psychology - a kind of science. Man's acquisition of knowledge has been going on since ancient times. However, for a long time, psychology developed within the framework of philosophy, reaching a high level in the writings of Aristotle (the treatise "On the Soul"), so many consider him the founder of psychology. Despite such an ancient history, psychology as an independent experimental science was formed relatively recently, only from the middle of the XNUMXth century.

The term "psychology" first appeared in the scientific world in the XNUMXth century. The word "psychology" comes from the Greek words: "syhe" - "soul" and "logos" - "science". Thus, literally psychology is the science of the soul.

Already later, in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, psychology significantly expanded the scope of its research and began to study human activity, unconscious processes, while retaining its former name. Let us consider in more detail what is the subject of study of modern psychology.

The psyche includes many phenomena. With the help of some, knowledge of the surrounding reality occurs - this is cognitive processeswhich consist of sensation and perception, attention and memory, thinking, imagination and speech. Other mental phenomena are necessary in order to control the actions and actions of a person, to regulate the process of communication - this is mental states (a special characteristic of mental activity for a certain period of time) and mental properties (the most stable and significant mental qualities of a person, his features).

The above division is rather conditional, since a transition from one category to another is possible. For example, if any process proceeds for a long time, then it already passes into the state of the organism. Such processes-states can be attention, perception, imagination, activity, passivity, etc.

So, psychology is a science that studies mental phenomena.

2. Modern psychology - this is a fairly branched complex of sciences, which continues to develop at a very fast pace (every 4-5 years a new direction appears).

Nevertheless, it is possible to single out the fundamental branches of psychological science and special ones.

Fundamental The (basic) branches of psychological science are equally important for the analysis of the psychology and behavior of all people.

Such universality allows them sometimes to be combined under the name "general psychology".

Special (applied) branches of psychological knowledge study any narrow groups of phenomena, that is, the psychology and behavior of people employed in any narrow branch of activity.

Let us turn to the classification presented by R. S. Nemov (1995).

General psychology

1. Psychology of cognitive processes and states.

2. Psychology of personality.

3. Psychology of individual differences.

4. Age psychology.

5. Social psychology.

6. Zoopsychology.

7. Psychophysiology.

Some Special Branches of Psychological Research

1. Pedagogical psychology.

2. Medical psychology.

3. Military psychology.

4. Legal psychology.

5. Space psychology.

6. Engineering psychology.

7. Economic psychology.

8. Psychology of management.

Thus, psychology is an extensive network of sciences that continues to develop actively.

3. Scientific research methods - these are techniques and means for scientists to obtain reliable information, which are then used to build scientific theories and develop recommendations for practical activities.

In order for the information received to be reliable, it is necessary to comply with the requirements of validity and reliability.

Validity - this is such a quality of the method, which indicates its compliance with what it was originally created to study.

Reliability - evidence that repeated application of the method will produce comparable results.

There are various classifications of methods of psychology. Consider one of them, according to which the methods are divided into main and auxiliary.

Basic methods: observation and experiment; auxiliary - surveys, analysis of the process and products of activity, tests, twin method.

Observation - this is a method by which the individual characteristics of the psyche are known through the study of human behavior. It can be external and internal (self-observation).

Features of external observation

1. Planned and systematic conduct.

2. Focused.

3. Duration of observation.

4. Fixing data with the help of technical means, coding, etc.

Types of external surveillance

1. Structured (there is a detailed step-by-step monitoring program) - unstructured (there is only a simple enumeration of the data to be observed).

2. Continuous (all reactions of the observed are recorded) - selective (only individual reactions are recorded).

3. Included (the researcher acts as a member of the group in which the observation is carried out) - not included (the researcher acts as an outside observer).

Experiment - a method of scientific research, during which an artificial situation is created, where the studied property is manifested and evaluated in the best way.

Types of experiment

1. Laboratory - is carried out in specially equipped rooms, often using special equipment.

It is distinguished by the rigor and accuracy of data recording, which makes it possible to obtain interesting scientific material.

Difficulties of laboratory experiment:

1) the unusual nature of the situation, due to which the reactions of the subjects may be distorted;

2) the figure of the experimenter is capable of causing either a desire to please, or, conversely, to do something out of spite: both of them distort the results;

3) not all phenomena of the psyche can yet be modeled under experimental conditions.

2. natural experiment - an artificial situation is created in natural conditions. First proposed A. F. Lazursky. For example, you can study the features of the memory of preschoolers by playing with children in the store, where they have to "make purchases" and thereby reproduce a given series of words.

Polls - auxiliary research methods containing questions. Questions must meet the following requirements.

Before the survey, it is necessary to conduct a brief briefing with the subjects, to create a friendly atmosphere; if you can get information from other sources, then you should not ask about it.

The following survey methods are distinguished: conversation, questioning, interviews, sociometry.

Conversation - a survey method in which both the researcher and the subject are in equal positions.

It can be used at various stages of the study.

Questionnaires - a method through which you can quickly get a large amount of data recorded in writing.

Types of questionnaires:

1) individual - collective;

2) face-to-face (there is a personal contact between the researcher and the respondent) - by correspondence;

3) open (the respondents themselves formulate answers) - closed (a list of ready-made answers is presented, from which it is necessary to choose the most appropriate for the respondent).

The Interview - a method carried out in the process of direct communication, answers are given orally.

Types of interview:

1) standardized - all questions are formulated in advance;

2) non-standardized - questions are formulated during the interview;

3) semi-standardized - some of the questions are formulated in advance, and some arise during the interview.

When compiling questions, remember that the first questions should be supplemented by subsequent ones.

Along with direct questions it is necessary to use indirect ones.

Sociometry - a method by which social relations in groups are studied. Allows you to determine the position of a person in a group, involves the choice of a partner in joint activities.

Analysis of the process and products of activity - the products of human activity are studied, on the basis of which conclusions are drawn about the mental characteristics of a person.

Drawings, crafts, essays, poems, etc. can be studied.

twin method used in developmental genetic psychology.

The essence of the method is to compare the mental development of identical twins, brought up by force of circumstances in different living conditions.

Tests - a standardized psychological technique, the purpose of which is to quantify the studied psychological quality.

Test classification

1. Test questionnaire - test task.

2. Analytical (they study one mental phenomenon, for example, the arbitrariness of attention) - synthetic (they study the totality of mental phenomena, for example, the Cattell test allows you to draw a conclusion about 16 personality traits).

3. Depending on the content, tests are divided into:

1) intellectual (they study the features of intelligence, the so-called IQ);

2) aptitude tests (examine the level of professional suitability);

3) personality tests (verbal; projective, when a person's qualities are judged by how he perceives and evaluates the situation offered to him).

So, the methods of psychology are diverse and their choice is determined by the objectives of the study, the characteristics of the subject and the situation.

2. The formation of psychology as a science

1. The development of psychology from ancient times to the middle of the XNUMXth century.

2. Formation of psychology as an independent science.

3. Modern psychological concepts.

1. Interest in problems that belong to the category of psychological arose in man in ancient times.

The philosophers of ancient Greece in their treatises tried to penetrate the secrets of being and the inner world of man.

Philosophers of antiquity explained the psyche in terms of the four elements on which, in their opinion, the world was based: earth, water, fire and air.

The soul, like everything in this world, consisted of these principles.

The ancients believed that the soul is where there is heat and movement, that is, all nature is endowed with a soul.

Subsequently, the doctrine that inspires the whole world was called "animism" (from the Latin "anima" - "spirit", "soul").

Animism was replaced by a new philosophical doctrine - atomistic.

A prominent representative of this direction was Aristotle. He believed that world - this is a collection of the smallest indivisible particles - atoms, which differ from each other in different mobility and size, and the material carriers of the soul are the smallest and most mobile.

Based on this mobility of atoms, Aristotle explained the mechanisms, laws of functioning of many mental phenomena: thinking, memory, perception, dreams, etc.

Aristotle's treatise "On the Soul" is considered by many scientists as the first major scientific study in psychology.

According to Aristotle, a person has three souls: plant, animal and rational.

The mind depends on the size of the brain, emotions - on the heart.

The representative of materialistic views was Democritus. He believed that everything in the world consists of their atoms.

Atoms exist in time and space, in which everything moves along a given trajectory. In boundless space, according to certain laws, indivisible and impenetrable particles move; the soul is formed by light, spherical particles of fire.

The soul represents the fiery principle in the body, while death occurs as a result of the disintegration of the atoms of the soul and body. Both body and soul are mortal.

The merit of Democritus is that he laid the foundation for the development of a theory of knowledge, especially visual sensations. He developed recommendations for memorization, dividing the methods of storing material into material and mental.

Not to mention the views Plato.

According to his views, man is a prisoner in a cave, and reality is his shadow.

Man has two souls: mortal and immortal.

The mortal solves specific problems, and the immortal, whose life continues after death, is the very core of the psychic, the highest form endowed with reason.

Only the immortal soul gives true knowledge obtained as a result of insight.

There are eternal ideas, and the world is a weak reflection of ideas. In the process of life, the soul remembers those immortal ideas that it encountered before entering the body.

Plato's views concerning the functioning of human memory are interesting.

Memory This is a wax board. People have different memories and it depends on the quality of the wax.

We keep memories as long as they are preserved on a wax plate.

The doctrine of the soul in the early Middle Ages became part of the theological worldview and completely relegated to religion, which continued until the XNUMXth century. in an era.

The revival of all sciences and art began to develop again actively.

Natural sciences, medical, biological sciences, various types of art, one way or another, affected the doctrine of the soul.

French, English and other European philosophers of that time, based on a mechanistic picture of the world, began to interpret many manifestations of the psyche from the standpoint of biomechanics, a reflex, while the appeal to the internal manifestations of the psyche, to the soul, remained outside their consideration.

However, internal phenomena really existed and required an explanation of their role in human life. As a result, a new philosophical direction began to form - dualism, which claimed that there are two independent principles in a person: matter and spirit.

The science of that time could not explain the interconnection and interdependence of these two principles, therefore it abandoned the study of behavior and focused on the subjective experience of a person (XVII-XVIII centuries).

These positions were taken R. Descartes и J. Locke.

The psyche was considered only as a manifestation of consciousness, the world of matter was excluded from the subject of psychology.

The method of self-observation (introspection) was recognized as the main research method, and natural scientific methods were considered unacceptable for studying the phenomena of the soul.

Simultaneously with such views, an atomistic understanding of the structure of the world also developed. Simple manifestations of the psyche began to be regarded as atoms.

This atomistic psychology developed over two centuries, until the end of the XNUMXth century.

Thus, from ancient times to the middle of the XIX century. psychology developed within the framework of other sciences, more often philosophy, medicine, and biology.

2. In the middle of the XNUMXth century, profound changes took place in the scientific worldview.

This also applied to the relationship between the soul and the body, material and mental manifestations.

The successes of medicine, in particular psychiatry, undoubtedly proved that there is a close connection between brain disorders and mental disorders, which refutes the postulate of dualism about their separate existence.

There was a need to take a fresh look at the role of mental phenomena in human life and behavior.

The mechanistic understanding was good at explaining monotonous movements, but became untenable in understanding rational behavior.

The provisions of atomistic psychology also did not fit into the new scientific facts and required revision.

Thus, in the second half of the XIX century. Psychological science was on the verge of a crisis, for the following reasons:

1) the understanding of mental phenomena has become impossible from the standpoint of exact natural knowledge;

2) the relationship between mental and bodily defies reasonable explanation;

3) psychologists were unable to explain the complex forms of human behavior that go beyond reflexes.

The resulting crisis led to the collapse of dualism and introspection as the only reliable source of psychological knowledge. In search of overcoming the crisis, three areas of psychological teaching arose: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology and psychoanalysis (Freudianism).

Consider them in more detail.

Behaviorism. Its founder is an American scientist D. Watson, who proposed to consider behavior as a subject of psychology (from the English behavior), and to consider mental phenomena as unknowable using natural science methods.

To understand behavior, it is quite sufficient to describe the behavior itself, to find out and describe the external and internal forces acting on the organism, to study the laws according to which the interaction of stimuli and behavior occurs.

Behaviorists believed that the difference between animal behavior and human behavior lies only in the complexity and variety of reactions.

Nevertheless, Watson could not but recognize the existence of purely human mental phenomena.

He interpreted mental states as functions that play an active role in the adaptation of the organism to the world, while admitting that he was unable to understand the significance of this role.

Scientists of this direction denied the possibility of studying consciousness.

As Watson wrote, the behaviorist "does not observe anything that he could call consciousness, feeling, sensation, imagination, will, insofar as he no longer considers that these terms indicate genuine phenomena of psychology."

However, already in the 30s. In the twentieth century, such extreme views of D. Watson were softened by neobehaviorists, primarily E. Tolman и K. Hull. So, E. Tolman led the concept of reasonableness and expediency of behavior.

Goal - this is the end result achieved as a result of the implementation of behavioral acts.

The most important psychological phenomena, according to Tolman, are the goal, expectation, hypothesis, cognitive picture of the world, the sign and its meaning.

K. Hull developed a behavior model based on reactions to various stimuli.

The body responds to stimuli in innate and learned ways that are linked to a system of "intermediate variables" that mediate this interaction.

Thus, behaviorism does not study human consciousness, believing that psychology should explain behavior by examining stimuli entering the body and outgoing behavioral responses.

From this thesis comes the theory of learning, which is based on the use of all kinds of punishments and reinforcements, if necessary, the formation of appropriate reactions, due to which the theory is still popular, primarily among American psychologists. (B. F. Skinner).

Gestalt psychology originated in Germany and spread throughout almost all of Europe, including Russia, especially in the prewar years.

This direction was influenced by such sciences as physics and mathematics.

Prominent representatives are K. Levin, M. Wertheimer, W. Koehler and more

The essence of this direction was formulated by M. Wertheimer, who wrote: "... there are connections in which what happens as a whole is not derived from elements that supposedly exist in the form of separate pieces that are then linked together, but, on the contrary, what appears in a separate parts of this whole is determined by the internal structural law of this whole.

That is, Gestalt psychology studies not phenomena, but the structure of connections, therefore it is sometimes called structural psychology (translated into Russian, the word "gestalt" means "structure").

K. Levin is known for his work in the field of personality and interpersonal relationships.

He believed that the behavior of a person can be understood only on the basis of the holistic situation in which this person finds himself.

The environment is determined by the subjective perception of the people acting in it.

The merit of Gestalt psychology is that it found modern approaches to the study of the problems of psychology, but the problems that caused the crisis were not fully resolved.

Psychoanalysis was developed by an Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist Z. Freud, hence it is sometimes called Freudianism.

Founding the scientific theoretical direction in psychology, Freud proceeded from the analysis of his rich psychotherapeutic practice, thereby, as it were, returning psychology to its original subject: penetration into the essence of the human soul.

The fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis are consciousness и unconscious.

It is the unconscious (the main of which is sexual desire - libido) that plays a significant role in the regulation of human activity and behavior.

Censorship on the part of consciousness suppresses unconscious desires, but they "erupt" in the form of slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, forgetting the unpleasant, dreams, neurotic manifestations.

Psychoanalysis has become widespread not only in Europe, but also in the United States, where it is popular to this day.

In the first years of Soviet power, this direction was also in demand in our country, but in the 30s. Against the general background of the restriction of psychological research (the resolution "On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education"), Freud's teaching was also subjected to repression.

Up until the 60s. psychoanalysis has been studied only from critical positions.

Only since the second half of the XNUMXth century has interest in psychoanalysis increased again, not only in Russia, but throughout the world.

So, none of the newly emerging psychological trends completely resolved the contradictions that led to the crisis of psychology as a science.

Let us consider some modern psychological concepts that have been actively developed since the second half of the XNUMXth century.

Cognitive psychology arose on the basis of the development of computer science and cybernetics.

Representatives of the cognitive school - J. Piaget, W. Neiser, J. Bruner, R. Atkinson and more

For a cognitivist, human cognitive processes are analogous to a computer.

The main thing is to understand how a person cognizes the world around him, and for this it is necessary to study the ways of forming knowledge, how cognitive processes arise and develop, what is the role of knowledge in human behavior, how this knowledge is organized in memory, how the intellect functions, how the word and image correlate in human memory and thinking.

As the basic concept of cognitive psychology, the concept of "scheme" is used, which is a plan for collecting and processing information, perceived by the senses and stored in the human head.

The main conclusion reached by representatives of this trend is that in many life situations a person makes decisions mediated by the peculiarities of thinking.

Neo-Freudianism emerged from Freud's psychoanalysis.

Its representatives are A. Adler, K. Jung, K. Horney, E. Fromm and more

The common thing in all these views is the recognition of the significance of the unconscious in people's lives and the desire to explain many human complexes by this.

So, A. Adler believed that a person is controlled by an inferiority complex, which he receives from the moment of birth, being a helpless creature.

In an effort to overcome this complex, a person acts reasonably, actively and expediently.

Goals are determined by the person himself, and on the basis of this, cognitive processes, personality traits, and worldview are formed.

The concept of C. Jung is also called analytical psychology.

He considered the human psyche through the prism of the macro-processes of culture, through the spiritual history of mankind.

There are two types of the unconscious: private и collective.

Private the unconscious is acquired in the course of the accumulation of life experience, collective - is inherited and contains the experience accumulated by mankind.

Jung described the collective unconscious as archetypes, which most often appear in myths and fairy tales, primitive forms of thinking, images that are passed down from generation to generation.

The personal unconscious is close to a person, it is a part of him; the collective is often perceived as something hostile, and therefore causing negative experiences, and sometimes neuroses.

Jung is credited with identifying such personality types as introverts and extroverts.

Introverts tend to find in themselves all the sources of vital energy and the causes of what is happening, and extroverts - in the external environment. In further studies, the isolation of these two types was confirmed experimentally and became widely used for diagnostic purposes.

According to the personality typology developed by Jung, the following types are distinguished:

1) thinking (intellectual) - creates formulas, schemes, prone to authority, authoritarianism; mostly inherent in men;

2) sensitive (sentimental, emotional) - responsiveness, the ability to empathize, a more feminine type prevails;

3) sensory - content with sensations, there are no deep experiences, it adapts well to the outside world;

4) intuitive - is in a creative search, new ideas come as a result of insight, but they are not always productive and require improvement.

Each of these types can be both intro- and extroverted. K. Jung also introduced the concept of individualization, which means the development of a person as an individual, different from the community. This is the ultimate goal of the educational process, but at the initial stages a person must learn the minimum of collective norms that are necessary for his existence.

Another prominent representative of neo-Freudianism is E. Fromm, who was the founder of humanistic psychoanalysis. E. Fromm believed that the psyche and human behavior are socially conditioned.

Pathology appears where the freedom of the individual is suppressed. These pathologies include: masochism, sadism, hermitism, conformism, a tendency to destruction.

Fromm divides all social arrangements into those that promote human freedom and those where human freedom is lost.

Genetic psychology. Its founder is a Swiss psychologist J. Piaget, who studied the mental development of the child, mainly his intellect, so he can partly be considered as a representative of cognitive psychology.

There are three periods in the process of cognitive development:

1) sensorimotor (from birth to about 1,5 years);

2) the stage of specific operations (from 1,5-2 to 11-13 years old);

3) the stage of formal operations (after 11-13 years).

The onset of these stages can be accelerated or slowed down depending on the nature of learning, on the influence of the environment.

Training will only be effective when it is started on time and takes into account the existing level.

J. Piaget wrote: “Whenever we prematurely teach a child something that he could discover for himself over time, we thereby deprive him of this, and therefore deprive him of a complete understanding of this subject.

This, of course, does not mean that teachers should not develop experimental situations that stimulate students' creativity."

The main determinants of cognitive development are maturation, experience, and social learning.

The modern structure of psychological knowledge is characterized by the following trends:

1) erasing the boundaries between previously existing independent areas in psychological science, for example, many modern scientists use in their theories the knowledge accumulated within various areas;

2) modern psychology is increasingly becoming a popular practice, and this leads to differentiation not in theoretical schools, but in areas of application of knowledge in practical fields of activity;

3) psychological knowledge is enriched at the expense of those sciences with which psychology actively cooperates, solving common problems.

So, the area of ​​theoretical and practical application of modern psychology is very wide, and psychology is an actively and dynamically developing science.

LECTURE No. 2. Mental processes

1. Activities

1. The psychological structure of human activity.

2. The main types of human activity.

3. Skills, skills, habits.

1. Human activity means the activity of a person, designed to satisfy the needs and interests by achieving a consciously set goal.

In the structure of activity, goals and motives are distinguished.

What a person strives for is the goal of activity, and why he does it is the motive of activity.

Activities are divided into separate elements, which are called actions.

Action types

1. External (can be observed from the side) - internal (hidden from view, performed in the internal plan).

As one or another activity is mastered, external actions can turn into internal ones.

This process is called internalization: for example, first a child learns to read aloud, and then to himself.

The reverse process, when any difficulties arise in the performance of an activity and internal actions pass into an external plan, is called exteriorization.

For example, when memorizing foreign words for their better assimilation, a person pronounces these words aloud.

2. Arbitrary (volitional) - involuntary (impulsive).

Involuntary actions are carried out under the influence of strong, often unexpected stimuli, strong feelings.

Arbitrary actions are thought out in advance and carried out with the help of volitional efforts.

Stages of activity

1. Goal setting.

This stage can be complicated if, in the process of setting a goal, a person must choose between several motives.

In this case, there is a struggle of motives: for example, go for a walk or prepare for an exam.

2. Work planning.

At this stage, the optimal operations and means that contribute to the achievement of the goal are selected.

Operation - a way of performing an activity, which is determined by the presence of certain skills and abilities in a person, as well as the conditions in which this activity is performed.

The set of the most frequently used operations makes up the individual style of human activity.

Means of performing activities - these are those objects that are designed to help in the performance of activities: for example, lecture notes.

3. Performing activities.

Here, the previously found optimal means and operations are used.

4. Control part - results are checked, errors are corrected, results are summed up, conclusions are drawn.

So, human activity consists of a series of successive actions, which in their development go through a series of successive stages.

Modern man performs a large number of various activities depending on his needs.

It is hardly possible to list and somehow classify all these types of activities, therefore, a more promising way is to single out such types that correspond to the needs common to all people.

Such activities are communication, play, teaching, work.

Communication - the type of activity that first arises in the course of ontogenetic development of a person.

Its main purpose is the exchange of information between people (see topic "Communication").

Game - an activity in the course of which a material or ideal product appears (with the exception of business and design games).

Sometimes the purpose of games is to relax, entertain people or relieve fatigue and tension.

Types of games:

1) depending on the number of participants, individual and group;

2) subject (objects are used during the game);

3) plot (the game is built according to a certain scenario);

4) role-playing (human behavior is built in accordance with the prescribed role);

5) games with rules (the actions of the players are limited by rules that cannot be violated).

In real life, mixed types of games are often found, for example, role-playing, role-playing, story games with rules.

Despite the fact that the relationships that develop between people during the game should not be taken seriously, the value of the game is very great: developing - for children, means of communication and relaxation - for adults.

Some games have the meaning of rituals, designed to play the role of training or sports activities.

Education is a means of psychological development of the individual, which as the main goal pursues the mastery of a person with certain knowledge, skills, abilities; can be organized (carried out in educational institutions specially designed for this), unorganized (goes in parallel with other activities).

An important type of learning is self-education, when a person acquires knowledge, skills and abilities on his own initiative and to the extent that he determines outside the framework of an educational institution.

Labor - activities in the course of which objects of spiritual and material culture are produced, tools of labor are improved, living conditions are improved, science, technology, production, and creativity are developed.

Thus, all of the listed activities are of a developmental nature, that is, when the child is included and actively participates in them, his intellectual and personal development occurs.

3. Skills - individual elements of activity that allow performing activities with a high level of quality.

Emboldening Salvo - this is an action, the individual operations of which, as a result of training, have become automatic and are carried out without the participation of consciousness.

A person, as a rule, has various skills in his arsenal, some of which can have both positive and negative effects on newly acquired skills: a positive effect is called transfer, a negative effect is called interference.

Most often, transfer occurs if there is something in common between new and old skills: for example, a person who knows how to drive a car will learn to drive a tractor faster, who speaks two foreign languages ​​will more easily master a third, etc.

If old and new skills have sharp differences, then interference is possible.

For example, having learned to play the piano on your own, then it is more difficult to relearn the correct setting of the fingers.

Habit - an irresistible desire of a person to perform certain actions.

For example, brushing your teeth, smoking, etc.

A habit should be distinguished from a simple habit, since there is a certain degree of awareness in its implementation, but, unlike a skill, a habit may not always be reasonable and useful.

Thus, skills, habits and habits are automated, consciously or unconsciously performed elements of activity.

2. Feeling

1. The concept of sensation.

2. Types of sensations.

3. Properties of sensations.

1. Getting acquainted with the outside world, a person distinguishes the color, shape, size of objects and objects, hears sounds, smells, tastes, etc., that is, actively interacts with them. This is what makes us feel.

Feel - these are the properties of the objects and phenomena of the surrounding world that are currently affecting the brain at the moment, reflected in the cerebral cortex.

Feel is the starting point of all human knowledge.

Without sensations, a person's mental activity drops to zero, which is confirmed in medical practice.

So, I. M. Sechenov talked about a patient who had preserved skin sensitivity on only one arm.

She slept all the time, it was possible to get her out of this state only by irritating this area of ​​​​the skin.

I. P. Pavlov talked about a patient who had only two eyes and an ear, if they were closed, the man immediately fell asleep.

The flow of sensations is extremely necessary for a person, as he spoke back in the XNUMXth century. I. M. Sechenov, otherwise there comes a kind of hunger for feelings, called sensory deprivation.

If a person has all the senses and the presence of external stimuli, the necessary amount of information is automatically received by the person.

Sensory deprivation occurs either in violation of the functioning of the analyzers, as shown above, or in certain life situations.

For example, an astronaut V. I. Lebedev in his book "Personality in Extreme Conditions" cites his memories and the memories of an astronaut A. Berezovoy, when, towards the end of the flight at the Salyut-7 orbital station, after unloading the cargo transport ship, they worked at the control panel.

Suddenly, right in front of them, they saw a mouse, which was at the far fan.

Pointy muzzle, long tail.

The astronauts froze in surprise. The "mouse" turned out to be a napkin that got on the fan grille and shrunk into a ball.

V. I. Lebedev also cites the statement of the researcher of Antarctica Mario Mare: "I would gladly forfeit my ... salary in order to look at the green grass, the meadow covered with flowers, on which the cows graze, at the birch or beech grove with yellowing leaves, through which streams of autumn rain flow."

But still, in real life, a person does not experience a lack, but rather an excess of sensations, so it is very important to observe at least the elementary rules of mental hygiene.

For example, do not turn on loud music in the apartment, do not shout under the neighbors' windows, etc.

Sensations are inherent not only to humans, they are the property of all life on Earth, and the sensations of animals are sometimes more subtle than those of humans.

For example, a snake's thermolocator detects a temperature difference of a thousandth of a degree, a dog is able to distinguish up to 500 smells, a jellyfish is able to pick up infrasound with a frequency of several hertz and sense its approach a few hours before the start of a storm.

Dolphin, using his ultrasonic radar, detects a pellet at a distance of tens of meters.

The water beetle perceives waves as small as hundred-thousandths of a millimeter, while the locust picks up mechanical vibrations with an amplitude commensurate with the diameter of a hydrogen atom.

Perhaps in the distant past, human senses were more subtle, and civilization has led to the loss of such sensitivity.

However, by the power of his intellect, man has created devices that serve more reliably than the sense organs, and therefore the sensations of man are richer than the sensations of animals.

So, Feel - this is a reflection of the properties of objects and phenomena that really exist in the surrounding world.

2. According to the classification accepted in psychology, sensations can be divided into three large groups:

1) sensations that reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, skin;

2) sensations that reflect the state of the body: organic, balance, motor;

3) sensations that are a combination of several sensations (tactile), as well as sensations of various origins (for example, pain).

Let us consider in detail each of the selected groups of sensations.

1. visual sensations.

The light-sensitive organ of the eye is the retina, which contains two types of cells - rods and cones. The rods are responsible for the perception of light and function during the day, and the cones are colors and work at dusk.

If a person's activity of rods is disturbed, then a disease called "night blindness" occurs, in which a person loses the ability to distinguish anything in twilight light.

If the activity of cones is disturbed, this leads to a violation of color perception and color blindness.

The influence of color on human life is very great.

For example, under red lighting, it seems to a person that time runs faster, while under green, on the contrary, it slows down.

An object of the same weight will appear heavier if it is colored red and lighter if it is green green.

It has been experimentally established that in a room whose walls are painted in blue-green shades, it will seem colder than where the walls are yellow-red.

Not only humans, but also animals react to colors.

It has been observed that flies dislike the color blue.

So, in one of the milk processing plants, the windows were painted blue to protect from sunlight, and the flies stopped landing on these windows, while the unpainted ones were still covered with a dense swarm.

Unlike flies, mosquitoes, on the contrary, love the blue color and more often attack people dressed in blue clothes.

Many cultural traditions are also associated with color.

For example, for Europeans, the color of mourning is black, while in China it is white.

auditory sensations.

Air vibrations, entering the ear, cause vibrations of the eardrum, and then through the middle ear are transmitted to the inner ear, where the cochlea is located - the organ of sound perception.

There are three types of auditory sensations:

1) noises;

2) musical;

3) speech (combine musical sounds and noises).

Taste sensations.

They arise as a result of exposure to receptors of substances dissolved in water or saliva.

Taste buds are located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate, which are able to distinguish four types of elementary taste sensations: sweet, sour, bitter, salty.

Olfactory sensations.

Receptors are olfactory cells located in the nasal cavity. This type of sensation can be classified as the most mysterious.

The smell often helps to recall the past event, but the smell itself is almost impossible to remember.

Psychologist at the University of California M. Russell proved that babies are able to recognize their mother by smell.

Of ten six-week-old infants examined, six smiled when they smelled their mother and did not react or cried when they smelled a strange woman.

Ancient Oriental medicine used smells to diagnose diseases.

So, it is known that a patient with typhus smells of freshly baked black bread, and a patient with tuberculosis smells of sour beer. Some modern areas of diagnostics use special installations to study the smells of diseases.

Skin sensations.

They are divided into the following types:

1) temperature (the ability to distinguish between changes in air temperature, and the most sensitive are those areas of the skin that are covered with clothes);

2) tactile (touch);

3) vibrational (impact on the surface of the skin of air vibrations).

2. organic sensations.

Receptors are located in the walls of internal organs.

The most common sensations are thirst, hunger, nausea, etc.

Feelings of balance. The receptor is the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear, which gives signals about the position of the head.

Motor sensations.

Their receptors are found in muscles, ligaments, and tendons.

3. Tactile sensations.

They are a combination of such sensations as skin and motor.

Pain sensations have two origins:

1) irritation of certain points of pain: for example, a skin burn;

2) arise as a result of exposure to any analyzer of a superstrong stimulus: for example, a strong smell of paint can cause a headache.

The following properties of sensations are distinguished:

1) thresholds of sensations and their sensitivity;

2) adaptation;

3) synesthesia;

4) sensitization.

Thresholds of sensations and sensitivity of analyzers. In order for a sensation to arise, the stimulus must be of a certain magnitude.

For example, a person will not feel a few grains of sugar in a glass of tea, will not perceive ultra-high frequencies, etc.

The minimum value of the stimulus that can cause the weakest sensation is the lower absolute threshold of sensations.

If you continue to experiment with adding small portions of sugar to a glass of tea at the same time with several people, then it may turn out that someone will feel the presence of sugar earlier than everyone else.

About such a person, we can say that his taste sensitivity is higher than that of the rest.

The ability of a person to distinguish the weakest external influences is called absolute sensitivity.

The absolute sensitivity of the visual analyzer is very high.

So, if we assume that the air is absolutely transparent, then a person is able to see a burning candle at a distance of 27 km.

Absolute threshold and absolute sensitivity are inversely related.

This means that the higher the sensitivity, the lower the threshold value (for example, a person needs less sugar to taste it).

In cases where the magnitude of the stimulus becomes so large that the sensation disappears, they speak of the upper absolute threshold of sensations (for example, the light of the sun blinds).

The sensitivity of analyzers and the value of thresholds are influenced by many factors, the most significant of which are the professional activity of a person, his interests.

For example, weavers are able to distinguish up to 40 shades of black.

Adaptation.

Numerous experiments have shown that the analyzers of the same person can change their sensitivity, adapting to new conditions of life.

This ability is called by adaptation. However, different sense organs have different degrees of adaptation. The adaptation of the visual and skin analyzers is very great. For example, under the influence of bright light, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer decreases by 200 thousand times.

The auditory analyzer is much less capable of adapting. As a rule, they get used to the noise, but they still hear it.

Sensitization.

Sometimes it is possible to change the sensitivity of one analyzer by influencing another.

This phenomenon is called sensitization. For example, it is known that the sensitivity of the visual analyzer increases if it is stimulated by weak musical sounds, and decreases if it is affected by sharp, strong sounds.

Synesthesia.

Special studies have shown that sometimes people combine different sensations into one.

Such a merger is called synesthesia. It has been experimentally established that there are sounds bright and dull, joyful and sad.

One of the patients told the psychologist Vygotsky: “What a yellow and crumbly voice you have… But there are people who speak in a multi-voiced way, who give off a whole composition, a bouquet…”.

In cases where a defect is observed in the activity of any analyzer, then other analyzers begin to work in an enhanced mode, that is, our sense organs have compensatory capabilities.

Many examples can be given when the blind became excellent musicians, and the deaf-blind adapted to the world around them thanks to the active work of tactile, olfactory sensations, etc.

3. Perception

1. The concept of perception. Types of perception.

2. Properties of perception.

1. A person, cognizing the world around him, perceives not individual properties (sensations), but the object as a whole, that is, the human brain, highlighting the properties of objects and phenomena, immediately combines them into some kind of image.

This process is called perception.

Perception - these are objects and phenomena of the surrounding world reflected in the cerebral cortex, which are currently acting on human analyzers.

In real life, sensation and perception are inextricably linked.

For example, we see a person in the distance, and as he approaches, we begin to distinguish between hair color, hairstyle features, nose structure, etc. your friend.

It should be noted that perception cannot be reduced to a simple sum of sensations, just as when two gases hydrogen and oxygen merge, a new substance is obtained - water.

In perception, personal experience of a person, features of motor reactions are of great importance.

So in one experiment, the subject put on glasses that distorted the shape and arrangement of objects, but adaptation soon occurred, and the person stopped noticing these distortions.

Scientists explain this fact by the fact that people during the experiment had the opportunity to move, those of them who sat on a chair adapted with great difficulty or did not adapt at all.

Types of perception.

Consider two existing classifications.

1. Based on the unequal participation of individual analyzers in the process of perception, i.e. the type of perception is determined by the analyzer that is most significant.

Most often, such types as visual, auditory, tactile are distinguished.

Sometimes several analyzers take the lead at once.

Such complex types of perception have a double name, for example, when watching television programs, theater plays, visual-auditory perception plays a leading role.

2. The classification is based on the object of perception. The following types are distinguished:

1) perception of objects;

2) perception of relationships;

3) perception of movements;

4) perception of space;

5) perception of time;

6) perception of a person.

Let us consider in more detail the features of the perception of time. Time is objectively measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, etc.

However, subjectively, each person perceives time differently. If a person is passionate about something, he is interested, then time flies unnoticed.

When we find ourselves in a situation of agonizing expectation, the passage of time slows down, minutes seem like hours.

Being in a state of fear or depression, a person often tends to overestimate time.

However, not everything is so simple.

For example, a French caver M. Sifre spent almost 63 days in the Scarasson abyss at a depth of 135 m in a cave where there was no light of any kind and there were no time indicators.

When more than 40 days had passed, it seemed to him that he had been in isolation for only 25 days.

When the voluntary confinement ended and friends came for the scientist, he said: "If I knew that the end was so close, I would have eaten the remaining tomatoes and fruits long ago."

The subjective acceleration of time was also noted by other cave explorers.

The paradox of such a phenomenon lies in its contradiction to the basic psychological law of time perception - time is underestimated if it is filled with interesting activities, and overestimated if it is associated with expectation, boredom.

Some professions require the ability to accurately estimate time (pilots, paratroopers, astronauts, etc.). Special training sessions are held with representatives of these professions, where they are taught to maintain the correct sense of time.

Now let's focus on the perception of space.

Space is an integral part of the person himself. If another person intrudes into personal spaces, then communication may be disrupted (see the topic "Communication").

For a person, the system of organizing space is also very important. Thus, the American psychologist E. Hall was invited to clarify the causes of disagreements in the branches of American firms located in the Federal Republic of Germany and German Switzerland. Local employees and specialists from the USA worked in the branches. It turned out that the whole thing is in the door.

Americans are accustomed to working in large common areas with open doors.

This creates the feeling that everyone is doing one common thing together.

However, according to German traditions, each room must have reliable doors.

The door, wide open, is evidence of complete disorder.

Thus, thanks to perception, a person is able to navigate in the objective world.

2. The following properties of perception are distinguished: objectivity, selectivity, meaningfulness, illusions, constancy.

Objectivity expressed in the fact that a person is able to combine disparate sensations into a holistic image with its boundaries, dimensions, color, for example: from a huge variety of sounds of the surrounding world, a person singles out birdsong, human speech, motor noise, etc.

Selectivity It manifests itself in the possibility of highlighting exactly those objects, phenomena, situations that are extremely important and necessary at the moment.

Selectivity is expressed in the selection of the object from the background. The object of perception is considered to be what is in the center of attention, and everything that surrounds it is the background.

The law of selectivity is often used both in the animal world and in human society.

This is connected with the presence of a protective color in animals, their ability to merge with the environment (for example, a color change in a chameleon).

During the flight, a motley pattern is visible on the wings of a butterfly, which makes them difficult to recognize for birds against the background of a motley meadow.

In the military, camouflage paint or fabric is widely used to help blend in with the background and not be noticed.

meaningfulness is associated with the personal experience of each individual, while age, professional activity, and mental characteristics of a person are of great importance.

For example, people perceive the forest differently depending on the profession: the arborist - as an object of care and protection, the hunter - as a place for hunting, tourists - as a place of rest, a forest industry worker - as an object for production.

Comprehending what is happening, a person often proceeds from his attitudes, that is, the predisposition to perceive everything in a certain, predetermined way.

In human life, the role of attitudes is very significant. They arise, as a rule, unconsciously and act as prejudices.

An interesting fact was noted by the American ethnographer B. Malinovsky. He studied the life of one primitive tribe and drew attention to how similar to his father and, accordingly, to each other, the five sons of the leader of the tribe.

Having told the natives about this, the scientist met with complete misunderstanding, even indignation on their part.

The ethnographer was struck by such a strange reaction, but later it turned out that there was a long-standing taboo in the tribe that forbade finding such a resemblance, as a result, people did not see what they were not supposed to see.

Illusions is a distorted perception. In practical life, our perception sometimes does not reflect the exact picture of what is happening.

So, for example, an oar immersed in water seems to be refracted.

Many illusions are associated with the perception of space, especially perspectives: distant objects seem small, parallel rails seem to converge, etc.

Also common illusions of contrast: white on black looks even whiter; a person will appear taller if a person of small stature is nearby and vice versa; stars appear brighter on a moonless night.

Knowing the features of our illusory perception, we can correctly use it in everyday life.

A woman who is prone to fullness should not wear a dress with transverse stripes, and a thin one - with longitudinal ones.

A room whose walls are covered with blue wallpaper will seem more spacious than a room with red walls.

Draped in black velvet, the back of the stage gives the viewer the illusion of bottomless depth.

constancy - permanence of perception, its immutability. If a person of high stature is at some insignificant distance, then he will still remain tall for those around him.

Objects that we perceive from different angles of vision remain recognizable, although their images on the retina differ.

If a person did not possess this quality, then his orientation in space would be impossible.

Thus, perception has a number of properties that manifest themselves and find application in practical life.

4. Attention

1. The concept of attention. types of attention.

2. Properties of attention.

3. Development of attention. Attention management.

1. About what attention is, it becomes clear from the words K. D. Ushinsky: "... Attention is exactly the door through which everything that only enters the soul of a person from the outside world passes."

Attention - this is the concentration of a person on the objects and phenomena of the world around him, the most significant for him.

Attention does not exist by itself.

It is simply impossible to be attentive; for this, the functioning of mental processes is necessary.

For example, you can be attentive when memorizing, listen carefully to music, etc.

Attention, as a rule, is manifested in a characteristic posture, facial expression, but without proper experience, you can make a mistake.

For example, complete silence in the classroom during a lesson does not always mean that students are listening attentively to the teacher's explanations.

It is quite possible that everyone is engaged in some of his own, more interesting business at the moment.

Much less often there are cases when deep attention is hidden behind a free posture.

types of attention.

Let's consider two classifications.

1. Attention can be external (directed to the surroundings) and internal (focus on one's own experiences, thoughts, feelings).

Such a division is to some extent arbitrary, since often people are immersed in their own thoughts, pondering their behavior.

2. The classification is based on the level of volitional regulation. Attention stands out involuntary, arbitrary, after-arbitrary.

involuntary attention arises without any effort on the part of the person, and there is no purpose and special intention.

Involuntary attention may occur:

1) due to certain characteristics of the stimulus.

These features include:

a) strength, and not absolute, but relative (in complete darkness, the light from a match can attract attention);

b) surprise;

c) novelty and unusualness;

d) contrast (among Europeans, a person of a Negroid race is more likely to attract attention);

e) mobility (the action of the beacon is based on this, which does not just burn, but flashes);

2) from the inner motives of the individual.

This includes the mood of a person, his interests and needs.

For example, the old facade of a building is more likely to attract the attention of a person interested in architecture than other passers-by.

Arbitrary attention arises when a goal is consciously set, for the achievement of which strong-willed efforts are applied.

Voluntary attention is most likely in the following situations:

1) when a person is clearly aware of his duties and specific tasks in the performance of activities;

2) when the activity is performed under familiar conditions, for example: the habit of doing everything according to the regimen creates in advance an attitude towards voluntary attention;

3) when the performance of the activity concerns any indirect interests, for example: playing scales on the piano is not very exciting, but necessary if you want to be a good musician;

4) when favorable conditions are created during the performance of activities, but this does not mean complete silence, since weak side stimuli (for example, quiet music) can even increase work efficiency.

Post-voluntary attention is intermediate between involuntary and voluntary, combining the features of these two types.

It arises as an arbitrary one, but after some time the performed activity becomes so interesting that it no longer requires additional volitional efforts.

For example, when starting to read a book, a person is not always carried away by it from the first page, but then the plot captures, and the reading goes on without any self-coercion.

Thus, attention characterizes the activity and selectivity of a person in his interaction with others.

2. Traditionally, there are five properties of attention:

1) concentration (concentration);

2) stability;

3) volume;

4) distribution;

5) switching.

Concentration (concentration) - attention is kept on any object or activity, while being distracted from everything else.

Stability - this is a long retention of attention, which increases if a person is active when performing actions with objects or performing activities.

Stability decreases if the object of attention is mobile, constantly changing.

Volume attention is determined by the number of objects that a person is able to perceive clearly enough at the same time. For most adults, the amount of attention is equal to 4-6 objects, for a schoolchild - 2-5 objects.

Distribution of attention - the ability of a person to perform two or even more activities simultaneously, when a person is simultaneously focused on several objects.

As a rule, distribution occurs when any of the activities is mastered to such an extent that it requires little control.

For example, a gymnast can solve simple arithmetic problems while walking on a beam that is 10 cm wide, while a person who is far from sports is unlikely to do this.

Switching attention - the ability of a person to focus alternately on one or another activity (object) in connection with the emergence of a new task.

Attention also has its drawbacks, the most common of which is absent-mindedness, which is expressed in two forms:

1) frequent involuntary distractibility in the process of performing activities.

They say about such people that they have "fluttering", "sliding" attention. May occur as a result of:

a) insufficient development of attention;

b) feeling unwell, tired;

c) for students - neglect of educational material;

d) lack of interest;

2) excessive focus on one object or activity, when no attention is paid to anything else.

For example, a person, thinking about something important for himself, may, crossing the road, not notice the red color of the traffic light and fall under the wheels of a car.

So, the positive properties of attention help to perform any type of activity more efficiently and efficiently.

3. The attention of a preschooler is characterized by such qualities as involuntary, lack of concentration, instability.

With admission to school, the role of attention rises sharply, because it is a good level of its development that is the key to the success of mastering educational activities.

How can the teacher organize the attention of students during the lesson?

Let us name only some of the pedagogical techniques that increase the attentiveness of schoolchildren.

1. The use of voice and emotional modulation, gesticulation attracts the attention of students, i.e. the teacher should constantly change the intonation, pitch, volume of the voice (from ordinary speech to a whisper), while using adequate facial expressions and gestures.

Be mindful of gestures of openness and goodwill (see the topic "Communication").

2. Change of pace: maintaining a pause, a sharp change in speed, a transition from deliberately slow speech to a tongue twister.

3. In the course of explaining the new material, students should take notes on the key (key) words, you can invite someone alone to do this on the board.

At the end of the explanation, the students take turns reading their notes.

4. In the course of the explanation, interrupt the speech at words that are quite obvious to the listeners, requiring them to continue.

The activity of schoolchildren should be encouraged in accessible ways.

5. "Mistakes of memory", when the teacher allegedly forgets something quite obvious to the audience and ask him to help him "remember" (dates, names, terms, etc.).

6. The use of various types of questions in the course of explaining new material: leading, control, rhetorical, clarifying, counter, questions-suggestions, etc.

7. Changing the types of activities during the lesson significantly increases the attentiveness of schoolchildren (for example, in a mathematics lesson, this can be an oral account, a solution at the blackboard, answers on cards, etc.).

8. A clear organization of the lesson, when the teacher does not have to be distracted by side actions, leaving the children left to their own devices.

And a few more tips: the teacher is not recommended to turn his back on the class.

If you need to write something on the board, it is better to do it in advance during recess.

When teaching younger students, it is inappropriate to interrupt their activities with additional instructions such as: "Do not forget to start with the red line", "Remember the vocabulary words", etc.

After all, the work has already begun, and the demands "after" will only distract the children.

It is also unacceptable, when performing collective work, to make loud remarks to individual children (“Masha, do not stoop”, “Sasha, do not fidget”), thereby distracting other class students from work.

For children of primary school age, it is important to think over changes, because children must have time to rest, but at the same time quickly join the process of the next lesson.

Compliance with the considered pedagogical conditions for increasing children's attention will make it possible to more successfully organize the student's educational activities.

Good attention is necessary not only for schoolchildren, but also for adults.

Let's consider in more detail ways to improve attention.

1. It is recommended to accustom yourself to be attentive even in the most noisy environment, in conditions of increased distraction.

2. It is important to systematically exercise in the simultaneous observation of several objects, while being able to separate the main from the secondary.

3. You should train switching attention: the speed of transition from one activity to another, the ability to highlight the main thing, the ability to change the order of switching (figuratively, this is called the development of a "route of perception").

4. The presence of volitional qualities contributes to the development of stability of attention.

You need to be able to force yourself to focus when you don’t feel like it.

It is necessary to alternate difficult tasks with easy ones, interesting ones with uninteresting ones.

5. Frequent use of intellectual games (chess, puzzles, etc.) also develops attention.

6. The best way to develop attention is an attentive attitude to the people around you.

Thus, one should develop and improve one's attention throughout one's life.

5. Memory

1. The concept of memory.

2. Types of memory.

3. Memory processes.

4. Development and improvement of memory.

1. Memory - This is one of the most popular mental processes of a person.

Such popularity dates back to the ancient Greeks, who revered the goddess of memory Mnemosyne as the mother of nine muses, the patrons of the arts and sciences known at that time.

On behalf of the goddess, there are also modern scientific expressions related to memory: "mnemonic task", "mnemonic processes", "mnemonic orientation", etc.

It is hard to imagine a world without memory.

The value of memory is very great, but one should not attribute all successes or, conversely, failures to this cognitive process.

It is difficult for a person to say: “I don’t know how to reason,” or even more so, “I’m stupid,” but he easily says: “Again this sclerosis,” etc.

Memory is a complex cognitive process through which a person can remember, preserve and reproduce his past experience.

Thanks to memory, we can save and reproduce not only individual objects or situations, but also entire chains of events.

The connections existing between events, objects or phenomena, preserved in our memory, are called associations.

Researchers identify different types of associations, but classically they are:

1) associations by similarity;

2) associations by contrast;

3) associations by adjacency.

Many poetic comparisons are based on similarity associations ("the river flowed like rain", "the blizzard cries like a gypsy violin"). On a hot summer day, we remember how good it was to ski in the winter, and in the winter how much fun we had on the beach.

Associations of this kind are associations by contrast.

At the exam, the student presents a notebook with a summary and the page where the ticket material is located, sees a table or diagram, etc.

If objects are connected in time and space, then these are associations by contiguity (floor - rag, pen - notebook).

Most associations are related to the experience of a particular person, but there are some that are the same for many people.

For example, most people call "apple" when they say "fruit," and if they ask you to name a part of the face, they answer "nose."

The value of associations for a person lies in the fact that they allow you to automatically and quickly perceive the information you need at the moment.

So, memory It is a complex cognitive process that ensures the continuity of a person's mental life.

2. Human memory can be classified in several ways.

1. Material storage time:

1) instant (iconic) - thanks to this memory, a complete and accurate picture of what the sense organs have only perceived is retained for 0,1-0,5 s, while no processing of the received information is performed;

2) short-term (KP) - is able to store information for a short period of time and in a limited amount.

Typically, most people have a CP volume of 7 ± 2 units.

In the CP, only the most significant information, a generalized image, is recorded;

3) operational (OP) - functions for a predetermined time (from several seconds to several days) depending on the task that needs to be solved, after which the information can be deleted;

4) long-term (DP) - information is stored for an indefinitely long period.

DP contains the material that a practically healthy person must remember at any time: his name, patronymic, surname, place of birth, capital of the Motherland, etc.

In humans, DP and CP are inextricably linked.

Before the material is stored in the DP, it must be processed in the CP, which makes it possible to protect the brain from overload and preserve vital information for a long time;

5) genetic memory has come to the fore relatively recently.

This is information that is stored in the genotype and is inherited, not amenable to the influence of training and education.

2. The leading role of one or another analyzer:

1) motor - motor reactions are remembered and reproduced, therefore, on its basis, basic motor skills are formed (walking, writing, sports, dancing, labor).

This is one of the earliest ontogenetically types of memory;

2) emotional - memorization of a certain emotional state and its reproduction when repeating the situation when it arose for the first time.

This type of memory also arises in a child very early, according to modern research, already in the first year of life, it is well developed in preschool children.

It is characterized by the following features:

a) special strength;

b) rapid formation;

c) involuntary reproduction;

3) visual - the preservation and reproduction of visual images prevails.

For many people, this type of memory is the leading one. Sometimes visual images are reproduced so accurately that they resemble a photograph.

They say about such people that they have an eidetic memory (eidos - an image), that is, a memory that has photographic accuracy.

In many people, eidetic memory is well developed at preschool age, but in individuals (more often these are people of art), it persists throughout life.

For example, V. A. Mozart, S. V. Rakhmaninov, M. A. Balakirev could memorize and reproduce a complex piece of music on an instrument after just one perception;

4) auditory - contributes to good memorization and reproduction of a wide variety of sounds.

Especially well developed in musicians, acousticians, etc.

As a special variety of this type, verbal-logical memory is distinguished - this is a purely human type of memory, thanks to which we can quickly and accurately remember the logic of reasoning, the sequence of events, etc.;

5) olfactory - smells are well remembered and reproduced;

6) gustatory - predominance of taste analyzer in memory processes;

7) tactile - it is well remembered and reproduced what a person could feel, what he touched with his hands, etc.

The last three types of memory are not as significant for a person as those previously listed, but their importance increases dramatically if the functioning of any of the main analyzers is disturbed, for example, when a person loses sight or hearing (many cases are known when blind people become excellent musicians). ).

There are a number of professions where exactly these types of memory are in demand.

For example, tasters must have a good taste memory, perfumers - olfactory.

It is very rare for a person to be dominated by any one type of memory.

Much more often, visual-auditory memory, visual-motor, motor-auditory memory acts as a leader.

In addition to the above classifications, memory can vary in such parameters as speed, duration, strength, accuracy and memorization volume.

The variety of types of memory allows you to achieve success in various activities.

3. The following processes are distinguished in memory:

1) memorization;

2) reproduction;

3) conservation;

4) forgetting.

Memorization is a process of memory, the result of which is the consolidation of previously perceived information.

Memory is divided into:

1) voluntary (the task is set to remember, while certain efforts are made) - involuntary (there is no special task to remember, the material is remembered without any effort);

2) mechanical (information is remembered as a result of simple repetition) - logical (connections are established between individual elements of information, which allows the forgotten to be re-discovered through logical reasoning).

In order for memorization to be successful, the following points must be adhered to:

1) make an installation for memorization;

2) show more activity and independence in the process of memorization (a person will remember the path better if he moves on his own than when he is accompanied);

3) group the material according to its meaning (drawing up a plan, table, diagram, graph, etc.);

4) the process of repetition during memorization should be distributed over a certain time (day, several hours), and not in a row.

5) a new repetition improves the memorization of previously learned;

6) arouse interest in what is remembered;

7) the unusualness of the material improves memorization.

Reproduction (recovery) is a process of memory, thanks to which previously fixed past experience is retrieved.

The following forms of reproduction are distinguished:

1) recognition - the appearance of a sense of familiarity during perception;

2) memory - restoration of material in the absence of perception of the object, it is always more difficult to remember than to find out (for example, it is easier to remember a person's last name if you find it in the list);

3) reminiscence - reproduction delayed in time (for example, a poem is recalled that a person told in early childhood);

4) recollection - an active form of reproduction, requiring the use of certain techniques (association, reliance on recognition) and volitional efforts.

Preservation - retention in memory of previously learned material. Information is stored in memory through repetition, as well as the application of acquired knowledge in practice.

Memory researchers have found that the material that begins and ends the general series of information is best preserved, the middle elements are preserved worse.

This phenomenon in psychology is called the edge effect.

An interesting fact was discovered by B. V. Zeigarnik. in her experiments, the subjects had to complete about 20 different tasks as quickly and accurately as possible (riddles, small mathematical problems, sculpting figures, etc.).

It turned out that those actions that remained unfinished, the subjects recall almost twice as often as those that they managed to complete.

This phenomenon is called the Zeigarnik effect.

Forgetting - loss of memory, the disappearance of previously memorized material.

Psychological studies have shown that the material is forgotten faster in the first time after memorization than in the future, meaningless material is also forgotten faster than connected by a logical chain.

Most often, forgetting is considered a negative phenomenon, but it should be remembered that this is a very expedient, necessary and natural process of memory, otherwise our brain would be overloaded with a mass of unnecessary or irrelevant information.

Sometimes forgetting becomes painful, up to complete loss of memory.

This phenomenon is called amnesia.

Much attention was paid to the analysis of the mechanisms of forgetting by Z. Freud (the founder of psychoanalysis).

He believed that the process of forgetting is largely due to the reluctance of a person to remember the unpleasant situations of his biography.

He forgets about those things that can remind you of psychologically unpleasant circumstances.

So, memory includes a number of components that determine the success of its flow.

4. The process of memory development is carried out in the following areas:

1) ontogenetically earlier mechanical memory is gradually replaced by logical one;

2) with age, memorization becomes more conscious, the active use of mnemonic techniques and means begins;

3) involuntary memorization prevailing in childhood becomes arbitrary.

Based on the above directions, we can determine the following ways and means of improving memory.

1. Use the repetition process correctly.

The most appropriate is the repetition, as close as possible to the perception of the material.

It has been experimentally proven that forgetting is prevented by repetition 15-20 minutes after memorization.

The next repetition is desirable to do after 8-9 hours, and then after 24 hours.

It is also advisable to repeat in the morning on a fresh head and before going to bed.

2. Be aware of the "edge effect", i.e. spend more time repeating the material that is located in the middle of the information series.

Also, when repeating, material in the middle can be placed at the beginning or end.

3. To memorize a sequence of events or objects quickly and reliably, you can perform the following series of actions:

1) mentally connect what is remembered with some easily imagined or well-known object, after which this object is already connected with the one that will be at hand at the right time;

2) combine both objects in the imagination with each other in the most bizarre way possible into a single fantastic image;

3) mentally recreate this image.

4. To remember the sequence of events or actions, words can be presented in the form of characters in a story.

5. The material will be easier to remember if you apply the association technique. To do this, you should ask yourself questions like as often as possible: "What does this remind me of?", "What does it look like?" "What other word does this word remind me of?", "What episode in my life does this episode remind me of?" etc.

In the implementation of this rule, the following regularity operates: the more diverse associations arise when remembering the source material, the more firmly this material is remembered.

6. A consistent chain of events or objects can be remembered if these objects are mentally placed along the path of the daily journey to work or study.

Walking along this path, we remember these objects.

Any techniques are good only when they are adapted by a specific person to their own life experience and characteristics of the psyche and behavior.

So what suits one person may not suit another.

6. Thinking

1. The concept of thinking.

2. Types of thinking, forms of thinking.

3. Operations of thinking.

4. Individual features of thinking.

5. Features of creative thinking.

6. Development of thinking.

1. A person cannot get answers to many cognitive questions through direct interaction with the outside world.

In this case, the tasks are solved indirectly with the help of mental actions or thinking processes.

Thinking - this is the most complex cognitive process, which is the highest form of reflection by the brain of the surrounding world.

Note the distinctive features of thinking:

1) creatively reworks existing ideas and creates new ones, which at the given moment do not yet exist either in the subject or in reality itself;

2) is able to reflect not only individual objects, phenomena and properties, but also the connections existing between them, and in a generalized form.

3) indirectly reflects the surrounding world.

For example, the presence of infection in the body is judged by an increase in body temperature.

A person resorts to mediated cognition in the following cases:

a) if direct knowledge is impossible, since our analyzers are imperfect or completely absent, for example, a person does not perceive ultrasound, infrared radiation, x-rays;

b) if direct knowledge is impossible in real time, for example, archaeological and paleontological excavations;

c) if direct knowledge is impractical, for example, it makes no sense to go outside to find out the air temperature, it is more rational to look at the thermometer readings outside the window or listen to the weather forecast;

4) actively operates in a problem situation;

5) expands the boundaries of knowledge; thanks to the intellect, man overcame gravity, descended to the bottom of the ocean, etc.;

6) allows you to predict the onset of certain events, such as a solar eclipse.

So, thinking allows you to indirectly, abstractly and generally cognize the surrounding reality.

2. Thinking is classified on various grounds.

Let's name the most commonly used classifications of types of thinking.

According to the nature of the tasks to be solved, thinking is distinguished theoretical through which general patterns are established, and practical, through which specific tasks are solved. According to the degree of expansion, thinking is discursive (the problem is solved gradually, step by step) and intuitive (the decision comes suddenly, on the basis of a hunch).

Depending on originality, novelty distinguish thinking reproductive (assimilation of ready-made knowledge) and productive (creative).

The form of thinking is visual-effective, visual-figurative и verbal-logical.

Let us dwell in more detail on the last classification, as one of the most frequently used, especially in developmental and educational psychology, personality psychology.

Visual Action Thinking is aimed at solving problems through external, practical actions.

It is often used in everyday life, for example, in order to understand what the buttons on the tape recorder are for, we often begin to press them sequentially.

This form of thinking is the most elementary; it arises earlier than others in the process of ontogenesis and is the basis for the formation of more complex types of thinking.

Visual and imaginative thinking relies on representations or perceptions, since tasks are solved through images.

However, the ways of thinking differ from the images of perception in their generality and abstractness; only the most important and essential properties are reflected in the ways of thinking.

Verbal-logical thinking - this is conceptual thinking, when the problem is solved with the help of reasoning.

The form of thinking, through which the general, most essential properties of phenomena and objects of the surrounding world are reflected, is called a concept.

Concepts are divided into general (differ in large volume) and specific.

General concepts are expressed through specific ones, for example, they plant not just a tree as such, but specifically a birch, an apple tree, etc.

In the process of thinking, a person argues.

Judgments reflect the connections existing between objects, phenomena, their properties.

They can contain either an affirmation of a position or a denial.

Judgments are divided into general, private, individual.

General judgments contain affirmative or negative information about all objects and phenomena ("children have a high shifting of attention").

Private - only about a part of the objects and phenomena included in the concept ("children of this class dance well").

Single - we are talking about an individual concept ("Vitya Ivanov draws well").

As a rule, in the course of reasoning, some conclusions are drawn, thereby creating new judgments.

The form of thinking by which various judgments are compared and analyzed in order to obtain a new judgment is called inference.

If a conclusion is made from a single, particular judgment to a general one, then this is induction.

The reverse process, when a single conclusion is formulated on the basis of a general judgment, is called deduction.

An example of induction: a fox can be killed with an arrow poisoned with curare poison.

Fox is an animal.

An animal can be killed with curare poison.

An example of deduction: an animal can be killed with an arrow poisoned with curare poison.

The hare is an animal.

A hare can be killed with curare poison.

Despite all the variety of types of thinking in reality, they do not exist in isolation from each other.

3. Mental tasks are solved with the help of mental operations.

Let's name the most significant of them.

Analysis - a mental operation by means of which the whole is divided into its constituent parts.

Synthesis - mental unification of separate parts into a single holistic image.

Comparison - a mental operation, thanks to which there is a comparison of objects and phenomena to detect similarities and differences between them.

Abstraction - a mental operation, during which significant, essential properties of objects and phenomena are distinguished, while being distracted from non-essential properties.

Generalization - a mental operation that combines phenomena and objects according to their essential, most common features.

Specification - mental transition from general concepts, judgments to single, corresponding to general ones.

The presence of selected mental operations in a person indicates a good level of development of thinking.

4. Each person differs from another in various qualities of thinking.

Let's take a closer look at them.

breadth of mind - this is the ability of a person to see the task as a whole, on a large scale, but at the same time not to forget about the importance of details. A person with a broad mind is said to have a broad outlook.

depth of mind - the ability of a person to understand the very essence of the issue.

The opposite negative quality is the superficiality of thinking, when a person, paying attention to the little things, does not notice the main, important, essential.

Independence of thinking - the ability of a person to put forward and solve new problems without the help of other people.

Flexibility of thinking - the ability of a person to abandon previously developed methods for solving problems and finding more rational methods and techniques.

The opposite negative quality is inertia (stereotyping, rigidity) of thinking, when a person follows previously found solutions, despite their unproductiveness.

Quickness of mind - the ability of a person to understand the task in a short time, to find effective solutions, to draw the right conclusions.

Often the presence of this quality is determined by the characteristics of the functioning of the nervous system.

They say about such people - quick-witted, resourceful, smart.

However, it is necessary to distinguish the speed of thinking from haste, when a person rushes to solve a problem without having thought it through to the end, but having snatched out only one side.

Criticality of the mind - the ability of a person to give an objective assessment of himself and others, comprehensively checking all existing solutions.

An example of criticality can be considered the statement of Socrates, who said: "I only know that I know nothing."

Thus, each person has his own individual characteristics that characterize his mental activity.

5. The question of the psychological nature of creativity is still open.

At present, this question can only be partially answered.

J. Gilford He believed that creative thinking is characterized by the predominance of four features:

1) originality, unusualness of the ideas expressed, a pronounced desire for intellectual novelty.

According to the researcher, a creative person always has his own view of everything that happens;

2) semantic flexibility, i.e. the ability to see an object from a new angle, to discover the possibility of its new use, to expand the functional application in practice;

3) figurative adaptive flexibility, i.e. the ability to change the perception of an object in such a way as to see its new sides hidden from observation;

4) semantic, spontaneous flexibility, i.e. the ability to produce a variety of ideas in an uncertain situation, in particular one that does not contain guidelines for these ideas.

Conditions affecting the creative process:

1) successful experience in the past can hinder finding new, more rational ways of solving problems;

2) if finding the correct solution was given with great difficulty, then returning to this method in the future will be more likely, even if it is not effective enough;

3) the stereotypical thinking that arises due to the first two conditions can be overcome if the decision is postponed for a while, and then returned to it with the firm intention to look for new ways;

4) frequent failures hinder the creative process, a motive for avoiding failures can form when a person is afraid to start something new because of possible disappointments;

5) for the successful flow of the creative process, proper motivation and an appropriate emotional mood are necessary.

Finding the optimal motivation and the optimal level of emotional arousal is an individual process.

Qualities that impede the development of creative thinking:

1) a tendency to conformism, i.e., to the desire to follow someone else's opinion, refusing one's own, fear of being a "black sheep";

2) fear of seeming overly critical and even aggressive in rejecting someone else's opinion;

3) fear of revenge on the part of the one whose opinion is denied;

4) overestimation of one's own achievements, ideas;

5) high personal anxiety;

6) excessive critical thinking, which does not allow one to focus on the development of productive ideas, since all the forces are spent on criticizing other opinions.

The concept of "creativity" is closely related to the concept of "intelligence", which means that a person has general mental abilities, thanks to which he successfully copes with various tasks.

The presence of creative thinking - an important indicator of a person's intelligence, for its formation it is necessary to adhere to a certain line of education.

6. There are the following ways to develop thinking:

1) it is necessary to follow the principle: "If you want to be smart, learn to ask intelligently, listen carefully, answer calmly and stop talking when there is nothing more to say";

2) thinking develops in the process of mastering knowledge.

The sources of knowledge can be: books, media, school, etc.;

3) any kind of thinking begins with a question, which means that you should learn the ability to ask questions about each event that you are dealing with;

4) it is useful to develop the ability to notice the new in the familiar, to see an object or phenomenon from different angles;

5) one should train the flexibility of the mind, which is facilitated by games of intelligence, solving puzzles, logical riddles;

6) an important technique that develops thinking is a comparison of similar concepts;

7) one should remember the inextricable link between thinking and speech, which means that for a better understanding one should try to present the material to another person;

8) the development of thinking is also facilitated by the use of written speech, therefore writing an essay, keeping a diary is useful;

9) for the development of thinking, discussions, a free presentation of what has been read, and the solution of paradoxical problems are useful.

So, the development of thinking is possible if a person desires to acquire new knowledge, striving to achieve creative and professional heights.

7. Speech

1. Speech and its functions.

2. Types of speech.

1. Human - a social being and in order to understand each other, communicating, people use one or another language.

Language is a means of communication that was developed by mankind in the process of its development, representing a system of signs.

When language is used for the purpose of communication, then speech occurs.

Language and speech - although very close, but still different from each other concepts.

A language becomes "dead" as soon as people stop communicating in it.

This happened with the Latin language, which is now used only in narrow areas of science.

The following functions of speech are distinguished:

1) designation - the presence of this function indicates the difference between human speech and animal communication.

The sounds of animals express only emotional states, while the human word indicates some object or phenomenon;

2) generalization - the function is manifested in the fact that one word can designate a group of similar objects (concept), which makes speech related to thinking.

A person's thoughts are clothed in a speech form; thought does not exist outside of speech;

3) communication - is expressed in the use of speech in the process of communication.

It can appear in three forms:

a) informational - knowledge transfer;

b) expressive - reflects the attitude of the speaker to others, affects the feelings of a person;

c) planning - aimed at organizing behavior or activity, can be carried out with the help of a demand, advice, order, persuasion, order, etc.

Is it possible to consider the ability to develop speech in humans innate?

The opinions of scientists are ambiguous. On the one hand, there is irrefutable evidence that denies the possibility of innateness, an example is Mowgli children (see the topic "Communication"), on the other hand, scientists have not been able to teach animals the highest conceptual forms of speech, although many animals have a developed communication system between themselves.

For example, American scientists B. T. Gardner и R. A. Gardner (1972) attempted to teach deaf language to chimpanzees.

Training began when the chimpanzee was one year old and continued for four years.

By the age of 4, the monkey independently reproduced about 130 gestures, understood even more, but the highest conceptual forms of thinking remained inaccessible.

Thus, human speech is closely related to thinking and is the main means of human communication.

2. In various conditions, speech acquires specific features that are expressed in various forms.

Let's take a look at these types.

Speech is divided into external, the inner и egocentric.

External speech is the leading one in the process of communication, therefore its main quality is accessibility for the perception of another person, which in turn can be writing и oral.

Written speech represents an extended speech statement.

It is important that the presentation is clear and precise.

If the speech is intended for a wide readership, then you should take care of its validity, content, and fascination.

Oral speech more expressive, since facial expressions, gestures, intonation, voice modulation, etc. are used. The specificity of this type is that you can immediately see the reaction of listeners to the words of the speaker, which allows you to correct speech in a certain way.

In a person, the qualities of written and oral speech may not coincide.

For example, a great speaker may have difficulty writing his speech and vice versa.

Oral speech is divided into monologue и dialogical.

Monologue speech - the speech of one person.

Its main advantage lies in the ability to convey to the audience one's own thought without distortion and with the necessary evidence.

Dialogue speech occurs between two or more persons.

This is an easier type of speech, as it does not require development, evidence, thoughtfulness in the construction of phrases.

Its drawback is that speakers can interrupt each other, distort the conversation, and not fully express their thoughts. Subdivided into situational и contextual speech.

situational speech obscure to a person who is not privy to the situation.

It contains many interjections, few or no proper names, which are replaced by pronouns.

Contextual speech - more detailed, previous statements cause the occurrence of subsequent ones.

egocentric speech - speech of a person, addressed to himself and not calculated on any reaction from others.

This is an intermediate form between external and internal speech. Most often, this type of speech is manifested in children of middle preschool age, when in the process of playing or drawing, modeling, they comment on their actions, without addressing anyone in particular.

In adults, egocentric speech can also sometimes be found.

Most often this happens when solving a complex intellectual problem, during which a person thinks aloud.

We can say that this is speech-thinking, the task of which is to serve the human intellect.

Inner speech - talk about yourself.

Its most characteristic features are fragmentation, fragmentation, and brevity.

There is the following law of the transition of external speech into internal speech: first of all, the subject is reduced, and the predicate remains with the parts of the sentence related to it, in words, vowels are reduced first of all.

It has been experimentally proven that inner speech significantly affects the solution of mental problems.

In the experiments of A. N. Sokolov, adult subjects were asked to listen to a text or solve a simple arithmetic example and at the same time recite well-learned verses aloud, or pronounce the same simple syllables ("ba-ba" or "la-la").

The experiment showed that under such conditions the meaning of the text was not captured, but only individual words were perceived, the solution of the problem was also difficult, and this may mean that the thinking process involves the active internal work of the articulatory apparatus.

Similar experiments were organized with younger students.

It turned out that simply clamping the tongue with the teeth already caused serious difficulties in reading and understanding the text and the presence of gross errors in writing.

Thus, the types of speech activity are diverse and are used depending on the situation of communication.

8. Imagination

1. The concept of imagination.

2. Types of imagination.

3. Imagination functions.

4. Development of the imagination.

1. Imagination - this is a mental process, thanks to which such images are created that a person has never perceived before.

There are four types of imagination representations:

1) images of what is in reality, for example, a person represents the Sahara desert, which he has never been to, but which really exists;

2) historical images, for example, you can imagine what a prehistoric man or a saber-toothed tiger looked like;

3) fabulous images: Baba Yaga, Zmey-Gorynych, etc.;

4) images of the future, for example, what a car of the XNUMXnd century looks like.

Imagination images can be created in various ways. The most common are the following methods.

1. Agglutination - this is a combination of any qualities, properties, parts into a single, often bizarre image, sometimes very far from reality.

For example, the connection of the upper part of the body of a man and the lower part of the horse were embodied in the image of a centaur, and, putting the hut on chicken paws, they received the dwelling of Baba Yaga. Most often, this technique is used in myths and fairy tales.

2. Accentuation - selection in the existing image of any part, detail and raising it to the rank of dominant.

The method is most often used in cartoons, cartoons.

3. Typing - the most complex, sometimes creative technique, expressed in the fact that the most characteristic, significant qualities and properties are distinguished from specific images and a new image is created on their basis.

Very often, writers use this technique, creating images of literary heroes.

Imagination cannot arise from scratch, for this it is necessary to transform the material obtained from the previously perceived.

For example, the fabulous Baba Yaga is just a terrible old woman with a hooked nose, and her hut also consists of well-known parts (hut + chicken paws).

Scientists often create new technology based on what is in nature.

Thanks to the imagination, a person is able to intelligently and creatively plan and manage his activities.

It helps out in situations where it is impossible, difficult or simply inappropriate to perform practical actions.

Thus, without imagination, progress in any field of human activity would not be possible.

2. The following types of imagination are distinguished:

1) active (voluntary) - passive (involuntary);

2) aroductive (creative) - reproductive (recreating).

Passive imagination arises without volitional efforts and without conscious intentions on the part of a person.

Dreams are the most common form of passive imagination.

Questions related to dreams have always interested a person.

Even in ancient Sparta, there were specially appointed officials - ephors, whose main duty was to sleep in temples and see dreams, on the basis of which state decisions and laws were then made.

Most of our dreams are presented in the form of visual images, which indicates their connection with the outside world, because we perceive most of the information with the help of a visual analyzer.

Approximately in 4 cases out of 100 there are sound dreams, 2,5% of dreams are "gustatory" and 0,5% are "olfactory".

According to some hypotheses, dreams are intended to perform a protective function, because in ancient times at night a person was very often in danger.

Scientist V. N. Kasatkin, after analyzing 41 thousand dreams, came to the conclusion that the brain with the help of "night pictures" warns us of impending diseases long before the first symptoms appear.

In the process of sleep, the brain itself indicates to a person a sick or diseased organ, and, as a rule, a person sees not himself, but another person with some pronounced anomaly ("Theory of Dreams").

Often dreams are associated with anxiety states of a person, and sometimes with neuroses.

The dreams of such people are very vivid, filled with images, often unpleasant, "dead-end" dreams are characteristic, when a person is looking for a way out of a labyrinth, house, city, etc.

Active imagination occurs when new ideas or images are created by a person's intention.

Reproductive (recreating) imagination is based on the reconstruction of new images in accordance with the existing description, scheme, etc.

For example, at the heart of such a trend in art as naturalism, and partly realism, is the creation of paintings that accurately reproduce reality.

It is well known that the pictures I. I. Shishkina one can study the Russian flora, since on his canvases all the plants are written with "documentary" accuracy.

Productive imagination - new images and ideas are created as a result of independent creative activity.

Such areas of visual activity as abstractionism, cubism, etc. arose as a result of the fact that the artist was not satisfied with the exact reproduction of reality.

However, most often it is not possible to draw a clear line between reproductive and creative imagination.

For example, when creating historical novels, the authors always introduce their own attitude to what is happening, along with real-life heroes, fictional characters “live” in a work of art.

Designers, inventing aircraft, analyzed the flights of birds, etc.

It is also necessary to single out such types of imagination as a dream (creating images of the desired future) and daydreams (a person "lives" in the world that he created in his imagination).

3. Imagination performs specific functions in human life.

Let's consider these functions in more detail.

1. Close connection with thinking makes it possible to create images of reality, use them in solving problems.

2. With the help of imagination, a person is able to regulate his emotional state, at least partially satisfy his needs, thereby reducing the resulting tension.

3. Imagination takes part in the volitional regulation of human states and the activity of cognitive processes.

By evoking certain images, one can influence perceptions, memories, thoughts and feelings.

4. Thanks to the imagination, a person is able to perform actions in the mind, manipulating not real objects, but images of these objects.

5. Imagination is involved in planning activities, assessing the accuracy of their implementation, and the progress of implementation.

With the help of imagination, a person is able to regulate his psychophysiological state, tuning in to upcoming events.

The facts are widely known, when only with the help of imagination, applying strong-willed efforts, a person changed the rhythm of breathing, blood pressure, pulse rate, body temperature.

It is these data that form the basis of auto-training.

Some people have such a rich fantasy that they, imagining the presence of various diseases, can really provoke their occurrence.

A well-known phenomenon ideomotor act, the essence of which is that, by imagining some kind of movement, you can cause this movement itself.

Variety artists are familiar with this fact, they demonstrate numbers to the public by finding objects hidden in the hall.

The essence of the performance is that the artist captures the micro-movements of the hands or eyes of the person who hid the object.

So, the functions of the imagination help to solve many actual problems and often rely on our subconscious.

4. Imagination is very closely connected with thinking, since thought is inseparable from the image.

That is why everything that develops thinking also contributes to the development of imagination.

Consider some directions that should be followed in the development of the imagination.

1. The development of imagination is facilitated by gaming activities, for example: games with words, fantastic hypotheses (“what would happen if ...”), writing fairy tales, poems, drawing, modeling. Role-playing games are very useful for developing the imagination.

2. Reading books promotes imagination. Descriptions of characters, interior, nature are especially useful in this direction.

3. The development of the recreative imagination is helped by the study of different geographical maps.

Traveling on the map, you can imagine countries, pictures of nature, local people, etc.

4. All kinds of graphic operations, drawings, drawings - a real way to develop technical creativity and imagination in children.

5. Imagination cannot be developed without relying on life experience and knowledge.

Therefore, the wider the circle of knowledge, the richer the imagination.

Thus, by developing the child's imagination, one can form a creative, emotionally rich personality.

LECTURE No. 3. Personality properties

1. Temperament

1. The history of ideas about temperament.

2. Types of temperaments. temperament properties.

3. Individual style of activity.

4. Temperament and problems of education.

1. Temperament is a combination of properties that determine the dynamics of the functioning of mental processes and human behavior.

Basically, the properties of temperament are biologically determined, that is, they are innate, but their influence on the formation of a person’s character and behavior is very great.

Temperament largely determines the actions of a person, his individual manifestations, which is why it cannot be isolated from personal properties.

Rather, it is a link between the body and the personality.

The doctrine of temperament has a long history and goes back to the views of the ancient Greek physician. Hippocrates.

According to his description, the type of temperament depends on the ratio of various fluids in the human body: blood, bile and lymph.

Working several centuries later, Roman doctors began to use the word "temperamentum" ("proper proportions of parts") to indicate the proportions of the liquid when they are mixed.

A detailed classification of temperament types was given by a Roman doctor and anatomist K. Galen (II century BC). later, ancient physicians limited the number of temperament types to four.

According to the views of the ancients, the types of temperament were determined by the following ratio of fluids in the body: the predominance of blood ("sangvis" - "blood") gave a sanguine temperament; the predominance of lymph ("phlegm" - "mucus") - phlegmatic; yellow bile ("chole" - "bile") - choleric;

black bile ("melain chole" - "black bile") - melancholic.

Subsequently, these names lost their scientific status, but were preserved as a tribute to history.

Since antiquity, the doctrine of temperament has undergone many changes and has been enriched with new knowledge.

Summarizing all the existing and existing theories, we can distinguish three main systems of views.

1. humoral theory (from Latin "humor" - "moisture", "juice"). This direction can be attributed to the already considered views of ancient scientists, and more modern views. I. Kant и P. F. Lesgaft.

I. Kant (end of the XNUMXth century) believed that the basis of temperament was the individual characteristics of blood.

P.F. Lesgaft believed that the predominance of temperament is due to the properties of the circulatory system, namely, the thickness and elasticity of the walls of blood vessels, the diameter of their lumen, the shape of the heart, etc.

It is these features that determine the speed and strength of blood flow, resulting in the duration of reactions to stimuli and the excitability of the body.

The humoral direction is not devoid of scientific character.

Modern endocrinology claims that individual properties of the human psyche (reactivity, balance, sensitivity) are largely determined by individual differences in the activity of the hormonal system.

2. Somatic theory (beginning of the twentieth century) determines the type of temperament by dependence on the physique of a person.

Prominent representatives of this trend are E. Kretschmer и W. G. Sheldon. These scientists put a direct relationship between growth, fullness, proportions of the human body and the characteristics of his temperament.

3. The doctrine of higher nervous activity, which is based on the views I. P. Pavlova on the dependence of the properties of temperament on the properties of the nervous system.

I. P. Pavlov believed that the type of higher nervous activity (HNA) is determined by three properties of nervous processes:

1) strength - evidence of the efficiency and endurance of the nervous system, as far as it is able to withstand strong stimuli;

2) balance indicates the ratio of the main nervous processes: inhibition and excitation;

3) mobility - how quickly the processes of excitation and inhibition can replace each other.

The selected properties, combined, give four types of GNI.

The first type is weak, it corresponds to the melancholic type of temperament.

The second type is strong, unbalanced, it corresponds to a choleric temperament.

The third type - strong, balanced, mobile - sanguine temperament.

The fourth type - strong, balanced, inert - phlegmatic temperament.

Subsequently, additional properties of the nervous system were identified (B. M. Teplov, V. D. Nebylitsin). Let's note some of them:

1) dynamism - how quickly conditioned reflexes are developed;

2) lability - how quickly the processes of excitation and inhibition arise and proceed;

3) high sensitivity - inherent in persons with a weak type of HNA.

Recent scientific data testify to the heredity of certain properties of the nervous system.

So, the basis of temperament are various biological characteristics of the psyche.

2. According to modern views on the classification of temperaments, the classical division into four types is somewhat arbitrary.

Most people who have individual manifestations of some basic type, however, cannot be fully attributed to it. In this case, they speak of a mixed type of temperament.

Each type of temperament has its own combination of mental properties, the main of which are different degree of activity и emotionality, motor skills.

In the structure of temperament, the central place is occupied by general mental activity.

The degree of activity in different people varies from inertia, lethargy in some to violent outbursts of energy in others.

Outwardly, activity is manifested in such forms as energy during the performance of actions, the variety of these actions, endurance during the manifestation of activity, the rate of reactions, their swiftness or slowness.

If a person has a high activity, then the amplitude of his movements is wider, and the movements themselves are stronger, which is most noticeable in sports activities.

The level of activity can be judged by speech features and individual manifestations of handwriting.

The more active a person is, the more sweeping his handwriting is, the wider the distance between letters and words, the letters are larger.

It is difficult for such an individual to perform subtle movements with a small amplitude, to carefully prescribe words.

Activity also affects the functioning of mental processes: perception, memory, thinking, imagination, attention, for example, an active person remembers material faster, but a less active person is capable of holding attention for a longer time on any object, etc.

In communication, activity is manifested both at the verbal and non-verbal levels.

An active individual has bright facial expressions and pantomime, rapid speech, increased gesticulation, as a rule, their voice is stronger, louder.

In the less active, these same qualities have the opposite manifestation.

Activity can manifest itself in reactivity, i.e., in increased sensitivity, reactions to the most insignificant stimuli. This property characterizes people with a weak type of GNI.

Other, no less important properties of temperament are plastic - rigidity.

These qualities are manifested in the ability of a person to quickly (plasticity) or slowly (rigidity) adapt to changing environmental conditions, for example: moving to another job, moving to another place of residence, etc.

Also very important qualities of temperament are extraversion - introversion.

Extrovert - this is a person who actively interacts with the outside world, he is characterized by increased sociability, the circle of his acquaintances is very wide, speech is active, movements are frequent, sometimes fussy.

Introvert more focused on his own inner world than on others, closed, his circle of friends is very narrow, he is prone to introspection, social adaptation is difficult.

A certain combination of the considered qualities gives different types of temperaments.

However, until now, the division into four types of temperament has been preserved, since this allows classification according to the most striking manifestations of the psyche, which often turns out to be useful for practical application.

Let us briefly characterize these types.

Sanguine characterized by pronounced mental activity, lively and agile, facial expressions and movements are expressive, quickly reacts to ongoing events, relatively easily survives troubles, an extrovert.

Phlegmatic person - his mood is distinguished by constancy, feelings are deep and stable, facial expressions are inactive, speech and movements are slow, an introvert.

Choleric characterized by increased activity, passion and vigor, prone to violent emotional outbursts, but able to quickly calm down and change mood to the opposite, an extrovert.

Melancholic - Easily vulnerable, impressionable, but outwardly it manifests itself weakly, speech is muffled, movements are restrained, an introvert.

It should be noted that neither "good" nor "bad" type of temperament can be singled out, each has both advantages and disadvantages.

For example, a sanguine person has an increased capacity for work, he can easily adapt in most situations, but the work cannot be completed, his friendships, despite their large number, are often short-lived, since interest in work and friends quickly fades.

The melancholic, on the contrary, slowly gets involved in the work, but in most cases will bring it to the end, his circle of friends is very narrow, but these are long-term and stable connections.

A choleric person can "turn mountains", but in a short period of time, and for a long one he often lacks endurance.

The phlegmatic is often not able to quickly get together and figure out what is happening, but he is able to work long and hard, striving for the goal.

Thus, any type of temperament has both advantages, which should be strengthened and developed in every possible way, and shortcomings, the manifestation of which any person is able to restrain, thanks to education and strong-willed efforts.

3. A different combination of temperament properties characterizes the individual style of a person's activity, which can be defined as a set of dynamic characteristics of activity that depend on temperament, containing work methods typical of a given person.

In the process of performing an activity, a person adapts the characteristics of his body and the innate properties of the nervous system in such a way as to achieve the best results at the lowest cost.

Individual style of activity and temperament are not identical.

Under the influence of life experience, a person develops certain skills and abilities that are part of the individual style of activity.

What outwardly is often perceived as manifestations of temperament, for example, the nature of movements, is actually an expression of an individual style of activity.

Features of temperament and individual style can either coincide or differ.

Features of the individual style of activity are combined into two groups:

1) acquired during the accumulation of life experience and used as compensation for shortcomings in the individual properties of the nervous system;

2) maximally revealing, enhancing the existing inclinations, useful properties of the nervous system, human abilities.

The beginning of the formation of an individual style of activity should be attributed to the preschool age, when, under the influence of training and education, the child is looking for the most effective techniques and ways to achieve the best results.

Thus, the features of temperament are manifested primarily in the originality of the ways of working, which constitutes the individual style of activity.

4. Knowledge of individual differences in temperaments is especially important for people involved in pedagogical activities.

It is this knowledge that in many ways makes it possible to make the process of education and upbringing more effective, ensuring the application of an individual approach to each child.

For a real understanding of individual differences in temperaments, the teacher needs to carefully observe the characteristics of the behavior and activities of children in various situations, be able to distinguish random manifestations from temperamental traits.

Age-related manifestations of temperament depend primarily on the course of maturation of brain structures, the properties of the nervous system.

The younger the children, the more they are characterized by manifestations of weakness of the nervous system, namely: low endurance and high sensitivity.

This explains the impulsiveness of the child, the brightness of perception, impressionability.

However, the weakness of the nervous system is in line with the rapid restoration of energy, which is observed in the increased mobility of children.

In younger schoolchildren, the activity of the nervous system is manifested in the ease of the emergence of interest and in the absence of the ability for long-term concentration.

Differences in temperaments in children are expressed in the originality of mental manifestations.

When performing monotonous work, children with a weak type of nervous system are in a more advantageous position, since their high sensitivity does not allow the development of drowsiness, which is quite possible under such conditions.

But in those situations where strong, sometimes unexpected stimuli arise, such children are lost and cannot cope with the activity.

Thus, children with a weak type of nervous system cope better with some tasks, with a strong type - others.

Considering the mobility of nervous processes, the following can be noted.

Students with high mobility coped with the task faster, but at the same time made mistakes.

Those with an inert system worked smoothly, evenly, performed the task punctually, allowing a minimum number of errors, but did not always fit into the allotted time.

In order to determine the type of temperament of the child as accurately as possible, it is important to note the presence of the following features:

1) activity - manifested in how energetically the child is drawn to the new, interacts with others, overcomes obstacles;

2) emotionality, which is judged by how easily emotional states change, how sensitive the child is to emotional influences, whether emotion easily becomes a motivating force for actions;

3) motility, expressed in sharpness, speed, amplitude and other muscle movements.

The elementary bad manners of a child should not be attributed to temperament, for example: lack of endurance is far from always evidence of a choleric temperament, but a consequence of miscalculations in education in the presence of any type of temperament.

However, one should not underestimate the really existing differences in the types of temperaments.

Knowledge of these differences will allow you to correctly understand and adequately respond to the characteristics of children's behavior, find an individual approach to them, and vary educational methods.

Children have different attitudes to the negative assessment of the teacher.

It turned out that this stimulates a student with a strong nervous system to correct himself, while a student with a weak type may experience a feeling of depression and confusion.

Special attention of teachers is often attracted by children with choleric and melancholic.

Cholerics should be kept in every possible way from the manifestation of violent emotional outbursts, instill the habit of working systematically, calmly, without haste.

Melancholic people need a clear regime, to increase their self-esteem, to demand actions related to overcoming difficulties.

Temperament affects the traits of behavior, but does not predetermine their mandatory manifestation.

It is well known that under favorable conditions of upbringing, a melancholic can develop strong volitional qualities, and a choleric can be taught to restrain his violent emotional outbursts.

Thus, knowledge of the temperaments of children makes it possible to make the educational process more effective, while temperamental traits are only one of the prerequisites for the development of a person's character.

2. Ability

1. The concept of abilities. Types of abilities.

2. Abilities, inclinations and individual characteristics of people.

3. Development of abilities.

1. The term "abilitiesis widely used not only in psychology, but also in other sciences.

Let's see how this concept is interpreted.

1. Abilities act as properties of the human soul and include all kinds of mental processes and states. This characteristic of abilities is the oldest of the available definitions and is now practically not used.

2. Abilities - this is a level of development of knowledge, skills and abilities in a person that allows him to successfully cope with various types of activities.

This definition was widely used in the XVIII-XIX centuries, and is sometimes used today.

3. Abilities are the features of a person that are not reducible to knowledge, skills, but allow them to be quickly acquired and effectively applied in practical activities.

At present, it is this definition that seems to be the most accurate and most common.

B. M. Teplov As the main features of abilities, he identifies the following:

1) these are individual mental characteristics of a person that distinguish one from another;

2) these are not any features, but only those that affect the success of the activity;

3) are not limited to already existing knowledge, skills and abilities.

As a rule, the effectiveness of the performance of an activity depends not on one, but on a combination of abilities.

If one ability is not well developed, then it can be made up for by a high level of development in another.

For example, a teacher's little emotional speech can be compensated by the rich information content of the material, interesting facts.

Ability classification

1. Natural (natural) and specific human (social).

Many abilities are common to both humans and animals.

Such general, biologically determined abilities include perception, memory, elementary thinking and communication, mainly at the level of expression.

Basically, the formation of these abilities occurs on the basis of elementary inclinations through training.

Specific human abilities (social) are formed as a result of the following situations:

1) the existence of a socio-cultural environment that reflects all the experience accumulated by generations of people;

2) the impossibility of mastering some subjects only on the basis of natural inclinations;

3) the need to perform complex activities with the participation of other people;

4) the existence next to the child of people who have formed abilities and are able to transfer them as a result of training and education;

5) the minimum number of rigid innate forms of behavior, the immaturity of brain structures, which allows the psyche to develop under the influence of training and education.

2. General and special abilities.

General abilities affect the success of various activities.

Most often, these include mental abilities (for example, breadth of mind, flexibility of thinking), developed memory, accuracy and subtlety of manual movements.

Special abilities are designed to successfully master a particular type of activity.

It is rather difficult to classify special abilities, since there are as many of them in number as there are types of activities a person performs (for example, musical, artistic, mathematical, technical, etc.).

General and special abilities often complement and enrich each other, simultaneously manifesting themselves in any activity.

3. Theoretical and practical abilities.

Theoretical ones indicate a tendency to abstract reasoning, logical conclusions, and practical ones - to the success of the implementation of specific, practical actions.

Often these two types do not go together.

People say: "This one is a theoretician, and this one is a good practitioner, everything can be argued in the hands."

However, for versatile, gifted people, theoretical and practical abilities interact well, complementing each other.

4. Educational and creative abilities.

Learning abilities are manifested with the successful acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, the formation of personal qualities; creative - when creating some new, previously uncreated objects of material and spiritual culture.

5. Ability to communicate, interact with people (communicative) - subject-active or subject-cognitive abilities.

The first group of abilities allows you to successfully contact people around you.

Examples are developed speech and interpersonal perception, an adequate assessment of people, the ability to win over, influence, etc.

Subject-cognitive - these are the abilities for various types of theoretical and practical activities.

It is very favorable for a person if both of these species complement each other. In this case, development occurs fully and harmoniously.

Thus, abilities can be defined as individual psychological characteristics that determine the success of performing activities and mastering knowledge, skills, and abilities.

2. The content of the concept of "ability" cannot be disclosed without the concept of "inclinations".

Makings are the prerequisites for the development of abilities.

Many consider inclinations only innate properties and qualities, however, if we consider the process of developing abilities in stages, then it is possible to single out acquired inclinations.

In order for the ability to reach a high level, it is important that it was well formed in the previous stage.

For example, a high level of development of mathematical abilities suggests that the child has mastered elementary mathematical knowledge, and in this case they act as inclinations.

Why do people differ from each other in the presence or absence of various inclinations? A. Anastasi notes: "Individual differences are generated by numerous and complex interactions between the heredity of the individual and the environment ...".

Let's try to understand this interaction.

Already from the moment the child is born, both the influence of heredity and the influence of the environment begin to appear.

For example, in newborn twins, not only common, but also distinctive features appear (one is more silent than the second, etc.).

At first glance, a paradoxical situation: identical twins, brought up by fate in different living conditions, turn out to be more similar than those who were brought up together.

Such unexpected facts can be explained as follows: children who are brought up next to each other cannot perform the same roles in games (for example, only one teacher acts in the game "School"), someone needs to yield, they rarely manage to do the same thing.

Inevitably, a hierarchical relationship begins to develop between the twins.

In the case of separate upbringing, this is not necessary, and if the child is naturally endowed with organizational abilities, then they will manifest themselves both in one and in the other.

Thus, studies of this kind allow us to consider the influence of the environment more significant than the influence of heredity.

A comparative analysis of the role of the environment and heredity can be carried out using the following methods:

1) a systematic change in the conditions of education and upbringing;

2) a comprehensive study of the characteristics of the psyche and behavior of children brought up in conditions of various social and national cultures, various types of families;

3) comparison of the characteristics of the psyche and behavior of homozygous (identical) and heterozygous (fraternal) twins.

Based on the research carried out, scientists (B. M. Teplov, V. D. Nebylitsyn, V. M. Rusalov) conclude that the properties of the nervous system cannot be considered as inclinations for the development of abilities, however, "they form the basis on which some forms of behavior are easier to form, others are more difficult" (B. M. Teplov).

Properties of the nervous system - these are stable formations, therefore the pedagogical task is not to change the negative properties, but to find the best method of training and education for each type of nervous system.

Speaking about the influence of heredity and environment on the development of intellectual abilities, it is difficult to give an unambiguous answer.

In some situations, heredity determines the formation of intellectual abilities, in others such a relationship is not traced.

Gender differences in the formation of abilities also do not have a clear expression, but they can increase as they grow older.

For example, men engaged in manual labor may have better coordination of movements than women, better orientation in space, and understanding of mechanical connections.

Women, in turn, have better speech abilities, more dexterous movements, superiority in the speed of perception, memorization, and counting.

So, socio-cultural factors have a stronger influence on the formation of abilities than biological ones, however, heredity is also extremely important for their development.

3. Many human abilities begin to form immediately after the birth of a person and go through the following stages in their development:

1) preparation of the anatomical and physiological base of future abilities (biological inclinations);

2) formation of the makings of a non-biological plan;

3) the ability reaches the required level of development.

These steps can either run in parallel or overlap to varying degrees.

In the development of a preschooler, the following stages of the formation of abilities are distinguished: the necessary organic structures and functional organs mature; the work of all analyzers becomes more perfect; there is a differentiation of areas of the cerebral cortex.

All of the above creates a favorable situation for the formation of general abilities, which, in turn, can be considered as inclinations for the formation of special abilities.

At the same age, the development of special abilities begins.

Primary and middle school age is characterized by the accelerated development of special abilities, which is favorably influenced by various types of activities: educational, play, labor. At the same time, it is desirable to simultaneously develop abilities that complement each other, for example, well-developed speech is important for a person, which is also part of intellectual, communicative and other abilities.

When organizing children's activities for the development of abilities, adults must ensure that the following requirements are met:

1) the creative nature of the activity;

2) the level of difficulty should be optimal, i.e. difficult, but doable;

3) it is necessary to create proper motivation;

4) during the entire process of performing the activity and at its completion, it is important to create a positive emotional mood in the child.

Thus, in their development, abilities go through certain stages, correlated with age characteristics.

3. Character

1. Definition of character.

2. Typology of characters.

3. Formation of character.

1. Character is a reflection of stable personality traits that manifest themselves in activities and communication and express a person’s attitude to people and the work performed.

The manifestation of character can be observed when performing any activity: some prefer complex activities, finding positive emotions in overcoming difficulties, others are satisfied with simple activities.

In the process of communication, a person's character is judged by his demeanor, ways of responding to the behavior of interlocutors (delicate behavior or unceremonious, polite or rude, etc.).

At the same time, it is not so much the features of the human nervous system that matter, but the level of his upbringing and culture.

We talk about character when we note the degree of a person's independence, his diligence and perseverance, purposefulness and perseverance.

When a person shows opposite qualities both in activity and in communication, they say about him that he is spineless.

Character is closely related to temperament, being just as stable and unchanging, but, unlike temperament, this is a lifetime formation.

In the structure of character traits, the following blocks can be distinguished:

1) a system of attitude to reality;

2) volitional qualities (we will consider in more detail in the topic "Will").

In turn, the system of attitude to reality is divided into:

1) attitude towards the team, other people (honesty, collectivism, conformism, selfishness, sincerity, etc.);

2) attitude to the activity performed (rationalism, prudence, diligence, frugality, etc.);

3) attitude towards oneself (independence, self-esteem, egocentrism, etc.).

Character occupies a central place in the structure of personality, influencing cognitive and emotional processes.

It is closely related to needs and interests and is clearly manifested when the most powerful and urgent needs are satisfied.

Unlike other personal qualities, character is formed at a fairly early age and is stable.

For example, interests, social attitudes can change throughout a person's life.

A change in character is possible, but this happens only in exceptional cases, for example, when a person falls seriously ill, finds himself in a situation of deep stress and a life crisis, due to age-related changes leading to deep organic disorders in the central nervous system.

Thus, the character determines the individuality and originality of the personality.

2. Throughout the history of the development of psychology, numerous attempts have been made to construct a typology of characters.

The researchers proceeded from the following ideas:

1) in the process of ontogenesis, a fairly early formation of character occurs, which then remains a more or less stable formation throughout life;

2) the character structure is formed not by a random combination of personal qualities, but by one that allows you to distinguish and build a typology;

3) Based on the typology, most people can be attributed to the corresponding groups.

Consider the most famous typologies of characters.

Typology of E. Kretschmer. in its typology E. Kretschmer proceeded from the dependence of personal qualities on the structure of the body.

The following types of constitutions were distinguished:

1) asthenic - these are people with thin skin and narrow shoulders, they have a flat chest, low body weight, underdeveloped muscles, women are small in stature;

2) athletic - people with highly developed muscles and skeleton, most often medium or tall, with a powerful chest, dense, high head;

3) picnic - these are people who are inclined to be overweight, their muscles are underdeveloped, the neck is short, their height is average.

E. Kretschmer compared the type of constitution with the possibility of developing certain mental illnesses, so picnics are prone to the development of manic-depressive psychosis, asthenics and athletics - to schizophrenia.

Based on this, the following types of characters are distinguished:

1) schizothymic - a person with finely developed feelings, aristocratic, prone to abstract thoughts, cold, aloof, domineering and selfish;

2) cyclothymic - a person cheerful and talkative, with an inherent easy attitude to life, sincere, energetic, prone to humor.

Based on those character traits that testify to the attitude towards people, C. Leonhard creates its own classification. Let's consider it in more detail:

1) hyperthymic type - high contact, talkativeness, expressiveness of gestures, facial expressions and pantomimics.

Does not stand up to the end of the topic of conversation, deviating from it. Not very serious about official duties and family obligations.

They often provoke conflicts. Optimistic and energetic, often frivolous. Easily irritated;

2) distimic type - reticence, slowness in movements, pessimism and passivity, low sociability, individualism.

Often leads a secluded life, a homebody.

Low conflict, serious, objective and conscientious;

3) cycloid type - characterized by a frequent change of mood and, as a result, a change in communication methods;

4) excitable type - unsociable, slowness in movements and speech is noted.

Often dull and gloomy; it is difficult to get along with him, as he often arranges scandals.

If everything goes well, then this is a conscientious, neat person who loves small children and animals.

In adverse situations, he is irritable, quick-tempered, has poor control over his behavior;

5) stuck type - moderate sociability, sometimes boring, sensitive in social justice, but easily offended in case of criticism, vengeful, ambitious, jealous, strives to be the first in everything;

6) pedantic type - bureaucrat, strives to do everything according to the rules, reliable, accurate, conscientious, but boring, grumpy, rarely enters into conflicts;

7) alarm type - timid and insecure, with low self-esteem, friendly and self-critical, low sociability, executive, often responsible for those actions that he did not commit;

8) emotive type - carries his grievances in himself, prefers a narrow circle of friends, a heightened sense of duty is inherent, kind and compassionate, tearful;

9) demonstrative type - Easily establishes contacts with others.

Thirsts for power and praise, courteous and artistic, able to captivate others, but at the same time selfish, hypocritical, likes to brag and shirk work;

10) exalted type - increased sociability and talkativeness, amorousness, altruism.

Brightness of feelings and good taste, but prone to alarmism, prone to momentary moods;

11) extrovert type - a large number of friends and acquaintances, talkativeness and frivolity, willingness to listen carefully, but at the same time willingly spreads rumors;

12) introverted type - isolation, a tendency to philosophizing, stubbornness, rigidity, adherence to principles.

In domestic psychology, a classification of accentuations of characters in adolescents, developed by A. E. Lichko.

We will talk more about it in the topic "Psychological characteristics of a teenager."

Knowing the type of character allows you to predict human behavior, which makes communication more effective.

3. The origins of character formation lie at the very beginning of a person's life path.

The leading role in this is played by relationships with others, primarily with the mother or those who directly care for the child.

The sensitive (most favorable) period for the formation of a child's character is the age from 2-3 to 9-10 years.

It is at this time that the process of communication with adults and peers is especially active.

Trust in adults on the part of the baby is unlimited, therefore, the word, and the deed, and the action are effective.

The nature of the relationship of adults with each other, which they demonstrate in front of the child, their attitude towards him is also important.

Subsequently, the child, becoming an adult, begins to use this method of communication in relation to his own children.

The nature of communication between a mother and a child already in the first months of his life affects the formation of such traits as kindness and responsiveness, sociability, or, conversely, selfishness and callousness, indifference to people.

Somewhat later, at an early and preschool age, character traits are laid that characterize the attitude to activity: accuracy, diligence, conscientiousness, responsibility, etc.

The source of the formation of these qualities are games and affordable forms of domestic work.

Adults must support and reinforce those manifestations that they would like to see in the structure of their child's character traits.

The beginning of entering school contributes to the formation of character traits associated with relationships between people.

The expansion of the social circle (classmates, teachers) contributes to this design.

If the methods of interaction learned at preschool age are reinforced in the school years, then most often they are steadily fixed for the rest of their lives.

If these methods are not supported, a break in character may begin, accompanied by external and internal contradictions.

The result is not always positive. Most often, there is a partial change in character traits, leading to some compromise.

In the school years, volitional qualities are actively developed, and in the senior classes the basic moral traits of character are fixed, which determine the worldview position of a person.

By the end of schooling, the formation of character can be considered established, and the person remains, for the most part, recognizable in any situation for those who knew him in his school years.

So, the character begins to form from the first months of life, and by the end of school age, its formation, as a rule, ends.

4. Will

1. The concept of will.

2. Volitional regulation of behavior.

3. The development of a person's will, volitional qualities.

1. Performing various types of activities, a person is guided by some specific motives that are not always realized, or are not realized very clearly, and the actions corresponding to them are not controlled by consciousness.

In this case, they say that the actions of a person are involuntary (fear, delight, amazement, etc.). However, in most cases, human actions are subject to awareness and control.

Then one speaks of arbitrary actions, i.e., derivatives of the will.

Sometimes a person does not make any significant efforts to achieve a goal, for example, reading an interesting book.

If some obstacles are overcome, efforts are made, then such actions are volitional.

The obstacles on the way to achieving the goal are divided into external (not dependent on the person, for example, he was late for a meeting because the bus broke down) and internal (depending on the desires and activity of the person himself, for example, he was late because he overslept).

Will - this is the mental activity of a person, manifested in achieving the goal and overcoming the obstacles and difficulties that stand in the way of achieving this goal.

Overcoming difficulties, a person makes volitional efforts, manifested in neuropsychic tension, due to which the moral and intellectual forces of a person are mobilized.

The will manifests itself in two kinds of activity:

1) executive volitional activity (a person consciously carries out the orders of other persons, guided by a sense of duty and an understanding of responsibility in solving the tasks facing him);

2) independent volitional activity (decisions are made independently, but this independence can manifest itself at various stages of the activity).

So, the will is inherent only in man, it is formed depending on the conditions of the material life of society.

2. Volitional actions can be simple и complex.

Simple volitional actions characterized by a clear and precise idea of ​​how the activity will be carried out.

The elements of this action are the goal, motive, means and methods of implementation.

There are the following steps to perform this action:

1) awareness of the goal, the desire to achieve it;

2) awareness of the available opportunities to achieve the goal;

3) decision making;

4) execution of decisions, achievement of the goal.

The fundamental difference between a simple action and a complex one lies in the absence of disagreement between different motives (struggle of motives), therefore, in complex volitional action There are the following execution steps:

1) awareness of the goal, the desire to achieve it;

2) awareness of the available opportunities to achieve the goal;

3) the emergence of motives that either affirm or deny the existence of these possibilities;

4) the struggle of motives and the choice of the most significant;

5) implementation of the decision.

The stage of decision execution can manifest itself in two ways:

1) the action is performed with the help of external actions;

2) outwardly actions are not performed, a person refrains from them, for example, refrains from drinking alcohol, etc.

Volitional action ends with a self-assessment of the effectiveness of achieving the goal.

Thus, volitional action includes a number of successive stages.

3. In the structure of the personality, volitional qualities can be distinguished, the significance of which in a person's life is very great.

Let's consider the most important of them.

Purposefulness is manifested in the desire of a person to subordinate his behavior to the achievement of a sustainable life goal.

Independence - this is the construction of one's behavior in accordance with one's own views and beliefs, however, an independent person is always able to listen to someone else's opinion.

This is a positive personality trait, from which negative ones should be distinguished: negativism and suggestibility.

Negativism - this is behavior contrary to the opinions of others, when no advice, even reasonable ones, is recognized.

Suggestibility - behavior is built in accordance with other people's advice.

Decisiveness is manifested in the ability of a person to quickly make adequate decisions and implement them in a timely manner. Decisive people are most often those who:

1) know their business well;

2) are confident in their abilities and correctness;

3) are self-possessed and courageous.

Perseverance - this is the ability of a person, despite difficulties and obstacles, to achieve the goal.

From this positive quality, one should distinguish such a negative one as stubbornness, when a person tries to achieve a goal, even if it is unreasonable.

A stubborn person, even realizing that he is wrong, still continues to insist on his own opinion.

Endurance (self-control) - the ability of a person to refrain from actions that are undesirable at the moment and not to lose self-control even in difficult situations.

The opposite negative quality is impulsiveness, when a person rushes to perform an action on the first impulse without analyzing the consequences.

Courage and boldness are manifested in the desire of a person to achieve a goal, despite the dangers.

The opposite quality is cowardice.

Discipline is the desire of a person to build his behavior in accordance with social norms.

Let us consider in what directions the development of volitional regulation is carried out.

1. The transition of involuntary mental processes to arbitrary ones.

2. Development of the ability to exercise control over one's own behavior.

3. Formation of strong-willed qualities.

4. Conscious adherence to increasingly distant goals, the achievement of which requires significant strong-willed efforts over a long period of time.

Volitional regulation of behavior is improved depending on the level of intellectual and personal development, especially the formation of the motivational sphere.

Playing and learning activities play a special role in the formation of volitional processes in children.

Thus, objective games form the arbitrariness of actions, plot-role-playing - volitional qualities of the individual, educational activity contributes to the development of arbitrary regulation of cognitive processes.

Following certain rules will help adults instill a strong will in a child.

1. Do not do for the child what he is able to do on his own, or what he can learn, but only provide conditions for the performance of the activity.

2. Maintain a sense of joy from the result achieved.

3. Lead the child to a rational decision, and do not decide for him.

4. Demand from yourself what you demand from your child.

5. The demands made must be justified and achievable, deliberate and not numerous.

6. Don't demand interest in all tasks, some should be done automatically.

So, volitional qualities are developed in the process of activity, while the personal example of an adult is very important.

5. Emotions and feelings

1. The concept of emotions and feelings.

2. Kinds of feelings.

3. Emotional reactions and states.

4. Higher feelings.

5. The development of emotions and feelings in children.

1. "Emotions" и "feeling" - very close and most often inseparable concepts, but still they are not identical.

Emotions It is a direct experience in a specific period of time.

Most often they are associated with the innate reactions of a person, his motives and needs.

Feeling - this is a personality trait, a relatively stable attitude to the world around.

The inseparability of emotions and feelings is expressed in the fact that feelings are manifested in specific emotions.

For example, love for a loved one is manifested in joy for his successes and achievements.

The importance of emotions in human life is great. They help to navigate what is happening, evaluating it from the standpoint of desirability or undesirability, under their influence a person can do the impossible, since there is an instant mobilization of all the forces of the body.

Interesting views of the psychophysiologist P. V. Simonova, who believed that emotions arise when there is a mismatch between what you need to know and what is known. P. V. Simonov owns the creation of the formula of emotions:

E \uXNUMXd (-P) / (HC)

where E - emotions,

P - need (in the formula it is taken with a negative sign "-"),

N - information necessary to satisfy the need,

C - information that can be used, what is known.

The following conclusions can be drawn from the formula:

1) if P \u0d 0, then E \uXNUMXd XNUMX, i.e. there is no need, there are no emotions either;

2) if H \u0d C, then E \uXNUMXd XNUMX, that is, a situation where a person has completeness of information and opportunities to meet a need;

3) if C \u0d XNUMX, then E is maximum, since if there is a need, there is no information about how to satisfy it. This is the case about which they say: "It is not the event that is terrible, but its expectation";

4) if C is greater than H, then positive emotions arise.

P. V. Simonov in the book "What is an emotion?" gives the following situation: "A thirsty traveler moves on hot sands.

He knows that only after three days there can be a source. Will it be possible to pass this way? Has the stream been covered with sand? And suddenly, turning behind a rock ledge, a person sees a well that is not marked on the map.

Stormy joy embraces the weary traveler. At that moment, when the mirror of the well flashed in front of him, the traveler became the owner of comprehensive information about the possibility of quenching his thirst, and this in a situation where the forecast predicted three days of the most difficult trials.

However, the emotional life is much richer than any formula, so many life manifestations do not fit into it.

The value of emotions and feelings in a person's life is very great, they allow you to better understand everything that surrounds a person and what happens to him.

2. There is a huge number of emotions in a person's life, which are sometimes difficult to combine into any groups, therefore there is a wide variety of classifications of emotions.

Let's name the most commonly used:

1) positive (cause pleasant experiences) and negative (cause unpleasant experiences).

It should be noted that personal and public assessments of the sign of emotion do not always coincide, for example, guilt is unpleasant for a person, and therefore it is a negative emotion, but for society this emotion is clearly positive;

2) ptenic (cause human activity) and asthenic (hinder activity, provoking passive behavior);

3) W. Wundt proposed a classification in three areas:

a) pleasure - displeasure;

b) voltage - discharge;

c) excitation - inhibition.

4) The modern American researcher K. Izard ("Human Emotions") proposes to divide emotions into fundamental and derivative ones.

The fundamental ones include interest, joy, surprise, grief, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, guilt.

We emphasize once again that due to the variety of emotional manifestations, it is difficult to give a single classification of emotions.

3. External expression of emotions is defined as an emotional reaction. Expressive movements contribute to better understanding between people, being an involuntary accompaniment of speech.

Understanding the language of emotions, you can find the right words, the right tone in communication, support a person in need.

Studies have shown that the most informative in emotional reactions are the eyes and mouth of a person.

Thus, it is estimated that in the works L. N. Tolstoy there are descriptions of 85 shades of expression of the eyes and 97 - of a smile.

In one experimental study, it was studied which part of the face - the eyes or the mouth - determines its expression.

In the experiment, photographs of the face of the same person were horizontally cut in half, where various emotions were depicted: laughter, surprise, suffering, etc.

Then they were glued into one photo with the expression of various emotions.

The task of the subjects is to determine what emotion is being expressed. It turned out that the leading role in the definition of emotion belongs to the mouth, since it was by its expression that the emotion was determined.

The language of emotions is a language understandable without an interpreter, however, it should be remembered that there are cultural and national characteristics that are determined by customs and traditions.

For example, in some African countries, laughter expresses amazement, and in some Asian countries, a burp from a guest after a treat means complete satisfaction.

If emotions are manifested over a relatively long period, then we can talk about an emotional state.

The most common of these are mood, affect, frustration, and stress.

The mood captures a person for some time, but this is a relatively mild state and can change quite often.

The emergence of a particular mood depends on many reasons that are not always realized by a person, so sometimes it may seem that the appearance of a bad or good mood is in no way explainable.

Affect - a rapidly emerging and rapidly flowing emotional state, which is characterized by a violation of the conscious control of one's actions, the inability to adequately assess what is happening.

Several stages can be distinguished in the development of an affective state. At the initial stage, a person experiences a strong desire to succumb to the feeling that has gripped him (anger, fear, etc.).

At the same time, small movements are upset, the manifestation of expressive reactions is not controlled.

However, at this stage a person can still master himself and slow down the development of affect.

For example, count to 10, take a deep breath, do mechanical work, etc. If this does not happen, then the onset of passion is inevitable.

A person completely loses control over himself, his actions are reckless. At the end of an affective outburst, weakness and emptiness come, a breakdown, sometimes a person falls asleep.

Stress - this concept was introduced G. Selye, who defined it as a state of strong and prolonged psychological stress resulting from an overload of the nervous system.

It is impossible to unambiguously take a negative attitude to a stressful situation, since against the background of a destructive effect on a person, stress can also mobilize the body's resources to achieve high results, for example, in sports.

Nevertheless, if the tension is long and very strong, then it does not pass without a trace and is fraught with the occurrence of somatic diseases, fatigue, indifference, and depression.

There are three phases in the course of stress:

1) an anxiety reaction characterized by great stress in the functioning of the body; by the end of the phase, resistance to a specific stressor increases;

2) stabilization, where functions taken out of balance are set at a new level;

3) exhaustion.

Frustration - an emotional state that occurs in a situation where it is impossible to achieve the goal due to constantly arising obstacles.

It can have two forms of expression: aggression or depression. The main reason for the occurrence is the inability of a person to endure prolonged emotional stress, poor endurance.

Thus, emotions have a number of external and internal manifestations that change the life of a person.

4. Feelings, like emotions, are difficult to classify, and psychology does not have a generally accepted classification.

Simplistically, feelings can be divided into moral, intellectual and aesthetic.

Moral (moral) feelings testify to the attitude of a person towards other people, society, and their manifestation is based on moral norms that a person is guided by when organizing his behavior.

As an example, we can highlight the feeling of love (in the broad and narrow sense), compassion, devotion, humanity, etc.

Intellectual feelings arise in the process of cognitive activity and reflect a person's attitude to this activity.

Psychology has irrefutable evidence of a deep connection between thought and emotional processes, where feelings regulate the course of intellectual activity.

Examples of such feelings are curiosity, doubt, the joy of discovery, love of truth, etc. A. Einstein wrote:

"The most beautiful and deepest emotion we can experience is the feeling of mystery.

It is the source of all true knowledge." V. A. Sukhomlinsky emphasized the importance of the feeling of surprise in the intellectual development of the child, noted that the absence or loss of this feeling does not stimulate the knowledge of the secrets of life, impoverishes the inner world of the child.

Aesthetic feelings reflect a person's attitude to various aspects of life, their expression in art, are manifested in artistic tastes, in assessments, etc.

These feelings are a product of the cultural development of the individual, an indicator of his maturity.

Examples are a sense of beauty, aesthetic pleasure, a sense of humor, etc.

Human feelings are characterized by stability and generalization, the impossibility of reducing them to specific emotional experiences.

5. Immediately at the time of the birth of the child, the first emotional reaction appears - a cry.

Already in the first month of life, a smile appears, and in 2-2,5 months - a "complex of revival", i.e. emotional reactions (movement of arms, legs, smile) when an adult appears and turns to the baby.

At preschool age, emotions and feelings are extremely unstable, but very diverse, for example, interest, anger, surprise, disgust, joy, etc.

At school age, under the influence of education, higher feelings are actively formed.

Younger schoolchildren still do not have a good command of their emotions, but adolescents, against the background of the growth of moral feelings, are quite well aware of their emotional experiences.

There are a variety of ways to nurture emotions. Music, painting, excursions to nature, fiction - all well-known ways to develop the emotional sphere of children.

It is useful to teach children to recognize and convey an emotional state with the help of facial expressions and pantomime, this will allow them to better understand other people in the future. You can train these skills using pictogram templates that represent a schematic expression of an emotion.

The emotional sphere of children can be developed through the game. Games serve as the environment where the baby shows his emotions and feelings, learns to communicate.

It is important that the child has such a toy (preferably soft), with which he will complain, scold, pity her, etc.

She will also protect against loneliness, if, due to circumstances, the baby must be left alone.

In the development of children's emotionality, the role of fairy tales is significant. Reading fairy tales is by no means just an interesting pastime, but one of the ways to develop the inner world of the child himself and his ability to understand the inner world of another person.

So, in the development of the emotional world of children, you can use a variety of methods and techniques.

LECTURE No. 4. Psychology of age differences

1. Mental development of a child of infancy

1. Congenital forms of the psyche and behavior.

2. Development of the cognitive sphere.

3. Personal neoplasms of infancy.

1. A child is born helpless, with only a very limited set of unconditioned reflexes (sucking, indicative, defensive) and some motor - atavistic reflexes (clinging, swimming, repulsion).

By the time the child is born, the cerebral cortex has not yet fully formed: the number of processes in nerve cells is very small and they are not yet covered with a myelin sheath.

The result is the rapid spread of excitation throughout the cortex and the difficulty in the formation of conditioned reflexes.

However, this circumstance should be considered as positive, since the baby has great opportunities for learning new experiences.

Experiments conducted with children who are only 1,5 days old showed that when the organ of vision is exposed to color stimuli, various electrical potentials are recorded in the cortex, which means the possibility of the formation of conditioned reflexes.

Let us indicate some conditioned reflexes that are formed in a child already in the first month of life.

The reflex of hungry excitement can form already on the 5th-7th day of life.

If the child is fed strictly after certain periods of time, then he quickly gets used to the regimen, wakes up and screams that it is time for him to eat.

The reflex to position under the breast appears by the end of the second week of life.

Its essence is as follows: if from the first days of life the mother breastfeeds the child, for which she takes him in her arms and gives him a certain position under the breast, then already on the 9th-15th day of the mother it is enough to take the child in her arms and give her the usual position for feeding, so that the baby began to make sucking movements, although the mucous membrane of the child's mouth is not irritated.

So, in the newborn period, it is still possible to observe the manifestation of innate forms of behavior, while the formation of conditioned reflexes begins in the first month of life.

2. The process of cognition of the surrounding world begins from the moment of birth.

Vision is the first to develop actively. A one-month-old child is able to make tracking eye movements, first in a horizontal plane, then in a vertical one, and by two months elementary eye movements begin to be recorded.

In the second month of life, visual concentration occurs, but up to 2-4 months of age, the infant's vision is still relatively weak.

From about the second month, the baby is able to distinguish between simple colors, and at 3-4 - the shapes of objects.

It is likely that in the first two weeks of life, the newborn has formed a single image of the face and voice of the mother.

As observations and experiments have shown, the baby shows anxiety if he sees his mother's face, but hears a completely different voice, and, conversely, if he sees a stranger who speaks in his mother's voice.

In the second month of life, the child begins to show emotional-motor excitement if an adult begins to communicate with him ("revitalization complex").

A 3-4 month old baby, by his behavior, demonstrates a preference for communicating with people he knows.

For about eight months, the child is worried if he sees a stranger or gets into an unfamiliar environment, even if his mother is nearby.

This feeling of fear continues to progress and reaches a maximum by about 14-18 months of a child's life, and then gradually fades away.

In such a reaction, a sense of self-preservation is probably manifested, when the child begins to explore new spaces in connection with upright walking, and protective reactions are still weak.

Soon after birth, the child is able to distinguish the timbre, loudness and pitch of sounds, after 3-4 months he recognizes the face and voice of the mother at any time of the day, and at 8-12 months - objects, even in separate parts.

At this time, an active search for objects that suddenly disappeared from the field of vision begins, which indicates the child's ability to retain the image of the object in memory.

Independent movement in space leads to the development of depth perception in an infant.

During the second half of the first year of life, the child can restore the image of the object from memory.

Thus, perception and memory begin to develop from the first days of life, gradually improving and developing.

In the development of a baby's speech, the following stages can be distinguished:

1) in the first month of life there is an increased interest in human speech;

2) at the age of about a month, pronunciation of the simplest sounds begins;

3) at 2-4 months, the child, as it were, "grunts", "gurgles";

4) at 4-6 months, there is a repetition of simple syllables, "cooing" - stretching out vowels;

5) from the age of 6 months, syllables and babble appear in the child's speech;

6) at 9-10 months, the baby is able to pronounce the first words.

In the second half of the first half of the year, the child begins to respond with expressive movements to the speech of an adult, which may indicate that the infant understands this speech, although initially children understand gestures better than words.

At 6-6,5 months, the child is able to associate an object with a word denoting it.

By the end of the first year of life, the baby understands approximately 10-20 words. A 7-8 month old child performs simple movements in accordance with verbal instructions, and in the last months of the first year he can establish the simplest connections between objects. These relationships between objects are established with the help of practical tests, which is a manifestation of visual-effective thinking.

As a rule, the baby understands the connections between those objects that the adult has shown him.

Thus, by the end of infancy, on the basis of actions organized by adults, elementary forms of thinking arise, the first words, passive speech actively develops.

3. The statement that the personal development of a child begins at the age of 2-3 is not entirely true. This is true only in relation to the manifestation of external signs, but the process of formation of these personal properties begins much earlier than their external manifestation.

Such conclusions can be drawn based on the following provisions:

1) no psychological quality immediately appears ready-made;

2) many personal qualities appear only after a fairly long time from the moment when they began to form.

Thus, it can be assumed that the personality formation of a child begins already in the first year of life, but outwardly this manifests itself later.

There is evidence that many of the personal qualities that manifest themselves primarily in relationships with other people are rooted in the relationship between the mother and the baby.

From the very first days of life, babies react in a peculiar way to the speech of adults, reproducing the rhythm of spoken words in their movements.

A frame-by-frame analysis of the video recording of the movements of the hands and fingers of the newborn was carried out, which showed that when an adult addressed him, the rhythm of their micro-movements coincided.

Such a synchronous interaction has so far been identified only in humans.

Experimentally, it was also possible to reveal the ability to imitate in newborns.

Even six-day-old babies stick out their tongue, open their mouths, open their eyes, if the mother makes such movements, and this is not the result of a coincidence.

So, the personal development of the child begins in the first year of life.

2. Features of the psyche and behavior at an early age

1. General characteristics of the development of a child from one to three years.

2. Subject and game activity at an early age.

3. Cognitive development of a young child. The development of speech.

4. Personal development at the age of one to three years. Crisis "I myself".

1. In the second year of life, a new stage begins in the development of the child.

The baby is actively growing, gaining weight. There is a restructuring of the functioning of the body.

That is why adults require increased attention to protecting the child from physical overload, protection from infectious diseases.

Early age is very significant in the formation of the psyche, behavior, personal development of the child, since the qualitative transformations that occur to him are great.

Psychologists even tend to suggest that three years is the middle of the path of development from birth to maturity.

Compared to a newborn, a three-year-old baby owns many household items, uses a spoon, is capable of self-care, communicates with others using active speech, and is able to follow elementary rules of behavior.

We single out the main achievements of an early age that affect the mental development of the child:

1) mastering a straight gait;

2) mastery of active speech;

3) development of objective activity.

Let us dwell in more detail on the role of upright walking for the mental development of the child.

As a result of independent movement, a wider range of objects becomes available to the child, with which he can interact, using not only his hands and eyes, but also his entire body and legs.

These are not only toys, but also household items: dishes, shoes, furniture, etc. At the same time, the child’s movements become more coordinated and accurate, coordinated, which leads to the development of attention stability, perception accuracy, and the formation of volitional qualities.

Independent walking leads to acquaintance with large objects, the child gets the opportunity to recognize them from different angles, thus assimilating the concepts of size, shape; learns to navigate in space, developing an eye. Overcoming the difficulties and obstacles that he encounters on his way, the baby solves problems with the help of practical actions, training his thinking and volitional sphere, while receiving a variety of emotions.

Thus, mastering a straight gait significantly affects the mental development of a child in the second year of life.

2. At an early age, the leading type of activity is objective activity, and as a result of actions with objects, the child's psyche actively develops.

Of all the actions that a child masters in early childhood, the most significant for the development of the psyche are correlative and instrumental.

Correlating actions are aimed at bringing objects or their parts to some kind of mutual correspondence, for example, folding a pyramid, nesting dolls.

Tool actions involve the impact of one object (tool) on others, for example, the use of a spoon while eating, a scoop for playing in the sand.

By the end of early childhood, other activities begin to take shape that will be actively in demand beyond this age.

This is, first of all, a role-playing game and productive activities (drawing, modeling, designing).

In a role-playing game, actions with objects become secondary, and the reproduction of labor actions and social relations comes to the fore.

The content of the initial games includes only two or three actions; by the age of three, the child masters story games. In the third year of life, children begin to widely use substitute objects in games (for example, instead of a thermometer - a stick), which is an important acquisition in the child's mental development.

Drawing begins to form for about a year, when the child is still able to hold a pencil in his hand.

At first, children draw scribbles, seeing some images in them, by the age of three, a rounded line becomes their favorite pattern, with the help of which almost all objects and objects are depicted (the "cephalopod" stage).

The design is still elementary. The child copies the patterns shown by adults.

Thus, objective activity has the greatest influence on the mental development of the child, but other types of activity are developing more and more actively.

3. The beginning of an early age is characterized by imperfection in the development of cognitive processes.

This also applies to perception. The child is oriented in the environment and objects, but often the orientation occurs on the basis of any one conspicuous sign, for example, the child designates with the word "pti" (bird) all objects that have a protrusion - a beak.

Comparison of objects occurs through external actions, but by the end of the age stage, in simple cases, it can be carried out with the help of vision.

In the third year of life, the child often uses well-known objects as a constant model for comparison (triangular objects - "like a house", "like a roof", oval ones - "like a testicle", etc.).

At the same age, the child is able to distinguish between shapes such as a circle, an oval, a square, a rectangle, a polygon, and all the primary colors of the spectrum.

The leading type of thinking at an early age is visual-effective, however, the child is already able to perform simple mental actions in the mind.

In elementary cases, children can make generalizations on such essential features as color, shape, size.

Early age is the most favorable (sensitive) period for mastering speech.

For about a year, a child can pronounce individual words, his vocabulary ranges from 4 to 10 words.

At about two years old, the baby speaks in simple sentences, and by four - almost the same as adults.

The development of speech goes in the following directions:

1) improving the understanding of speech (passive speech);

2) own active speech is formed.

Let us dwell on the development of active speech in more detail.

The vocabulary of a child of 1,5 years is from 30-40 to 100 words, by the end of two years - about 300 words, and by the age of three - already 1200-1500 words.

At the age of one to one and a half years, the child begins to call a spade a spade, but at the same time he learns only certain properties of objects.

At the initial stage of mastering the speech structure, the child learns syllables, first stressed, then doubled and single-syllable words.

At this time, the construction of sentences is not yet taking place, but one, later two words, which do not change by gender and case, act as such.

At 1,5-2 years, the child's speech still bears little resemblance to the speech of an adult. Such speech is called autonomous.

Adults should not support this speech, otherwise it may persist for a long time.

The mastery of speech is of great importance for various aspects of the mental development of the child; under its influence, the mental processes of the child are rebuilt, due to which active knowledge of the world around begins.

4. During early childhood, the child gradually acquires human forms of behavior. The kid wants to receive praise from an adult and is upset if he is dissatisfied. A feeling of sympathy towards other people continues to form, which can be expressed in sympathy, the desire to share toys.

During this period, the child learns his name. The kid identifies himself with his name early enough, defends the right to it and protests if he is mistakenly called by another name.

By the end of the 3rd year of life, there is an awareness of oneself as a separate person, which indicates the beginning of the crisis, which psychologists call "I myself."

This crisis has very bright outward manifestations. Let's name the most striking symptoms.

1. Negativism - the child does not want to do something just because it was suggested by an adult.

2. Obstinacy - the child insists on something, not because he really wants it, but because he does not want to give in.

3. obstinacy - dissatisfaction on any occasion.

4. willfulness, waywardness - the child's desire for independence, the desire to do everything himself.

The listed signs are the main ones characteristic of most children, however, psychologists also distinguish a number of secondary symptoms.

5. Protest (riot) - Behavior takes on a protest character, quarrels often arise with parents, brothers, sisters.

6. Depreciation - the child begins to use abusive words, breaks toys, etc.

7. In a family with an only child, manifestation is possible despotism, with several children - jealousy in relation to parents.

During this crisis, the child's social position is restructured in relation to the people around him, motives arise that are associated with the manifestation of the child's personality.

Adults should remember that children's awareness of their capabilities, as a rule, does not correspond to the possibilities themselves, so it is necessary to create game situations more often, where it is possible to resolve conflicts that arise.

Thus, in the period of early childhood, a restructuring of the social relationships between the personality of the child and the people around him takes place.

3. Psychology of a preschooler

1. Subject activity and play at preschool age.

2. Cognitive processes of a preschooler.

3. Personal development in preschool age.

4. Readiness of the child to study at school.

1. The game becomes the leading activity in preschool age. However, throughout the entire age period, gaming activity undergoes significant changes.

Younger preschoolers (3-4 years old) mostly play alone.

The duration of the games is usually limited to 15-20 minutes, and the plot is to reproduce the actions of those adults whom they observe in everyday life.

Average preschoolers (4-5 years old) already prefer joint games, in which the main thing is to imitate relationships between people.

Children clearly follow the rules in the performance of roles. Themed games with a large number of roles are widespread.

For the first time, leadership and organizational skills begin to appear.

In the middle preschool age, drawing actively develops. A schematic, x-ray drawing is characteristic, when something that is not visible externally is drawn, for example, when depicted in profile, both eyes are drawn.

Games-competitions begin to arouse an active interest, which contribute to the formation of motives for achieving success in children.

An older preschooler (5-7 years old) is able to play for a long time, even for several days.

In games, more attention is paid to the reproduction of moral and ethical standards.

Construction is actively developing, during which the child learns the simplest labor skills, gets acquainted with the properties of objects, develops practical thinking, learns to use tools and household items.

The drawing of the child becomes voluminous, plot.

Thus, during preschool childhood, games with objects, role-playing, designing, drawing, and household work are consistently developed and improved.

2. At preschool age, the sensory sphere actively develops. The child improves in the accuracy of perception of color, size, shape, weight, etc. He is able to notice the difference between sounds of different pitches, sounds similar in pronunciation, learn a rhythmic pattern, determine the position of objects in space, intervals of time.

The perception of a preschool child will be more accurate if it is caused by bright stimuli and is accompanied by positive emotions.

By the older preschool age, the meaningfulness of perception increases sharply, i.e., ideas about the environment expand and deepen.

The thinking of a preschooler is represented by three types: visual-effective, visual-figurative, verbal-logical. At the beginning of the preschool period, the child solves most of the problems with the help of practical actions.

By the senior preschool age, visual-figurative thinking acquires a leading role. Against the background of its rapid development, the foundation of logical thinking begins to be laid, which will be so necessary during the period of schooling.

The attention of the child throughout the entire preschool age continues to be involuntary, although it acquires greater stability and concentration.

True, most often a child is concentrated if he is engaged in an interesting, exciting activity.

By the end of the preschool period, the child is able to maintain steady attention when performing intellectual activities: solving puzzles, guessing puzzles, charades, riddles, etc.

The memory of a preschooler has the following features:

1) the most developed figurative memory, including such a variety of it as eidetic;

2) memorization occurs better if it is organized in the course of gaming activity, involuntary memorization is characteristic;

3) when setting a mnemonic task, memorization occurs mechanically, i.e., by repetition;

4) a preschooler listens with pleasure to what he has already heard, thus training his memory;

5) emotional memory is well developed, the great impressionability of the child leads to the fact that we retain a large number of vivid images of childhood.

Consider the features of the imagination of a preschooler:

1) Imagination images easily arise.

2) the "products" of fantasy are contradictory: on the one hand, the child is a "terrible" realist ("It doesn't happen like that"), on the other, a great dreamer;

3) the images of the preschooler's imagination are distinguished by their brightness, emotionality, originality of ideas, although most often these ideas are repelled from the previously known (recreating imagination);

4) often the child's fantasies are directed to the future, although in these images he is very fickle.

At preschool age, the child's speech continues to improve actively. This is facilitated by play activities, during which children agree on the rules, distribute roles, etc.

There is a mastery of grammar rules, declensions and conjugations, complex sentences, rules for the use of connecting unions, suffixes and prefixes.

As a means of communication, the child uses speech of the following types:

1) situational;

2) contextual;

3) explanatory.

Situational speech is often understandable only to the interlocutor, it remains inaccessible to outsiders, it contains many verbal patterns, adverbs, there are no proper names, the subject drops out.

As the child masters more complex activities, speech becomes expanded, including explanations of the situation.

Such speech is called contextual. At the senior preschool age, the child develops an explanatory speech, when the sequence of presentation is preserved, the main thing is highlighted.

At preschool age, egocentric speech is also quite common.

This is an intermediate form between external and internal speech and is expressed in commenting on one's actions aloud, without addressing anyone in particular.

So, at preschool age, the arbitrariness of the actions and mental processes of the child increases, knowledge about the world around them deepens and expands.

3. The personal development of a preschooler includes:

1) understanding of the surrounding world and one's place in this world;

2) development of the emotional and volitional spheres.

The attitude of an adult to a child largely determines the formation of his personality.

At the same time, observance of the norms of public morality becomes important. A preschooler can learn these norms in the following ways:

1) imitating close people;

2) observing the work of adults;

3) listening to the reading of stories, fairy tales, poems;

4) imitating peers who enjoy attention from adults;

5) through the media, primarily television.

Younger preschoolers learn cultural and hygienic skills, daily routine, rules for handling toys, books; middle and older preschoolers - rules for relationships with other children.

At preschool age, the self-awareness of the child begins to actively form, which is manifested in self-esteem.

At the initial stage, the child learns to evaluate the characters of fairy tales, stories, then transfers these assessments to real people, and only by the older preschool age does the ability to correctly evaluate oneself begin to take shape.

Throughout preschool age, feelings accompany the behavior of the child.

The kid is not yet able to fully control his emotional experiences, his mood can quickly change to the opposite, but with age, feelings acquire greater depth and stability.

The "reasonableness" of feelings rises, which is explained by the acceleration of mental development.

Increasingly, one can observe the manifestation of such feelings as a sense of joy and pride in a completed task, or the opposite - feelings of chagrin and shame if the task is not completed, a sense of the comic (children come up with verbal shifters), a sense of beauty.

By the end of preschool age, the child in some cases manages to restrain violent manifestations of feelings.

He gradually masters the understanding of the non-verbal language of emotions.

Thus, the personal development of a child in preschool age occurs as a result of active interaction with adults.

4. Let us dwell in more detail on the consideration of psychological readiness for schooling, which is understood as "the necessary and sufficient level of a child's mental development for mastering the school curriculum in the conditions of learning in a peer group" (I. V. Dubrovina, 1997).

In other words, the child, being in a peer group, should be able to learn school material.

There are different opinions on the subject of highlighting the parameters of the mental development of the child.

L. I. Bozhovich singled out: the level of motivational development, including cognitive and social (the desire to take a certain position in a group of peers) motives for learning; a sufficient level of development of arbitrariness and a certain level of development of the intellectual sphere, while priority was given to motivational development.

Readiness for schooling implies the formation of the "internal position of the student", which means the child's ability to consciously set and fulfill certain intentions and goals.

Most researchers assign one of the main places to arbitrariness. D. B. Elkonin singled out as the main skills such as the conscious subordination of one's actions to the rule, orientation to a given system of requirements, attentive listening to the speaker and the exact fulfillment of the task offered orally.

These parameters are the elements of developed arbitrariness.

For successful schooling, it is also important to have the ability to communicate with adults and peers, readiness to accept a new social position: "the position of a student."

Intellectual readiness for schooling primarily does not consist of the amount of acquired knowledge, but of the level of development of cognitive processes, that is, the child's ability to reason, analyze, compare, draw conclusions, etc. At the same time, a good level of speech development is extremely important.

Summarizing the above approaches, we can distinguish three aspects of school readiness: intellectual, emotional, social.

The intellectual component is expressed in the level of outlook, a certain vocabulary, the level of development of cognitive processes (perception, memory, attention, thinking and imagination, speech) and the ability to single out a learning task.

Emotional readiness is the ability of a child to perform an unattractive task for a long time without being distracted, a decrease in impulsive reactions, the ability to set a goal and achieve it, despite difficulties.

The social component is manifested in the ability and desire to communicate with peers, to obey the laws of the children's group, in the readiness to accept the status of a student.

Some researchers focus on motivational readiness, which manifests itself in a pronounced need to achieve success in learning and communication, the presence of adequate (corresponding to the true position) self-esteem, a moderately high level of claims (the desire to achieve something). So, a child who is psychologically ready for schooling should have all the components listed above.

4. Psychological characteristics of a younger student

1. Psychological features of the initial stage of education.

2. Mental and cognitive development of children of primary school age.

3. Formation of personality in primary school age.

1. The initial stage of schooling is in the age range from 6-7 to 10-11 years old. Consider the psychological specifics of this stage.

With whatever level of readiness a child enters school, he is not able to immediately get involved in school life.

A more or less long period of adaptation or adaptation to school is needed. The process of adaptation is subject to psychological laws, which should be taken into account when working with first-graders.

There are three levels of adaptation:

1) a high level of adaptation: the first-grader has a positive attitude towards school, the educational material is mastered relatively easily, he is attentive and diligent in the lessons, willingly participates in social work, has a high social status in a peer group;

2) the average level of adaptation: the student has a positive attitude towards the school, the educational material is assimilated if it is presented in detail and clearly, independently solves typical tasks, performs instructions well under adult supervision, attention is focused if it performs an interesting task, conscientiously performs public assignments, has many friends among classmates;

3) low level of adaptation: the student's attitude to learning at school is negative or indifferent, a depressed mood prevails, complaints about health are frequent, he violates discipline, he hardly completes tasks on his own, he has no friends in the class, educational material is digested fragmentarily. Adaptation will be more successful if the child is psychologically ready for school, while it is very important that the family has a friendly atmosphere, there are no conflicts.

Another problem that needs to be addressed in primary school is the differences in motivations, the level of development of mental processes, knowledge, skills and abilities among children.

These differences lead to the fact that in some cases learning is perceived as a very easy, and therefore uninteresting process, in others as extremely difficult and difficult, and only for some it is in accordance with their level.

Teachers and psychologists are faced with the task of psychologically leveling children, pulling up those who are lagging behind, at the same time, one should not forget about gifted children.

In both cases, there are a lot of problems, and often they can be solved only in the process of individualization of education, the creation of classes corresponding to the level of development of children (leveling classes), the selection of individual training programs, etc.

Another important problem facing the elementary school is the differences in the physical development of children.

The duty of teachers and psychologists is to get acquainted with the medical records of children entering school, talk with parents, so that later in the classroom they can correctly understand the behavior of the child, evaluate his educational achievements.

Children with physical disabilities require a sparing attitude towards themselves, compliance with psychohygienic and psychological requirements.

Thus, at the initial stage of education, increased attention to students from parents and teachers is required so that the adaptation process goes more quickly and painlessly.

2. The perception of a younger student is characterized by high emotionality and brightness of the perceived images.

Symbolic and schematic images are perceived worse, visual material is better.

Little life experience does not allow schoolchildren to accurately assess time and space.

Historical dates are often an abstraction, it is difficult for children to understand the remoteness of events in time, in most cases small intervals of time are significantly underestimated and large intervals of time are overestimated.

Limited perception of space can lead to improper organization of the workplace, difficulty in fluent reading due to narrow lines, errors in the perception and spelling of similar letters and numbers, visual errors in measurement, etc.

The main feature of the attention of a younger student is a relatively weak arbitrariness.

During elementary school education, all the properties of attention, except for switching, become almost the same as in an adult.

Switching at this age is even better developed than in adults, which is explained by the mobility of nervous processes.

School education contributes to the development of the memory of a younger student.

Mechanical memory develops quite quickly in the first school years, mediated, logical memory lags behind in pace, since in most cases the child has enough mechanical memory to assimilate the material.

If due attention is not paid during these years to the formation of mediated, logical memorization, this will adversely affect learning in the middle and senior levels of the school.

The intellectual development of a younger student goes in the following areas:

1) the widespread use of speech as a means of thinking;

2) three types of thinking (visual-effective, visual-figurative, logical) mutually enrich and complement each other.

If any of the types of thinking is not used in teaching, then the intellectual development of the child is one-sided.

Younger students master concepts, learn to compare, generalize, draw conclusions.

The process of comparison in children of the same age can take place in different ways.

More often children find differences, less often - similarities.

Second-graders, when compared, identify a greater number of features than first-graders.

If new objects are compared, then students more easily discover different features, if the objects are known - similar qualities.

With repeated comparison, the number of selected features of similarity becomes larger. The comparison operation is sometimes replaced by a simple row arrangement of objects, that is, the properties of one object are noted first, and then another.

Generalization is best done by younger students, starting from specific situations, detailed descriptions.

The criterion for a well-made generalization is the ability to give a specific example that corresponds to the knowledge gained.

So, during the period of elementary school, the mental and cognitive development of the child progresses markedly.

3. Learning activity becomes the leading activity of the child after entering school.

However, personal development also occurs in the framework of other activities (play, work, communication).

It is in various activities that business qualities are formed, the motivational sphere develops.

One of the most significant motives in human life is the motive of achieving success. In order for it to develop and consolidate, the following personal qualities are necessary:

1) boundless trust in adults, especially (especially in the first grade) in teachers.

The formation of his self-esteem depends on how adults evaluate the child, which in younger students can already be overestimated, underestimated, adequate;

2) the ability to consciously set a goal and volitional regulation of one's behavior.

The younger student can already control behavior, guided by a distant goal;

3) adequate or moderately high self-esteem and a high, but real, level of claims.

The level of claims can be determined both by academic success and position in the peer group.

A child with a high social status, as a rule, has adequate self-esteem.

During the primary school age, the child comes to understand that the lack of any ability can be made up for through the efforts made. At primary school age, such significant personal qualities as diligence and independence are improved.

Diligence is formed as a result of the efforts made in the performance of educational and labor tasks and receiving rewards from adults for success.

It is important that the reward system is not focused on relatively easy achievements, but on those that have been fully obtained as a result of the efforts made.

Primary school age can be considered a turning point for the formation of independence.

On the one hand, the child is still completely dependent on an adult, on the other hand, granting independence too early can provoke disobedience and closeness.

To develop self-reliance, you can use the following techniques:

a) trust the child more, entrusting the independent performance of tasks;

b) encourage the desire for independence;

c) entrust the execution of household chores with minimal assistance from an adult;

d) to entrust such affairs, performing which, the child becomes a leader for other people.

At primary school age, both general and special abilities develop rapidly, and individual differences between children are very large.

At this age, adults can still actively influence the child, as significant motives remain to receive recognition and approval from the adult, the desire to earn high praise from him.

By the end of this age period, relationships with peers are becoming increasingly important, so the following methods of influence can be used: public approval of achievements and deeds in the presence of classmates, competition with peers, etc.

Thus, taking into account the personal characteristics of a child of primary school age, it is possible to find more effective methods of educational and developmental influence.

5. Psychological features of adolescence and youth

1. General characteristics of cognitive and personal development.

2. Improvement of cognitive processes.

3. Development of general and special abilities.

4. Development of thinking.

5. Individual characteristics of adolescents. character accents.

6. The relationship of adolescents with adults.

1. Adolescence - this is a period of restructuring of social activity, accompanied by very powerful shifts in all spheres of the child's life.

Therefore, adolescence is often called crisis, transitional from child to adult.

There is a rapid growth of the skeleton (for a year, girls grow by 3-6 cm, boys - by 4-7 cm).

The functioning of the organs does not ensure the full functioning of the whole organism, therefore, complaints of palpitations and headaches are frequent.

In adolescence, puberty begins, gender identification takes place, the child begins to perceive himself as an adult.

Adolescents often have an ambivalent attitude towards their "new" body: a sense of pride can coexist with a feeling of disgust.

Outwardly, this can manifest itself in such unexpected reactions as girls bandaging their breasts, or, conversely, emphasizing them.

Boys may become more slovenly, thereby showing an unconscious protest against their "I".

Adults are often outraged by cynicism, swagger in statements and communication with the opposite sex, but in such manifestations one should see not only a “negative” teenager, but also a weak one who does not know how to solve his problems.

The overstressed work of the body leads to the fact that younger teenagers quickly get tired, although they may not notice it.

As experiments have shown, most cases of disobedience in adolescents were detected precisely in the second half of the day, when fatigue was already beginning to affect.

A situation arises similar to infancy: when the baby is tired, he begins to act up, cry.

Against the background of rapid personal formation, the level of development of the cognitive sphere by the senior grades of the school reaches the level of an adult.

The main achievement is the arbitrariness of mental processes.

However, it is precisely in adolescence that there are strong fluctuations in the attention of schoolchildren during lessons.

Such inattention is explained by the increased excitability of some or the fatigue of other students.

The concentration of attention also decreases after suffering somatic diseases, neuropsychiatric diseases, all kinds of injuries, mental experiences.

Interest in other people overrides interest in learning activities.

There is a period when they go to school not to gain knowledge, but to communicate with their peers, more often with the opposite sex.

The situation is restored only by the senior classes of the school, when young people think about plans for their future lives.

Teenagers and young men willingly engage in reasoning, introspection, freely reflect on moral, political and other topics.

They can draw general conclusions based on particular messages, they can operate with hypotheses.

Thus, in adolescence and youth there is an intellectualization of all cognitive processes, there is a search for one's place in the system of social relations.

2. Perception in adolescence and youth is part of memorization.

In practice, this means that when memorizing, the student is fixed on the properties of those objects that are necessary for subsequent reproduction.

Based on this, the teacher, when presenting new material, should highlight the key elements, using the following words: “I draw your attention to ...”, using multi-colored chalk, accented repetition, etc.

At the same time, "verbal visibility" is important, i.e., formulation in other words, the use of figurative expressions, metaphors, etc.

Starting from adolescence, arbitrary and logical memory actively develops, which soon reaches such a level that it is used almost everywhere.

This leads to a slowdown in the development of mechanical memory, although many new school subjects require its use, and therefore the teenager's complaints of poor memory become more frequent.

Against this background, there is an increased interest in memory improvement techniques.

Memory processes function more efficiently if an appropriate motive is created, based on the emotional inner world of a person.

In adolescence and youth, significant individual differences are noted in the work of memory, which should be taken into account in the organization of the educational process, offering students various ways of presenting material.

At this age, the productivity of involuntary memorization decreases and the efficiency of indirect memorization increases.

In adolescence, the relationship between memory and thinking changes dramatically.

If earlier these relations were built on the principle of thinking - it means remembering, now, remembering means thinking, that is, the process of memorization consists in establishing logical connections.

Monologue and written speech are actively developing in the middle and senior grades of the school.

In adolescence, the child learns to independently prepare the text of an oral presentation.

Argument your thoughts, write an essay on an arbitrary or given topic.

Thus, mental processes are closely related and differ in arbitrariness.

3. In middle and senior school age, the formation of general and special abilities continues on the basis of education, communication and work.

Teaching contributes to the development of general intellectual abilities (logical reasoning, using concepts, drawing conclusions, etc.); communication - improving communication skills (to achieve the location of people, the ability to find mutual understanding, make contact, etc.); in labor activity, the formation of practical skills and abilities necessary for future professional development takes place.

Adolescence and youthful age is the most favorable (sensitive) period for the development of a large complex of a wide variety of general and special abilities.

The development of abilities is based on the following provisions:

1) by adolescence, the child's body is physically stronger, and, therefore, the existing innate inclinations should already manifest themselves;

2) no later than 6-7 years old, the child must undergo a psychological examination to identify existing inclinations;

3) the education of children should be based on the identified inclinations and abilities, especially in the upper grades of the school.

However, one should not reduce the number of general educational disciplines, otherwise it will interfere with the development of general intellectual abilities.

Vocational training should go hand in hand with general education.

So, in adolescence and youth, as a result of the specialization of education, both general and special abilities are actively developed.

4. Adolescence is characterized by the ability to learn both theoretically and practically.

For the first time, such a feature as a tendency to experiment is manifested, a particular manifestation of which is the unwillingness to take everything on faith.

A teenager doubts everything, does not trust other people's experience, he needs to personally verify how the hypotheses correspond to the truth.

He is inquisitive, seeks to earn the high appreciation of others, reacts negatively to the proposal to solve simple problems.

In organizing the educational process, the teacher should focus on the development of both figurative and logical thinking in accordance with the complexity of the material, while it is undesirable to overly complicate and unnecessarily simplify the proposed material.

In high school, a new attitude to learning is formed.

Graduates are interested in those subjects where they can get to know themselves better and show independence.

The independence of the young man's behavior testifies to the independence of thinking.

High school students perform only such actions, follow such forms of behavior that seem appropriate and reasonable to them.

The development of the intellectual sphere can be accelerated if you work in the following areas: develop the conceptual structure of thinking; speech intelligence and internal plan of action.

The development of speech intelligence in high school is possible as a result of rhetoric, that is, the formation of the ability to plan and deliver public speeches, answer questions, and lead a discussion.

When forming conceptual thinking, it is important to remember the following:

1) many scientific concepts have several meanings;

2) there are often not enough words of everyday speech to reveal the content of the concept;

3) one concept may have several definitions, not always completely coinciding;

4) with the development of scientific knowledge and the development of man himself in the process of ontogeny, the scope and content of the concept changes.

It follows from the foregoing that it is important not to memorize the definitions of concepts mechanically, but to teach the student to independently find and derive these definitions.

It is extremely important in adolescence and youth to develop practical intelligence, the structure of which includes the following qualities: economy, prudence, enterprise, the ability to quickly solve tasks.

Entrepreneurship can be developed by organizing student self-government at school, efficiency and prudence by organizing student cooperatives or similar events where it is required to make calculations, draw up an estimate of income and expenses.

The ability to quickly solve the tasks set will be formed if a teenager is taught to use the rule: as soon as a problem arises, it is necessary to immediately, without delay, begin to solve it.

Thus, thinking in adolescence and youth is distinguished by a variety of forms and independence.

5. Characterological features are diverse.

Nevertheless, in domestic psychology, the generally accepted classification of character accentuations, developed A. E. Lichko.

character accentuation - this is an extreme version of the norm, when individual features are strengthened to such an extent that a person becomes extremely vulnerable to certain psychogenic influences, while maintaining good resistance to others.

In short, it is psychologically difficult for a person with a certain accentuation to survive one situation, while feeling good in another.

The number of accentuations can be very large, since many have mixed types, but A.E. Lichko proposes to reduce all this variety to 11 types.

Each of the distinguished types has such character traits that make it unsuitable for certain situations.

It is in these situations that a teenager loses reason, feels discomfort.

At the same time, there are no bad and good characters, in any one can distinguish strengths and weaknesses.

Consider the typology of character accentuations from the standpoint of adverse conditions and highlighting strengths and weaknesses.

1. Hyperthymic type - characterized by activity, endurance, able to inspire confidence.

This is a sociable, resourceful person who does not get lost in stressful and unusual situations, prefers to be a leader.

At the same time, he often explodes with anger, and this protest is not verbal, but effective.

For such adolescents, runaways from home, illegal behavior, and alcoholism are typical.

In those situations where a teenager is deprived of the opportunity to actively interact with peers, take the initiative, where thoroughness and accuracy are required, excessive guardianship on the part of adults is manifested, the teenager feels discomfort, probably a manifestation of negative traits.

2. autistic type manifests itself in such qualities as the ability to make non-standard decisions, to keep a sober mind in any situation, to show deep knowledge in a subject of interest.

Such a teenager can work alone for a long time, he is prone to accurate facts, and is well-informed.

In the case of an unceremonious intrusion into his inner world, he is rude to one, and closes and is silent with others.

Unfavorable situations for such a teenager are those where it is required to establish shallow contacts with many people.

3. Demonstrative (hysterical) type characterized by developed intuition, artistry, the ability to reincarnate, to everything bright, non-standard.

In social situations, he prefers various forms of blackmail ("If you don't do this, then I..."), knowing what those he blackmails are afraid of.

In those situations when a teenager is not paid attention, his deceit is exposed, the negative aspects of this character appear.

4. stuck type characterized by perseverance in achieving goals, punctuality and commitment, attention to detail, striving for the thoroughness of the task.

In difficult situations, where their authority and power are encroached upon, they blame everyone and everything, easily falling into anger.

Prone to vindictive reactions.

5. Unstable type characterized by trust and loyalty to the group.

A teenager with this type of character is able to get strong vivid impressions of life every day, not to overwork.

Situations of lack of control are difficult for him, the lack of the prospect of external punishment discourages and leads to the emergence of such forms of behavior as a surreptitious protest, blaming everyone but himself, etc.

6. Labile type manifested in softness towards others, the ability to empathize.

Such adolescents are characterized by a developed sense of gratitude to those who sympathize and love them.

Has a fast mood swing.

In situations where teenagers encounter rudeness and indifference from others, their callousness, they cry, considering external circumstances to be the cause of failure.

7. Sensitive type is able to penetrate into the essence of what is happening, to focus on the true, and not on the ostentatious feelings of people.

These people have no pronounced protest reactions, unless driven to extreme desperation.

They tend to blame themselves for everything, as a rule, undeservedly. In extremely difficult situations, they can resort to suicide.

For a teenager of this type, situations are very painful when they are accused of dishonesty, publicly point out physical and other shortcomings.

8. Painful type characterized by increased sensitivity and inability to rely on their own strength.

Such people rarely protest, and this protest is expressed, as a rule, in real painful symptoms.

Adolescents of this type are lost in situations where the mobilization of forces is required, the manifestation of endurance.

They show the worst results in control competitions and tasks.

9. The pedantic type is characterized by concern for the well-being of other people, attachment to the mother, close people.

They are responsible and diligent, able to check everything, including minor details.

Their dissatisfaction is manifested in verbal form ("mumble"), but at the same time they avoid actions, blaming themselves first of all.

Increased workload and assigned responsibility provoke the manifestation of negative traits of this type.

10. The conformal type is distinguished by devotion to the group, the desire for stability and sustainability.

For these adolescents, situations associated with a change in stereotypes, the arrival of new people in the group, etc. are unfavorable.

The protest is expressed in the same forms as the majority of the group members.

11. Cycloid type characterized by a great attachment to the house, home traditions.

These adolescents are characterized by a change in mood from optimistic to pessimistic. It is painful for a teenager if others demand "normal" behavior when he is in a depressive phase.

If a teenager is in a "good" phase, then his forms of behavior correspond to a hyperthymic teenager, in cases of depression, he directs aggression towards himself.

It is important for adults to know the features of a teenager's relationship with his character:

1) awareness of one's behavior as an external manifestation occurs at about 13-15 years of age.

Only upon reaching this age does it make sense to explain to a teenager that the external manifestations of character and his inner essence are not the same thing;

2) character is a given that some use for their own purposes, while others do not want and are afraid to recognize themselves, thereby remaining losers;

3) you should accept your character, treat it as a tool for communication and knowledge of the world around you, constantly study your character.

In human nature, the social is very closely intertwined with the natural.

If a person is able to satisfy his natural desires in a socially approved way, then we can talk about normal social adaptation.

As a rule, social adaptation in adolescents is quite acute.

They are often unable to resist the fulfillment of acute desires, getting new sensations.

The process will be less painful if there are healthy partnerships in the family and school and the teenager is surrounded by loving and understanding people.

6. In adolescence, the child claims new rights, which primarily apply to the sphere of relations with adults.

A teenager is characterized by the expansion of his rights, he claims to respect his human dignity, to trust on the part of an adult, to equal rights with him.

Changing the relationship between adults and adolescents can go well, but adults themselves must take the initiative and rebuild these relationships.

However, in real conditions, a number of points contribute to the preservation of the old relationship:

1) the social status of a teenager does not change: he was and remains a student;

2) a teenager is financially completely dependent on his parents;

3) adults are accustomed to direct and control the child;

4) the child retains childish features in behavior and appearance for a long time, especially at the beginning of adolescence.

Let's single out the most typical conflict situations that arise between adults and a teenager:

1) the conflict of instability of parental attitude is one of the most common situations when the inconsistency of adolescence is most clearly seen: parents demand adult behavior from a teenager, but they themselves behave towards him as a child;

2) the conflict of over-care, manifested in excessive care on the part of an adult, most often a mother.

A common cause of such a conflict is an unconscious desire to maintain emotional closeness with the child for as long as possible.

And although parents are already worried about such lack of independence of a teenager, they continue to control him beyond measure;

3) the conflict of disrespect for the rights of a teenager to independence is manifested in the fact that parents consider themselves entitled to control what is owned by a teenager: read a diary, electronic messages, check the contents of pockets, etc.

The lack of a child's own room is negatively affected.

Animal psychologists have also found that aggressiveness increases sharply in rats under conditions of overpopulation.

It is likely that this is true of humans as well.

Where the boundaries of personal space are not respected, conflicts and quarrels are inevitable;

4) A conflict of paternal authority often arises where adults try to shift responsibility for something that they themselves could not achieve in life on a teenager.

The desire of the father at all costs to make a "real man" out of his son often turns into the formation of an insecure person with low self-esteem and a level of pretension.

In this case, an adult must first of all change his attitude towards himself, in order to then become more tolerant of his own child.

So, in relationships with a teenager, it is necessary to remember a new level of formation of his personality.

LECTURE No. 5. Man and society

1. Human consciousness

1. The nature of human consciousness.

2. Conscious and unconscious.

1. The fundamental difference between man and animals is that he has consciousness, with the help of which the reflection of the surrounding world takes place.

Characteristics of consciousness:

1) contains a complex of knowledge about the world around - cognitive processes are included in the structure of consciousness, due to which a person is constantly enriched with new knowledge.

If there is a violation in the activity of any cognitive process, or even more so its complete disintegration, this inevitably leads to a disorder of consciousness (for example, memory loss);

2) the ability of a person to know others and himself - a person with consciousness is able to evaluate his own and other people's actions, he realizes himself as a being different from the rest of the surrounding world, with violations of consciousness (for example, hypnosis, sleep), this ability is lost;

3) the ability to goal-setting activities - before starting any activity, a person sets himself any goals, guided by certain motives, weighing his capabilities, analyzes the progress of implementation, etc., the inability to such actions for one reason or another is interpreted as a violation of consciousness ;

4) the ability to give an emotional assessment of interpersonal relationships - this property is better understood by analyzing pathology, since with some mental illnesses, a person’s attitude towards people around him changes: for example, he begins to hate his loved ones, whom he had previously loved very much and treated them reverently;

5) the ability to communicate using speech or other signals.

The above characteristics are used in a number of sciences when defining the concept of "consciousness" (psychology, psychiatry, etc.).

Summarizing these characteristics, one can understand consciousness as a person's ability to navigate in time and space, the environment, to adequately assess one's own personality, to be able to manage one's desires and actions, to maintain a system of relationships with people around, to analyze new information based on existing knowledge.

So, consciousness should be understood as the highest form of reflection by the brain of reality with the help of abstract-logical thinking and speech.

2. Man functions not only at the level of consciousness.

Far from everything he is able to realize and analyze. There is also unconscious level.

Unconscious - this is a combination of mental properties, processes and states, the influence of which a person does not analyze (does not realize).

Being in an unconscious state, a person is not oriented in the place of action, in time, is not able to give an adequate assessment of what is happening, the regulation of behavior with the help of speech is violated.

The presence of unconscious urges was considered in experiments on the study of human behavior in a post-hypnotic state.

The hypnotized subject was suggested that after the end of the hypnosis session, he needed to perform certain actions: for example, go to a nearby person and untie his tie.

Feeling embarrassed, the person nevertheless performed these actions, although he did not understand why he was doing it.

Unconscious Phenomena:

1) unconscious mental processes - not always mental processes (sensations, perception, memory and thinking processes, imagination and attitudes) proceed under the control of consciousness: for example, forgetting names is often associated with unpleasant memories in relation to a person who bears this name, or an event, associated with him, inadvertently there is a desire not to remember this person or event;

2) unconscious phenomena that were previously realized by a person, but within a certain time moved to the unconscious level: for example, most of the motor skills that a person constantly uses in his life (walking, writing, speaking, professional possession of various tools, etc.). );

3) unconscious phenomena related to the personal sphere - desires, thoughts, needs, intentions, which, under the pressure of "censorship", were forced out to the unconscious level.

Very often, repressed desires, needs, etc. appear in our dreams in a symbolic form, where they are realized.

If the effect of "censorship" is so strong that even in a dream it is blocked by social norms and values, then the dream becomes very confusing and incomprehensible and practically cannot be deciphered.

In psychology, there are various directions that interpret dreams from the standpoint of certain scientific schools. Special merit belongs to psychoanalysis and its founder S. Freud.

The merit of Z. Freud lies in the creation of the theory of psychological defense mechanisms, which also belong to the category of unconscious mental phenomena.

Psychological defense mechanisms are a set of such unconscious techniques, thanks to which a person provides his inner comfort, protecting himself from negative experiences and mental trauma.

At present, this theory continues to be actively developed and enriched.

Consider one of the modern options (R. M. Granovskaya).

1. Denial - an unconscious refusal of a person to perceive information that is unpleasant for him.

A person can listen carefully, but not perceive information if it poses a threat to his status, prestige.

It is hardly possible to achieve the desired result by telling a person "the truth in the eye", since most likely he will simply ignore this information.

That is why psychology and pedagogy recommend never discussing a person's personality, but only his negative act.

2. crowding out - a person easily forgets the facts of his biography that are unpleasant for him and at the same time, in contrast, gives a false, but acceptable interpretation of these facts.

This mechanism is described in Leo Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace" using the example of Nikolai Rostov, who quite sincerely "forgot" about his non-heroic behavior in the first battle, but described his exploits with an emotional upsurge.

3. Rationalization - devaluation of what is unattainable.

For example, the impossibility of acquiring a certain item due to its high cost is justified by poor color, crooked stitching, etc.

This mechanism is well described in I. A. Krylov's fable "The Fox and the Grapes", where the fox, unable to reach the grapes, began to convince himself that it was sour ("It looks good, but green - there is no ripe berry : you will immediately set your teeth on edge").

4. Projection - unconscious attribution of one's own, most often socially condemned qualities to another person.

For example, having slandered a person, we justify this by the fact that he also spreads gossip about us, although this is not true.

5. Identification - "merging" oneself with another person.

In a child, this mechanism often manifests itself in their unconscious imitation of one of the adults, most often a parent of the same sex, in adults - in the worship of an idol.

Sometimes, with the help of identification, a person overcomes his inferiority complex, seeing instead of himself his idol, idol.

6. Substitution - the internal stress that has arisen is removed as a result of redirection from an inaccessible object to an accessible one.

The inability to directly express their dissatisfaction with the high authorities, a person takes out on his own subordinates, close people, children, etc.

Therefore, psychologists advise finding a method or object of displacement that is safe for others: for example, playing sports, house cleaning, a contrast shower, or simply washing hands with cold water, etc.

7. Включение - empathy as a way to alleviate one's own internal tension. For example, empathizing with the heroes of another soap opera, people are distracted from their own, sometimes more significant and significant problems.

8. Insulation - emotional ties with surrounding people are broken, and sometimes completely broken, thus protecting a person from situations that traumatize the psyche.

Vivid examples of such a mechanism can often be alcoholism, suicide, and vagrancy.

It is extremely important for a person to understand the action of protective mechanisms.

This will help to better understand the motives of the behavior of the people around you and understand yourself, since very often artificially created comfort does not make it possible to realize, and therefore overcome your own shortcomings and mistakes.

So, the unconscious, as well as consciousness, is involved in the management of human behavior, but their roles are different.

In difficult situations, when constant control over what is happening, increased attention is required, the participation of consciousness is necessary.

Such situations include the following:

1) the need to make decisions in intellectually difficult situations;

2) in cases of overcoming physical or psychological resistance;

3) when resolving conflict situations;

4) when finding a solution in unexpected situations that contain a physical or psychological threat.

Thus, considering consciousness as the highest level of mental regulation of behavior, it should be remembered that many behavioral acts also function at the unconscious level.

2. Small group and team

1. The concept of a small group and a team.

2. Structure of small groups.

3. Interpersonal relations in groups and collectives.

4. The effectiveness of group cohesion.

1. In the social environment that surrounds the individual, a large number of groups operate.

Social groups are divided into large and small.

Small groups have been studied for a long time within the framework of social psychology, which cannot be said about large groups that are represented in social psychology unequally: some have been studied for a long time (mostly unorganized, spontaneously emerging groups), others are organized, long-existing groups (classes, nations ) - have become the object of study relatively recently.

The range of groups of interest to social psychology is very wide, and their great diversity makes it difficult to develop a single definition of the concept of "group".

T. Shibutani argued that groups could vary in size from two lovers to millions waging war ( Shibutani.

Let us dwell in more detail on the consideration of a small group and its characteristics.

small group - this is a small group in composition, whose members are united by common social activities and are in direct personal communication, which is the basis for the emergence of emotional relationships, group norms and group processes (G.M. Andreeva.

Psychology explores some of the elementary parameters of the group.

Among the main features of a small group are the following:

1) размер - number of group members.

This issue is still debatable.

Most studies define the lower limit of a small group as a dyad.

However, a number of researchers believe that the smallest number of members of a small group is three people (triads).

This dispute belongs to the category of unresolvable.

Researchers have not fully decided on the upper limit either.

Exploring the amount of RAM, J. Miller discovered the number 7 ± 2, which was considered the upper limit of the small group.

This was justified by the ability of a person during contacts to retain in memory only 7 ± 2 members of the group.

The failure of this approach was proved by further experimental studies.

Experiments give different indicators: 10-20 people, and in the studies of J. Moreno (the author of the sociometric technique), groups of 30-40 people (school classes, student groups, etc.) were studied.

In domestic social psychology, a real-life group acting as a subject of activity is considered as a small group.

This decision is justified by the practice of joint activities.

The most optimal is the composition of the group of 5-9 people, but not more than 12;

2) psychological climate of the group - moral and emotional coloring of relationships in the group;

3) композиция - characteristics of the members of the group (number, gender and age composition, nationality, social status of the members of the group), i.e., the individual composition of the group;

4) group structure - those functions that the members of the group perform, as well as the state of formal and informal relationships in the group.

As formal features of the group structure, the structure of communications, the structure of preferences, the structure of power, etc. are singled out;

5) group processes - indicators of actual social relations existing in the group (leadership - leadership, stages of development of the group, group pressure, etc.);

6) group norms - the rules of conduct that the members of the group adhere to.

The characteristics of a small group listed above are the grounds according to which small groups are classified and studied in social psychology.

The problem of classifying social groups is understood differently by different researchers. Consider the classification proposed G. M. Andreeva.

Conditional - these are groups that unite people who are not members of any small group.

These are groups that do not function in real life, but exist only on paper: for example, a local doctor has a list of patients with diabetes in his area.

Sometimes the selection of such groups is important for experimental purposes, in order to compare the results obtained in real groups with those that characterize a random grouping of people.

Real - really existing associations of people who fully correspond to all the parameters of a small group.

Psychology pays special attention to the study of these groups.

Psychologists often deal with a real laboratory group for research purposes, which is created by an experimenter in order to accompany any scientific research, to test a hypothesis.

This group exists only during the experiment, after which it disintegrates.

Real natural groups are formed regardless of the desire of the experimenter, but arise and exist based on the needs of society or the people included in these groups.

Formal groups - existing within officially recognized organizations.

The goals followed by the members of this group are set on the basis of the tasks of the parent organization in which this group is included.

Informal groups arise and exist outside of official organizations.

The goals pursued by the members of such groups are personal interests and loyalties, both coinciding with and different from the goals of official organizations.

Reference is any real or conditional group that is especially significant for a person, to which he voluntarily classifies himself or whose member he wants to become.

The goals of such a group, group norms and values, forms of behavior, expressed thoughts are of particular value for a person, which he wants and tries to follow in life.

non-referential the group is of no value to a person, despite the fact that he is a member of it.

For example, the life of a class may not excite a student at all, since all his interests are focused on a street company.

Sometimes stands out and anti-reference group - the goals, attitudes, behavior of the members of this group the person rejects, categorically does not accept.

underdeveloped groups Distinguished by the lack of a strong psychological community, relationships are not stable, there is no clear distribution of responsibilities, recognized leaders.

The result of all of the above is ineffective collaboration.

Collective represents a group of people united for joint activities, important and necessary for a significant number of people, not only members of this team.

Relationships are characterized by trust, openness, mutual respect, etc.

R. S. Nemov points out the following requirements for the team:

1) successfully cope with the tasks assigned to him (efficiency in relation to his main activity);

2) have high morals;

3) be distinguished by good human relations;

4) to create for each of its members the possibility of development as a person;

5) be capable of creativity;

6) have an established differentiated system of various business and personal relationships built on a high moral foundation.

The presence of collectivist relations in the group is evidenced by the following criteria ( R. S. Nemov, 1995):

1) moral - relationships are built on the norms and values ​​of universal morality;

2) responsibility - each member of the team assumes responsibility for the fate of each person, regardless of belonging to this team, while demanding himself, his words and duties, adequately assesses his own achievements, is disciplined;

3) openness manifests itself in the ability to build good relations not only with members of their team, but also with other groups and teams, if necessary, provide all possible assistance;

4) collectivism - taking care of the members of the team, counteracting phenomena that can destroy the team;

5) contact - trusting relationships between team members;

6) organization - interchangeability, conflict-free distribution of duties, quick elimination of shortcomings in work, etc.;

7) awareness - a clear understanding of the goals, objectives, final and intermediate, joint activities;

8) efficiency - high-quality and timely solution of tasks facing the team.

As practice shows, the presence of all the listed criteria in a small group is extremely rare, which allows us to say that most small groups are in the gap between an underdeveloped group and a team.

Moving along the path of its formation, the group, as a rule, does not move along an ascending straight line, but along a sinusoidal line, experiencing ups and downs.

A. G. Kirpichnik revealed the following relationship: every group on the path of its development as a team necessarily goes through a period of temporary decline.

At the initial stage, as a rule, there is an upsurge, enthusiasm, followed by a more or less noticeable decline.

Provided that oneself as a group is preserved, an ascent follows again, although not to the height at which the group was originally located.

Temporary psychological decline - is a consequence of the restructuring of interpersonal relationships within the group.

Initially, it is built on an emotional basis, then the importance and business qualities of the group members acquire, which cannot be the same for everyone.

All this inevitably leads to friction in relationships. In case of successful overcoming of these frictions, the group reaches a higher level of its development.

At present, the content of the concept of "collective" has undergone a significant change.

In Soviet times, a sense of community, cohesion formed the basis of collectivity, an individual was leveled, dissolved, and a person was considered as a typical representative of his team.

In this regard, let us recall the opinion of a competent specialist in the field of personality psychology V. Frankla, who believed that a true community is a community of responsible individuals that cannot be built on total collectivity: "Instead of a specific personally responsible individual, the idea of ​​collectivism substitutes only an average type, and instead of personal responsibility, conformity and respect for social norms."

So, according to the definition adopted in psychology, a small group is a small association of people (from 2-3 to 20-30 people) who are in direct interaction with each other and are engaged in a common cause (family, class, group of close friends, work collective and etc.).

The overwhelming majority of people are included in small groups, which, as a rule, occupy an intermediate position between an underdeveloped group and a collective.

2. Consider the basic concepts that describe the phenomena in a small group.

If we start from the position of the individual in the group as the basis for consideration, then the following indicators can be distinguished:

1) position - the official position of the person;

2) status - the place actually occupied by the individual in the system of intra-group relations, the degree of real authority.

For example, the headman in a student group is a position, and authority is a high status;

3) internal installation is a person's subjective understanding of his position in the group.

At the same time, the internal attitude can either coincide or differ from the real status;

4) role - a pattern of behavior set by social norms, expected and approved by the group.

A role is often defined in terms of a person's official status in a group, viewed as a dynamic aspect of status, but this is only part of the content of the concept.

For example, a woman in a family has the status of a mother, but in each family the role of a mother may have different content.

Thus, in the presence of the same status, a person can perform different functions in different groups;

5) conformity - this is opportunism, a conscious unwillingness of a person to go against the opinion of the majority in the group, so as not to create problems for himself in communication.

Within the group, interpersonal interactions are carried out in various ways.

A certain system of such connections, characteristic of a particular group, is called a communication channel.

Types and variants of intragroup communication structures:

1) frontal - members of the group are next to each other and can observe each other without even entering into direct contacts (a class in a lesson, a student group in a lecture, etc.);

2) radial - members of the group do not have the opportunity to directly contact each other, but communicate through the central person;

3) hierarchical - implies the presence of at least two (maybe more) levels of subordination, while part of the group can make visual contact, and part does not have such an opportunity;

4) chain - each member of the group (with the exception of two extreme members) interacts with two neighbors;

5) circular - the possibilities of all members of the group are equal, each can directly observe the reaction of the other;

6) full - there are no obstacles for free interpersonal communication.

The commitment of the group to the choice of one or another channel of communication is determined by the specific goals and objectives that the members of the group face.

Relationships that develop in a group stem from accepted moral norms and values.

Group values - what is most important and significant for this group; group norms - rules of conduct followed by group members (first level - violations are unacceptable under any circumstances; second level - some deviations are allowed; low level - compliance is not necessary).

Excess activity - the desire of a person to follow their own, higher requirements and standards.

Researchers identify the following functions of group norms:

1) regulatory;

2) evaluation;

3) stabilizing;

4) authorizing.

Group management can be carried out both at the official level - by the leader, and at the informal level - by the leader.

Practice shows that, as a rule, the official leader and the informal leader are different persons, but it is possible that this may be the same person.

There are the following differences between a leader and a leader:

1) the leader primarily cares about the fulfillment of the tasks set by the group, and the leader's concern is the regulation of interpersonal relations;

2) the leader interacts not only with a small group, but also with higher organizations, the scope of the leader's activity is limited by the size of the small group to which he is a member;

3) the leader is appointed or elected, and the nomination of the leader occurs spontaneously at the request of the members of the group;

4) the leader is an unstable status, it can be changed at any time, and the leader, as a rule, is appointed for a certain period;

5) the system of sanctions of the head is more clear and definite than that of the leader;

6) the decision-making process is more complex for the manager than for the leader.

In the process of managing a group, both the leader and the leader can use various means of psychological influence, which together determine the style of leadership (leadership).

Classically, there are three styles: authoritarian, democratic, liberal.

The authoritarian style assumes that the leader has authority over the other members of the group.

In decision-making, the principle of unity of command applies, and systematic control is exercised over the actions of subordinates.

The democratic style manifests itself in the leader who is inclined to reckon with the opinions of other members of the group, consult with them, and involve them in the management of the group.

The liberal style is observed in the case when the leader is actually isolated from his duties and transfers them to other members of the group.

The practice of researching the effectiveness of a particular style of leadership (leadership) shows that the most appropriate is a combination of all of the above styles, depending on the level of development of the group and the specific situation in which this group is at a given time.

So, a small group has a complex structure, which is characterized by a large number of concepts.

3. Interpersonal relations in groups are divided into official and informal, business and personal, rational and emotional, relations of leadership and subordination (in particular, leadership).

Официальные - relations that are regulated by official duties fixed by law.

Unofficial - it is based on personal likes and dislikes of people, which do not have any legal basis and firmly established norms.

Business - arise between people about the implementation of joint activities.

Personal - relationships that develop between people, regardless of the jointly performed activities.

Rational - based on the objective qualities of a person, which are recognized by the majority of people around.

Emotional - in assessing a person, they proceed from a subjective opinion about him, which does not always correspond to the true situation.

The relationship of leadership and subordination has already been considered on the example of leadership in the previous paragraph.

Sociometric research helps to get a true picture of interpersonal relations in a group.

The essence of the study is that the members of the group speak about each other.

The content of the questions contains a sociometric criterion, the analysis of the manifestation of which makes it possible to judge mutual emotional relationships.

The responses of the group members are subjected to statistical processing, on the basis of which sociometric matrices, sociograms are built, sociometric indices are calculated.

The most well-known sociometric index is the group cohesion index, which is determined by the percentage of mutual choices and was calculated as the ratio of the number of mutual positive choices to the total number of possible choices:

where C_trophy- cohesion, r(+) - positive choice, N - number of members of the group (Lectures on the methodology of specific social research, 1972).

4. The effectiveness of group activity can be considered in three areas: professional, educational, educational.

Professional and educational areas solve special problems, educational belongs to the category of general social problems.

Among the most important indicators of the effectiveness of group activities are the productivity and satisfaction of group members with group activities.

И. Steiner proposed a formula for calculating productivity: actual productivity = potential productivity - unrealized productivity.

There are various ways to improve the effectiveness of group activities.

The size of the group has an ambiguous effect on the effectiveness of the activities performed by the group.

The consequence of a change in the number of members of the group, both in one direction and in the other, can be both positive and negative phenomena.

The positive effects associated with increasing the number of group members include easier distribution of responsibilities, the emergence of more bright personalities, the ability to do more work in less time, more people participate in the development of a decision, which makes this decision optimal.

Negative phenomena: a decrease in cohesion is possible, the likelihood of disintegration into groups increases, difficulties arise in management, a spread of opinions increases, and there is a decrease in the personal responsibility of each for what is happening.

It is also heterogeneous on the effectiveness of the activity and the effect of the composition.

Highly developed groups with a heterogeneous composition of members are better able to cope with complex problems than homogeneous ones.

In such situations, in underdeveloped heterogeneous groups, it is advisable to divide people into working subgroups in accordance with psychological compatibility.

If the group works in conditions of temporary shortage, and the tasks are relatively simple, then the activity of a homogeneous group will be more effective.

Established interpersonal relationships are important for successful work.

Relationships do not significantly affect the results of group work if the conditions of activity are familiar or relatively simple.

Otherwise, groups with favorable relationships work more efficiently.

The effectiveness of an activity can also be determined by the form of its organization: collective-cooperative (close interaction of each with each and a great possibility of interdependence), individual (each works independently of others), coordinated (correlation of the result with the activities of others).

In most cases, with the exception of complex individual creative work, a collective-cooperative form is preferable.

The success of the activity determines the style of leadership.

For a group close to the level of the collective, a democratic and sometimes liberal style is preferable.

For groups with an average level of development, the best results are obtained by a flexible style that combines elements of directiveness, democracy, and liberality.

In underdeveloped groups, the directive style with elements of democracy is most effective.

3. Communication

1. The concept and types of communication.

2. The role of communication in the mental development of a person.

3. Technique and methods of communication.

4. Development of communication.

1. Communication is a process of interaction between people, as a result of which information is exchanged.

In the structure of communication, one can distinguish content, purpose and means.

Content - this is the information that is transmitted by living beings during interindividual contacts.

Both humans and animals can transmit information about needs, emotional states, and danger signals to each other.

However, people are able to exchange accumulated knowledge, life experience, skills and abilities.

Purpose of communication is the driving force behind this activity.

For example, a common purpose of communication in animals is to warn of danger or to encourage another to take certain actions.

For a person, the goals of communication can be quite diverse: for example, development, training and education, establishing business contacts, etc.

In animals, the goals of communication, as a rule, are limited to the satisfaction of biological needs, in humans it is also the satisfaction of cultural, aesthetic, social, cognitive and other needs.

Means of communication - the ways in which the transmitted information is transmitted, processed and decrypted.

Unlike animals, humans use language and other sign systems, technical means, and writing as the main means of communication.

Types of communication. R. S. Nemov finds four types of classification of types of communication for various reasons.

1. By content:

1) materialwhen in the process of communication they exchange products and objects of activity that serve to satisfy urgent needs;

2) conditioned - communication, during which there is a certain influence on each other's well-being, that is, communication designed to bring each other into a certain physical or mental state;

3) motivational - in the process of communication, attitudes and motives are transmitted that prepare them to perform certain actions;

4) cognitive - transfer of knowledge to each other;

5) active - transfer of skills to another, exchange of actions and operations.

2. By goals:

1) biological - communication, thanks to which the functioning of the body is preserved, developed and maintained, organic needs are satisfied;

2) social - communication, involving the establishment and development of interpersonal contacts, personal growth.

This classification can be extended indefinitely, since one can put forward an innumerable number of private goals of communication, depending on the needs of a person.

3. Affordable:

1) direct (by using organs given by nature - arms, legs, vocal cords, etc.) and indirect (with the use of special means designed to transmit information - telephone, media, etc.);

2) verbal (using language) and non-verballye (by using non-linguistic means - facial expressions, gestures, touch, etc.).

4. Depending on the motives of communication:

1) business - arises in the course of the implementation of any joint activity and is designed to increase the efficiency of this activity;

2) personal - information is transmitted about intrapersonal problems: about the motives and interests of a person, about the search for the meaning of life, about resolving intrapersonal conflicts, etc.

Thus, the process of communication, especially human communication, is very rich in content, goals and use of means.

2. By nature, a person is endowed with a certain set of the simplest forms of behavior, which are a necessary condition both for survival in the first days after birth and for mental development in the future.

But will a man be a Man if he is deprived of communication with his own kind?

Let's consider this question on real life examples.

In May 1928, in the German city of Nurberg, a young man was picked up on the street, unable to speak or even walk. The letter that was with him indicated that the young man spent 16 years in complete solitude, seeing and hearing nothing, and his food was water and bread.

Only five years later, this young man began to speak a little, while his ideas about the environment corresponded to the level of a small child.

Unfortunately, he soon died.

The future physiologist-linguist Gavino Ledda, at the age of seven, according to the will of his father, became a shepherd in the mountains and until the age of 18 he was almost deprived of human communication.

It took him great effort to return to human society and become a full member of it.

1920, India. Reed Singh noticed two human cubs in a pack of wolves, who turned out to be girls (Amala, she looked about 1,5 years old, she lived among people for a year, and Kamala, outwardly she corresponded to 8 years of age.

Kamala lived in human society until the age of 17.

In four years, she was able to learn six words, and after another seven years, 45 words.

By the age of 17, she was weaned from wolf habits, but in moments of danger she got up on all fours, and her mental development corresponded to a 4-year-old child.

In remote areas of Paraguay, the Guayaquim tribe lives to this day.

This people leads a primitive way of life, avoids people, their main food is the honey of wild bees, in search of which they constantly roam.

In 1957, the French ethnographer Villars undertook an expedition to study the life of this tribe.

In one of the camps, in a hurry to leave it, the members of the tribe left a little girl, whom the scientist took with him to France.

After 20 years, this girl became an ethnographer who knew several languages, and was no different from her European peers.

The examples given are clear evidence that it is only through human interaction that an infant gets the opportunity for normal mental development.

Being in a human society, through communication with their own kind, a child from the first days receives all the information necessary for individual development.

Another means of mental development - subject activity - appears only in the second year of life.

The types of communication identified in the first paragraph develop various aspects of the psyche and behavior.

Let's consider this in more detail.

Business conversation - contributes to the formation and development of communicative and organizational abilities of a person.

personal communication - affects the development of a person as a person, forms character traits, interests and inclinations, life goals and principles, worldview, etc.

Material - provides the necessary items of material and spiritual culture.

Conditioning - contributes to the emergence of readiness for learning, optimizes other types of communication.

cognitive - develops intellectual abilities.

Motivational - an additional energy source of a person.

active - Enriches and improves various activities.

Biological - a necessary source of self-preservation of the body.

The social - serves the development of social forms of life: groups, collectives, etc.

Direct - makes it possible to use data from the nature of simple and effective means and methods of learning.

mediated - develops the ability to self-education and self-education of a person.

non-verbal - provides the possibility of mental development before the active use of speech.

verbal - promotes the assimilation and development of speech.

So, the importance of communication in human life is enormous.

Through communication, a person's personality is formed.

3. Communication technique - these are the ways that a person resorts to prepare for communication, and his behavior in the course of communication.

Communication techniques - the most preferred means chosen for the communication process.

For the effective flow of the communication process, before it begins, it is important to decide on the most appropriate technique and methods of communication.

They must be correlated with their own interests and with the interests of a communication partner.

At the initial stage, the communication technique consists in adopting a certain posture, facial expression, choosing the appropriate tone, gestures, and correctly chosen initial words.

The facial expression should express the attitude towards the partner, correspond to the purpose of the message and the desired result.

The same requirements apply to the position taken. Sometimes a person consciously takes a particular posture, adopts facial expressions, uses certain gestures in order to best achieve the desired result.

Let us consider in more detail the meaning of some gestures that can affect the course of communication.

Psychology of gestures. Verbally transmitted information can be misunderstood if it is accompanied by inappropriate gestures.

Knowing the psychology of gestures will help you change your behavior, end negotiations on time, etc., if something does not go as you would like.

Opening Gestures:

1) open arms (hands palms up);

2) unbuttoning the jacket.

Protection Gestures:

1) arms crossed on the chest;

2) hands clenched into a fist.

Reflection and critical appraisal:

1) finger along the cheek;

2) tilted head (posture of attentive listening);

3) scratching the chin ("OK, let's think");

4) gestures with glasses (slow removal, long wiping of glasses, etc.), a gesture is also resorted to if time is required to think, while the shackle of glasses is taken into the mouth, it is difficult to speak, so it remains to listen carefully, thinking answer;

5) walking around the room;

6) pinching of the bridge of the nose.

Suspicion and secrecy:

1) look to the side ("what do you mean?");

2) protecting the mouth with a hand: during speech - deceit; during the hearing - feels that the interlocutor is lying;

3) touching the nose - option 2 in disguised form;

4) rubbing the eyelid;

5) scratching or rubbing the ear.

Warning - you can not raise the considered gestures to the absolute.

Maybe a person is cold and therefore crosses his arms, or he just itches his nose or ear.

Conversation attitude:

1) legs (or the whole body) are facing the exit - evidence that the person wants to end the meeting, so you should either end the conversation or take it to a more interesting direction;

2) propping the cheek and chin with the palm - evidence of boredom, sometimes confused with a gesture of attentive listening, but in this case the index finger is directed vertically to the temple.

Territorial rights:

1) intimate area (from 15 to 46 cm) - this is the psychological property of a person, only a very close person has the right to violate this zone, when someone else invades, for example, during a crush in public transport, a person experiences irritation and discomfort;

2) private zone (from 46 cm to 1,2 m) - distance for parties and official meetings;

3) social zone (from 1,2 to 3,6 m) - a zone for communicating with strangers, for example, the owner of the apartment and the plumber should be at such a distance so as not to irritate each other;

4) public area (more than 3,6 m) - distance for communication with a large audience.

In situations where your interlocutor is sitting, you should not hang over him, as this is perceived as your superiority, and the interlocutor feels very small.

In conditions of forced crowding, when the intimate zone is violated, it is recommended to adhere to the following rules:

1) you should not talk even with familiar people;

2) you can not look directly at others;

3) the manifestation of any emotions on the face is undesirable;

4) in the presence of a newspaper, magazine, book, it is desirable to immerse yourself in reading, at least for appearances;

5) movements must be restrained;

6) When driving in the elevator, focus on the floor signs.

Tokens - these are statements or actions addressed to the interlocutor, the purpose of which is to support a person, improve his well-being.

Compliment - This is a verbal sign of attention that does not take into account the specific situation of communication.

For example, complimenting an employee about her appearance does not address the fact that she is very upset.

Praise - a sign of attention containing an assessment, a comparison with others, and in favor of the one to whom the praise is addressed.

"You are better than someone" implies that "someone is worse than you".

Adults, believing that a child should be praised more often, and constantly comparing his results with the results of other children, can form an addiction to approval.

Without this approval in adulthood, a person begins to experience discomfort.

Support - rendering a sign of attention to a person when he needs it, and regarding what there are difficulties at the moment.

When a person is supported, they turn to his personality, regardless of his successes and failures, mistakes and achievements.

Listening Techniques.

The most important condition for productive communication is the ability to listen. The ability to listen does not mean simple silence, it is an active and rather complex process designed to increase the effectiveness of communication.

The following types of hearing can be distinguished: active, passive, empathic.

Active listening involves clarifying questions, a paraphrase like: "Did I understand you correctly that ...", and you should definitely wait for an answer.

This technique is actively used if the interlocutors exchange information.

In those situations when the interlocutor is in a state of emotional stress, strong emotional arousal, effectively passive listening.

Active listening is useless, as the person does not understand their actions very well and does not control emotions.

A sympathetic interlocutor provides an opportunity to speak, demonstrating his willingness to support.

You should not just be silent, but show your interest with the help of such words: “yep”, “yes”, “of course”, etc.

The task of the listener is to keep the conversation going until the interlocutor speaks out, so you can use clarifying questions: "What about you?", "How did you answer?" etc.

In cases where problems that are significant for the individual are solved in the process of communication, it is effective to use empathic listening.

This technique should be used when the person himself is ready to share his problems with you.

Empathic listening assumes that the feelings of the interlocutor, his experiences are reflected, remarks interpreting his motives are not allowed (“so it is with you because ...”).

So, the technique and methods of communication are quite diverse and depend on the communicative abilities of a person, his age, professional activity, type of communication.

4. The process of communication develops both in phylo- and ontogenesis.

In the process of phylogenesis, the content of communication changes.

This change manifests itself in the following:

1) saturation with new information: the biological internal state of the organism + information about the important properties of the surrounding world + knowledge about the world.

The first two stages are common to humans and animals, the third stage is unique to humans;

2) the emergence of new needs leads to the enrichment of communication goals;

3) the development of means of communication occurs in several directions:

a) the development of organs adapted for communication, for example, hands;

b) the emergence of the possibility of expressive movements (facial expressions, pantomime);

c) the invention and the beginning of the use of iconic forms;

d) the emergence, improvement of technical means.

In ontogeny, communication develops as follows ( Nemov, 1995):

1) from birth to 2-3 months - contact, biological in content, communication aimed at meeting the organic needs of the baby.

The main tool is elementary gestures and facial expressions;

2) from 2-3 months to 8-10 months - the stage of initial cognition, the beginning of the activity of the sense organs, the emergence of a need for new sensations;

3) from 8-10 months to 1,5 years - communication becomes coordinated, non-verbal - verbal, the main goal is to satisfy the cognitive need; by the end of the period, the language begins to be actively used as a means of communication;

4) from 1,5 to 3 years - business and gaming communication appears, which is due to the development of objective activities and games.

Here is the beginning of the separation of business and personal communication;

5) from 3 to 6-7 years - the ability to arbitrarily choose one or another type of communication, depending on natural data or the most mastered method; development of plot-role communication;

6) school age - the accelerated intellectual and personal growth of the child leads to a wide variety of communication content, differentiation of goals and improvement of means; there is a clear separation of business and personal communication.

Thus, a psychologically developed person is distinguished by a pronounced need to communicate with various people, a wealth of content, a variety of goals and a wide range of means of communication.

4. Personality in the group

1. The influence of the group on the individual.

2. Perception and understanding of each other by people.

3. The well-being of the individual in the group.

1. The reference (significant) group can have both a positive and a negative impact on the development of the individual.

Positive influence:

1) members of the group act as sources of spiritual culture for the individual;

2) in the group there is an assimilation of positive values ​​and social norms;

3) as a result of intragroup communication, communication skills are improved;

4) from members of the group, the individual receives objective information about himself, which contributes to the formation of adequate self-esteem;

5) members of the group support the individual in his activities and undertakings.

Bad influence:

1) the loss by the individual of his individuality, the rejection of his own views - "depersonalization";

Reasons for depersonalization:

a) anonymity;

b) a high level of emotional arousal;

c) focusing attention not on one's own behavior, but on what is happening around;

d) high group cohesion leads to conformism;

e) reduced level of self-consciousness and self-control of the individual (Nemov, 1995);

2) the group can reduce the level of creative potential of highly gifted individuals.

Collective creativity is sometimes of a lower quality than the result of the creativity of a gifted individual.

Thus, the influence of the group on the individual is ambiguous and can be both positive and negative.

2. Factors affecting people's perception of each other:

1) implicit personality theory, according to which the appearance and behavior of a person determines the presence of certain character traits. Communicating throughout life with various people, a person accumulates in memory an impression of their appearance and behavior.

Long-term memory retains only a generalized image of these individuals.

Subsequently, when meeting outwardly similar people, a person projects onto them his memories of previously met, and ascribes (correctly or incorrectly) to them those character traits that are included in the saved image;

2) the primacy effect (halo effect) - the first impression of a person is so strong that it can influence the formation of a stable opinion about him.

It is noted that if the first impression is positive, then we tend to filter out the insignificant negative qualities of this person, consistent with the first impression.

The opposite happens if the first impression is negative.

The halo effect can have both positive and negative effects on perception;

3) the effect of novelty - the information stored in the memory of the latter has a stronger influence on the formation of a person's image and its assessment than the previous one, with the exception of the very first impression.

The halo and novelty effects can be explained by the previously studied edge effect (see the topic "Memory").

When people perceive each other, facial expressions, especially eyes and lips, and hand movements, especially fingers, are of paramount importance.

Evaluation of emotional states.

As experimental data show, people in 30-50% of cases give incorrect estimates of the emotional states of the people around them, and positive emotions are evaluated more correctly than negative ones.

Among the most correctly assessed positive emotions are joy, then admiration.

Such negative emotions as resentment, anger, longing are poorly evaluated.

Forms of perception and understanding of a person by a person:

1) analytical - common among artists and doctors who associate each external feature of a person (eyes, hair, hands, etc.) with a certain personality trait;

2) emotional - the presence of personal qualities is determined based on the emotional attitude towards a person (mechanisms of novelty and primacy).

The most common among children and adolescents, as well as easily excitable people with figurative memory and thinking;

3) perceptual-associative - Attention is drawn to the external manifestations of a person, which are compared with the images stored in the memory, on the basis of which an assessment is given to this individual.

This method is most often used by older people, actors, leaders, doctors and teachers;

4) social-associative - the perceived person is evaluated due to the prevailing social stereotypes.

Most often, people of different professions, social status, etc. act as basic social types. This method is typical for philosophers, politicians, leaders, and sociologists.

Factors hindering the correct perception of people:

1) incorrect assessment of the goals and objectives of communication, intentions, motives, people's well-being, forms of their behavior, as well as the state of affairs;

2) existing attitudes, assessments, beliefs (“I already know everything about him…”);

3) stereotypes of perception, according to which people are classified;

4) the desire to quickly give their opinion;

5) unwillingness to listen to the opinions of others;

6) despite the newly accumulated information, since the opinion expressed does not change.

So, knowledge of the mechanisms of perception by people of each other allows you to make communication more productive.

3. The predominance of one or another emotional state in a person during the period of communication with group members is called the emotional state of a person in a group.

In many ways, the emotional state of the individual is determined by the psychological climate of the group.

If an unhealthy atmosphere prevails, then there are frequent conflicts - both between individual members of the group and between individual groups within the group.

Intra-group conflicts are dangerous in their consequences. Thus, it has been experimentally proven that the time spent on the conflict itself is approximately two times less than the time spent on post-conflict experiences (the difference was approximately 12-20 minutes).

Negative relationships in the group contribute to the formation of increased anxiety in the individual, provoke interpersonal conflicts.

Anxiety is manifested in an increased tendency of the individual to negative experiences, to the expectation of an unfavorable development of events.

Distinguish between personal and situational anxiety.

Personal anxiety It is a property of an individual's personality.

situational anxiety - the state of anxiety occurs in temporary adverse situations.

Interpersonal conflicts. Interpersonal conflicts in their development go through four stages: the emergence of a conflict situation, awareness of this situation as an objective reality, conflict behavior, conflict resolution.

Researchers identify four most common ways of behaving in conflict.

1. Cooperation - is optimal in almost all conflict situations.

2. Compromise - this method should be resorted to if the partner provoked a "fire" situation.

3. Adaptation - maybe if the partner is really right.

4. Rivalry - the most commonly used method, but its effectiveness is minimal.

Principles of conflict management:

1) it is necessary to decide whether it is really necessary to aggravate the situation, bringing it to a conflict. To do this, it is desirable to answer the following questions:

a) whether the conflict should be eliminated or whether the situation should be considered as an engine of progress;

b) whether it is possible to eliminate contradictions by peaceful means;

c) if a peaceful option is impossible, then will there be enough opportunities to win;

d) if the forces are not enough, then how long the conflict can drag on (it is important to calculate your strengths);

2) own emotions interfere with the correct assessment of the situation, therefore, control over their manifestation should be exercised;

3) it is necessary to analyze the true causes of the conflict, which may be hidden behind imaginary ones;

4) strive to localize the boundaries of the conflict as much as possible;

5) abandon excessive focus on self-defense;

6) it may be useful to reformulate the opponent's arguments;

7) the manifestation of activity even in case of defeat will help to keep the initiative in one's hands, asking:

a) subject matter ("Let's get back to where we started...");

b) emotional tone ("Keep yourself in control...");

c) the language of communication ("Please, no insults ...").

Ways to resolve the conflict:

1) direct methods - when working directly with the parties to the conflict:

a) the leader listens in turn to each of the conflicting parties, demanding not emotions, but specific facts, then makes a decision;

b) the conflicting ones pronounce their claims to the opponent in the presence of the group.

Group members express their opinions, taking into account which the leader makes the final decision.

c) if the conflict is not resolved, administrative sanctions are imposed;

d) in the case when point c) does not help, it is desirable to isolate the conflicting parties from each other.

2) indirect methods proposed by A. B. Dobrovich assume as the main character in resolving the conflict "arbitrator":

a) the principle of the release of feelings - it is possible to freely express one's negative emotions about someone or something that he has done, which usually removes the intensity of passions;

b) the principle of emotional compensation - effective sympathy for the wrong, and usually both are wrong, which most often gives rise to a manifestation of repentance in him;

c) the principle of an authoritative third (remaining a secret for those in conflict) - the use of a well-known and respected person as a "messenger of goodwill";

d) the principle of forced hearing, when the "third" invites the conflicting parties to answer the opponent only after they repeat the last remark or the meaning of the tirade, which, as a rule, clearly demonstrates to the quarreling that they do not hear each other;

e) the principle of exchanging positions - the same "authoritative third" offers the warring parties to change places and continue the quarrel on behalf of each other, which allows them to see themselves from the outside through the eyes of the other;

f) the principle of expanding the spiritual horizon of the disputants - is implemented by recording a quarrel on a dictaphone and presenting it to the conflicting ones, which usually causes not only their surprise, but even a state of shock from what they heard.

So, small groups of different levels of development affect the attitude of people towards each other in different ways, which in the case of negative relationships is expressed in an increase in the anxiety of the individual, her frustration and interpersonal conflicts.

Author: Bogachkina N.A.

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