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Table of contents

1. Primitive society (What were the periods in the history of human development? What were the lives and occupations of primitive people? What were the stages of the decomposition of the primitive communal system?)
2. States of the Ancient East (What were the states of the Near and Middle East (Ancient Egypt, the states of Mesopotamia, Assyria, Phenicia)? What were the main features of the ancient states of India and China?)
3. Ancient Greece (How did the Ancient Greek state arise and what were the periods of its formation? What was the Greek community of the polis like? What wars did Greece and Persia wage between themselves? What were the characteristic features of the large policies of Greece: Athens and Sparta? How did the Peloponnesian War unfold? What countries did Alexander conquer Macedonian? What were the main features of the Hellenistic era? What was the uniqueness of the culture of ancient Greece?)
4. Ancient Rome (What were the periods of formation and development of the ancient Roman state? What were the features of the emergence of the Ancient Roman state? How did the Roman Republic become the most developed state in the Mediterranean? How did Rome become the center of power? How was the Republic born in Rome? How did the Punic Wars take place? What were the main features of the Roman Empire ? How was the culture of Ancient Rome different?)
5. Middle Ages (How is the periodization of the history of the Middle Ages presented? What did the political map of Europe look like in the early Middle Ages (late 5th-mid 11th centuries)? How was the medieval Frankish state formed? How did Charlemagne’s conquests take place? What were the reasons for the collapse of Charlemagne’s empire? How did the Byzantine Empire arise ? What are the features of Byzantium in its heyday? What is unique about France in the 9th-11th centuries? What is the specificity of Italy in the 9th-11th centuries? What was Germany like in the 9th-11th centuries? What is the specificity of England in the 9th-11th centuries? What were education and culture in the early Middle Ages? What were the specifics of Europe in the early Middle Ages (mid-11th - late 15th centuries)? What was the essence of the crusades (goals, participants, results)? What were the socio-economic prerequisites for the emergence of cities? What were the characteristic features of Medieval urban craft? What were the economic foundations and forms of organization? How did the formation of centralized states take place in Western Europe? What was France like in the 11th-15th centuries? What is unique about the English system in the 11th-15th centuries? What are the features of feudal fragmentation in Germany in the 11th-15th centuries? What was Italy like in the 11th-15th centuries? How did the educational and scientific processes take place in Medieval universities? What were the specific features of Europe in the Late Middle Ages (XVI-XVII centuries)? How did capitalist relations arise in Western Europe? How did the Great Geographical Discoveries and colonial conquests of the late 15th - early 16th centuries take place? What did the Reformation lead to in Germany? What was the result of the Reformation in England? What are the specifics of the Reformation in France? What was the humanistic ideology of the Renaissance, its main features and social origins? What is the culture of the Renaissance in Italy (its most important achievements in the field of culture and art)? How did literature and art develop during the developed Middle Ages? What role did the Christian Church play in the Middle Ages? What is the essence of the ideological foundations of medieval Christianity?)
6. Features of the development of Eastern countries in the Middle Ages. Arabs in the VI-XI centuries (What was India like in the 6th-11th centuries? What were the specifics of China? What was the essence of medieval Japan? How did Islam arise, what were its main features? What was the Islamic state of the Middle Ages? What was unique about the Umayyad Caliphate? What were the specifics Abbasid Caliphate?)
7. New history of the countries of Europe and America (What were the criteria for the periodization of the history of modern times? What were the prerequisites, stages, results of the bourgeois revolution in England? What were the essence and consequences of the industrial revolution in England? What were the results of the struggle for the independence of the British colonies? How were the United States of America formed? What was different about the colonial period in Latin America? What was the impetus for the beginning of the Great French Revolution? What were the stages of development of the revolutionary movement in France? How did Napoleon's wars unfold? What were the prerequisites for the crisis and collapse of the Empire? How was the "Viennese system" created and how was the Holy Alliance formed? were the main stages of the post-war development of the leading Western European countries (20-50s of the XNUMXth century)? How did the industrial revolution end? Development of capitalism What were the paths of economic and political development of France in the second half of the XNUMXth century? How was the British Empire created? Paths to the unification of Germany? What happened in the United States in the XNUMXth century?What was the impetus for the wars of independence in Latin America? How did science develop? What was unique about the development of culture in the XNUMXth century?)
8. New history in the countries of the East and Asia. Colonies and dependent countries (What was the colonial expansion? What is the peculiarity of Japanese capitalism? Why did China remain a “closed” country for so long and how did it “open”? Why is India called the “pearl” of the British Empire?)
9. Recent history of European and American countries (How did the economic development of the leading countries of Europe and America take place at the end of the 1915th - beginning of the 1916th centuries? What events caused the First World War? How did the situation develop at the front and in the rear in 1918-1919? What were the results of the First World War? How the map of Europe changed after the First World War? The countries of Europe and the USA in the post-war period. What were the results of the First World War for the countries of Latin America? How did fascism arise in Italy? What was Roosevelt's new course? How did the revolution of 1950-1960 take place in Germany ? How did the Nazis come to power in Germany? How did international relations develop on the eve of World War II? What was the beginning of World War II? How did the turning point occur during World War II? How did World War II end? What were the results of World War II? What changes happened in Europe and the world after World War II? How did the Cold War begin? Why did Germany split? How did the post-war recovery of the world economy happen? What were the main trends in the development of Eastern European countries after World War II? How did the United States develop after World War II? What are the features of the development of Great Britain after the Second World War? What happened in France in the post-war period? Federal Republic of Germany in the post-war period. How was the climb? The theory of the "welfare state": essence, causes of the crisis? How did the US develop in the late 1950s and 1960s? How England developed in the late 1974s. and the 1975s? How did the struggle for the revival of the greatness of France take place? Economic crisis of 1970-1980 and its influence on the development of Western civilization What happened in the USA during the era of the Conservative Revolution? Neoconservatism and the politics of M. Thatcher. How did the UK become one of the leading countries? France after de Gaulle, ways of development? What is the socio-economic and political crisis in the countries of Eastern Europe in the 1980-1990s? What processes took place in Eastern Europe at the turn of the XNUMX-XNUMXs? What caused the unification of Germany? What integration processes took place in Europe in the second half of the twentieth century? Which Western countries at the end of the twentieth century. can we call them "leading"? How did the culture of Western countries develop in the first half of the twentieth century? How does the culture of Western countries develop in the second half of the twentieth century?)
10. Countries of the East and Asia in modern times (Consequences of the collapse of the colonial system. What are “third world countries”? What development paths do the liberated countries have? New industrial countries. Which Are the countries included? How is the situation in post-war China? India and Pakistan. What are the ways of development? Southwest Asia. Features of development. Least the developed countries. What lies ahead for them?)

Chapter 1. Primitive society

1. What were the periods in the history of human development?

The first stage in the development of mankind - the primitive communal system - occupies a huge period of time from the moment humans separated from the animal kingdom (about 3-5 million years ago) until the formation of class societies in various regions of the planet (approximately in the 3th millennium BC) . Its periodization is based on differences in the material and technique of making tools (archaeological periodization). In accordance with it, XNUMX periods are distinguished in the ancient era:

1) stone Age (from the emergence of man to the III millennium BC);

2) bronze age (from the end of IV to the beginning of I millennium BC);

3) iron age (from the XNUMXst millennium BC).

In turn, the Stone Age is subdivided into the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), the New Stone Age (Neolithic), and the Medio-Stone Age transitional to Bronze Age (Eneolithic).

2. What were the life and occupations of primitive people?

The first species of modern man appeared 90 thousand years ago in the Middle East and North Africa. For a long time they coexisted with the last Neanderthals, who gradually disappeared from the face of the Earth.

More than 30 thousand years ago, primitive art appeared and flourished, testifying to the developed figurative thinking and artistic feeling of the ancients.

The hunting people of the Upper Paleolithic lived during the period of the last glaciation, called in Europe the Wurm. They quickly adapted to the changing climatic conditions, began to populate new territories, reaching the glacial and arctic regions.

One of the characteristics of the Upper Paleolithic is the improved technology of making tools. A person who lived 35-9 thousand years BC. e., he himself crushed stones into thin plates and strips. They became the basis for a variety of weapons - light and effective. Bone tools were also made, constantly changing for 25 millennia.

The hunters of the Upper Paleolithic were the bearers of the experience of previous generations and already knew perfectly well what their territory was rich in and what was the way of life of game, herbivores (living both in herds and alone), carnivores, small mammals, birds. People adapted to the seasonal migrations of the reindeer, the hunting of which fully satisfied their need for meat food.

Prehistoric people also used the fur skins of predators, mammoth tusks and the teeth of various animals to make art and jewelry. On occasion, hunters were engaged in fishing, which became a valuable help in certain months, as well as gathering, which played an equally important role in the warm season.

During the nomads, people also found other natural materials, primarily various types of stone, necessary for turning tools. The primitive man knew where the deposits of flint were located, where he systematically visited to select and carry away the best pieces that were not subjected to glaciation, from which he cut the plates.

Still people picked up stones of soft breeds for sculptural products and engravings. They found shells of marine animals, fossil bones, and sometimes they followed them hundreds of kilometers from their place of stay. The nomadic way of life of the hunters of the Upper Paleolithic assumed a fair distribution of duties and cooperation of all members of the community.

Everywhere, wherever people went, they sought to protect themselves from cold, wind, dampness and dangerous animals. The housing model depended on the type of activity, the type of social organization and the level of culture of primitive people. Certain requirements were imposed on the shelter: a convenient approach, the proximity of the river, an elevated location above the valley with animals grazing above it. The dwelling was insulated: a "double roof" was erected. But more often they still settled in the valleys, on the plains or plateaus, where they built huts and tents. In this case, a variety of materials were used, sometimes even mammoth bones.

The term "Paleolithic art" combines works of very different artistic styles and techniques.

rock painting - this is the art of drawing on stone walls, which, starting from Gravettian time conquers the depths of the dungeons and turns them into sanctuaries. Every corner in the more than a hundred caves of the Centabrian Mountains is covered with masterpieces of Madeleine culture.

The artistic technique of that time was very diverse: drawing lines with fingers on clay, carving on various supports, actually painting, carried out in a variety of ways - spraying liquid paint, applying it with a brush, combining paint and carving on the same image.

Until the XNUMXth millennium BC. e. in the Middle East and until the XNUMXth millennium in Europe, man lived by hunting, fishing and gathering. In the Neolithic era, his way of life changed radically: by raising livestock and cultivating the land, he himself began to produce food for himself. Thanks to pastoralism, people provided themselves with food supplies that were constantly at their disposal; in addition to meat, domestic animals gave milk, wool, and skin. The emergence of villages preceded the development of cattle breeding and agriculture.

Neolithic meant a new socio-economic organization of life. But this era brought with it a number of major technical innovations: pottery, stone grinding, weaving.

In the Neolithic era in Western Europe, giant stone monuments appear - megaliths. It is believed that by building a megalith, the peasant community declared the establishment of its control over a certain territory.

Society gradually changed. And although the tribal group still produced everything it needed for life, along with the peasants, miners, bronze craftsmen, and small merchants began to appear. The need to protect mines and trade routes led to the emergence of a special estate - warriors. If in the Neolithic era people lived in relative equality, then the Bronze Age is already marked by the emergence of a social hierarchy.

3. What were the stages of decomposition of the primitive communal system?

Approximately at V-IV millennium BC. uh. the disintegration of primitive society began. Among the factors contributing to this, an important role was played by agriculture, the development of specialized cattle breeding, the emergence of metallurgy, the formation of a specialized craft, and the development of trade.

With the development of plow agriculture, agricultural work passed from women's hands to men's, and the male farmer became the head of the family. Accumulation in different families was created differently. The product gradually ceases to be shared among the members of the community, and property begins to pass from father to children, the foundations of private ownership of the means of production are laid.

From the account of kinship on the maternal side, they pass to the account of kinship on the father's side - a patriarchy is formed. Accordingly, the form of family relations is changing, a patriarchal family based on private property arises.

The growth of labor productivity, increased exchange, constant wars - all this led to the emergence of property stratification among the tribes. Property inequality gave rise to social inequality. The tops of the tribal aristocracy were formed, in fact, in charge of all affairs. Noble community members sat in the tribal council, were in charge of the cult of the gods, singled out military leaders and priests from their midst. Along with property and social differentiation within the tribal community, there is also differentiation within the tribe between individual clans. On the one hand, strong and wealthy clans stand out, and on the other, weakened and impoverished ones.

So, the signs of the collapse of the tribal system were the emergence of property inequality, the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of the leaders of the tribes, the increase in armed clashes, the condemnation of prisoners into slaves, the transformation of the clan from a consanguineous collective into a territorial community.

In different regions of the world, the destruction of primitive communal relations occurred at different times, and the models of transition to a higher formation were also varied: some peoples formed early class states, others - slave states, many peoples bypassed the slave system and went straight to feudalism, and some - to colonial capitalism (the peoples of America, Australia).

Thus, the growth of productive forces created the prerequisites for strengthening ties between social organizations, the development of a system of gift-exchange relations. With the transition from the first marriage to the patriarchal, and later monogamous, the family is strengthened, which is isolated within the community. Community property is complemented by personal property. With the development of productive forces and the strengthening of territorial ties between families, the early primitive community is replaced by a primitive neighborhood community, and later by an agricultural community. It is characterized by a combination of individual parcel production with common ownership of land, private ownership and communal principles. The development of this internal contradiction created the conditions for the emergence of class society and the state.

Chapter 2. States of the Ancient East

1. What were the states of the Near and Middle East (Ancient Egypt, the states of Mesopotamia, Assyria, Phoenicia)?

The Near East and the Middle East include several geographical areas: the "fertile crescent" - the cradle of civilization - begins in the west, in the rich countries of the Levant, and then arches over the plains of Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer. To the north of it is the Anatolian Plateau, which merges in the east with the Iranian Highlands and even goes to the Indus.

In Babylon around 1900 B.C. uh. a new great power emerged. This young Amorite dynasty grew gradually as they watched their neighbors sap their strength in civil strife.

So the first Babylonian dynasty established dominance over Mesopotamia, which from now on became known as Babylonia. Diplomatic and administrative documents were drawn up in the language of the new Semitic elite - Akkadian. The laws were written in plain language; thus everyone could read and understand them.

The construction activities of the first Babylonian dynasty are poorly understood due to the fact that their traces are buried under the ruins of later eras.

С 1200 BC uh. Aramaic nomads, looking for land to settle, conquer Mesopotamia. Little Assyria - a state on the banks of the Tigris - gathers a powerful army to stop the invasion, and then, in turn, begins to conquer other people's territories. WITH 900 BC Assyrians, thirsty for victories, launch a series of attacks on neighboring peoples - Babylonians, Phoenicians, Arameans - and subdue them. The Assyrian Empire extended over the entire Middle East.

While the Assyrians fought to defend the borders of their state, one of the Aramaic dynasties calmly established itself on the Babylonian throne. To 612 BC uh. she became so strong that she was able to challenge the Assyrian army and emerge as a worthy heir to the glorious king Hammurabi.

About 2000 BC uh. in Babylonian texts, and in particular in predictions, the names of stars and constellations appear. In the same era, the tradition of healing was born. In ancient Mesopotamia there were two types of doctors: practices (asu) examined the sick and prescribed them medicines prepared from crushed and crushed plants, stones, animal or human entrails and mixed with vegetable oil, milk or beer; priest-casters (ashitu) they cast spells, performed magical rites, because it was believed that diseases were of supernatural origin and were the result of witchcraft of demonic forces or God's punishment.

В 539 BC uh. The East was united under the rule of the Persian power. Trade routes and dynastic alliances connected regions that were remote from each other and completely different in their way of life. Cuneiform gives some cultural unity to the various civilizations of the East.

The Phoenicians lived in port city-states and worked the land in areas remote from the coast. Being excellent merchants, the Phoenicians are already in 12th century BC uh. began to develop maritime trade, turning it into a source of prosperity and an instrument of expansion that continued throughout the Mediterranean until 1st century BC uh. They were famous for their fabrics dyed purple, which was obtained from the shells of needle mollusks. The Phoenicians also produced glass, which was made from sand from sea beaches, as well as products made from precious metals and ivory.

The first attempts to create an alphabet were made in 1800s BC uh. In Phoenician Byblos (Lebanese coast) in 1100s BC uh. scribes used an alphabet of 22 characters. The Phoenician language, like Arabic or Hebrew, belongs to the Semitic languages ​​- when writing it, vowels were not taken into account. The Phoenician alphabet is the basis of most modern alphabets.

Egyptian historian Manetho, who lived in the 3rd century. BC uh., says that over the 3 thousand years of Egypt’s existence, 30 ruling dynasties changed there. The history of Egypt demonstrates an amazing continuity of development and at the same time the steady evolution of society. Egyptian of the era of Ramesses II (about 1250 BC) differed in ideas and way of life from his ancestor of the times King Cheops, who lived 1300 Clothing and jewelry most accurately reflect the changes that have occurred.

Pyramids were built with simple tools, but on a well-organized construction site. An endless stream of hundreds of porters pulling stones on draggers connected the port and the construction site for decades.

The year of the ancient Egyptians consisted of 360 days and was divided into 3 seasons: "akhet" (Nile flood) "peret" (winter) and "hemu" (summer).

On the banks of the Nile, the peasants grew wheat and barley, which were used to make bread and beer, as well as flax, which was necessary for the production of fabrics.

River navigation set the rhythm of all life: trade, transportation of troops, religious holidays, funeral pilgrimages. Sailors sailed on ships equipped with large sails and long oars.

To protect themselves from their raids, the Egyptians, who lived in the era middle kingdom, captured Nubia located in the south and built a line of defensive structures there.

By the end II millennium BC uh. Great powers emerged on the borders of Egypt.

В 18th and 17th centuries BC uh. Egypt was going through difficult times: its southern territories were divided between rival rulers; the northern ones were occupied by newcomers from the Middle East - the Hyksos.

В I millennium BC uh. Egypt lost its independence.

The scientific research of the Egyptians was to identify and write down reliable and tested "recipes" that could be used again, and not to discover general mathematical laws that explain the "tricks" found by empirical means. That is why the Egyptians were more inventors than scientists.

2. What were the main features of the ancient states of India and China?

Modern historians believe that India arose at the meeting of two civilizations: an urban trading civilization that developed in the Indus Valley, and a shepherd-nomadic, a distant relative of the Celtic, Greek and Roman civilizations, which spread from Persia to 15th century BC uh.

В 6th century BC uh. The era of large and rich cities of the Indus Valley ends, and the Vedic peoples, who settled on the banks of the Ganges, create a system of independent communities that exists to this day in India, where the land belongs to no one and where all religions are recognized. Each member of the community receives his share of the fruits of common labor and observes the customs of the caste to which he belongs from birth and from which he cannot leave. This peculiar historical process, when the village replaces the city, allows the rural community to absorb all its conquerors down to the present day, without falling apart itself. Thus, the leaders of the Aryan nomadic tribes, who came from the warrior class and were at the top of the social ladder, were replaced by representatives of the Brahmin religious castes, engaged in the performance of ritual rites. Warlike deities led by the god-king Indra, to whom the leaders made bloody sacrifices, gave way to the gods of Hinduism - Krishna, Rama and Shiva, who embodied the hope of personal liberation for every Hindu.

В 6th century BC uh., at the time of the Buddha, there were at least 16 states in the Ganges valley with unclear borders, ruled by short-lived dynasties.

About 1st century n. uh. India gains its modern appearance thanks to trade routes. The Long Road crosses India north from the Bay of Bengal to Afghanistan. Caravans transport goods from areas that, after the adoption of the caste system, are experiencing an unprecedented economic boom. By uniting into professional corporations, the castes of artisans and merchants enrich themselves. Having accepted Buddhism, since it preaches peace that is beneficial for doing business, they donate to the construction of cave temples and monasteries, taking care of the spread of this teaching. Indian art is entering its first period of flowering.

Since IV to VIII centuries. India has been enriched with countless architectural masterpieces. Did a lot to decorate cities Patna Gwalior genus Vardhana.

The religious renewal of India began from within. The teaching - monism - turned the whole of India upside down.

Shankara (philosopher) preached throughout the country and founded several universities.

The growth in the number of small kingdoms makes India prosperous, but makes it vulnerable to any invader.

The Indians were tireless travelers, bold traders, but by no means invaders. The Indians gave the world many miracles: Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, the temples of Angkor Wat in Cambodia, etc.

The modern name of the country - China, comes from the Mongol-speaking people of the Khitans, who captured and held at the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries. n. e. northern regions of the country. The Chinese themselves called their country Zhong Guo - "Middle State", or by the name of one of the ruling dynasties, according to another version, it came from the name of the powerful kingdom of Qin, an exemplary empire created by the ruler Qin Shi Huangdi.

The prehistoric period of China's development ends during the reign of the Shang Dynasty. In the Shan city-palaces - religious and military centers - there were markets, workshops of artisans: carriage workers, bronze casters, potters.

The ruler "Son of Heaven" was revered as a link connecting heaven, man and Earth. By his virtues, he ensured the natural order of things: he is credited with the spread of the calendar. Although the peasants lived under the protection of the cities, where they supplied products for sacrifices, they nevertheless constituted a separate community. Know, in addition to the administration of religious cults, indulged in war and hunting. During the festivities in honor of the ancestors and gods, a huge number of captives and wild animals were sacrificed.

Having passed the stage of forging metals, the Chinese were engaged in iron casting for 1600 years before this process became known in Europe. This discovery made it possible to establish serial production of tools for plowing the land, earthworks, building irrigation facilities and developing new plots of land.

Peasant work was divided into male and female. Men cultivated the fields, harvested, hunted and fished. Women bred a silkworm, weaved, drove alcohol from grain.

В 221 BC uh. The ruler of the kingdom of Qin put an end to the feuds of petty rulers, united all Chinese states, accepting the title of First Emperor. He replaced the feudal system with a centralized system of bureaucratic government.

For the construction of the Great Wall, a huge army of workers was assembled from among the poor, forced laborers, and convicts. The wall was kept in order until 7th century., when it lost its strategic importance.

Chinese calligraphy is as great an art as painting. Chinese writing conveys meaning, not sounds and words.

The basis of the administrative apparatus of the Empire was formed by educated officials, whose importance was increasingly strengthened as new institutions were established. Education, though lengthy and expensive, was open to any capable person, regardless of background.

В 1024 BC For the first time in human history, paper money was issued.

China possessed the highest quality goods and therefore aroused the envy of its neighbors, who enriched themselves by collecting tribute.

In the field of science and technology, China is far ahead of Europe.

Chapter 3. Ancient Greece

1. How did the Ancient Greek state arise and what were the periods of its formation?

The history of Ancient Greece can be divided into 5 periods:

1) Aegean, or Cretan-Mycenaean (III-II millennium BC), the period of decomposition of the tribal system, the emergence and development in certain areas of early class slave-owning states, which ceased to exist as a result of the Dorian migration;

2) Greece X-IX centuries. BC uh. - period of temporary revival primitive communal relations after the Dorian conquest and the subsequent pan-Greek development of class relations based on the ancient form of property;

3) archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC) - continuation of the previous period, the time of the formation of the ancient slave-owning society, the emergence of policies;

4) classical period (V-IV centuries BC) - the highest development of slave-owning relations in ancient policies.

5) Hellenistic period (the second half of the XNUMXth - the middle of the XNUMXst century BC) represented the further development of the slave-owning society in the vast expanses of the Middle East after the Greco-Macedonian conquest of the Persian state. This period ended with the conquest of the western part (up to the Euphrates) - by Parthia.

According to ancient Greek traditions, preserved in the Homeric poems and among Greek historians, the most significant tribes among the most ancient population in these areas were the Pelasgians. Herodotus considered them to be relatives of the Greeks. Cretans can be named among the most ancient island tribes.

В I millennium BC uh. the ancient Greek tribes finally formed and settled as follows: in the north of Greece and Central Greece - the Aeolians; The eastern part of central Greece, Attica, and the islands of the central Aegean Sea were inhabited by the Ionians. The Achaeans held out in the north and center of the Peloponnese. The rest of the Peloponnese was inhabited by the Dorians.

The Greeks did not have a common language for a long time and spoke numerous dialects that were equally understandable to the vast majority.

Balkan Greece, after the Dorian migration, socially degraded towards the widespread distribution of tribal relations. The Achaean states disappeared. The slang writing was forgotten. Surviving the defeat of Attica returned to tribal relations.

2. What was the Greek community of the policy?

The destruction of the Achaean states and the Dorian migration led to the fact that the processes of class formation in many Greek areas had to start anew. AT XI century. The Greeks lived in small isolated communities or ancestral villages. The rulers of the regions, dependent on the rulers of the Achaean states, now turned into leaders of independent patriarchal tribes - the Basilei. National assemblies acquired great importance. The most important achievement of this period was the spread of iron: the Bronze Age was replaced by the Iron Age. Period of Ancient Greek history XI-IX centuries BC uh. Traditionally, it is called Homeric after the legendary blind singer Homer.

The main business unit in X-IX centuries BC uh. there was a house - "oikos"; but there was no private ownership of land yet.

The community members lived in small families, sons inherited land allotments, who received equal shares by lot. Apparently, pastures remained common. Basilei and their relatives owned large cut-off plots - "temens" allocated from common tribal lands.

At this time, poor people appeared who worked as farmhands for rich owners.

Trade was underdeveloped. There was an exchange of surpluses in the farms of the basilei for overseas goods. Cattle were a common commodity. Trade was associated with robbery and sea robbery.

Intertribal wars became more frequent, there was a mixture of the population of different tribes.

Gradually, the position of basilei turned into a hereditary position in a certain aristocratic family.

The ancient Greeks considered the snowy peak of the mountain Olympus residence of their gods.

The social development of Greece in VIII-VI centuries. BC uh. was a continuation of the process of widespread formation of an early class society that began at the end of the Homeric era.

In Greece, small slave-owning states began to emerge, which were fortified settlements in which collectives of citizens-landowners lived, who jointly defended their common interests. These state formations received from the ancient Greeks the name of policies, that is, city-states.

The property stratification of intra-civil collectives is gradually increasing.

With the growth of the economic independence of the urban demos, the latter began to more actively seek the power of the aristocracy. The urban demos demanded the issuance of laws protecting its property and trade and religious activities from the abuses of the aristocracy.

The ruling landowning group of the tribal aristocracy opposed the urgent reforms.

Therefore, the urban and rural demos in VII-VI centuries. BC uh. began a decisive struggle for reform.

В VII-VI centuries. BC uh. In a number of economically developed policies, a new form of state power arose, known in science as the elder, or early, tyranny. The tyrants for the most part came from that group of aristocracy that joined the upper strata of the demos.

The older or earlier tyrannies were of short duration. During the time of tyranny, politicians grew up and gained political experience, more consistently defending the interests of the demos.

In the same policies, in which, after the overthrow of the power of the aristocracy and the tyranny that followed it, property stratification turned out to be sharp, an oligarchy arose (that is, the power of the few).

The Greek cities of Asia Minor, earlier than the policies of Balkan Greece, survived the era of struggle between the aristocracy and the demos and turned into rich trade and craft centers. This was facilitated by their transit geographical position at the junction of the ancient Greek and ancient Eastern worlds.

В VIII-VI centuries. BC uh. Greek colonization took place.

3. What kind of wars were waged between Greece and Persia?

Arising towards the middle 6th century BC uh. and conquered all Middle Eastern states in the second half 6th century BC uh. the enormous Persian power reached the height of its power during the reign of King Darius I, at the end of the 6th century. BC uh... Under Darius I, a system of governing a huge state was organized, the system of strategic and trade roads along which troops moved was improved, tribute was brought to the Persian capitals, regularly received from conquered tribes and peoples.

The systematic collection of large tributes gradually exhausted their economic opportunities. Therefore, the Persian state was interested in conquering new territories that had not yet been depleted by excessive extortions.

In order to strengthen his power over the rich coastal cities of the Greeks of Asia Minor, Darius I 513 BC uh. undertook a campaign through Thrace to the northern Black Sea region against the Scythians.

Scythians-the nomads chose the most expedient tactics in the fight against the Persian invasion: they destroyed wells and food along the route of the Persian army. Darius I had to stop and turn back.

But as a result of this campaign, the Persians captured Byzantium and the entire eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The borders of the Persian state came close to Greece.

The broad masses of the trade and craft population of the policies of the Balkan Greece, who in the recent past defeated the tribal aristocracy in a stubborn internal struggle, are now faced with a powerful and merciless external adversary. The aristocracy, on the other hand, was not averse to regaining the dominant position it had lost at the price of recognizing the supreme power of the Persians. There was no unity in the foreign policy of the Greeks towards Persia.

Gradually, such a situation arose that, on an insignificant occasion, a spontaneous uprising could break out. As a result of the internal struggle on the island of Naxos, the aristocracy was overthrown and expelled. The Milesian tyrant Aristagoras decided to restore the aristocracy and therefore turned to Darius I with a request for help in conquering Naxos.

The first successes of the Ionian uprising: it was unexpected for the Persians, but the forces were unequal. AT 454 BC uh. the uprising was suppressed.

The insignificant assistance that Athens and Eretria provided to the Ionians was used by Darius I as an excuse for the first campaign against Balkan Greece. AT 492 BC uh a large land army and navy under the command of Marzonius set out to conquer Greece. Darius I sent ambassadors to Greece with a demand to recognize the supreme power of the Persian state over himself. Most of the Greek city-states complied with this requirement.

В 490 BC uh. The second campaign against Greece took place. The purpose of this campaign was primarily a war against Eretria and Athens. Although news of the hostilities of the Persian fleet quickly spread in Greece, they did not mobilize the Greeks to unanimously resist the enemy. The aristocratic group expressed pro-Persian sentiments.

The Athenian strategists were divided over whether to start the battle first or organize the defense.

The victory of the Athenians during the marathon over the powerful Persian landing was of great moral and political significance. It gave the Greeks confidence in the possibility of defending their independence in the fight against Persian aggression.

В 481 BC uh. An alliance arose between Athens and Sparta, which was joined by a significant number of other Greek city states, although complete unity was not achieved.

In the spring 480 BC uh. The third Persian campaign in Greece began under the leadership of Xerxes himself. The continued lack of coordination between Sparta, Athens and other policies facilitated the Persian offensive.

The Salamis victory of the Greeks over the superior forces of the Persians led to a turn in the entire course of the war.

The war moved beyond the borders of Greece and continued at sea and in the region of the Black Sea straits. From a defensive one, it began to turn for the Greeks into an offensive one.

The war with the Persians continued intermittently until 449 BC uh.

The Greco-Persian wars ended with the victory of the Greeks, who defended the freedom and independence of their homeland from the aggression of the Persian despotism. Despite disagreements, at decisive moments they were able to unite and give a crushing rebuff to the invaders. But the Greeks were people of their own, slave-owning era. In the second period of the war, having made sure that the forces of Persia were exhausted, the Greek soldiers, to the best of their ability, plundered the Persian coast and turned the captives into slavery.

4. What were the characteristics of the large policies of Greece: Athens and Sparta?

The Spartan state was located in the south of the Peloponnese. The capital of this state was called Sparta, while the country itself was called Laconia.

Sparta is the oldest state of archaic Greece. AT 7th century BC uh. The Spartans undertook the conquest of the region's neighbors - Messenia. As a result of two Messenian wars, the territory of Messenia was annexed to Sparta.

The local population living in the fertile valleys was turned into disenfranchised helots.

The economy of Laconia was very undeveloped and primitive. Agriculture was the main occupation here. The craft was very little developed. The Spartan state forbade all foreign trade. A large amount of money was required to pay for products or crafts. Money was not only not carried in a purse, as is done now, but was stored in special storerooms.

The privileged class (estate) of Sparta - the Spartans constituted the so-called community of equals.

The Spartans were engaged in military affairs. In order to educate strong and strong warriors, there was a special education system in Sparta.

Each newborn was carried to the highest institutions of Sparta - Gerousia, i.e. the council of elders. If a child was born weak and sickly, he was thrown off a cliff. A healthy child was left with his mother until he reached the age of seven. Then he went to a public school, where he spent time until the age of majority, that is, until the age of 18. The school regime was very strict.

At school, the boys were engaged in physical exercises and military affairs. The purpose of education was to grow a strong, seasoned warrior. Philosophy and eloquence were not allowed. They learned to speak as briefly as possible - "succinctly" (from the name of the country - Laconia).

In Sparta, the only city in Greece, great attention was paid to the education of women. It was believed that only a healthy mother can have healthy children. Therefore, the girls did not do housework. It was all done by the helots. Spartans, from childhood, went in for gymnastics and sports, they knew how to read, write, count, like boys.

All the activities of the Spartan state were aimed at keeping the helots in obedience.

In the Spartan state there was a popular assembly. This meeting decided questions about war and peace, but there was no voting. Everything was decided by shouting.

Sparta had two kings at the same time. They had priestly functions and were considered sacred.

The most powerful and actually governing body was the assembly of elders - representatives of the most influential clans and families of Sparta.

The military advantage of Sparta and the Peloponnesian League led by it did not raise doubts throughout Greece.

The Spartan system was the most reactionary among the ancient Greek states.

Compared to other trade and craft policies, the rapid socio-economic and political development of Attica, led by the most famous policy in the historical tradition - Athens - came a little later.

According to legend, in ancient times the basilei ruled in Athens, whose residence was on a fortified rock - the acropolis.

However, the position of basileus was not abolished in Athens, but it gradually lost its political significance.

Head of the Athenian aristocratic polis for IX-VIII centuries BC uh. becomes a new additional person - archonite.

The popular assembly in Athens, as in other aristocratic policies, was untenable.

В 7th century BC uh. Crafts and trade began to develop in Athens.

The aggravated relations between the aristocracy and the demos decided to take advantage of the popular Athens Olympic winner Cylon to become an Athenian tyrant. Near 640 BC uh. at a festival in honor of Zeus, he captured the Acropolis with his followers.

В 621 BC uh. Archonite-dismothetes Draconite promulgated the legal norms he had written down. They went down in history under the name "Draconian laws", which became an epithet for excessively cruel laws in general.

To conquer the island of Salamis 594 BC uh. was elected Archon of Solon.

Solon's reforms can be divided into economic and political. With his reforms, he legalized those naturally developed socio-economic and political relations that were not allowed to proceed by the Eupatrides; who were in power before Solon.

The reforms of Cleisthenes completed the process of registration of the Athenian democratic slave-owning policy.

5. How did the Peloponnesian War unfold?

Peloponnesian war was generated by the accumulation and aggravation of internal contradictions in the slave-owning society of ancient Greece, which were based on the uneven development of its regions.

The first incident that hastened the start of the war occurred far from Corinth, Sparta and Athens in the colony of Epidamne and on the island of Corcyra. A democratic upheaval took place in Epidamnus. The oligarchs who fled the city launched an attack on Epidamnus. The Corinthians helped Epidamnus, but because of this, Corcyra opposed them. Corfu entered into XNUMXst Athenian Maritime Union, which was a violation of the peace concluded in the past between this and the Peloponnesian alliance. Democratic Athens helped the Kersk oligarchs against a common enemy - the oligarchic Corinth, which in turn helped the Epidamnic democrats. Thus the economic interests of Corinth and Athens prevailed over their political sympathies.

The second incident followed immediately after the first. Events unfolded in Pontdey. Megara took the side of Corinth. Both policies energetically persuaded Sparta to start military operations against Athens. Then a third incident arose: the Athenian people's assembly approved the Megarian psephism - a special decision declaring a boycott of the Megarian merchant ships in all the harbors of the members of the First Athenian Maritime Union.

Archdate War 431-421. BC uh. Under pressure from Corinth and Megara, military action against Athens was launched by the Spartans under the command of King Archidamus II, who developed a plan for waging war, taking into account the Spartans' superiority on land. Therefore, the war was called the Peloponnesian war, and its first period was called Archidamic. Given the economic and political situation in Attica, Archidamus expected to ruin its agriculture and, as a result, sentiment against Pericles and the urban demos of the rural demosatic peasants who supported him.

The Athenians opposed the Spartan plan of warfare developed by Pericles. The Athenians proceeded from the superiority of their navy.

The contradictions that caused the Peloponnesian war were still unresolved. The forces of the opponents were approximately equal. The war, limited to the Balkan Peninsula and nearby islands, did not lead to significant results. The irregular blockade of the Peloponnesian fleet by the Athenian fleet did not weaken the Peloponnesian alliance. The trade and craft strata of the Athenian demos were not satisfied with the draw of the war. The developed slave-owning economy required the expansion of the territories controlled by Athens, so the tendencies to resume the war are again reviving.

Alcibiades, a relative of Pericles, becomes the head of the supporters of the expansionist policy. He proposed a plan to conquer the rich and populous island of Sicily.

К 415 BC uh. the Athenians equipped about 260 warships and cargo ships and over 32 thousand. hoplites, sailors and oarsmen under the command of Alquiades and Nicias.

В 414 BC uh. the Athenian fleet was destroyed. The ground army was forced to capitulate, surrounded by the combined forces of the Syracusans and Spartans.

Dekelia War (413-404 BC). Almost simultaneously with the death of the Athenian army and fleet in Sicily, the Spartans invaded Attica and occupied the point of Dekeley. They set up their base here for conducting constant military operations against the Athenians and cut off communication with the island of Euboea, from there food was delivered to Attica.

В 411 BC uh. an oligarchic revolution took place in Athens itself. The oligarchs promised the war-weary population of Attica to negotiate peace with oligarchic Sparta. Negotiations with Sparta were unsuccessful, as the Spartans demanded the liquidation of the Athenian ofhe.

В 404 BC uh. The Spartans entered Athens and the Ofhe were dissolved. Athens was included in the Peloponnesian League. Democracy was replaced by oligarchy.

The fierce internecine war, which lasted with a short break for 27 years, ended with the victory of the backward Sparta over the much more economically and politically developed Athens. The Athenian democratic government made a number of mistakes, among which the Sicilian expedition was especially grave. But Sparta, even after the catastrophe of the Athenians in Sicily, was able to defeat Athens only with the financial assistance of Persia. Thus, the international situation also contributed to the defeat of Athens. But the roots of Athens' failures were also laid in the limitations of Athenian democracy. The socio-economic development that brought to life the XNUMXst Athenian Maritime Union required broad unification, the continuation of polis limitations, but the XNUMXst Athenian Maritime Union failed to overcome it.

The Peloponnesian War greatly weakened the whole of Greece, undermined its economic potential.

6. What countries did Alexander the Great conquer?

in Macedonia in 336 BC uh. After the murder of Philip, the power of Alexander was proclaimed.

В 335 BC e. Alexander the Great undertook a northern campaign to conquer the fallen Thracian tribes. The army won.

Rumors reached Alexander that the Greek cities, led by Athens and Thebes, had fallen away from Macedonia. But he decided to return to Macedonia first the Illyrian tribes and from Thrace went to Illyria.

Alexander moved with an army to the rebellious Thebes and laid siege to them. The inhabitants of Thebes were taken into slavery, and the city was razed and destroyed. This turn of affairs frightened other Greek cities, which began to express obedience to Macedonia.

The refusal to massacre Athens was due to the policy of Alexander, who did not want to spoil relations with the Greeks at the beginning of the Persian campaign.

After the complete restoration of his power in Greece, Alexander began to prepare for the Persian campaign, which his father failed to carry out - Philip.

The army of Alexander the Great was not numerous. It consisted of 30 thousand infantry and 5 thousand horsemen, but this army was well trained in the new military system. The army marched in the spring 334 BC

Persia showed at this time unpreparedness for defense. This huge state could collect its troops for two years. The Persian state was on the decline, it was torn apart by civil strife. Various victories and abuses restored the population of Asia Minor against the local Persian authorities. All these circumstances helped Alexander to invade Asia.

В 334 BC uh. A battle took place near the small river Granik. The Persians were defeated. After the victory at Granicus, the Macedonian army marched along the Asia Minor coast to the south. Alexander pursued political goals: he freed the Greek cities of Asia Minor from the Persian yoke.

All winter 333 BC uh. Alexander spent time in the center of Asia Minor, since the winter here was harsh and the Macedonian army could not march in such conditions. At the end of winter, Alexander hastily set out on a campaign.

The meeting of the Macedonian and Persian armies took place in the town of Iss on the northeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. After a stubborn battle, the Persian army was utterly defeated.

After the battle of Issus, Alexander went to Syria and Phoenicia. Of the Phoenician cities, only Tyre resisted, which Alexander could not take for seven months.

When Alexander was in Phoenicia, Darius III offered him peace on the following terms: he would give Alexander all of Asia Minor for possession, half of the Persian treasury and the hand of his eldest daughter.

The peace offer was rejected. But the military council showed that in the command staff of Alexander's army, opposition was beginning to oppose the continuation of the war.

В 332 BC uh. Alexander headed with his army to Egypt to take possession of this rich country and provide himself with a rear during his campaign to the East. The Egyptians welcomed the Macedonian troops.

Alexander was proclaimed Pharaoh by the Egyptian priests.

В 332 BC uh. Alexander founded Alexandria, a city on the Mediterranean coast in the Nile Delta, which was destined to play a major political, economic and cultural role in the Hellenistic era and beyond.

In the spring 331 BC uh. Alexander left Egypt and headed to Mesopotamia, where the troops of Darius III were already concentrated.

The army of Darius III approached Mesopotamia and stopped not far from the former capital of Assyria - Nineveh, in the town Gaugamela.

Battle of Gaugamelach was bloody and stubborn. After the victory at Gaugamela, Alexander took Babylonand then Susa.

When Bactria и Sogdiani (Central Asia) were conquered, Alexander went to Ivedia. The Macedonians were victorious.

Alexander's army reached only the tributary of the Indus Hyphasis, after which it had to turn back.

During the eastern campaign, new trade relations arose between Greece and the East, a new colossal state was formed from the Balkan Peninsula to the territory of India. This state was larger than Persia. It was managed differently. Each district (satrapy) was subject to the central authority of Alexander, who personally intervened in the affairs of various districts and sometimes deposed and executed satraps.

After celebrating victories in the eastern campaign, Alexander took up the internal affairs of his monarchy and preparations for the western campaign, which he decided to make.

Younger son Antipater Jonah hosted a feast, to which he invited Alexander. Returning from the feast, Alexander fell seriously ill, apparently, he was poisoned. At this time he was 33 years old.

Despite the fact that Alexander's campaigns were of an aggressive nature, the created Macedonian new state was more progressive in its economy, political system and culture than ancient Greece.

7. What were the main features of the Hellenistic era?

The Hellenistic era is understood as almost 300 years of the history of Greece, Macedonia, the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, Iran, Central Asia and the regions adjacent to them after the conquests of Alexander the Great. The period ended with the conquest of the Hellenistic countries from the west by Rome, and from the east by Parthia. The traditional date that ends the history of the Hellenistic era is considered to be 30 BC. when the last independent Hellenistic kingdom of the Ptolemies (Egypt) was conquered by Rome.

The term "Hellenism" was first used over 100 years ago by a German historian. C. Droysen.

The Hellenistic period was a time of close combination and mutual influence of ancient Greek and ancient Eastern socio-economic, political and cultural relations. At the same time, the colonization of the Middle East by the Greeks took place on an unprecedented scale.

Egypt was one of the most powerful Hellenistic states. Its capital - Alexandria - was the largest port, trade, craft and cultural center of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Three Greek cities were located in the main territory of Egypt: Alexandria, Ptolemais and Navkratia.

The royal court was in Alexandria. The nobles who belonged to the royal court were the king's advisers and bore the honorary titles of the king's "relatives", "friends", etc.

The Ptolemaic state owned a number of territories outside of Egypt: Cyrenaica, the island of Cyprus, Southern Syria, and Phoenicia. These possessions usually retained their local government, but under the control of the Ptolemaic governors.

By ancient Greek tradition and by right of conquest, the Ptolemies were the owners of their Egyptian land.

A significant part of the Egyptian land was cultivated by peasants under the direct supervision of officials of the royal financial administration. The king provided another part of the Egyptian land for the use of soldiers, priests, nobles, etc.

Temple land was more privileged. Taxes from this land were at the disposal of the priests, who contributed a certain part of them to the royal treasury.

Most of the territory of the Hellenistic world in 3rd century BC uh. controlled the Seleucid state.

Seleucids dominated the caravan and water routes connecting the Mediterranean with the countries of the Middle East, and traded through Central Asia and India even with China. In this trade, the Selivkids had competitors in the person of the Ptolemies.

In the state structure of the Seleucids, like the Ptolemies, they used the local and Greek-Macedonian experience. They retained the Persian administrative division into satrapies, but now they were headed by royal governors - strategists. The country was divided into Greek cities and Khorez.

The main support of the Seleucids has always been an army of Macedonians, Greeks and various Hellenized elements.

The situation in Europe was somewhat different from that in the Middle East.

Agrarian relations in Macedonia, in contrast to the Eastern Hellenistic states, developed on the basis of the ancient form of ownership. However, even in Macedonia there was a royal land; the tsar conceded part of this land for the use of soldiers and the service aristocracy. The administration of the country was concentrated in the hands of the king. The main direction of Macedonian foreign policy was the desire for hegemony in Greece and the Aegean.

The most powerful Hellenistic states - the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kingdoms - competed with each other for dominance in the eastern Mediterranean and sought to play an active role in Greece. At the same time, from time to time they entered into difficult relations with the third great Hellenistic power - Macedonia, which was directly interested in always keeping the Aegean Sea basin under its control.

The Hellenistic world was gradually conquered in the east by Parthia and in the west by Rome. Rome ensured the further development of the slave-owning society in the conquered territories.

The culture of the Hellenistic world was complex and diverse. It was a synthesis and various combinations of Greek culture and cultures of the countries of the Near and partially Middle East.

Hellenic culture is characterized by its Greek design. Absolutism became an important feature of the ideology of the ruling class, an important element of the official ideology of the Hellenistic states.

8. What was the uniqueness of the culture of ancient Greece?

The first Greeks appeared on earth around 2000 BC uh. These were Mycenaeans - Descendants of the Indo-European conquerors. AT 3200 BC uh. It was migrants from the East who brought the secret of metal working to the Aegean world. The Cyclades were the first to enter the metal age, called the bronze age.

During the excavations of dwellings and burials of the Cyclades, many different objects were found. It was a brilliant culture, which, however, did not have a written language.

In the Bronze Age, with a small time gap from the Cyclades, the culture of Crete flourished, named after the legendary Minoan king Minos. The Minoans joined in a variety of technical innovations, learned how to produce stone products, seals, and gold jewelry. Large settlements appeared in the eastern part of the island.

At Knossos, Mallia and Phaistos, the first palaces with complex layouts were erected, which testified to the vitality of the Minoan culture. Masters made sculptures from baked clay. The Minoans did not create large sculptures, but they were excellent at small objects.

By the end of the Bronze Age (1600-1100 BC) Mycenaean culture became one of the most developed in the Mediterranean. One of the reasons for its flourishing was trade. Mycenae was a well-organized society with a complex system of government, as described on clay tablets written in linear writing. The Mycenaeans possessed advanced technical knowledge, which made it possible to build bridges, fortresses, domed tombs, as well as carry out work on irrigation and drainage of soils. In art and religion, the Mycenaeans at first imitated Crete, but then developed something peculiar only to them, for example, strict and majestic architectural ensembles. The Mycenaeans were warlike, which affected the nature of their burial property.

В 6th century BC uh. The Athenian tyrant Pisistratus ordered the Iliad and Odyssey to be edited. Since then, the works of Homer have become a real textbook of life for little Athenians.

С 700s BC uh. under the influence of the East, a distinctive art called orientalizing begins to take shape. In the workshops of Corinth, the most powerful city of that era, new decorative motifs were invented and the technique of making black-figure tableware was mastered. Pottery from Eastern Greece depicted herds grazing peacefully against a background of rosettes. Orientalizing jewelry art, like ceramics, was distinguished by an abundance of decorations.

At the same time, the first statues of large sizes appear, made, on the contrary, in a strict style. They got the name Daedalic in honor of Daedalus, a mythical sculptor and inventor, originally from Athens.

The period of general Greek prosperity begins in 6th century BC uh. Cities and their colonies are decorated with monuments. Some of them were ordered by tyrants. Sculptures were created only for temples and tombs and never served as decoration for homes. TO 480 BC uh. Greek art enters its classical period.

The cult of Dionysus is associated with noisy choral singing in his honor - dithyrambs. AT XNUMXth century BC e. the poet Festides introduced into the performance a dialogue between the choir and the actor: thus was born the tragedy, which means "the song of the goat" - the favorite animal of Dionysus. Tragedy brings the hero to the stage at the most dramatic moment of his life. Competitions of tragedies were held during the Great Dionysia - holidays in honor of Dionysus.

These pieces were played only once and were not recorded. Of the more than 1000 tragedies composed in antiquity, only about 30 have come down to us.

"Persians", "Oresteia" - creations Aeschyluswho witnessed the Greco-Persian wars. Sophocles innovated the genre of tragedy by instructing three actors to dialogue with the choir in Antigone, Edin. Creation Euripides influenced Corneille and Racine.

The ancient Greeks did not have holidays, but they devoted two months of the year to holidays in honor of their many gods. Of particular importance were the celebrations dedicated to Athena, the divine patroness of the city of Athens.

According to legend, the first Olympic Games took place in 776 BC uh. Legend claims that the treadmill was invented by Hercules, who wanted to thank his father Zeus. Every Greek could take part in the competition, but only on the condition that he was a citizen. Slaves and foreigners could attend the Games as spectators.

В 6th century BC uh. sculptors learned to process stone well and accurately convey the outline of the human body in marble. By the end of the century, all proportions were already observed; the muscles were in their place. Then sculptors began to strive to convey movements. For this reason, sculptors turn to metal, which allows them to diversify the poses of statues to a greater extent. The creation of a bronze figure is preceded by several stages, starting with the production of a wax-coated clay model and ending with the casting of the statue in a mold, with the melting of the wax.

The emergence of Greek philosophy is associated with the name of Thales, who lived in 6th century BC uh. She reached her greatest prosperity in 4th century BC uh. From its first steps, Greek philosophy began to express the self-awareness of civilization, the key concept of which was the “polis”.

Hippocrates, a native of Kos and a contemporary of Pericles, founded the first medical school. Health and disease were henceforth perceived as natural phenomena.

Chapter 4. Ancient Rome

1. What were the periods of formation and development of the ancient Roman state?

In the middle 2nd century BC uh. Among the slave-holding powers of the Mediterranean world, the dominant position is occupied by the powerful state that emerged in Italy - the Roman Republic. Having subjugated the peoples and tribes of the Apennine Peninsula to its power, the Roman Republic, after a fierce struggle, broke the resistance of competing opponents and by the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. became the most powerful of the Mediterranean states. Subsequently (in XNUMXst century BC e. - II century. BC e.) Roman slave owners subjugated all of northern Africa, a significant part of Europe and the countries of Asia Minor, creating a huge power that existed for about 500 years.

The history of Ancient Rome in socio-economic and political terms can be divided into the following periods:

1) the period of early slave-owning relations (VIII-II centuries BC) These centuries include the "royal period" (VI century BC) and the early Roman Republic (V-IV centuries BC). );

2) the period of the highest flourishing of the slave-owning mode of production, the slave-owning socio-economic formation. The first period of classical slavery (II-I centuries BC) coincides with the era of the late Roman Republic and civil wars; the second (I-II centuries AD) - the period of the early empire, or the so-called principate;

3) the period of the general crisis of the slave-owning mode of production and the political crisis of the Roman Empire (XNUMXrd century AD);

4) deepening of the crisis of the slave-owning mode of production (XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries AD). late empire. Dominat. Death of the Western Roman Empire.

In the Roman state, slavery reached its fullest development. However, over time, the slave-owning economy, and with it the social relations based on the system of slavery, became obsolete, which led to the weakening and collapse of the huge Roman power and the death of the ancient Mediterranean, so-called ancient, civilization.

2. What were the features of the emergence of the Ancient Roman state?

In II-I centuries. BC uh. legends and tales about the most ancient period of Roman history, having become widespread among the cultural strata of the Roman population itself, were accepted by Roman authors and formed the basis of their works. They are most fully and thoroughly outlined by the outstanding Roman historian Titus Livius (59 BC - 17 AD).

According to modern researchers of the ancient history of Rome, the emergence of separate settlements on the hills on the left bank of the Tiber River should be attributed to X century BC uh.

В 8th century BC uh. through the area where the central parts of the city of Rome were later located, a large road passed from the mountainous areas in the southeast to the Tiber River. Along this “salt road” we went to the saltworks. Craftsmen began to settle at the river crossing.

В 7th century BC uh. scattered settlements on the nearby hills and near the crossing merged into a single urban community. The center of the new city became a fortress on the steep Capitoline Hill, rising above the bank of the Tiber River. The low-lying space between the Capitoline and Palatine hills, previously used for burials, was turned into the central square of the new city - the “forum”. Trading took place on the forum on ordinary days. Citizens gathered here, public affairs were discussed, heralds spoke, religious processions took place, and rituals of worship of the gods were performed.

Since the new city arose at the junction of the areas of settlements of various ancient Italic tribes, its original population consisted of three separate tribal associations. According to historical tradition, these ancient tribes were called: Titii, Ramni, Lucers. According to modern scientists, these names belonged to the Sabines, Latins and Etruscans, confirming the multi-tribal composition of Rome in ancient times.

Tribes - "tribes" - consisted of united clans - "curia". Each curia had ten genera, and each tribe had ten curiae. Citizens who were members of tribal associations were initially considered members of the community, constituting the bulk of the population who knew their fathers. These were the patricians. Only they originally constituted a full-fledged citizenship. Each clan had its own family name, which, along with the proper name and the nickname of individuals or family groups, was worn by each of the members of the clan association. Therefore, even in later historical times, the Romans had a name that consisted of three parts, - Guy Julius Caesar.

The Senate elected the leader for life. The king presided over the senate, made sacrifices to the gods on behalf of the entire community, and led the militia of citizens - "legion".

Over time, along with the old citizenship - patricians in Rome, another layer of the free population appeared - plebeians.

"Plebeians" were not included in the tribal association of patricians. Many of them were engaged in crafts and trade, others came under the patronage of individual patricians and received plots of land from their patrons.

The plebeians did not enjoy civil rights, but over time they began to be included in the Roman military militia.

Slaves were the lowest stratum of the Roman population. Many of them were from among the prisoners of war, others were bought from neighboring tribes. Finally, bonded slavery was an important source of replenishment of the slave population. According to ancient legal customs, a person who borrowed grain, cattle or copper, which replaced money in ancient Italy, had to return the person who gave him the loan (creditor) with interest on time.

The cruel debt law caused discontent among the plebeians. It especially intensified when Rome and its region came under the rule of the Etruscan conquerors. Historical tradition refers to the middle 6th century BC uh. a very important reform attributed to King Servius Tullius.

According to Titus Livius, Servius Tillius allowed the plebeians to participate in the popular assembly. Keeping outwardly the old division into tribes, Servius Tullius turned the tribes from an ancient tribal union into a territorial division. He established four territorial tribes, subsequently their number increased to 35.

Created an assembly of warriors. Warriors were divided into five classes according to property.

Voices in centuriant collisions (a meeting of warriors) were cast in hundreds. One hundred had one vote.

The reforms of Servius Tullius aroused the discontent of the Roman patriciate. Taking advantage of it, Tarquinius Sukerbus overthrew and killed his predecessor.

But after a while, with violence and cruelty, he aroused indignation.

Modern researchers believe that the fall of the power of the Etruscan kings in Rome and its weakening in Locia occurred as a result of the defeat inflicted by the Greeks on the Etruscan fleet off the coast of Campania.

So the Roman aristocratic republic was established, which lasted until the end. 1st century n. uh.

3. How did the Roman Republic become the most developed country in the Mediterranean?

The proclamation of the Roman Republic did not lead to significant changes in the social structure of Ancient Rome. In the established republic, all organs of political power were in the hands of the patricians. The Roman plebs, one of the main classes - estates - of ancient Rome, remained the same economically and politically disenfranchised as in the tsarist period. However, the overthrow of royal power, the formation and development of the republican constitution, the active foreign policy of Rome in V-IV centuries. BC uh. contributed to the strengthening of his political activities. In the first centuries of the early Roman Republic, the plebeians waged a fierce struggle for the right to take part in the division of public land, for equality in legal status with the patricians, which ensured the participation of the plebeians in the political life of the state, and the abolition of debt bondage. The struggle of the plebeians with the patricians, promoting the development of private property and slavery, was an aggressive driving force of social development.

В V-III centuries. BC uh. the process of formalizing the Roman state system takes place. The bodies of state power were people's assemblies (collisions), magistrates, and the Senate. The supreme bearer of power was the Roman people. Citizens of Rome could formally participate in the national assembly, be elected to government positions, own property, and serve in the army of Rome.

The Roman Republic was a typical aristocratic republic. It is characterized by primitiveness, the passivity of popular assemblies, the unpaid magistracy, and the enormous influence of the Senate. This can be explained, firstly, by the predominantly agricultural composition of Roman citizenship, which is always insufficiently organized, and secondly, by special historical conditions. XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries BC uh., which led to the fact that wars became the main source of expansion of the communal lands of the Roman state. The conduct of constant wars, robbery affected the organization of the state, which acquired a military character. The most influential people's assembly was the central conflicts. The Senate was chiefly in charge of military affairs.

The army of the Roman Republic was well disciplined and armed. She was able to defeat the armies of the Hellenistic states in III-II centuries. BC uh.

The conquest of Italy by Rome did not lead to the creation of a unified state.

The growth of slave ownership, the increase in the number of foreign and foreign slaves, who were subjected to especially cruel treatment, caused a change in the legal status of slaves.

К 3rd century BC uh. New legal norms emerged that determined the complete legal lack of rights for slaves, who were considered as a thing at the complete disposal of the owner. The trend in the development of legal norms is clearly visible: the legal lack of rights of slaves and their exclusion from civil and political life have been legitimized.

В IV-III centuries. BC uh. a complex class and social structure of Roman society was formed. It was divided into freemen and slaves.

In Roman society, the following classes stood out: the class of slaves, the class of small producers, the class of slave owners.

As a result of a series of wars of conquest, the Roman Republic became a huge state, whose possessions occupied not only the entire space of the Apennine Peninsula, but were scattered far beyond its borders. towards the middle 2nd century BC uh. Rome turned into a large city with a population of several hundred thousand people and became the most important political center in the Mediterranean.

To the middle 2nd century BC uh. Roman citizenship was divided mainly into two social strata: the landless, hungry mass of the ruined or impoverished rural population and urban artisans and the small, luxurious stratum of nobles and horsemen. All magisterial positions were filled by representatives of a limited number of noble families. The elections resulted in a struggle between competing cliques.

The features of the system of classical slavery were evident: the slave-owning economy was aimed at obtaining a large surplus value; the number of slaves increased, slave labor became widespread in the main sectors of the economy.

To the beginning 30s BC uh. The Roman Republic became the most developed slave state in the Mediterranean, in which the social structure of slave society reached its most complete phase of development.

4. How did Rome become the center of power?

A cosmopolitan city of a million people, a cultural and religious center reflecting the diversity of a vast empire, Rome was rebuilt endlessly. Augustus reconstructed the quarter around his mausoleum. Other emperors also decorated the capital with public buildings and stately forums. Rome has always been known for its love of luxury and commerce. "If it's not in Rome, it's not there anywhere," he said in 2nd century n. uh. speaker Aelius Aristides. Thousands of slaves and free people lived in Rome; he attracted artists and scientists. It was also called the city of idlers: to have Roman citizenship meant to enjoy privileges - to receive bread and butter for free or at low prices. And in Rome, unprecedentedly magnificent festivities and games were held.

Rome controlled the entire Mediterranean coast. The development of these vast spaces required their careful study. Geographers who arrived from various regions of the Empire established landmarks, compiled descriptions of the peoples and studied areas, and marked routes on maps. The information they collected was mostly reliable, although it contained some distortions.

The development of Rome was somewhat anarchic in nature, violating the exemplary planning of the time of Tarquinius the Ancient. Congestion constantly arose on the narrow streets, which made them unsuitable for normal traffic. During the era of the Republic, the Romans carried out a gigantic work of urban reorganization. The forum and the Capitol, the centers of political and religious activity, were built up with majestic temple ensembles, basilicas and administrative buildings in the style characteristic of Roman architecture.

Many statues were erected in Rome. Therefore, magistrates and senators had to restore order from time to time, ordering the removal of images of more or less famous people that cluttered up public places.

A Roman citizen, if he was not a craftsman or a farmer, spent most of the day in the streets and squares, which were the center of social and political life, not counting, of course, popular meetings.

The Romans liked to visit some shops and restaurants. There they discussed the virtues of their rulers, commented on the news that came from the legions that fought on the other side of the world, recalled the last triumphal processions and feasts organized on this occasion, expressed their opinion on the work to decorate the city and on future sports competitions.

The life of the quarters was unusually intense; each quarter had its own elected representatives and its own gods. During some religious national ceremonies, serious rivalry arose between the quarters: for example, during the October holiday, it was necessary to take possession of the head of a sacrificed horse and attach it to the door of the temple in one's quarter.

"Bread and circuses" - this was according to the poet Juvenal (60-130) the slogan of the idle Roman people. The spectacle was the game, addiction to which is understandable. There was no place for accidents: the gladiators and animals performing in the arena, with their unusual appearance, reminded of the dominance of Rome over the most distant countries.

As the empire expands, exchanges between Rome and its provinces increase. Sea and river vessels, wagons and camel caravans transported both luxury goods and consumer goods: amphoras, slaves, silk fabrics and spices. The high economic development of the Roman Empire led to the fact that the city of Rome became the economic, cultural and political center of a huge power.

5. How was the Republic born in Rome?

From the height of the Capitoline Hill, the almighty Jupiter patronizes Rome. It bears the name of Capitoline Jupiter from the very time that the temple erected on the Capitoline Hill was consecrated in his honor. It happened in the year of the establishment of the Republic (509 BC uh.).

While the Greeks created democracy, the Romans, having expelled the Etruscan kings, decided to establish a political organization in which power belongs to the people, but is exercised through their representatives, that is, the republic. Management was entrusted to magistrates, elected for one year: the quaestors were in charge of finances; aediles inspected buildings, were responsible for supplying the city and holding games; the praetors presided over the court; at the top of the hierarchy were two consuls.

The establishment of the republican system took place gradually and sometimes at the cost of serious conflicts: for example, families whose representatives could claim the title of consul in the early years of the republic's existence very quickly formed the patrician caste. The patricians sought to dominate the state. In response to this, the plebeians, to whom the rest of the people belonged, decided to go to Mount Aventine: the patricians were forced to make concessions, and then the people received their magistrates - tribunes. At the assemblies, called comitia, the entire Roman people gathered - both patricians and plebeians. Only women were not allowed there. The comitia passed laws and annually elected magistrates. A significant share of power was in the hands of the Senate, which consisted of 300 members - people from the aristocracy, people with great authority, among whom were former consuls.

Easily recognizable by their togas, bordered by a wide purple stripe, senators were required to refrain from commercial activities. Sitting in the building of the curia, located in the city center, the senators determined the budget of the state, established how many legionnaires needed to be recruited, received foreign ambassadors, declared war and signed peace treaties. They considered drafts of all laws before putting them to popular vote. As in the comitia, the meetings of the Senate were chaired in turn by the highest magistrates - the consuls. Consuls were chosen at popular assemblies; they needed the consent of the senate to decide on finances or recruitment. The consuls had considerable autonomy in negotiating with foreign powers and in commanding the army. Participating in military companies, the consuls were often far from Rome. In such cases, the senate appointed a dictator for a certain period of time, who replaced the consuls and had special powers. The dictator was always accompanied by a rider.

From the moment of its birth, the Roman Republic had to defend itself against its neighbors: first it was the city of Latium, which used any internal troubles to eliminate a rival that had become too powerful; then - the Etruscans, who sought to restore royal power in Rome.

The last century of the existence of the Republic was a time of excesses and violence. This led to the collapse of the political system, previously considered ideal. Degradation took place in an atmosphere of civil strife and crisis development of the social, political, economic, spiritual and intellectual spheres. As soon as all Catholics received Roman citizenship, politicians began to claim a greater share of power, and the army began to exist not for the Republic, but for the generals.

At the end of the republican rule, a whole gallery of portraits of prominent personalities was created. Plutarch wrote biographies of these people, drawing parallels between them and famous Greek figures. Each of these politicians had their share of responsibility for the fall of the Republic: they all had exorbitant ambitions, and, moreover, they simply did not understand that political institutions cannot be kept intact when society undergoes major changes. However, they were all exceptional people in their own way.

6. How were the Punic Wars?

To the middle 3rd century BC uh. The strongest states in the western Mediterranean were the Carthaginian power, which had dominated here for a long time, and the newly formed Roman slave-owning confederation.

Both Carthage and Rome pursued an aggressive foreign policy, due to the nature of the slave economy, for which military expansion was a necessary condition for its development. Each of them aspired to become the hegemon of the Western Mediterranean world. In the middle 3rd century BC uh. contradictions between them led to the beginning of the first Punic War (the Romans called the Carthaginians Punics).

The cause of the first Punic War was the struggle between Rome and Carthage over Sicily, most of which (west) was in the hands of Carthage, and the smaller (eastern) part of the island was owned by the Syracusan tyrant Agathocles.

The reason for the war was the capture of the Sicilian city of Messana by mercenaries from the campaign. After the death of the tyrant Agathocles of Syracuse, in whose service they were, the Mamertines took possession of Messana. The new ruler of Syracuse successfully opposed them. Hieron IIwho laid siege to Messana.

The twenty-three years' war had exhausted the forces of the warring parties. Therefore, the proposal of Carthage to start peace negotiations was accepted by the Roman Senate. By peace treaty of 241 BC. uh. Carthage had to pay Rome an indemnity of 10 talents for 3200 years, hand over tribal members, agree not to hire warriors from the tribes of the Apennine Peninsula into its army, and, most importantly, surrender its possessions in Sicily to Roman rule.

Syracuse remained an independent city. The Romans adhered to the principle of "divide and rule" here too.

Second Punic War (218-210 BC)in terms of its scale, scope and historical significance, it was one of the largest wars of antiquity. The reason for it was the events related to the seaside city of Saguntum, which concluded an alliance treaty with Rome. AT 219 BC uh. new commander-in-chief of the Carthaginian army Hannibal besieged Sagunt, captured and plundered it, and sold the inhabitants into slavery.

Defining the essence of the first two Punic wars, we can say that the reasons for the victories of Rome were due to the numerical superiority of its troops, which were distinguished by high fighting qualities and the availability of material resources. Numerous Italian rural population, which constituted the main parts of the Roman army, fought for their own lands.

The brilliant victories of the Carthaginian Hannibal were due to the talent of the commander, the suddenness of the invasion of Italy, and the temporary weakening of the Roman Confederation. But Hannibal did not have the means to consolidate his successes. Hannibal's hopes for a quick collapse of the Roman-Italian confederation did not come true.

В 19 BC uh. At the initiative of Rome, the third Punic War began.

The reason for the war was the conflict between Numidia and Carthage. The Numidian king, with the support of Rome, began to seize the Carthaginian territory. There were armed clashes. Carthage did not have the right to start hostilities without the permission of Rome. Rome declared war on Carthage. The Carthaginians were ready to make peace on any terms. But the Romans offered the Carthaginians to leave the city and move to a distance of 15 km from the sea.

The Carthaginians decided to defend themselves to the end. The Romans eventually defeated the army of Carthage. On the lands belonging to Carthage, the Roman province of Africa was formed.

As a result of the wars of conquest, Rome became the strongest slave-owning power in the Mediterranean.

7. What were the main features of the Roman Empire?

The Roman Empire not only preserved the heritage of the Republic, it greatly increased it. The imperial system was just as aggressive towards its neighbors as the republican system. There were two reasons for this: the thirst for robbery and fear. The entire Mediterranean came under the control of Rome, which for five centuries expanded the boundaries of the empire from Scotland to the Sahara and from the Atlantic Ocean to the deserts of Syria.

The Roman Republic, as you know, was the body of domination of the top of the policy, and it could no longer fulfill the functions of leadership of the huge Roman power, and therefore was doomed. That is why it was replaced by an empire headed by an emperor - a man who alone controls a huge state, consisting of many provinces. The state system that was established in the Roman Empire during the reign of Octavian Augusta, is called the principate, since the emperors were always listed first.

Power and provinces were divided between the senate and the emperor, but not equally. The powers of the princeps were expanded, while the senate and the people were narrowed. Augustus created a centralized system of government, the highest structures of which were similar to modern ministries and were directly subordinate to him.

The followers of Augustus reinforced this bureaucratic system. The emperor himself became the object of a real cult. Cities and provinces praised his personal qualities, his family and all the gods close to him, who were called the most august. This cult was part of imperial propaganda, spread through sports games, literary and artistic creativity of those writers and artists who received the help and patronage of the emperor for this.

Augustus cared about the prestige not only of the city of Rome, but also about respect for the title of Roman citizen. Now he was very meticulously considering candidates for Roman citizenship and in every possible way inspired the Romans that they were born rulers of the world. Such a policy of the Roman great power pursued the goal of creating sharp lines that would separate the Romans and non-Romans, in order, on the one hand, to facilitate the management of the Roman plebs, and on the other, to keep the conquered peoples in obedience.

Augustus revised the old laws and introduced some new ones, for example, on luxury, on adultery and depravity, on bribery, on the order of marriage for all classes. Three times returning to the laws of the family during his principate, he accepted the special powers of the "curator of morals."

Despite the formal republican state government and the legal dual power of the emperor and the senate, the principate was conceived and implemented as a monarchy. But such formalities were of great importance.

Augustus launched a gigantic building activity both in Rome itself and in other areas of the state. In the capital of the empire, 82 churches were restored and rebuilt.

During the reign of Augustus, many efforts were made to ensure a constant and uninterrupted supply of bread and water to the huge populous city of Rome.

The paths of the historical development of the Eastern and Western empires after they were finally divided into 395 BC, were significantly different from each other. The Eastern Empire, which later became known as the Byzantine Empire, turned, as a result of complex processes, into a feudal state that could exist for another thousand years, until the middle of 1453th century (XNUMX). The historical fate of the Western Roman Empire was different. The collapse of the slave system within its borders was particularly violent. This was accompanied by bloody wars, coups, and popular uprisings, which finally undermined the former power of one of the largest states of the ancient world.

8. How was the culture of ancient Rome different?

Rome, which imposed its own political and administrative orders everywhere, itself perceived the cultural and artistic achievements of the conquered peoples with surprising ease. The art of Greece and the East had a huge impact on the Romans, who tried to attract from there, and later to train themselves, specialists capable of creating public buildings and architectural ensembles worthy of the great Roman Republic.

It is known that the Roman theater from its very birth performed a religious function: therefore, we are talking about one of the most ancient and original traditions of the Italics. Comedy occupied an important place in the repertoire. And although both of the most famous Roman authors - Plautus and Terence - were inspired by Greek models, they nevertheless created their own original theater.

Oratory was the medium of activity in which republican Rome reached its highest heights. This was perfectly logical for a political system based on public debate, where a decision depended on the delivered speech. The most famous Roman orator was Cicero.

The art of portraiture in Rome did not develop for a long time, because it was believed that only gods could be depicted in a picture. However, in noble families with the appropriate privileges, there was a tradition of making death masks of deceased relatives.

During the era of the Republic, the Romans carried out a gigantic work of urban reorganization. The forum and the Capitol, the centers of political and religious activity, were built up with majestic temple ensembles, basilicas and administrative buildings in the style characteristic of Roman architecture.

Despite the turbulent domestic and foreign political events that took place in the empire during the reign of the Julio-Claudians, culture continued to live and flourish. Painting, sculpture, architecture developed, writers and poets, playwrights and philosophers created.

The most prominent representative of philosophical thought in 1st century n. uh... was Lucius Annaeus Seneca (late 65st century BC - XNUMX AD). Seneca was the creator of the so-called new style, which became widespread in Roman literature. 1st century n. uh. He was distinguished by vivid emotional intensity, pathos, flowery metaphors, effective antitheses, short, sharp phrases - maxims. Seneca saw the meaning of life in achieving absolute peace of mind. He considered overcoming the fear of death to be one of the main prerequisites for this. He devoted a lot of space to this issue in his works.

Let's dwell on the material culture of the Roman Empire 1st and 2nd centuries. n. uh. At this time, many cities tried to imitate the capital, Rome, in their architectural style. They were decorated with magnificent temples of local and imperial deities, palaces, basilicas, porticoes for walks, as well as public buildings and buildings for entertainment - theaters, amphitheaters, circuses.

At this time, in all cities of the empire, the cult of thermae was widespread - public baths, in which there were pools with warm and cold water for bathing, gyms, and rest rooms.

In addition, active road construction was carried out in the Empire. In 2nd century n. uh. in the state there were 372 stone-paved roads with a total length of about 80 thousand km.

At the same time, the Romans created magnificent ports in coastal cities. Stone piers, barns for storing goods, and granite embankments were built here.

Various festivals and performances played an important role in the life of the empire. So, every Roman who entered the circus or amphitheater received a metal token - tesser, presenting which at special cash desks, he received a certain amount of money or new clothes, as well as food.

В 1st and 2nd centuries. n. uh. tourism has developed. Representatives of the Roman and Greek aristocracy made long journeys to get acquainted with the sights of various countries and cities.

great development in I-II centuries. n. uh. received enlightenment and science. In Rome and many provincial centers, education was organized for children.

Geographical science was of great importance at that time. This led to several scientific treatises on geography and ethnography.

In 2nd century n. uh. Medical science has developed greatly. Even during the reign of Emperor Augustus, a school for training doctors was created in Rome.

Along with the natural sciences, astronomy and astrology were further developed.

Already in the last decades of the republic, thanks to the activities of Cicero, the procedure for conducting court cases - trials - was firmly established. The hallmarks of Roman law are its versatility and flexibility. Roman jurisprudence took the path of correcting traditional laws with the help of ethical justice, the philosophical justification of which was given by Pythagoras: justice in the name of harmony and proportion for the benefit of what should be considered good and straight, as opposed to bad and crooked. It should be noted that Roman law was the basis of many legislative acts of modern legal states.

Chapter 5. Middle Ages

1. How is the periodization of the history of the Middle Ages presented?

The Middle Ages, or the Middle Ages, is one of the most significant stages of human history. For the first time the term "Middle Ages" was used by Italian humanists to refer to the period between classical antiquity and their time. In Russian historiography, the lower boundary of the Middle Ages is traditionally considered to be the XNUMXth century. n. e. - the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and the upper one - in the XNUMXth century, when a bourgeois revolution took place in England.

The period of the Middle Ages is extremely important for Western European civilization: the processes and events of that time still often determine the nature of the political, economic, and cultural development of the countries of Western Europe. So, it was during this period that the religious community of Europe was formed, urban culture was taking shape, new political forms were emerging, the foundations of modern science and the education system were being laid, the ground was being prepared for the industrial revolution and the transition to an industrial society.

In the development of Western European medieval society, three stages are usually distinguished: the early Middle Ages, the classical Middle Ages, and the late Middle Ages.

The Early Middle Ages covers the period from V to XI centuries. During this period of time, large-scale changes occurred in the world. During this period, the slave-owning Western Roman Empire collapsed. On its territory, new states were formed by Germanic tribes. At the same time, there is a transition from paganism to Christianity under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church. The new religious system became the basis of Western civilization and maintained its unity, despite differences in the pace of development of individual countries and regions and their internal fragmentation.

In the early Middle Ages, the foundations of new production relations were laid - feudal relations, which were characterized by the dominance of large landed property, which was in the hands of the feudal lords and the presence of small individual farms of direct producers - peasants, whom the feudal lords endowed with the main means of production - land. The form of realization of the feudal property on land was feudal rent, which was levied from the peasants who rented the land in labor, in kind or in cash.

In the period of the early Middle Ages, Western European peoples gradually mastered writing, laid the foundations of an original culture.

During the Classical Middle Ages (XI-XV centuries) the process of formation of feudal relations is completed, all the structures of feudal society reach their fullest development.

At this time, nation-states (England, France, Germany, etc.) begin to form and strengthen. The main estates are formed, estate-representative bodies - parliaments - have appeared.

The main branch of the economy continued to be agriculture, but during this period, cities were actively developing, which became the center of handicraft production and trade. The new relations undermined the foundations of feudalism, and capitalist relations gradually strengthened their possibilities in its depths.

In the era of the late Middle Ages (XVI-beginning of the XVII centuries) the pace of economic development of European countries is increasing. This was largely due to the Great geographical discoveries, as a result of which colonial empires began to take shape, and treasures, gold and silver began to flow from the newly discovered lands to Europe - the Old World. All this contributed to the growth of the monetary wealth of merchants and entrepreneurs and served as one of the sources of initial accumulation, which led to the formation of large private capital.

During the late Middle Ages, the unity of the Catholic Church was split by the Reformation. In Christianity, a new direction is emerging - Protestantism, which to the greatest extent contributed to the formation of bourgeois relations.

At the end of the Middle Ages, a pan-European culture began to take shape, based on the theory of humanism, a new culture called the Renaissance.

During the late Middle Ages, the most important idea of ​​the West took shape: an active attitude to life, the desire to learn about the world, the desire to transform it in the interests of man.

2. What did the political map of Europe look like in the early Middle Ages (end of the XNUMXth-middle of the XNUMXth century)?

A significant part of Europe in the 395th century. was part of a vast state - the Roman Empire, which by this period of time was in a state of deep decline. The Roman Empire found it increasingly difficult to maintain its strength and unity. The process of gradual economic, political and cultural isolation of the Roman provinces led in XNUMX to the division of the empire into Western and Eastern parts, which later received the name of Byzantium.

A particular danger to the existence of the vast Roman state was represented by the barbarian tribes that bordered it on the periphery. The Romans called barbarians tribes and peoples alien to Roman culture.

These tribes were at the stage of decomposition of the tribal system and the beginning of the formation of a class society.

The largest ethnic groups of the tribes in contact with Rome include the Celts, Germans, Slavs. The main areas of Celtic settlement were northern Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain and Iceland. These tribes were conquered by Rome and constituted in its space the Gallo-Roman or, respectively, the Hispano-Roman people.

The Germanic tribes inhabited the territory bounded by the Rhine in the west and the Vistula in the south. In the end 1st century BC uh. this territory was conquered by Rome, but not for long. After a series of clashes with the Germans, the Romans went on the defensive. The Rhine became the border between Rome and the territory of the Germanic tribes.

In II-III centuries. n. uh. There were regroupings and movements of Germanic tribes in Eastern and Central Europe, which led to an increased pressure of the Germans on the borders of the Roman Empire. At this time, the Germans were undergoing internal consolidation processes, large alliances were formed - Saxons, Franks, Visigoths and Ostrogoths, etc.

At the end of IV in. began especially intensive movements of barbarian tribes and their invasion of the territory of the Roman Empire, usually called the Great Migration of Nations. The Roman Empire was not able to provide effective resistance to the conquerors. After being taken into 410 BC Rome by the Visigoths began the process of disintegration of the empire.

В 418 BC The first barbarian state arose on the territory of Roman Gaul - the Visigothic kingdom. In the second half of the 5th century. The Visigoths conquered all of Gaul, as well as most of Spain. The center of the Visigothic kingdom moved to Spain.

During the resettlement of barbarian tribes in the southern and southwestern direction, 13 kingdom-states were formed. On the territory of the former Roman Empire, the states formed the Franks, Burgundians, Ostrogoths, Labradors, etc. From the middle V in. began a massive invasion of barbarian tribes - the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in Britain, which was inhabited by the Celtic tribes of the Britons. The conquerors formed several barbarian Anglo-Saxon kingdoms on the territory of Britain.

The barbarian invasions were of the greatest importance for the history of Europe. Their result was the fall of the slave-owning Roman Empire in the West. On the territory of the newly formed states, the conditions necessary for the development of new social relations, for the transition to feudalism, were created.

The most durable was educated in V in. as a result of the conquest by the Germanic tribes - the Franks in Northern Gaul, the Frankish state. It was headed by the leader of the Franks Clovis from the Merovean family (hence the name of the Merovingian dynasty). From the end XNUMXth century. The Frankish state was ruled by representatives of a new dynasty, which, after the name of the largest of its representatives - Charlemagne - was called the Carolingian dynasty.

During the reign of the Carolingians, the formation of the feudal system among the Franks was completed. To 800 BC under the rule of King Charlemagne there was a vast territory inhabited by many peoples. In size it was close to the collapsed Western Roman Empire. However, his descendants failed to keep the empire unified. IN 843 BC In Verdun, an agreement was concluded to divide the empire into three parts. The Treaty of Verdun became the basis for the formation of three future European states - Germany, France and Italy.

3. How was the medieval Frankish state formed?

The tribal union of the Franks was formed in XNUMXrd century. in the lower reaches of the Rhine.

The third representative of the Merovingian dynasty Clovis extended his power to all the Franks. He captured Soissons and all of Northern Gaul up to the Loire River.

В 496 BC Clovis and his retinue accept Christianity, establishing friendly relations with the Pope.

The state structure under the Merovingians was comparatively primitive. The court remained popular, the army consisted of a militia of all free Franks and the royal squad.

The position of the king was strong, the throne was inherited. The affairs of the administration were in charge of the royal court. In spring and autumn, meetings of the nobility were held, at which the issued legislative acts and new laws were announced. The barbarian truths, written down at different times at the behest of the kings, served as the basic laws and lawsuits. The administration of regions and districts was carried out with the help of counts and centurions, whose main duty was to collect taxes, fines and duties for the royal treasury.

In places of Frankish settlements, counties and hundreds were created on the basis of the German military and judicial organization, in Central and Southern Gaul - on the basis of the Roman provincial structure.

In the social system of the Franks, tribal ties also played an important role. The free franc was the canoe of the clan, enjoyed its patronage and was responsible for the members of the clan. The accused was responsible for the crimes not before the state, but before the victim and his relatives. For the murder of a member of a foreign clan, all relatives of the killer up to the third generation of kinship on the paternal and maternal lines were financially responsible. On the other hand, a member of the clan had the right to receive a share of the vira for the murder of a relative and to participate in the inheritance of the property of deceased relatives. Movable property was inherited by men and women, land - only by men.

The design of the allod - freely alienable land ownership - accelerated property inheritance among the free Franks and the formation of large land ownership.

Free Frankish peasants went bankrupt, lost their landed property and, falling into dependence on the possessors, began to be subjected to feudal exploitation.

Large landed property existed even before the conquest of Gaul. The king, having appropriated to himself the lands of the Roman fiscus and undivided communal possessions, distributed them as the property of his confidants and the church. But the growth of large landownership occurs mainly due to the appropriation of the lands of impoverished social activists.

Large landowners had full power over their slaves and dependent community members. The magnates themselves created the judicial and administrative apparatus and started their own military squads. The nobility did not want to obey the king and share with him the rent collected from the population, often raised against the king of restoration. The royal power could not cope with the magnates and made concessions to them. The royal lands were distributed or plundered by the nobility, unrest did not stop in the state.

The last kings of the Merovingian dynasty lost all real power, retaining only the title. They were disparagingly called lazy kings. In fact, power passed to the mayors, who were in charge of tax collection, royal property and commanded the army. Having real power, the mayordoms disposed of the royal throne, erected and deposed kings.

Being large landowners, they relied on the local nobility. But in the state, fragmented into appanages, there was no single major house. Each of the three regions was ruled by its own mayor, who had hereditary power.

In 687, the Austrian major Pitius Geristalsky defeated his rivals and began to rule the entire Frankish state. Pitius pursued an active policy of conquest and was able to suppress the resistance of the nobility. Later, the dynasty founded by him began to be called the Carolingians after Charlemagne, the most prominent Frankish king.

4. How were the conquests of Charlemagne? What are the reasons for the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne?

The Frankish state reached its greatest power under Charlemagne (768-814).

He pursued an aggressive policy in order to create a world empire. In 774 he made a campaign in Italy.

In 774 Charlemagne conquered the Lombards, in 882 Saxony was conquered. In 778 Charles abolished the Duchy of Bavaria and included it in the Kingdom.

The conquest of vast territories greatly expanded the boundaries of the Frankish state. Now they stretched from the Ebro and Barcelona to the Elbe and the Baltic coast, from the English Channel to the Middle Danube and the Adriatic, including almost all of Italy and part of the Balkan Peninsula. Charlemagne did not want to be content with the title of king of the Franks, but claimed the title of world monarch, "emperor of the Romans."

In 800, Pope Leo III crowned him in the Lateran Church with the crown of "Roman emperors". Charles hoped that he could use the imperial title to enhance his international prestige.

The population of the empire was subordinate to the royal servants and performed various kinds of duties. The entire territory of the state was divided into counties, headed by royal commissioners - counts. The counties were divided into hundreds, the heads of which, the centecaries, were appointed by the royal court.

In the conquered border areas, Charlemagne created a brand - fortified military administrative districts that served as outposts for attacks on neighboring countries and for organizing defense. The margraves, who were at the head of the stamps, had broad judicial, administrative and military powers. At their disposal was a constant no less important influence on the evolution of the early feudal Frankish state, which had a military force of vassalage. By the end of the XNUMXth century - the beginning of the XNUMXth century. vassal-personal relations spread in the military organization and political structure.

Royal vassals began to be appointed to government posts. At first, it even strengthened the state system. Vassals, connected with the king by conditional possessions and a personal oath, served more reliably than independent masters. But soon the vassals began to turn their benefices into hereditary possessions and refused to carry out permanent service for them.

The empire, created as a result of the conquest of weak tribes and nationalities by the Thracians, was an unstable state formation and fell apart shortly after the death of its founder.

The reasons for its collapse were the lack of economic and ethnic unity and the growth of the power of large feudal lords. The forcible unification of ethnically alien peoples could only be maintained under a strong central government.

Already during the life of Charlemagne, symptoms of its decline were outlined: the centralized control system began to degenerate into a personal seigneurial system, the counts were out of obedience. Separatism intensified in the outskirts.

The royal power was deprived of the former political support from the feudal nobility and did not have sufficient funds to continue the policy of conquest and even to retain the occupied territories. The free population was subjected to serfdom or fell into land dependence on the feudal lords and did not perform the former state, natural and military duties. Thus the king was deprived of material resources and military strength, while the feudal lords expanded their possessions and created their own troops from vassals. All this inevitably led to the collapse of the empire and feudal fragmentation.

In 817, at the request of the grandchildren of Charlemagne, the first section was made. But the ambitions remained unsatisfied, and a period of internecine wars began.

In 843, an agreement was concluded in Verdun on the division of the Empire of Charlemagne between his grandsons - Lothair (France and Northern Italy), Louis the German (East Frankish state) and Charles the Bald (West Frankish state).

By the beginning of the XNUMXth century. the imperial title lost its meaning and disappeared.

5. How did the Byzantine Empire come into being? What are the features of Byzantium in its heyday?

The thousand-year history of Byzantium had its ups and downs, its revival and extinction. Until the XNUMXth century The Eastern Roman Empire remained one of the most powerful states in the world. Meanwhile, already in the XNUMXth century. she had to face the barbarians. The first were the Goths and the Isaurians (a wild Asia Minor tribe). In the second half of the XNUMXth c. the Isaurian Zeno even became the emperor of Byzantium. From the north, the empire was disturbed by the Bulgarians, Huns and Slavs, from the east - the strong Persian power of the Sassanids threatened. However, Byzantium had the strength not only to resist attacks, but also to expand in the middle of the VI century. borders due to the reconquest of the "Roman" territories from the Germans in North Africa, Italy and Spain. The empire retained the features of late antique society and state. The emperors considered themselves followers of the Roman Caesars, the Senate and the Council of State were preserved. As before, even the most unborn could "break out into people". Emperors Justin and Justinian the Great were from the peasantry. Dissatisfaction with the government led to uprisings. The plebs enjoyed the distribution of free bread. As in Rome, in Constantinople there were traditional spectacles - gladiator fights and chariot races. But with the spread of Christianity, attitudes towards spectacles began to change. Gladiator fights under pressure from Christians were banned, and circuses were increasingly used as public stands. Roman law remained the most important element of Byzantine economic life. Under Justinian the Great, the codification of laws was undertaken, which led to the creation of a legal basis for regulating property relations. In a certain sense, Byzantium of that period can be considered the legal state of the Middle Ages.

In the VII-IX centuries. The Byzantine Empire was in deep crisis. The Arabs attacked Constantinople from the sea. For more than half a century, the brave warriors of Islam haunted Byzantium. The whole 100th century took place in the wars with the Bulgarians. The Eastern Roman Empire remained an empire in name only. But civilization withstood the onslaught of the barbarians. Constantinople officials tried to establish governance and divided the country into regions - themes - with strong civil and military power of the stratigs. But this only complicated the situation: the semi-barbarian themes did not want to submit to Constantinople and revolted. In addition, the empire was agitated by an iconoclastic movement within Christianity that lasted over XNUMX years. The turmoil led to the fact that all laws were violated, the monasteries were desolated, the university was burned. In the ninth century the Christian movement "Paulicians" was born - followers of the elder Constantine, who preached the New Testament with the epistles of the Apostle Paul. In the middle of the ninth century Paulicians with weapons in their hands marched through Asia Minor, exterminating the infidels. Emperor Basil I overpowered the Paulicians, but accepted many of their demands. Since that time, the revival of civilization and Greek learning began.

End of the ninth century marked the restoration of the empire: the state again began to regulate relations between citizens; Basil I reissued the laws of Justinian; a strong army was created and the role of the military nobility was strengthened; the revival of the ancient sciences and arts began; cities and crafts were restored; The church rose to an unprecedented height. Changes in the social structure of Byzantium were also significant. A rigidly centralized state began to play a huge role. The special role of state principles received a theoretical justification, which contributed to the formation of a specific mentality of the Byzantines. It was believed that along with the one God, the one true faith and the one true church, there should also be a single Christian empire. Imperial power acquired sacral (sacred) functions, for by its very existence it ensured the salvation of the human race. It was a complex of a kind of messianic ideas, where the role of the messiah, the savior, was assigned to the empire.

In the hands of the emperor concentrated all the fullness of the legislative, executive, judicial power. In fact, the emperor also controlled the church, appointing and removing patriarchs. The emperor relied on bureaucracy and a strictly hierarchized state apparatus. Autocracy was born - the sole power of the emperor consecrated by the church.

The relationship between society and government was built on the principles of allegiance. The social system was corporate in nature. Corporations of artisans and merchants were completely dependent on the state. The peasant neighboring community was the supreme owner of the land and was responsible to the state for paying taxes. Thus, the Byzantine Empire acquired the features of a traditionally Eastern state.

In the middle of the XI century. The Great Steppe spewed out of its womb a new wave of warlike nomads. The horse-drawn avalanche of the Turks swept across the plains of Persia and poured over the Byzantine borders. In the first decisive clash in 1071 at Manzikert, the Roman army was defeated. After that, the Seljuk Turks occupied almost all of Asia Minor, as well as Syria and Palestine - the Holy Land. The military nobility of Byzantium revolted and placed their leader Alexei I Komnenos on the throne. Unable to withstand the onslaught of the victorious Turks, the emperor turned to the Christians of the West for help. Back in 1054, the church split into two parts - Catholicism and Orthodoxy, but under the onslaught of Muslims, Christians temporarily forgot their mutual grievances. Emperor Alexei I Komnenos managed to cope with the enemies pressing from all sides. Together with the crusader warriors, Byzantium set about reclaiming territories in Asia Minor. During the XII century. the empire wages numerous wars, trying to regain southern Italy, seizes the Balkan countries. However, by the end of the XII century. Byzantium is weakening and losing Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, territories in Greece and Asia Minor. From 1096, the crusades began, and by the beginning of the 1204th century. inner peace among Christians has come to an end. Rich Byzantium has always attracted Western European knights, who looked at her with a sense of envy, contempt and discontent. The destruction of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1261 reflected their true feelings. The Frankish knights divided the country among themselves, but could not get along peacefully and constantly fought. In XNUMX, the Greeks managed to take over what was left of Constantinople, and their leader Michael VIII Palaiologos became emperor, but his power extended little beyond the dilapidated walls of the "New Rome". Around the city during the XIII-XIV centuries. Bulgarians and Turks ruled.

By the beginning of the fourteenth century. the Turks created a powerful state. The rapidly emerging Muslim civilization captured Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. By the middle of the XIV century. Asia Minor was invaded. The Balkan states, weakened by internal strife, were captured one by one.

On May 29, 1453, the Ottoman Turks stormed Constantinople. Byzantium fell. This ended the centuries-old history of Byzantium. With the establishment of Turkish power in the Balkans, the peoples of the peninsula found themselves in an oppressed position, since the conquerors and subordinates shared ethnic roots and religious beliefs. The confrontation between the "Cross and Crescent" results in a series of endless wars between European Christian countries and the Muslim Ottoman Empire.

The Eastern Roman Empire perished at a time when Western Europe switched to a progressive path of development. The classical beginnings of Byzantine civilization had a significant impact on Russian cultural and political traditions, and during the Renaissance, on European artistic creativity.

6. What is the uniqueness of France in IX-XI?

After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire in 843, the eastern border of France, separating it from Germany and Italy, passed mainly along large rivers: along the lower reaches of the Meuse, along the Moselle and Rhone. Neustria and the northwestern part of the former Burgundy - the Duchy of Burgundy - remained under the rule of the last Carolingians in France.

Fierce wars were fought between the German and French Carolingians. Many disasters were brought by the raids of the northern tribes - the Normans.

Within the country there was a struggle for political dominance between the influential Parisian counts (the Robertins) and the last Carolingians. In 987, the Robertins won, electing Hugo Capet as their king, from whom the Capetian dynasty began in France.

In the x century. In the Kingdom of France, the socio-economic processes that led to the establishment of feudal relations were completed, and the long process of merging heterogeneous ethnic elements ended. On the basis of the Gallo-Roman people who mixed with the Germans, new feudal peoples emerged - northern French and Provencal. These nationalities formed the core of the future French nation.

In the x century. the country acquired its modern name. It began to be called not Gaul or the Frankish kingdom, but France (after the name of the region around Paris - Ile-de-France).

On the territory occupied by the northern French people, several large feudal estates were formed. Almost the entire coast of the English Channel was occupied by the Duchy of Normandy. The Normans who founded it quickly adopted the language of the northern French people and the French feudal order. The Normans managed to expand their possessions along the English Channel coast to Brittany in the west and almost to the Somme in the east, also subjugating the County of Maine.

The counties of Blois, Touraine and Anjou were located along the middle and lower reaches of the Laura, and Poitou was located somewhat to the south. The Capetian lands (royal court) centered around Paris and Orleans. To the east of them lay the County of Champagne, to the southeast - the Duchy of Burgundy.

In the extreme northwest was Brittany with a Celtic population, in the extreme northeast - the county of Flanders. On the territory of the Provencal people was the Duchy of Aquitaine, adjacent to the Duchy of Gascony.

The Kingdom of France also included the County of Barcelona and a number of other counties and lands.

The French kingdom was hierarchical, with a king at its head. But large feudal lords - dukes and counts, although they were considered vassals of the king, were almost independent. The first kings from the Capetian house were not much different from large feudal lords. They accumulated land holdings slowly, deriving income mainly from their own estates.

Feudal relations developed in the French kingdom. The land was in the hands of the owners - the lords, the peasants carried various duties in favor of the lords, were dependent on the owners of the land. Dependent peasants (serfs) were obliged to work for the lord: to work out the field corvée, to pay natural and cash dues. Seniors were also paid other duties and taxes.

Part of the peasants retained personal freedom (villans), but at the same time was in land, and sometimes in judicial dependence on the feudal lord.

Duties in favor of the lord were constantly growing. The peasants paid an additional fee to the landowner for the use of forests, waters, and meadows. Seniors were paid market, bridge, ferry, road and other duties.

The requisitions of the feudal lords and the constant feudal wars that ruined the economy made the life of the peasants extremely difficult.

The peasants resisted feudal exploitation in every possible way. Revolts broke out in various regions of the kingdom. This forced the feudal lords to look for ways to overcome social differences. Seniors went to reduce feudal rent. They provided the peasants with more time and opportunities to work on their personal farms, and strengthened their rights to the inheritance plot. These measures contributed to the expansion and consolidation of the rights of the peasants and thereby created the conditions for the more rapid development of the productive forces in feudal society.

7. What is the specificity of Italy in the IX-XI centuries?

In the Middle Ages, Italy was not a single state; historically there were three main regions - Northern, Middle and Southern Italy, which in turn broke up into separate feudal states. Each of the regions retained its distinctive features arising from the peculiarities of the economic, political and geographical conditions of individual parts of the Apennine Peninsula.

Most of Northern Italy was occupied by Lombardy - the fertile valley of the Po River, which from the VI-VIII centuries. was under the rule of the Germanic tribes - the Lombards (hence its name - Lombardy), and from the VIII century. became part of the Carolingian Empire. A significant part of Central Italy was occupied by the Papal States, the secular state of the popes with its center in Rome. To the north of the dominions of the pope lay the Duchy of Tuscany. Northern and Central Italy after the Treaty of Verdun in 843 formally became an independent single kingdom headed by a king. But the power of individual feudal lords in this area was also significant.

Southern Italy and the island of Sicily until the end of the 11th century. were also fragmented into separate fiefs and often passed from one conqueror to another. For a long time, large parts of the south of the country - Apulia, Calabria, Naples and Sicily - were Byzantine provinces. In the 9th century new conquerors invade here - the Arabs, who took possession of all of Sicily and formed an emirate there with its center in Palermo. At first XII century These lands were conquered by the Normans and founded the Kingdom of Sicily here.

The diversity of the political map of Italy complicated the development of feudal relations. In Northern Italy, the processes of feudalization were slower than in other regions. The Frankish conquest accelerated these processes.

Church landownership played a very important role in Italy, especially in its middle part.

In the south of Italy and Sicily, slave-owning orders persisted for a long time, which led to a significant lag in the feudalization of these areas.

The formation of feudal relations led to an increase in productive forces in agriculture. The favorable geographical position of the Italian lands intensified trade here, the development of commodity-money relations and contributed to the accelerated separation of crafts from agriculture. The result of this was the growth of cities. They arose in Italy earlier than in other European countries. Particularly significant was the growth of cities conducting intermediary trade between Western and Eastern countries. The early development of cities in Italy led to their early liberation from the power of feudal lords. Since the XNUMXth century. As a result of the struggle between cities and lords, self-governing urban communities (communes) emerged in some cities, many of which by the end of the XNUMXth century. become independent city republics (Milan, Piacenza, Verona, Parma, Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Lucca, Siena, etc.).

In 962, the Italian lands became dependent on the German king Otto I, who undertook a campaign against Rome, captured it, was crowned the imperial crown and proclaimed the creation of a new Roman Empire, including Germany and a significant part of Italy. This artificial political formation, which had neither a common economic base nor ethnic unity, caused innumerable disasters for Italy throughout many centuries of its history.

In the ninth century the papacy was in a state of extreme decline. After the campaign of Otto I, the popes fell under the control of the German emperors, who began to put persons they liked on the papal throne. Such a papacy supported the idea of ​​creating a strong Roman Empire headed by the German kings, which played a reactionary role in relation to the Italian people.

However, despite these difficult conditions, in the IX-XI centuries. in Italy began the process of formation of the Italian nationality. It was born in a hard and long struggle with foreign invaders, but was not destroyed by numerous conquests. On the contrary, the conquerors assimilated with the local population, assimilated the language of the Italian people, which was based on Latin, and its high culture, created over the centuries.

8. What was Germany like in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries?

After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire, secured by the Treaty of Verdun in 843, the formation of an early feudal state in Germany began. By the beginning of the XNUMXth century. On the territory of Germany there were duchies: Saxony and Thuringia (in Northern Germany), Franconia along the middle reaches of the Rhine, Swabia (along the upper reaches of the Danube and Rhine) and Bavaria (along the middle reaches of the Danube). The dukes, turning into large feudal landowners, used their position as tribal leaders to strengthen their power. This led to the preservation of tribal disunity, which hampered the historical development of Germany.

In 911, after the end of the Carolingian dynasty in Germany, one of the tribal dukes, Conrad I of Franconia, was elected king. After his death, a struggle for power developed between the tribal dukes, as a result of which two kings were elected at once - Henry of Saxony and Arnulf of Bavaria. But the objective prerequisites for strengthening central royal power in Germany already existed. On the one hand, the process of feudalization in the country was making progress; its further strengthening required strong royal power. On the other hand, the political unification of Germany was necessary in the face of external danger. From the end of the XNUMXth century. Germany became the object of attention of the Normans, and from the beginning of the XNUMXth century. - Hungarians who settled in Pannonia.

The objective prerequisites for strengthening royal power in Germany were used by the kings of the Saxon dynasty, under the first representatives of which - Henry I and Otto I - the German early feudal state actually took shape. True, the tribal dukes strongly resisted the unification processes.

In order to curb the separatism of the tribal dukes and strengthen the authority of the central government, Otto I began to rely on large church feudal lords - bishops and abbots, who, unlike secular magnates, did not have hereditary rights to their possessions. Church property was under the supreme patronage of the king. Therefore, the king tried in every possible way to increase the rights of church institutions at the expense of secular magnates. The highest church dignitaries were attracted by the king to carry out administrative, diplomatic, military, and public service. This ecclesiastical organization, placed at the service of the royal power and being its main support, received in the literature the name of the imperial church (Reichs-kirche).

The church policy of Otto I found its logical conclusion in the desire of the royal power to establish control over the papacy, which was at the head of the Roman church. The subjugation of the papacy was closely connected with plans to conquer Italy and revive some kind of empire of Charlemagne. The ambitious plans of Otto I were realized. He managed to conquer the scattered Italian principalities. Early in 962, the pope crowned Otto I in Rome with the imperial crown. Prior to this, Otto I, under a special agreement, recognized the pope's claims to secular possessions in Italy, but the German emperor was proclaimed the supreme lord of these possessions. The obligatory oath of the pope to the emperor was introduced, which was an expression of the subordination of the papacy to the empire. Thus, in 962, the medieval German Empire arose (later it received the name of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation), headed by the German emperor, which included, in addition to Germany, Northern and a significant part of Central Italy, some Slavic lands, as well as part of South and South East France. In the first half of the XI century. the Burgundian kingdom was annexed to the empire.

The expansionist policy of the German kings led to a waste of strength, was an obstacle to the folding of the German national state. Large church feudal lords, who turned out to be masters of vast territories, like secular magnates, are increasingly becoming in opposition to the central government, actively developing separatist processes in the country.

In the XNUMXth century central state power in Germany weakens, and a long period of feudal fragmentation begins.

9. What is the specificity of England in the IX-XI centuries?

On the territory of Britain, conquered by the Anglo-Saxons in the period from the second half of the XNUMXth to the beginning of the XNUMXth century, several barbarian Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were formed: Kent - in the extreme southeast, founded by the Jutes; Wessex, Sussex - in the southern and southeastern parts of the island, Northumbria - in the north and Mercia - in the center of the country, founded by the Angles.

The main population of the island, the Britons, offered stubborn resistance to the conquerors. But the tribes of the Britons were driven back by the conquerors to the northern and western highlands (to Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). Many Britons died in battles with the Germanic tribes, others mixed with the newcomers. Many Britons moved to the mainland - to Northwestern Gaul (France). From the Britons came the name of the province of France - Brittany.

The entire conquered part of Britain was subsequently called England, and its inhabitants - Anglo-Saxons.

The formation of the feudal system in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had some peculiarities. The most important of them are the relative stability of communal orders, the relatively slow process of the disappearance of the free peasantry and the formation of large feudal landownership. These features were due to the relatively weak Romanization of Britain and the destructive nature of the Anglo-Saxon conquest. The Angles and Saxons were at the stage of development of the destruction of tribal ties, therefore the development of feudal relations among them proceeded through the internal evolution of the decaying primitive communal system.

The predominant occupation of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain was agriculture. The basis of the Anglo-Saxon society was made up of free communal peasants - curls, who owned significant plots of arable land. The preservation of a stable community strengthened the forces of free peasants and slowed down the entire process of feudalization.

The beginning of this process among the Anglo-Saxons dates back to the XNUMXth century. By this time, wealth disparities among the Curls had become noticeable, and the community had begun to disintegrate. From the XNUMXth century the practice of royal land grants, which are issued by special letters, is also spreading. The granted land was called bokland (from the Anglo-Sanskonic words boc - "letter" and land - "land"). With the advent of the bockland in England, the development of large feudal landownership began. The ruined community members fell into dependence on large landowners.

The stability of the community and the free peasantry in England determined the especially great role of the royal power in the process of feudalization. The Church also contributed to this process in every possible way. The Christian religion, the introduction to which the Anglo-Saxons began in the XNUMXth century, met the interests of the ruling stratum of the Anglo-Saxon society, as it strengthened the royal power and the landowning nobility grouped around it. The kings actively supported the clergy, granted land to churches. The Church, in turn, encouraged the development of private ownership of land and in every possible way justified the growing dependence of the peasants.

In the VII-VIII centuries. England was not politically united, each region was ruled by an independent king. There was a constant struggle between the individual Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. From the beginning of the ninth century political dominance passed to Wessex. Under King Egbert of Wessex in 829, all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms united into one early feudal state.

This unification was due not only to internal, but also to foreign policy reasons. From the end of the XNUMXth century the devastating raids of the Normans, mainly Danes, began on England.

An important stage in the development of the Anglo-Saxon feudal state was the reign of King Alfred, who managed to provide worthy resistance to the Danes. Under Alfred, a collection of laws "The Truth of King Alfred" was compiled, which reflected the new feudal orders that had been established in the country.

Danish raids resumed at the end of the XNUMXth century. The power of the Danish kings was re-established in England. The Danish King Canute especially tried to strengthen his power over England. The unpopularity of Danish rule over England was especially evident under the sons of Cnut. Danish rule soon fell, and the English throne again passed to the king from the Wessex dynasty.

10. What was education and culture in the early Middle Ages?

The transition from the slave system to the feudal system was accompanied by fundamental changes in the cultural life of Western European society. The ancient, mostly secular culture was replaced by the medieval culture, which was characterized by the dominance of religious views.

The deep crisis of late antique society contributed to the strengthening of the role of Christianity, which becomes in the XNUMXth century. state religion and exerts an ever greater influence on the ideological and spiritual life of feudal society. Church doctrine was the starting point and basis of all thinking. Jurisprudence, natural science, philosophy - all the content of these sciences was brought into line with the teachings of the church. Religion became at the center of the entire socio-cultural process, subjugating and regulating its main areas.

Spiritual hymns, liturgical plays, stories about the life and miraculous deeds of saints and martyrs, popular in the earlier Middle Ages, had a great emotional impact on medieval man. In the Lives, the saint was endowed with character traits that the church wanted to instill in believers (patience, firmness in faith, etc.). Medieval people were persistently inspired by the idea of ​​the futility of human daring in the face of inevitable fate. According to the Church's worldview, the earthly "sinful" temporal life and the material nature of man were opposed to the eternal "beyond" existence. As an ideal of behavior, the church preached humility, asceticism, strict observance of church rites, and submission to the masters.

The growth of the influence of Christianity was impossible without the spread of writing, necessary for Christian worship, based on church books. Correspondence of such books was carried out at monasteries. There were also centers for the dissemination of knowledge - schools.

In the hierarchy of spheres of medieval culture, theology (theology) had undisputed leadership. Theology played an important role in protecting the official church doctrine from numerous heresies (from the Greek hairesis - "special dogma"), the emergence of which dates back to the early Middle Ages and without which it is impossible to imagine the socio-cultural situation of that time. Among the most common heretical ideas were: monophysitism (denial of the doctrine of the dual divine-human nature of Christ); Nestroianism (proved the position of the "independently existing" human nature of Christ); Adoptian heresy, which was based on the idea of ​​the adoption by God of the human son of Christ.

A prominent place in the hierarchy of spheres of medieval culture was occupied by philosophy, designed to provide evidence of the truth of the Christian faith. The rest of the sciences (astronomy, geometry, history, etc.) were subordinated to philosophy.

Under the strong influence of the church was artistic creativity. The medieval artist was called upon to display only the perfection of the world order. Western Europe during the early Middle Ages was characterized by the Romanesque style. Thus, the buildings of the Romanesque style are distinguished by massive forms, narrow window openings, and a significant height of the towers. Temple buildings of the Romanesque style were also distinguished by their massiveness, they were decorated with frescoes from the inside, and reliefs from the outside.

The paintings and sculptures of the Romanesque type are characterized by a flat two-dimensional image, generalization of forms, violation of proportions in the image of figures, lack of portrait resemblance to the original.

By the end of the 12th century. The Romanesque style gives way to the Gothic style, which is characterized by slender columns soaring upward and huge elongated windows decorated with stained glass. The general plan of Gothic churches is based on the shape of a Latin cross. These were the Gothic cathedrals in Paris, Chartres, and Bourges (France). In England, these are Westminster Abbey in London, the cathedrals in Salisbury, York, etc. In Germany, the transition to Gothic was slower than in France and England. The first Gothic church was the church in Lübeck.

An important element of the culture of this time was folk art: folk tales, epic works.

11. What is the specificity of Europe in the early Middle Ages (mid-XI - end of XV centuries)?

Europe in the early Middle Ages was the territory of barbarian states. The movements of barbarian tribes and their attacks on Roman possessions were commonplace. The Roman Empire at one time restrained this process, but at the end of the XNUMXth century. the great migration of peoples began to be uncontrollable.

The main reason for these movements was the growth in the population of barbarian tribes, caused by an increase in living standards due to the intensification of agriculture and the transition to a stable settled way of life. Barbarian tribes sought to seize the fertile lands of the Roman Empire and establish permanent settlements on them.

The Visigoths were the first to move within the boundaries of the Roman Empire (at the beginning of the 387rd century BC). In the battle of Athianopolis (XNUMX), the Goths won, the emperor Valentine died.

In 405-407, Suebi, Vandals and Alans invaded Italy under the leadership of Radagaisus.

In 410, the Visigoth tribes under the command of Amearic broke into Rome. The Eternal City was horribly plundered.

The Visigoths captured the southwestern part of Gaul and founded their kingdom there with its capital at Toulouse (419). In essence, it was the first independent state on Roman territory.

In the III century. Vandals moved from the depths of Germany to the Middle Danube. Under the onslaught of the Huns, they moved to the West, invaded Gaul, and then - to Spain. Soon the kingdom of the Vandals was formed with its capital in Carthage (439). The Vandal kingdom was conquered in 534 by the Eastern Roman Empire.

East German Burgundian tribe in the 457th century. moved to the Middle Rhine and founded his kingdom in the Vorlev region, which was defeated by the Huns. Later, the Burgundians occupied the entire Upper and Middle Rhone and in 534 founded a new kingdom with Lyon as its capital. Settlement among the Halo-Romans contributed to the decomposition of social and tribal relations among the Burgundians and the growth of social differentiation. In XNUMX the Burgundian kingdom was conquered by the Franks.

In 451 the Huns, led by Attila, invaded Gaul. The common danger forced the Western Roman Empire and the barbarian peoples to join forces. The decisive battle, nicknamed the battle of the peoples, took place on the Catalaunian fields. The allied army, consisting of the Romans, Visigoths, Franks and Burgundians, under the command of the Roman commander Aetius, defeated the Huns.

Despite the loss of almost all of its provinces, the Western Roman Empire still formally continued to exist. The imperial court had long been located not in Rome, but in Ravenia, and the affairs of the empire were actually controlled by barbarian military leaders. In 476, the military leader Odoacer usurped power and became the de facto ruler of Italy and Rome. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist.

In 493, Odoacer concluded an agreement on the division of the territory of the empire with the leader of the Visigoths, Theodoric, after which he was killed.

In 546, the Lombards invaded Italy. Gradually, the Lombards conquered most of Italy, they owned the north of the country.

The conquest of the Roman provinces and the settlement of barbarians among the Roman population, living in a more developed society, accelerated the decomposition primitive communal system and the formation of early feudal relations among barbarian peoples. On the other hand, barbarian conquests accelerated the decomposition of slaveholding relations and the formation of the feudal system in Roman society. At the same time, they created the preconditions for the Romano-Germanic synthesis.

The conquests were accompanied by a process of redistribution of landed property. The senatorial nobility, the top of the curials and the clergy remained large owners. Kings, old tribal nobility and royal vigilantes appropriated a significant share of the conquered land. Allotment land turned into property, and this led to property inequality among the community members and to the establishment of land and personal dependence.

The barbarian kingdoms inherited to one degree or another the Roman territorial and administrative system, and they tried to extend it to the German population. In Western Europe, new Romance peoples began to take shape - Italian, Spanish, Franco-Roman, in which the Germans were absorbed by the Romano-Celtic population.

12. What was the essence of the Crusades (goals, participants, results)?

In 1095, at the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban III called for a crusade to rescue the holy places from the yoke of the Saracens (Arabs and Seljuk Turks). The first echelon of the crusaders was made up of peasants and poor citizens, led by the preacher Peter of Amiens. In 1096 they arrived in Constantinople and, without waiting for the approach of the knightly army, crossed over to Asia Minor. There, the poorly armed and even worse trained militia of Peter of Amiens was easily defeated by the Turks. In the spring of 1097, detachments of crusader knights concentrated in the capital of Byzantium. The main role in the First Crusade was played by the feudal lords of Southern France: Count Raymond of Toulouse, Count Robert of Flanders, son of the Norman Duke William (the future conqueror of England) Robert, Bishop Ademar.

The main problem of the crusaders was the lack of a unified command. The dukes and counts participating in the campaign did not have a common overlord and did not want to obey each other, considering themselves no less noble and powerful than their colleagues. Gottfried of Bouillon was the first to cross to the land of Asia Minor, followed by other knights. In June 1097, the crusaders took the fortress of Nicaea and moved to Cilicia.

In October 1097, after a seven-month siege, Gottfried's army captured Antioch. The city tried to recapture the Sultan of Mosul, but suffered a heavy defeat. Bohemond founded another crusader state - the Principality of Antioch. In the autumn of 1098, the crusader army moved towards Jerusalem. Along the way, she took possession of Accra and in June 1099 approached the holy city, which was defended by Egyptian troops. Almost the entire Genoese fleet, which carried siege weapons, was destroyed by the Egyptians. However, one ship managed to break through to Laodicea. The siege engines delivered by him allowed the crusaders to destroy the walls of Jerusalem.

On July 15, 1099, the crusaders took Jerusalem by storm. On August 12, a large Egyptian army landed near Jerusalem, in Ascalon, but the crusaders defeated it. At the head of the Kingdom of Jerusalem founded by them stood Gottfried of Bouillon. The success of the First Crusade was facilitated by the fact that the united army of the Western European knights was opposed by the scattered and warring Seljuk sultanates. The most powerful Muslim state in the Mediterranean - the Egyptian Sultanate - only with a great delay moved the main forces of its army and navy to Palestine, which the crusaders managed to break in parts. Here, the Muslim rulers clearly underestimated the danger threatening them. For the defense of the Christian states formed in Palestine, spiritual and knightly orders were created, whose members settled in the conquered lands after the bulk of the participants in the First Crusade returned to Europe. In 1119, the Order of the Templars (knights of the Temple) was founded, a little later the Order of the Hospitallers, or St. John, appeared, and at the end of the XNUMXth century. The Teutonic (German) Order arose.

The second crusade, undertaken in 1147-1149, ended in vain. According to some estimates, up to 70 thousand people participated in it. The Crusaders were led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. In October 1147, the German knights were defeated at Dorileus by the cavalry of the Sultan of Iconium. Then epidemics hit Conrad's army. The emperor was forced to join the army of the French king, with whom he had previously been at enmity. Most of the German soldiers chose to return to their homeland. The French, in January 1148, were defeated at Khonami.

In 1149, Conrad, and then Louis, returned to Europe, realizing the impossibility of expanding the boundaries of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In the second half of the XII century. Saladin (Salah ad-Din), a talented commander, became the sultan of Egypt, which opposed the crusaders. He defeated the crusaders at Lake Tiberias and in 1187 captured Jerusalem.

In response, the Third Crusade was proclaimed, led by Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, French King Philip II Augustus and King Richard I of England the Lionheart. When crossing one of the rivers in Asia Minor, Frederick drowned, and his army, having lost its leader, broke up and returned to Europe. The French and British, moving by sea, captured Sicily, and then landed in Palestine, but acted generally unsuccessfully. True, after a siege of many months, they took the fortress of Acre, and Richard the Lionheart captured the island of Cyprus, recently separated from Byzantium, where he took rich booty in the East. But the strife between the English and French feudal lords caused the departure of the French king from Palestine. Without the help of the French knights, Richard was never able to take Jerusalem. On September 2, 1192, the English king signed a peace with Salah ad-Din, according to which only the coastal strip from Tire to Jaffa remained under the control of the crusaders, and Jaffa and Ascalon were previously destroyed by Muslims to the ground.

The fourth crusade began in 1202 and ended in 1204 with the conquest of Constantinople instead of Palestine and a significant part of the possessions of Christian Byzantium. On the site of Byzantium, the Latin Empire was founded, which existed for half a century. They were an ephemeral formation, dependent on the Venetian fleet and parasitizing on Byzantine wealth. With the return of many crusaders to Europe, the military power of the Latin Empire also weakened. In 1205, her army was defeated by the Bulgarians near Adrianople, and the emperor Balduin (Baudouin) I was captured. In 1261, the Emperor of Nicaea, Michael III Palaiologos, with the help of the Genoese, expelled the crusaders from Constantinople.

The Fifth Crusade was organized in 1217-1221. to conquer Egypt. It was headed by King Andras II of Hungary and Duke Leopold of Austria. The crusaders of Syria met the newcomers from Europe without great enthusiasm. It was difficult for the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which survived the drought, to feed tens of thousands of new soldiers, and it wanted to trade with Egypt, not to fight. Andras and Leopold raided Damascus, Nablus and Beisan, besieged, but could not take the strongest Muslim fortress of Tavor. After this failure, Andras returned to his homeland in January 1218. To replace the Hungarians in Palestine in 1218, the Dutch knights and German infantry arrived. It was decided to conquer the Egyptian fortress of Damietta in the Nile Delta. It was located on an island, surrounded by three rows of walls and protected by a powerful tower, from which a bridge and thick iron chains stretched to the fortress, blocking access to Damietta from the river. The siege began on May 27, 1218. Using their ships as floating wall-beating guns and using long assault ladders, the crusaders captured the tower. In mid-July, the Nile began to flood, and the crusader camp was flooded, while the Muslims prepared in advance for the revelry of the elements and did not suffer, and then cut off the path of retreat for the army of Pelagius. The crusaders asked for peace. At this time, the Egyptian sultan was most afraid of the Mongols, who had already appeared in Iraq, and preferred not to tempt his luck in the fight against the knights. Under the terms of the truce, the crusaders left Damietta and sailed for Europe.

He led the Sixth Crusade in 1228-1229. German Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen. The emperor himself, before the start of the campaign, was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX, who called him not a crusader, but a pirate who was going to "steal the kingdom in the Holy Land." In the summer of 1228 Frederick landed in Syria. Here he managed to persuade al-Kamil, who fought with his Syrian emirs, to return Jerusalem and other territories of the kingdom to him in exchange for help against his enemies - both Muslims and Christians. The corresponding agreement was concluded in Jaffa in February 1229. On March 18, the crusaders entered Jerusalem without a fight. Then the emperor returned to Italy, defeated the pope's army sent against him and forced Gregory, under the terms of the Peace of Saint Germain in 1230, to lift the excommunication and recognize the agreement with the sultan. Jerusalem thus passed to the crusaders only due to the threat that their army posed to al-Kamil, and even thanks to the diplomatic skill of Frederick.

The Seventh Crusade took place in the autumn of 1239. Frederick II refused to provide the territory of the Kingdom of Jerusalem for the crusading army led by Duke Richard of Cornwall. The Crusaders landed in Syria and, at the insistence of the Templars, entered into an alliance with the Emir of Damascus to fight the Sultan of Egypt, but together with the Syrians were defeated in November 1239 at the Battle of Ascalon. Thus, the seventh campaign ended in vain.

The Eighth Crusade took place in 1248-1254. His goal was to recapture Jerusalem, captured in September 1244 by Sultan as-Salih Eyyub Najm ad-Din, who was assisted by 10 Khorezmian cavalry. Almost the entire Christian population of the city was slaughtered. This time, the French king Louis IX played the leading role in the crusade, and the total number of crusaders was determined at 15-25 thousand people, of which 3 thousand were knights.

The Egyptians sank the Crusader fleet. Louis's starving army left Mansoura, but few made it to Damietta. Most were destroyed or captured. Among the prisoners was the French king. Epidemics of malaria, dysentery and scurvy spread among the captives, and few of them survived. Louis was released from captivity in May 1250 for a huge ransom of 800 bezants, or 200 livres. Louis remained in Palestine for four more years, but, having not received reinforcements from Europe, in April 1254 he returned to France.

The ninth and last crusade took place in 1270. It was prompted by the success of the Mamluk sultan Baibars. The Egyptians in 1260 defeated the Mongol troops at the battle of Ain Jalut. In 1265 Baibars captured the crusader fortresses of Caesarea and Arsuf, and in 1268 Jaffa and Antioch. The crusade was again led by Saint Louis IX, and only French knights participated in it. This trip turned out to be fruitless.

13. What are the socio-economic prerequisites for the emergence of cities?

The early Middle Ages were marked by the dominance of subsistence farming and the independence of commodity-money relations.

Everything that the feudal lord needed was produced on his estate. If there was a need for other products, then, if possible, an equivalent exchange was made.

Each feudal lord had talented artisans who could produce a competitive product. The signor sought to quickly "enslave" such people. The only chance to maintain freedom was to leave in search of a better life.

They ran away with all the lies. The fugitives tried to settle closer to the royal family in order to find protection. The kings did not hand over the fugitives to their former masters, protecting their freedom. The monarchs were in dire need of money to fight the infidel vassals. And the townspeople-artisans, in exchange for support, paid off from the royal person.

Another option for urban settlements was winning places with the appropriate landscape.

Progressive-minded feudal lords, not wanting to yield to the king as "first among equals" in anything, began to help the townspeople. But the symbiosis of cities and royal power turned out to be more stable and more successful.

Gradually, self-government bodies began to form in the cities. In practice, this meant complete economic and, in part, political freedom. The richest citizens elected the head of the city. The meetings were held in a solemn atmosphere in the City Hall building.

14. What are the characteristic features of the medieval urban craft? What were the economic foundations and forms of organization?

The transition from the early feudal period to the period of developed feudalism was due to the emergence and growth of cities, which quickly became centers of crafts and exchange, as well as the widespread development of commodity production. These were qualitatively new phenomena in feudal society, which had a significant impact on its economy, political system and spiritual life.

The first centuries of the Middle Ages in Western Europe were characterized by the dominance of subsistence farming. The production of agricultural products and handicrafts, specially designed for sale, i.e., commodity production, was then almost not developed in most of Western Europe. The old Roman cities fell into decay, the agrarianization of the economy took place. During the early Middle Ages, urban-type settlements were preserved in place of dilapidated Roman cities. But for the most part they were either administrative centers, or fortified points (fortresses - "burgs"), or church centers (residences of bishops, etc.). But the cities had not yet become the center of craft and trade during this period.

In the X-XI century. important changes took place in the economic life of Western Europe. The growth of productive forces, which took place in connection with the establishment of the feudal mode of production, proceeded most rapidly in handicrafts and was expressed in the gradual change and development of the technique and skills of handicraft work, the expansion and differentiation of social production. The production of handicraft products increasingly turned into a special sphere of labor activity, different from agriculture, which required further specialization of the artisan, no longer compatible with the labor of the peasant.

The moment has come when the transformation of handicraft into an independent branch of production has become inevitable. In turn, progressive changes took place in agriculture. With the improvement of tools and methods of tillage in agriculture, the area of ​​cultivated land increased. Not only agriculture, but also cattle breeding, horticulture, etc. developed and improved. As a result of all these changes, the volume of products produced in the rural sector increased. This made it possible to exchange it for handicrafts.

In the process of separation from agriculture, the handicraft went through a number of stages in its development. At first, the craft acted in the form of the production of products by order of the consumer. Commodity production was still in its infancy. In the future, with the development of handicraft production, it was focused not only on a specific customer, but on the market. The craftsman becomes a commodity producer. Commodity production and commodity relations begin to emerge, and exchange between town and country begins.

A characteristic feature of medieval craft in Western Europe was its guild organization - the unification of artisans of a certain profession within a given city into special unions - guilds, craft guilds. The guilds appeared simultaneously with the cities themselves in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. The final registration of the guilds (receipt of special charters from kings and other lords, drawing up and recording of guild charters) occurred later.

The number of workshops increased with the growth of the division of labor. In most cities, belonging to a guild was a prerequisite for engaging in a craft, that is, a guild monopoly was established for this type of craft. This eliminated the possibility of competition on the part of artisans who were not part of the guild, which, in the conditions of a narrow market and insignificant demand, was dangerous for manufacturers.

The main function of the workshops was to establish control over the production and sale of handicrafts. The members of the workshop were interested in ensuring that their products were sold. Therefore, in the shop organization, the process of producing products of a certain type and quality was regulated. The guilds, despite the fact that they limited competition, played a progressive role, contributed to the improvement of tools and handicraft skills.

15. How was the formation of centralized states in Western Europe?

The political unification of the countries of Europe, in particular England and France, took place over a long period and was accompanied by wars, both internecine, within these countries, and between England and France. The most difficult and longest war between them was the Hundred Years War, which began in 1337 and ended in 1453. This war was fought in France, where England had its possessions in the southwestern part of France and in the north - the port city of Calais on the coast the English Channel.

During the bloody wars, France was unified under the rule of the king with the simultaneous liberation of the territories captured by the British. The final victory over feudal fragmentation in France is associated with the name of King Louis XI.

The most dangerous rival of Louis XI and the main obstacle to the creation of a strong centralized state was the Duchy of Burgundy - the last major seigneurial possession in France. Its rulers often acted independently of the king. The subjugation of this duchy led to the completion of the process of unification of France. By the end of the reign of Louis XI, only the port city of Calais and the duchy of Brittany remained outside the king's possessions. By the end of the XV century. in France, thanks to the firm royal power, the unification of many previously isolated regions into one country, a state, was completed. From that time on, the population begins to consider themselves French, and the French language and French culture are common to the whole country.

The situation in England after the defeat in the Hundred Years' War in many respects resembled the situation in France at the beginning of the 1455th century. In the reign of King Henry VI, England was dominated by rival noble families. This rivalry culminated in the Thirty Years' Civil War (1485-1485). This war was called the War of the Scarlet and White Roses, according to the images on the coats of arms of the opponents. As a result of a long war, many representatives of English dynasties and noble families perished. She cleared the way for the restoration of strong power under the new King Henry VII Tudor, who came to power in XNUMX.

As for other state formations of Western Europe - Germany and Italy, they are in the X-XI centuries. were united into one state - the Holy Roman Empire. It was ruled by the German emperors, who were crowned in Rome by the head of the Catholic Church - the pope. During a long period of internecine wars, this Empire broke up into many independent principalities, kingdoms, city-republics and the Papal States.

After the fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, there was no strong power in Germany. There was a constant struggle for the throne, power did not always pass from father to son. Germany did not have a single capital, a single government, a single monetary system.

In the middle of the fourteenth century Charles IV became the next king and head of Germany. From his father, he also inherited the Czech crown. But he failed to unite the country, moreover, he recognized the independence of the princes and their right to war among themselves.

In Italy, after the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, many independent, independent small states also formed - city-republics, kingdoms and the Papal States with the center in Rome.

In the XIV-XV centuries. experienced a rapid flowering of Venice, Genoa, Florence, Milan, Bologna, Pisa, Siena. The main role in these city-states was played by merchants and artisans. The most numerous were communities of artisans and merchants - workshops and guilds. It was in these areas that there was an active accumulation of wealth and capital. Many Italian cities were centers of science and culture. Universities were founded in Padua, Pisa, Bologna, Florence, Siena, Rome and other cities.

The Italian city-states were ruled by councils of wealthy and noble citizens. Kings ruled only in the Kingdom of Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples in southern Italy. The city-states guarded their independence with the help of special military detachments. Many Italian city-states became centers of Renaissance culture.

16. What was France like in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries?

From the XNUMXth century In France, the process of state centralization begins. The royal power began to wage a more active fight against feudal anarchy, which was undermining the country's productive forces. The centralizing policy of the kings was supported by the cities, which fought against large feudal lords and were interested in weakening their influence. The kings skillfully used and incited this struggle.

But the French kings had strong rivals. In 1154, one of the French feudal lords - Count of Anjou Henry Plantagenet - became the king of England. His possessions in France (Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Normandy, Poitou, etc.) were several times greater than those of the French king.

The rivalry between the Capetians and the Plantagenets flared up especially under Philip II Augustus. He achieved the greatest success in the fight against the English king John Landless, declaring his possessions in France confiscated and conquering Normandy.

The strengthening of royal power also took place in the reign of Louis IX, during which this process was consolidated by a number of important reforms. A single monetary system was introduced in the royal domain. This contributed to the economic cohesion of the country. Louis IX carried out judicial reform. Judicial chambers were formed in the country, which became known as parliaments. The main parliament was in Paris, which became the capital of France.

A lot of efforts to strengthen the unity of France were made by the last representative of the Capetian dynasty - King Philip IX the Handsome. Realizing that the greatly expanded French state required expenses to maintain controllability, Philip IX began to take care of increasing state revenues. He introduced a monetary tax levied on all classes, including the clergy. By this he violated the rights of the Pope, on whom the clergy depended. Having conceived decisive action against the pope, Philip IV convened in 1302 the States General, where the clergy, nobles and townspeople were represented. Philip IV informed the participants of the meeting of his intention to enter into a fight with the pope. The Estates General supported the king. At the insistence of Philip IV, a new pope was elected, a Frenchman by origin, who moved his residence to the city of Avignon, in the south of France. Here the popes lived for almost 70 years in submission to the French king. The time of the papal stay in Avignon was called the Avignon captivity of the popes.

The accession to the French throne of the Valois dynasty led to the beginning of the Hundred Years War between France and England, which was of paramount importance for the future fate of France.

The Hundred Years' War was basically a fight over the southwestern French lands under the rule of the English kings. These lands were needed by France for its final unification.

For many decades, the British won military battles with the French. The most successful was the British offensive in France in the XNUMXth century. They managed to occupy the north of France and Paris. They also captured the French king.

The situation changed somewhat after the siege by the British in 1428 of the city of Orleans on the Laure, which was an important strategic point in the south of France. The peasant girl Jeanne D'Arc took an active part in deciding the fate of the city of Orleans. She was imbued with the conviction that, according to God's will, she should help France in the fight against the British. She managed to persuade the French king Charles VII to take decisive action, as a result of which the siege of Orleans was lifted. The British retreated to Paris. In 1430 Joan of Arc was captured by the British, who burned her at the stake.

The fierce struggle and execution of Jeanne awakened the patriotic feelings of the French. All classes of the kingdom rallied around Charles VII. In 1436 the French king solemnly entered Paris. The war was ended by 1453 with the victory of France, but the port of Calais remained with the British.

Victory in the war cost the French people innumerable victims, at the cost of which the independence of the country was saved.

In the sixteenth century France entered as an already centralized state with developing economic ties, rich cities, and a growing cultural community.

17. What is the uniqueness of the English system in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries?

The unification of England took place gradually over more than four centuries in the conditions of constant long-term war with foreign invaders, as well as internal struggle - political and military - with opponents of the strengthening of the central royal power.

In the XII century. Henry II Plantagenet, a descendant of the French feudal lords, came to power and owned vast lands in France. In order to further strengthen the centralization of the state, he carried out a number of reforms - judicial, military. These reforms were primarily in the interests of the feudal lords, who were the backbone of royal power.

In the thirteenth century the political struggle for strengthening royal power was continued by the son of Henry II - John, nicknamed Landless. He increased the tax pressure on almost all segments of the population, which led to an aggravation of the social situation in the country. In the spring of 1215, large feudal lords, with the support of chivalry and townspeople, began a war against the king. The king failed to break the resistance of the opposition, and in June 1215 he signed the so-called Magna Carta, designed to protect the interests and rights of the majority of the country's population from royal arbitrariness.

Major political changes took place in England during the reign of Edward I (1272-1307). A body of class representation arose in the country - parliament, in which, along with the barons, deputies of chivalry and cities sat. Parliament gave the king the opportunity to rely more actively on the chivalry and the urban elite, to suppress the separatism of large owners. The king negotiated with parliament on the taxation of the population.

In the first half of the fourteenth century Parliament began to be divided into two chambers: the upper - the House of Lords, where the representatives of the clergy and barons sat, and the lower - the House of Commons, where the knights and representatives of the cities sat. The strong alliance between the chivalry and the urban elite in parliament provided them with greater political influence in the country. The masses of the free peasantry and the urban poor were not represented in Parliament. Villans (dependent peasants) were generally forbidden to participate in elections.

Meanwhile, the situation of the masses, especially the peasants, was constantly deteriorating. Peasantry was especially indignant at the new taxes associated with the resumption of the Hundred Years' War under King Richard II (1377-1399). The increase in the tax burden gave rise to a peasant uprising that broke out in the spring of 1381 in the southeast of England, in the county of Essex. The leader of the uprising was the rural craftsman Wat Tyler. The main goals of the rebels were the abolition of personal dependence and the minimization of the tax burden. The king managed to suppress the uprising, but it did not pass without a trace - after 1381, the English feudal lords abandoned corvée, and during the XNUMXth century. almost all the peasants of England ransomed to freedom.

The Hundred Years' War also served as a pretext for increasing tensions within the privileged sections of the population. The war had reduced the incomes of the aristocracy, and now their attention was now more focused than before on the struggle for power and income at court. A convenient occasion for feudal civil strife was the dynastic disputes between the large dynastic houses of Lancaster and York. In 1455, a military clash took place between them. It marked the beginning of a long internecine war, known in history as the War of the Scarlet and White Roses. Most of the major feudal lords stood behind the Lancasters, especially the feudal lords of the North, who were accustomed to political independence and possessed large armed forces. The Yorks were supported by large feudal lords of the economically developed Southeast. The Yorks were supported by most of the new nobility and townspeople, who aspired to establish a strong royal power. For many large feudal lords, this war was only a pretext for robbery and strengthening their political independence. They easily moved from one camp to another. The armed confrontation between the Lancastrians and the Yorkers ended in 1485. The representative of the new Tudor dynasty, Henry, who entered the country's history under the name of Henry VII, was proclaimed King of England. The new king continued the policy of strengthening the centralization of the country.

18. What are the features of feudal fragmentation in Germany in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries?

A characteristic feature of the political life of Germany in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. was the strengthening of the system of territorial principalities. The country failed to overcome feudal fragmentation. Socio-economic shifts in the development of the country did not lead to the formation of a single economic center, to which all regions of the country would gravitate. For many German lands and cities closely connected with transit foreign trade, the unification of the country was not a vital necessity. Regional centralization was the economic basis of the so-called territorial principalities, that is, compact territories within which the ruling elite had relatively complete power. Territorial princes encouraged the development of cities in their lands, founded new trade and craft centers. The links of such economically and politically wealthy lands with the central royal power were weakening. In medieval Germany, there was no union of royal power and cities, which was a necessary condition for overcoming the political fragmentation of the country.

Lacking a solid social base, the German emperors were forced to maneuver between the regional princes and thus contribute to their further strengthening. This policy was pursued by Frederick I Barbarossa and his successor Frederick II. Legislative consolidation of the independence of local princes led to even greater fragmentation of the country. The emperors, abandoning the great-power policy, themselves more and more turned into territorial princes.

Economic changes associated with the growth of crafts and trade, and in the fourteenth century. did not lead to the emergence of all-German market relations and a single economic center.

In the XIV-XV centuries. increased social tension between cities and princes, on whose lands these cities developed. Weak imperial power could not protect the interests of the townspeople, merchants from the arbitrariness of local princes. Under these conditions, the cities were forced to unite in unions.

The largest of these alliances was the North German Hansa. By the middle of the fourteenth century. The Hansa embraced with its influence almost all German cities located on the shores of the North and Baltic Seas. Stralsund, Rostock, Wismar, Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen became the core of the union. They sought to concentrate in their hands all intermediary trade in the basin of the Baltic and North Seas.

In the conditions of political fragmentation that prevailed in Germany, the Hanseatic League acted as an independent political force. However, with all its might, the Hanseatic League did not become the economic and political core of Germany. The union had neither a common administration, nor a common finance, nor a common fleet. Each city that was a member of the Hanse conducted its own affairs.

In the fourteenth century the political fragmentation of Germany was legally fixed in the "Golden Bull" issued by Emperor Charles IV in 1356.

According to the document, the princes were recognized for their full sovereignty in the principalities: the right to judge, collect duties, mint coins, and exploit natural resources. The Golden Bull proclaimed that the empire was a political organization of sovereign princes. Germany became more and more fragmented, its center - more and more weak. Nevertheless, the search for ways to the imperial form did not stop. At the end of the 80s. XV century in Southwestern Germany, a large political and military association arose - the Swabian Union. Formally, it was an association of knights and imperial cities of Southwestern Germany, which was joined by individual large princes.

At the Reichstags of 1495 and 19500, which were at the head of the Swabian League, the princes carried out a project of "imperial reform". It was decided to proclaim in the empire "zemstvo peace", that is, the prohibition of internal wars, and to create an all-imperial administration and an imperial court to settle disputes between the princes. However, for fear of undermining the sovereignty of their territories, the princes did not want the imperial institutions to have real military and financial power and their own executive bodies. The "imperial reform" did not achieve its goal: instead of eliminating petty holdings and political fragmentation, it only strengthened them even more.

19. What was Italy like in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries?

In Italy, as in Germany, the period of developed feudalism did not end with the unification of the country. It remained economically and politically fragmented. Different regions of the country were also not homogeneous. Significantly differed between Northern Italy and Tuscany, the Papal States and Southern Italy.

The main feature of Northern Italy and Tuscany was the earlier and much more rapid development of cities than in other countries of medieval Europe. In these cities, handicraft production and trade were actively developing, which outgrew the limits of local significance.

These cities, strengthening their economic opportunities, waged an active struggle with the lords on whose lands they were located. The struggle of cities for their independence led to the fact that cities expanded their possessions, subjugating nearby districts. These vast territories were called "distretto" and often represented a whole state. So, in Northern and Central Italy there were city-states - Florence, Siena, Milan, Ravenna, Padua, Venice, Genoa, etc.

The development of the Papal States, which occupied a significant part of Central Italy, proceeded differently. Since its sovereign was at the same time the head of the Catholic Church, and Rome was its organizational and ideological core, the history of this state was significantly influenced by the European policy of the papacy, which was based on the desire for supremacy over the secular sovereigns of Europe.

The popes managed to increase their political influence in Europe, but this did not lead to the economic strengthening of the region. The Papal States lagged behind Northern Italy and Tuscany. Cities here developed more slowly, the popes did not support the policy of granting self-government rights to Rome and other cities of the region.

In southern Italy and Sicily, which were under the influence of foreign (Norman) domination, the development of cities did not stop. Moreover, they reached a significant flourishing here, but it was associated mainly with transit trade, and their own handicraft production and local trade were poorly developed here. Unlike the cities of northern Italy, the southern Italian cities failed to achieve independence and even autonomy, they remained subordinate to a strong central authority.

In the second half of the 12th century. The threat of German enslavement loomed over Italy. The German feudal lords, led by Frederick I Barbarossa, considered the basis for their aggression to be the formal belonging of part of the Italian lands to the so-called Roman Empire. The German invasion threatened primarily the prosperous northern Italian cities. Only the united efforts of the Italian lands with the support of the papacy made it possible to prevent a catastrophe.

After the collapse of the conquest plans of Frederick I, the authority of the papacy increased, as did the theocratic plans of the popes themselves. The popes again rushed to strengthen their political positions not only in Italy, but also in other feudal states of Europe. The theocratic policy of the popes was doomed to failure. Large centralized states, emerging in Europe, more and more left the political influence of the popes. The defeat of the papacy in the struggle against the French monarchy led to the weakening of his power even in the Papal States. The transfer of the papal residence to Avignon in 1309 meant the actual subordination of the papal curia to French politics and the loss of control by the papacy over the feudal lords and cities of the church area.

This contributed to the strengthening of the strengthening of the independence of Rome. The fight between the townspeople and the feudal nobility was led by Cola di Rienzo. He, with the support of Roman citizens, managed to seize power in Rome. The city was declared a republic. Cola di Rienzo called on all Italian cities to unite around Rome as the capital of Italy. However, the Italian cities did not support his initiative. The power of the feudal lords in Rome was restored.

Italy failed to overcome feudal fragmentation. Discovery of America and routes to India at the end of the XNUMXth century. destroyed the commercial predominance of Italy, strengthened its agrarianization. Italy was on the verge of her decline, which she came to at the end of the sixteenth century.

20. How was the educational and scientific processes in Medieval universities?

Medieval cities were not only economic, but also cultural centers.

From the twelfth century along with the elementary and vocational schools in the cities, a new education - secondary and higher - is becoming widespread. Scientific and intellectual initiative passes from the monasteries to this school, which is directly connected with the city.

Urban schools introduced a new scholastic rationalistic (i.e., logical) method of thinking into the world of medieval ideas, which opposed the mental equipment of a link to authority with the principle of its logical justification. The attitude towards books changed - from a treasure in monastic culture, they turn in a city school into a source of knowledge obtained through critical analysis.

Gradually, teachers, separating from the church and monastic authorities, began to create their own corporations - universities. The very term "university" originally meant any association of people connected by common interests and having a legal status. From the end of the fourteenth century it began to be used in relation to the academic corporation.

The opening of universities was of great importance for the cultural development of European countries. The Roman popes were initially wary of the new educational institutions, but then considered it good to take them under their protection. Charters received from popes and kings gave the universities legal and administrative autonomy, making them independent of the secular and spiritual local authorities.

The most ancient universities are Paris, which emphasized theology, and Bologna, famous for teaching law. Formed simultaneously, they at the same time differed significantly in their internal structure, embodying the two main types of universities of the Middle Ages. The University of Bologna (and Padua) was a student organization that arose to protect the interests of law students who came to the city. Associations of students - guilds - carried out the management of university life.

But this system was not a democratic organization, since power was in the hands of a few officials - rectors and chancellery.

The University of Paris, by contrast, developed as an organization of teachers. Students could neither vote nor participate in university meetings.

Northern universities were built according to the Parisian type. Oxford adopted in general the Parisian system of organization. The main difference was that Oxford, like Cambridge, did not originate in an episcopal city and, accordingly, its subordination to episcopal authorities was weaker than in French universities.

Not all students who entered the university were able to complete the full course of sciences. Among the students there were those who wandered around the universities of different countries and cities for years to hear the lectures of famous professors. Such students were called vagants - "wandering" students.

All universities had "junior" and "senior" faculties, that is, special departments, each of which taught different sciences. Students listened to lectures or participated in debates. The lecture (translated from Latin - "reading") began with the lecturer reading out important passages from the writings of ancient or medieval scholars. Then the professor commented and explained them. Debate was the discussion of contentious issues.

By the fourteenth century 60 universities appeared in Europe. This gave a powerful impetus to the development of science. Scientists in the Middle Ages were called scholastics. Many of them were lecturers at universities. They taught to reason and build evidence.

History has preserved the names of prominent scientists of that time. These are the philosopher and master Peter Abelard, the "father" of medieval scholasticism and mysticism, Archbishop Anselm of Cantebury, Abelard's student Arnold of Brescia - a propagandist of the idea of ​​​​equality and the poor church of the early Middle Ages, John Wycliffe, professor at Oxford University, doctor of theology, forerunner of the reformation European movement. Of course, this is only a small part of those who embodied the intellectual image of the medieval era.

21. What is the specificity of Europe in the Late Middle Ages (XVI-XVII centuries)?

The time period from the end of the XV-XVIII centuries. in historiography they are called differently: Late Middle Ages; early modern times; the period of initial accumulation of capital, if we are talking about progressive changes in the economy; the era of proto-industrial civilization, if we are talking about the early stage of the genesis of industrial society; the time of the Renaissance and the Reformation, associated with the emergence of new worldview ideas, forms of economic activity, methods and goals of political struggle, reflecting the collapse of traditional society.

During this period, there was a process of disintegration of feudal relations and the formation of a new type of relations - capitalist.

Not all European countries were equally affected by this process. In some of them, capitalist forms did not have noticeable success, and the growth of commodity-money relations and foreign trade relations was used by the nobility to enrich themselves by returning to corvée and serfdom.

But in the most progressive states, such as England, France, the Netherlands, there were significant changes. In the economic sphere in these countries, the feudal forms of the economy were disintegrating, there was a process of initial accumulation of capital, the emergence of a new economic structure. In the social sphere, the class stratification of traditional society was eroded, new social groups arose - the bourgeoisie and hired workers. In the ideological sphere, new ideological orientations arise - humanism, reformist creeds (Lutheranism, Calvinism) and radical teachings with egalitarian ideas. Significant changes also took place in the political sphere. The estate-representative states were replaced by absolute monarchies.

The late Middle Ages are also famous for the first acts of bourgeois revolutions. This is the Reformation, and the Peasant War in Germany in 1525, and the Dutch bourgeois revolution, the result of which was the formation of the first bourgeois republic in Europe - the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland).

On the basis of growing economic ties, the gradual formation of the capitalist structure, most of the countries of Western Europe are territorially united, a common language and culture for each country is being formed, which creates conditions for the emergence of nations.

The geographical discoveries of Europeans of previously unknown lands accelerated the process of decomposition of traditional society. Portuguese, Spanish, Italian navigators rushed to search and capture them. The expeditions of H. Columbus, Vasco da Gama, F. Magellan significantly expanded the economic opportunities of the Old World. European newcomers actively developed new territories, subjected them to their influence. But the influence of geographical discoveries did not affect the Old World in the same way everywhere. The discoveries contributed to the movement of trade routes and trade centers within Western Europe. Thus, Europe's relations with India and the New World went along new paths, this reduced the importance for Europe of Mediterranean trade and Italian cities as Europe's trade intermediaries with overseas countries. In the sixteenth century the role of intermediaries began to play Lisbon, Seville, Antwerp.

The expansion and increase in the volume of commodity production led to progressive changes in the economic life of European countries. One of the distinguishing features of this period was that money, which was the key to a certain power, began to play an increasingly important role in the life of Europeans. The concentration of the main financial resources in the cities in the hands of large merchants, entrepreneurs and artisans and the strengthening of their economic position also determined the growth of their political influence.

The accumulation of funds made it possible to strengthen the technical equipment of production. Progressive changes took place in the leading industry of that time - metallurgy. Its active development made it possible to move on to the improvement of labor tools, which contributed to an increase in labor productivity, an increase in the volume of output both in the field of handicraft and agricultural production.

22. How did capitalist relations arise in Western Europe?

The prerequisites for the transition from the feudal mode of production to the capitalist one were created in the era of the Late Middle Ages, during the period of the initial accumulation of capital.

The term "capitalism" comes from the late Latin word for "head". The word itself appeared quite a long time ago, back in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. to denote "values": stocks of goods, masses of money bearing interest. The word "capitalist" is later, appears by the middle of the XNUMXth century. to mean "owner of funds". Still later, the term "capitalism" appears. This concept has its own clear content. In relation to property, it signifies the dominance of private ownership of the instruments and means of production, of land, of labour. In relation to the freedom of the individual, capitalism knows no non-economic forms of dependence. In cultural and ideological terms, capitalism is based on liberal secular values. It was the presence of these features that made capitalism different from traditional feudalism.

The late Middle Ages are characterized by two stages in the development of capitalism: commercial capitalism and manufacturing capitalism. The main forms of organization of production were simple capitalist cooperation and complex capitalist cooperation (manufactory). Simple capitalist cooperation was a form of cooperation of homogeneous (identical) concrete labor. This form of cooperation appeared a long time ago, but only capitalist freedom - personal and material freedom - made this cooperation a ubiquitous phenomenon.

From the middle of the sixteenth century manufacturing is gaining ground. Manufactory is a relatively large capitalist enterprise based on the division of wage labor and handicraft technology. Manufactories could not arise within the framework of the guild organization of production with their prohibitive statutes regulating the production process. Therefore, the first manufactories appeared in the countryside on the basis of crafts. Manufactory emerged from simple cooperation. Later, the forms of organization of production became more complicated. In the XVI-XVII centuries. there were not many manufactories. Existing in a feudal environment, manufactories were persecuted both by the workshops and by the state.

In parallel with the emergence of manufactory production, the process of capitalization of agricultural relations was going on. Large owners began to lease land to peasants or wealthy townspeople. The initial form of such a lease was sharecropping (renting land for temporary use). The sharecropper paid rent in the form of a certain share of the harvest. The sharecropping rent was of a semi-feudal nature. In England, sharecropping gave way to the capitalist form of enterprise - farming. The farmer also rented land, but gave a fixed amount of money as payment for this. In the future, he could buy the land and become its owner. Such an organization of labor was not typical in medieval Europe. In France, not to mention Germany, Italy, Spain, the development of capitalism in agriculture proceeded much more slowly.

In the countries of the irreversible development of capitalism, technical and economic progress changed the social and political image of states.

Here the traditional stratification of society was actively changing. The third estate, the bourgeoisie, strengthened its capabilities.

The term "bourgeoisie" comes from the French word "burg" - "city". Linguistically, the bourgeoisie are the inhabitants of cities. However, it would be wrong to associate the emergence of the bourgeoisie only with the evolution of medieval townspeople. The bourgeoisie consisted of various strata: nobles, merchants, usurers, urban intelligentsia, wealthy peasants.

With the development of the bourgeoisie, a class of hired workers took shape.

Changes in the economy, social and political spheres led to the strengthening of the dictate of the state, to the strengthening of absolutism. Absolutist regimes were of various types (conservative, enlightened, etc.)

According to F. Braudel, the violence of the state was a guarantee of inner peace, the safety of roads, the reliability of markets and cities.

23. How did the Great geographical discoveries and colonial conquests of the late XV - early XVI centuries take place?

The great geographical discoveries played an important role in the transition to the bourgeois mode of production. This historical process was caused by the development of the productive forces of society, the growth of commodity-money relations for the further circulation of funds, since money gradually became a means of circulation.

There were no sufficient sources of gold and silver within the European world. At the same time, according to the Europeans, inexhaustible riches were hidden in the East: spices, precious metals, silk fabrics, etc. Control over the East became a cherished goal. Gold was sought by representatives of all classes. Knowing about the existence of India and China, travelers looked for accessible ways to them, equipped expeditions.

Equipping expensive and complex expeditions could be afforded by strong centralized monarchies. The implementation of these measures could not be possible without innovations in shipbuilding and navigation. By the middle of the XV century. in Western Europe, large sea vessels were built that could make long voyages. A compass, geographical maps and other devices began to be used.

The impetus for the search for sea routes to the East was the barriers set up by the Ottoman Empire and the trade relations of Europe with the Near East. In this regard, they looked for workarounds to India by sea around the coast of Africa.

The pioneers in this direction were Portugal and Spain. Portuguese navigators in 1486 managed to go around the southern part of Africa, and in 1498 Vasco da Gama reached the shores of India. And the first trip around the world was made in 1519-1522. expedition of F. Magellan and marked the beginning of the development of the Pacific Ocean. Many geographical discoveries were made in the XNUMXth century. English and French sailors in North America, as well as Russian sailors in Northeast Asia, by the middle of the XNUMXth century. out on the shores of the Pacific Ocean.

The results of the Great geographical discoveries were the expansion of the world market, the emergence of new specific products, the rivalry between European monarchies in an effort to seize Asian treasures, and the formation of a colonial system. At the same time, the center of the intersection of world trade routes moved from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean, which had its consequences - the strengthening of the economic positions of England, Spain, Portugal, Holland and France.

The quality of manufactured goods has increased dramatically. Trade turnover included new products: tobacco, coffee, tea, cocoa, cotton, corn. The colonies became a market for manufactured goods for Europe, especially tools. As a result of this, there was a crisis of the shop system, which could not satisfy the growing demand. The medieval organization of labor was forced to give way to capitalist manufacture, which increased the scale of production due to the division of labor. The result is the concentration of commercial and industrial capital, the formation of a bourgeois class.

24. What did the Reformation lead to in Germany?

The Reformation was the first act of action of the new bourgeois class, which had arisen in the depths of feudal society, against the feudal system.

The Reformation began in the spiritual sphere, with the bourgeoisie speaking out against Catholicism, the ideology of feudalism. The name of this phenomenon comes from the Latin word reformatio - transformation.

This movement flared up like a bright flame in Germany.

The Reformation movement here began with the speech of the Wittenberg University professor Martin Luther against indulgences in 1517 and ended with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. The Peasants' War of 1524-1525 became the culminating point of the movement.

By the sixteenth century The Catholic Church in Germany had a decisive influence on all aspects of public life, and it was also the largest landowner. Church exactions hurt the material interests of various social strata of German society. Catholicism was especially unacceptable to the emerging bourgeoisie.

The teaching of Catholicism about a "fair price" (the requirement to be content with a moderate surcharge on the cost of goods) significantly cut merchant profits; the prohibition to charge interest was also in the economic interests of creditors. But most of all, the German burghers resented the high cost of the cult. Various offerings and duties in favor of the church, from the point of view of the burghers, diverted a significant part of the national wealth from productive use. Therefore, it is no coincidence that it was the German burghers that were the main bearer of reform ideas.

However, other classes of German society did not stand aside from the reform movement. It was attended by representatives of the nobility, as well as the lower ranks of the city and village. The nobility and royal power were impressed by the performance of the burghers against the secular power of the church. The care of the Catholic Church was a burden for kings and emperors, they also actively sought an independent existence.

Martin Luther was the herald of the German Reformation. He, having chosen the career of a theologian, began to move more and more away from Catholic orthodoxy. In his opinion, faith is a purely individual act. The Word of God is found in Holy Scripture. Luther formulated the "95 Theses" on theology, in which he defended the idea of ​​the need not for the remission of sins, but for their prevention. In 1520, M. Luther published pamphlets important for the fate of the Reformation. In them, he called not only to destroy the power of the pope, but also to secularize church lands, stop persecution on charges of heresy, etc.

In 1521, the social movement for the reform of the church in Germany took on a large scale. Luther's teaching found many adherents among the German population. Luther was supported by Elector (ruler of the region) Friedrich of Saxony. When M. Luther was outlawed, it was Friedrich of Saxony who offered refuge to Luther.

M. Luther linked the fate of the Reformation with princely power, he did not call for a radical change in the feudal system.

But M. Luther's calls for reforms radicalized the rank and file of the people. The culminating point of the social movement of the Reformation era in Germany was the Peasants' War, which began in 1954 with the performance of peasants against their masters in the Landgraviate of Stühlingen on the Upper Rhine. B. Hubmayer and T. Müntzer became the spokesmen for the people's understanding of the Reformation. They combined the complaints of the peasants into a common program called "Article Letter". This program was not limited to concessions to the peasants, but proclaimed the idea of ​​a radical revolution and building a society on the basis of social justice.

The peasant uprising was put down. In Germany, the princely reformation won, which strengthened the power of the princes and carried out the secularization of church lands in favor of the princes. This consolidated the German fragmentation. This was the main result of the social movement.

Nevertheless, the Reformation movement was reflected in the cultural life of Germany. The social upsurge was an important stimulus for the development of national identity, the German language, and a new religious system - Protestantism.

25. What was the result of the Reformation in England?

The English Reformation, due to the same reasons as in other countries, at the same time had its own important features. If everywhere the political and social orientation towards a break with Rome manifested itself at the final stage of the Reformation, then in England it became obvious from the very beginning - here the Reformation began with a state political action.

The English Reformation was at first royal with a hostile attitude towards it from the masses, then it turned into a bourgeois-noble movement, expressing the dissatisfaction of these classes with the nature of the changes that had taken place, and, finally, gave rise to a broad popular movement with a pronounced socio-political orientation.

Henry VIII Tudor initiated the Reformation. The conflict with Rome began with the speech of the English king against the annates (collection in favor of the Catholic Church from persons who received a vacant church position). Initially, this fee was equal to the annual income from this position.

The struggle against the annates united all sections of English society. In 1532 a law was passed refusing to pay the annates to the papal treasury.

Some historians believe that the reason for the king's break with Rome was a purely personal matter. The king was determined to divorce his wife Catherine of Aragon. But the divorce became a favorable occasion for breaking with Rome. The Pope refused to divorce the king and did not legalize the second marriage of Henry VIII with Anne Boleyn. When Henry divorced, threats of excommunication rained down from Rome. And then in 1534 the king issues an act of supremacy (supremacy). This was the beginning of the English Reformation. By this act, the king became the head of the national church. Recognition of the legality of the act of supremacy was mandatory for all subjects of the kingdom. Refusal of it was regarded as high treason and punishable by death.

The decisive actions of the king led to the fact that Rome excommunicated him from the church. The secularization of church lands further alienated the king from Rome.

The decisive actions of the royal administration led to a split in the English aristocracy. Part of it (North, West and Ireland) organized the Catholic Party - the League of the North. Catholics in England strengthened their position during the reign of Mary Tudor, a supporter of Catholicism. In order to strengthen her position, she decided to rely on Spain and become engaged to the Spanish king Philip II. Having married the English queen, he began to strive to seize all power in England. But this was opposed by the English lords. Then Mary Tudor begins terror against the reformers. The Pope forgives rebellious England. But, fighting the Reformation, the British government did not cancel the secularization of church lands. The queen was afraid to take this measure, as she could face active resistance from the new nobility - the gentry. And these fears were not unfounded. In the middle of the XVI century. a wave of anti-Catholic unrest swept through England, in which the townspeople and gentry participated.

In 1558, after the death of Mary Tudor, Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, became Queen of England. The new queen enjoyed the support of the bourgeois strata. Elizabeth I canceled all counter-reformation acts of Mary Tudor and continued the work of her father Henry VIII. In 1571, the "39 Articles of the Creed" were adopted, they completed the Reformation in the country and approved the new Anglican Church. It retained Catholic features and affirmed Protestant ones.

The church was personally subordinate to the royal authority, which helped Elizabeth in her fight against Catholicism in the country. The decisive measures of the queen led to the intensification of the actions of the League of the North. The Catholics relied on the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart, whom they sought to put on the English throne.

Elizabeth I had to fight not only with the Catholic opposition, but also with the English Calvinists, whose social base was the commercial bourgeoisie. The appearance of opposition in the person of the Calvinists testified to the beginning of the crisis of English absolutism. Cracks appeared in the former alliance between the royal power and the early bourgeoisie, which, as they grow, will cause a confrontation in 1640.

26. What is the specificity of the Reformation in France?

The reform movement in France had its own characteristics. The royal power long before the Reformation managed to subjugate the Catholic Church. In 1438, the "Pragmatic Sanction" was signed, according to which a national Gallican church was established in France, which, without breaking with Rome, managed to protect itself from the excessive claims of the pope.

But the reform movement affected France. Here it was represented by two streams: Lutheran and Calvinist. The first stream soon dried up, while the second plunged the country into the abyss of long civil wars.

At the end of the 40s. XVI century a reformation movement was born in the country, which subsequently received worldwide distribution - Calvinism. The rapid growth of Calvinism and its militant nature frightened the government, and it began repressive actions against its supporters. The teachings of J. Calvin did not become widespread among the bourgeoisie, it was more actively used by the feudal nobility to carry out reactionary separatist plans.

The further development of the Reformation is associated with civil wars that lasted from 1559 to 1598. The civil wars in France actually resulted in the struggle of the old feudal nobility against the political centralization of the country. But they were religious in color and formally represented the struggle of the Calvinists (Huguenots) with the Catholics.

At the head of the Calvinists was the feudal aristocracy of the south of France - the Bourbons, Conde and others, the southern petty and middle feudal nobility; southern and southwestern cities. Separatist sentiments were strong in this environment.

The advanced bourgeoisie of the North, on the contrary, was interested in the strong power of the king, that is, they supported the process of centralization of the country. In the course of civil wars within this predominantly Catholic camp, a reactionary group of court aristocracy took shape, headed by the Duke of Guise. Its reactionary nature manifested itself in the struggle for power with the ruling Valois dynasty.

The first stage of the war ended in 1570 with the conclusion of peace in Saint-Germain, which brought success to the Huguenots. They were allowed to hold public office, Protestant worship was allowed throughout the kingdom.

Catherine de Medici, who ruled France at that time, found it beneficial to rapprochement with the Huguenots, this allowed her to have a counterbalance to the Guise party. She called the Huguenots to court. But Catherine was afraid of the strengthening of the Huguenots, and she decided to get ahead of events and destroy the Huguenot leaders. In such an atmosphere, the wedding of Henry, King of Navarre, with the king's sister Margaret of Valois was celebrated. This marriage was to seal the peace between the Huguenots and the king. But Catherine de Medici took advantage of this event differently. The Huguenot aristocracy and representatives of the nobility from the southern provinces gathered in Paris for the wedding. It was an opportunity to do away with the Huguenots. Catherine and Charles IX decided to use the hatred of the Guises for the Huguenots and put an end to them at once. On August 24, 1572, on the day of St. Bartholomew, between 2 and 4 am, the alarm sounded. The massacre of the taken by surprise Huguenots began. The massacre continued for several days and spread to the province.

This event did not weaken the Huguenot movement. The Huguenots in the south of the country created their own organization - the Huguenot confederation with its own army, tax system and self-government. But in the second stage of the civil wars, the goal of the Huguenots was to fight not so much against the Guises, but rather against the Valois. The state unity of the country was called into question.

After the death of Charles IX in 1574, the Guise party became more active, which openly switched to the path of anti-dynastic struggle. Fearing the strengthening of the Huguenots, Giza created their own organization - the Catholic League.

The struggle of the Guises with the dynastic Valois dynasty ended in their defeat.

In 1594 Henry of Navarre came to power in France. He converted to Catholicism, and in 1598 the Edict of Nantes was issued in the country, which regulated the religious issue. The Catholic religion was recognized as dominant in France, but the edict allowed the confession of Protestantism. The royal court managed to maintain the integrity of the country.

27. What was the humanistic ideology of the Renaissance, its main features and social origins?

From the second half of the fourteenth century. in the cultural life of medieval Europe there is an important turning point associated with the emergence of a new early bourgeois ideology and culture.

Since early capitalist relations originated and began to develop primarily in Italy, an early bourgeois culture began to take shape in this country, which was called the "Renaissance". It reached its full bloom by the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries.

The term "Renaissance" (often used in the French form - "Renaissance") was first used by the Italian artist G. Vasari.

The ideological content of the Renaissance culture is usually denoted by the term "humanism", which comes from the word "humanitas" - human. The term "humanists" originated in the sixteenth century. But already in the fifteenth century. Renaissance figures used the word humanitas to refer to their culture, denoting education, moreover, secular. Secular sciences (studia humana) were opposed to ecclesiastical sciences (studia divina).

The ideology of humanism carried a new attitude towards the world and man himself. Contrary to the dominant teaching of the Church in previous centuries about earthly life as sinful and joyless, humanists discovered the multi-colored world of reality in all its living and concrete diversity. They created the ideal of a man greedily striving for the blessings of life.

An important feature of the ideology of humanism was individualism. Humanists put the human being at the center of attention. They show a passionate interest in the inner world of a person, in the individual originality of his feelings and experiences, in their subtlest shades. Humanism proclaimed the greatness of man, the power of his mind, his ability to improve.

The individualism of the humanists had a progressive anti-feudal sound. At the same time, this worldview concealed in itself a propensity for such an affirmation of the personality, for which the desire to satisfy needs became an end in itself. The absolutization of individualism opened the way to the pursuit of pleasure without any restrictions. In addition, the ideal of the development of the individual personality put forward by the humanists had in mind only a select few and did not extend to the broad masses.

Humanists showed great interest in the culture of Ancient Greece and Rome. In this culture, they were attracted by its secular nature, life-affirming orientation. She opened the world of beauty to humanists and had a huge impact on all areas of Renaissance art.

The admiration for ancient culture manifested itself most strongly in Italy. The humanists perceived the history of Rome as their national past. Here, in Italy, in Florence in the middle of the fifteenth century. The Platonic Academy was founded, headed by Marcio Ficino, which satisfied the interest of lovers of ancient philosophy.

Humanists returned to Europe the ancient heritage lost in the Middle Ages. They searched for ancient manuscripts and published them.

The humanists were also interested in the problems of ethics. They were concerned about the issues of human behavior in society, the goal that a person should set for himself in his activities, since the new ideology meant a reassessment of all human actions.

The creators of the humanistic ideology were scientists, doctors, lawyers, teachers, artists, sculptors, architects, writers, etc. They made up a new social stratum - the intelligentsia. This category of people engaged in mental work played a big role in the social life of that time. Invention in the middle of the fifteenth century. book printing made the works of the humanists accessible to a wider circle of educated people and contributed to the strengthening of the influence of the ideas of the Renaissance. New ideas, embodied in the images of literature and art, had a special power of influence.

The cornerstone of a new worldview is laid by Dante Alighieri. His "Divine Comedy" became the first hymn to the dignity of man. This position was developed by F. Petrarch, a philosopher and brilliant poet, who is considered the founder of the humanist movement in Italy. The names of such humanists as D. Manetti, L. Valla, Pico della Mirandola, L. Bruni, C. Salutati, P. Bracciolini and others are also widely known.

28. What is the culture of the Renaissance in Italy, (its most important achievements in the field of culture and art)?

The culture of the Renaissance was not the property of Italy alone, but it originated in Italy, and the path of its development was exceptionally consistent. Italian Renaissance art went through several stages. Chronologically, the Italian Renaissance is divided into: Proto-Renaissance (Pre-Renaissance) - the second half of the XNUMXth - XNUMXth centuries; early Renaissance - XV century; High Renaissance - the end of the XNUMXth - the first third of the XNUMXth centuries; late Renaissance - the end of the sixteenth century.

The main type of spiritual activity of the Renaissance was art. It became for the people of the Renaissance what religion was in the Middle Ages, in modern times science and technology. Not without reason, in the Renaissance, the idea was defended that the ideal person should be an artist. A work of art most fully expressed both the ideal of a harmoniously organized world and the place of man in it. All forms of art were subordinated to this task to varying degrees.

The aesthetic and artistic ideal was most fully expressed by sculpture and painting. And it is no coincidence. The art of the Renaissance sought to cognize and display the real world, its beauty, wealth, diversity. And painting in this regard had more opportunities than other arts.

The thirst for knowledge, which so distinguished the personality of the Renaissance, first of all resulted in the form of artistic knowledge. The art of that time solved many problems. A new system of artistic vision of the world was developed. Renaissance artists developed the principles, discovered the laws of direct linear perspective. The creators of the theory of perspective were Brunelleschi, Masaccio, Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci. The discovery of perspective was of great importance: it helped to expand the range of depicted phenomena, to include space, landscape, and architecture in painting.

Florence, the most advanced city-state of Italy of the Late Middle Ages, is considered the birthplace of Renaissance art.

The first to take a decisive step towards a new type of art was the Florentine painter Giotto di Bondone, who outlined the path along which its development went: the growth of realistic moments, the filling of religious forms with secular content, the gradual transition from flat images to three-dimensional ones.

The largest masters of the early Renaissance were F. Brunellesco, Donatelo, Verrocchio, Masaccio, S. Botticelli and others. These masters strove for monumentality, the creation of heroic images. However, they were limited mainly to a linear perspective and hardly noticed the air environment.

In the High Renaissance, geometrism does not end, but deepens. But something new is added to it: spirituality, psychologism, the desire to convey the inner world of a person. An aerial perspective is being developed, the materiality of forms is achieved not only by volume and plasticity, but also by chiaroscuro. The art of the High Renaissance was most fully expressed by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo. They personified the main values ​​​​of the Renaissance: intelligence, harmony and power. It is no coincidence that they are called the titans of the Renaissance, meaning their versatility.

Leonardo da Vinci was not only an artist, but also a talented sculptor, architect, musician, engineer, inventor, mathematician, and anatomist.

Another great master Michelangelo Buonarroti combined the gift of a brilliant sculptor, painter and architect. In addition, he was one of the great Italian poets of his time. Rafael Santi was also extremely versatile. He was one of the best portrait painters of the Renaissance.

The term "Late Renaissance" is applied to the Venetian Renaissance. Venice has long maintained close trade ties with Byzantium, the Arab East, traded with India. Having reworked Gothic and oriental traditions, Venice has developed its own special style, which is characterized by colorful, romantic painting. For the Venetians, color problems come to the fore, the materiality of the image is achieved by color gradations. The largest Venetian masters are Giorgione, Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto.

29. How did literature and art develop in the era of the developed Middle Ages?

The culture of the Middle Ages created new artistic styles, a new urban way of life, a new economy, prepared people's minds for the use of mechanical devices and technology. The medieval era left many achievements of spiritual culture.

The activation of cultural life in the Middle Ages is associated with the emergence and growth of cities. The circle of spiritual inquiries and interests constantly increased among the townspeople.

In the cities, the sphere of secular education began to actively develop - schools and universities. In this intellectual atmosphere, Latin-language literature flourishes with pronounced secular tendencies: adventure literature, epistolary writings, urban chronicles.

A special place in this literature is occupied by the work of vagants (wandering students). The vagantes were associated with the traditions of Latin poetry, borrowed images and poetic rhythms from it. But the Vagants also turned to folklore, translating Latin into folk songs, preaching a life-affirming attitude to being.

From the twelfth century in the countries of Western Europe, national literary languages ​​begin to take shape. During this period, a heroic epic is written in the folk languages, which previously existed only in oral presentation.

The most significant work of the heroic epic in France is the Song of Roland. It has a powerful patriotic theme. The largest monument of the German heroic epic is the Nibelungenlied.

With the completion of the formation of the estates of feudal society, the ideology of chivalry was formed, which was reflected, in particular, in chivalric literature. This literature was distinguished by a secular character and was alien to ascetic morality. Most clearly, this literature declared itself in poetry, called courtly (court). It was developed by troubadours in southern France, trouvers in northern France, minnesiergers in Germany, and minstrels in England. Courtly poetry was an example of love lyrics.

Urban literature played an important role in the development of secular and realistic motifs in medieval culture. In the cities, a genre of realistic poetic short story, urban satirical epic emerges. His largest monument was the Romance of the Fox, which took shape in France for many decades and was translated into many European languages. Another outstanding work of urban literature is the allegorical poem "The Romance of the Rose", written in France in the thirteenth century.

The greatest poet in the fourteenth century. was an Englishman D. Chaucer. His best work, The Canterbury Tales, a collection of short stories in verse, paints a vivid picture of England at that time. In France in the fifteenth century the poetry of F. Villon stands out. A deep interest in a person and his experiences allows F. Villon to be attributed to the forerunners of the Renaissance in France.

Originating in Italy, the ideas of the Renaissance became widespread in the culture of Western Europe. But here the Renaissance was lagging behind the Italian by a whole century.

The literature of the early Renaissance is characterized by a short story, especially a comic one, with an anti-feudal orientation, glorifying an enterprising and free from prejudice personality. The High Renaissance is marked by the flourishing of the heroic poem. The original epic of this time was the work of F. Rabelais "Gargantua and Pantagruel". In the late Renaissance, characterized by a crisis in the concept of humanism and an awareness of the prosaic nature of the emerging bourgeois society, the pastoral genres of the novel and drama developed. The dramas of W. Shakespeare and the novels of M. Cervantes, based on tragic or tragicomic conflicts between a heroic personality and a system of social life unworthy of a person, became the highest rise of this era.

In pictorial art, the German artist A. Dürer becomes the founder of revivalist ideas. He worked in different genres. But he distinguished himself most in the portrait genre. One of the deepest paintings of the portrait genre, in which A. Dürer summed up his views on a person, is the diptych "Four Apostles".

Representatives of the fine arts of the Renaissance in France were the painters J. Fouquet, F. Clouet, in Spain D. Velasquez, in Holland - the brilliant Rembrandt.

30. What role did the Christian church play in the Middle Ages? What is the essence of the ideological foundations of medieval Christianity?

Хthe Christian church in the Middle Ages played the role of a connecting factor for European states. At the same time, the church also performed an identification function. After 1054 (the break with the Byzantine patriarchy), the church becomes the center of the political life of Europe (Vatican City, Rome, Italy).

According to the doctrine of Augustine the Blessed, the church asserted and defended its priority over secular power. Not a single king could challenge the privileges of the pope, interfere in the political life of his own state. Of course, secular rulers were looking for ways to neutralize the strong and unnecessary influence of the Catholic Church. But these victories were the exception rather than the rule.

The main instruments of struggle against recalcitrant monarchs were the financial press and the institute of anathema. During the period of feudal irritability, the kings were most dependent on the will of the pope. The struggle for the integrity of the state required a lot of money, because the rebellious feudal lords were often richer than the overlord. Monetary assistance was provided in exchange for expanding the pope's influence in the region.

If the king turned out to obey the head of the Vatican, then the mechanism of anathema was activated. Anathema - a church curse, the eternal excommunication of an objectionable person. Anathema entailed terrible, irreparable consequences.

The French king Henry VII fell into this trap, notorious for his campaign in Canossa, where, after incredible humiliation, he was nevertheless forgiven by the pope.

Unlike secular power, the Catholic Church had a solid financial income - church tithes from peasants, generous gifts from powerful feudal lords and benefits provided by the monarch.

During the early and middle Middle Ages, the Catholic Church controlled all spheres of human life: from politics to the spiritual world of the individual. Every step a person took with the permission of the clergy. This position has led the church to a double morality. The Church demanded from parishioners strict observance of all moral norms, but allowed itself the impossible.

Education was controlled by "black and white cassocks", everything that was contrary to official morality was removed from the programs of schools and universities. The natural development of science was hindered by dogmatism: for example, among the victims of the geocentric model of the world was D. Bruno, who was declared a heretic. Another talented scientist, G. Galileo, who was more diplomatic, had to beg forgiveness for a long time.

But these circumstances do not negate all the positive things that were done by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. The monasteries were the center of culture; many of them contained evidence of the great deeds of the Roman Empire. Competent monks painstakingly rewrote ancient scrolls.

The Church encouraged the development of such genres as various lives of saints and chronicles "from the Nativity of Christ." Note that the Orthodox Church led the chronology from the Creation of the world.

In order to dominate the minds, hearts, and souls of its contemporaries, the church practiced various methods of tracking changes in society. Of course, the methods chosen were not the cleanest, although they were effective. In the arsenal - surveillance, denunciations and the good work of the Inquisition. There was an ongoing "witch hunt". As a result, hundreds of thousands of "sorceresses" were burned at the stake. Mass executions were practiced, up to 500 women were burned at the stake per day. The Inquisitors, they are also the gloomy tools of the Dominicans (the Order of St. Dominic), in search of heretics, were guided by the prescriptions of the treatise "Hammer of the Witches". The accusations were absurd, the punishments were inhuman and cruel. Torture was used to force the victim to sign his own sentence. The most popular are the hugs of the "iron maiden", the Spanish boot, hanging by the hair, water torture. As a sign of protest, no less terrible “black masses” swept across Europe, which caused a new surge in the “witch hunt”.

The influence of the Catholic Church began to decline sharply in the late Middle Ages, with the end of the process of centralization. Secular power noticeably ousted the clergy from making state decisions, which resulted in some liberalization of all aspects of life.

The stable position of the church turned out to be in those states of Europe where the rate of economic growth lagged noticeably behind the leaders (Italy, Spain).

Chapter 6. Features of the development of Eastern countries in the Middle Ages. Arabs in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries

1. What was India like in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries?

India belonged to those countries of ancient civilization where developed feudal relations appeared relatively early. The tribes and peoples of India were at different levels of economic development, which left their mark on the nature and pace of development of feudal society in various parts of the country.

The path of development of feudal landownership in India: the distribution of land by the rulers of principalities. Already in the XNUMXth century. in India there were holdings of land on condition of service. With the termination of service or with the death of their holders, these possessions again returned to the prince.

The dominant type of communities at that time was everywhere the rural community, consisting of a group of small and large patriarchal families. As property inequality grew in the communities, there were more and more families, and they sought to consolidate their economic advantages; these redistributions became more rare.

The main form of feudal exploitation of communal peasants was food rent. In addition to her, community members were imposed labor service, not related to agricultural work. This area included work on the construction of irrigation facilities, fortresses, temples, bridges, roads, work on the estate of a feudal lord, etc.

Product rent, despite the cruel exploitation of the peasants, in the presence of irrigated agriculture created conditions under which a part of the peasants was able to have a certain surplus in excess of the necessary product.

The transition from the slave-owning system to the feudal one took place in the conditions of invasion and raids from Nepal and Tibet, the uprising of peoples and tribes, which led to the death of many ancient cities. But city life did not stop. It was preserved in those points that became the capitals of the feudal principalities, as well as in coastal regions with their foreign trade. The feudal lords settled in such cities artisans who were supposed to satisfy their needs. Especially encouraged the production of luxury goods that were sold. In addition to their main work, urban artisans were also engaged in agriculture. The agrarian character of the Indian city persisted throughout the Middle Ages.

From the XNUMXth century India's foreign trade with other countries gradually began to grow. Merchants visited China and Japan. Arab merchants played an important role as intermediaries in India's trade.

After the fall of the Gupta Empire, North India broke up into many small principalities. At the end of the VI century. in the north of the valley of the Jamna River, the principality of Thanesar began to strengthen. The local prince Harsha, after many wars, managed to unite almost the entire territory of the former Gupta state under his rule. Around 620, he made an attempt to subdue the decan lands. Harsha, as the supreme owner, donated land and distributed it for service. He collected tribute from princes. Otherwise, each principality led an independent life.

A connection was established with China, where Harsha sent an embassy.

At the beginning of the XNUMXth century in the west of the Deccan, a new power was formed. At the head was the Chalukya family. The founder of this state repelled Harsha's invasion of the Deccan.

In India, there was a hierarchy of castes. Castes originated in ancient times, but they took their strict forms precisely in the Middle Ages. No person could be outside the caste. The transition from one caste to another was not allowed. Gradually, caste became the mainstay of routine in the field of production.

Hinduism was the main religious system in India. He united a wide variety of beliefs and cults, ranging from animism, totemism and ending with religions with complex theological teachings. In the vision of the followers of Hinduism, three great gods - Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - stand above an infinite number of deities. In their sacrificial rites, the priests "fed" and "watered" the god. The image of the god was rubbed with fragrant oils, temple dancers performed ritual dances to the sounds of music.

People belonging to the lower castes were considered "impure" and had to live separately from those who considered themselves to be "pure" castes.

There were also heretical movements. Their preachers said that in the face of God there are no "clean" and "impure" castes. In the XII century. a sect of Lingayats was formed, who began to choose priests from members of their sect, regardless of caste. Basava was the founder of this sect.

The nature of the new social relations left its mark on the culture of the Indian people. In ancient times, almost the only building material was wood. Now, in the construction of temples, it is increasingly being replaced by brick and stone. Grandiose buildings are created from these materials. Thus, the height of the central tower of the temple in Tanjore (XI century), built in the form of a 14-storey truncated pyramid, is 61 m.

The literature of this period follows the path of imitation of the classical literature of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. One can note the standardization of poetic forms, the pretentiousness of style. Epic, lyrical and dramatic works were written in Sanskrit.

Indian philosophy continues to develop. Its development proceeds in the form of a further development of the old idealistic systems.

The impetus in the development is given to legal literature.

In the XII century. the first medical treatises were written. The author of a famous treatise on therapy was Chakranandita (XI century).

2. What are the specifics of China?

On a global scale, the period of early feudalism ended in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. Different countries did not enter the period of developed feudalism at the same time: the countries of Asia at an earlier time, some countries of Europe at a later time. In China, the period of development of feudalism began in the XNUMXth century.

The reign of Emperor Xuanzong was the heyday of the Tain Empire. The census of 754 showed the presence in the country of 9610 households, or 52 people of the taxed population. The state also received income from the sale of salt and tea, from the extraction of iron, tin, copper, silver, in the form of various trade duties and fees. The rapid development of mining, handicrafts and trade created a large stratum of wealthy craftsmen and rich merchants. Literature and art reached a high level.

But at the same time, there were signs of an impending crisis of an economic and political nature, on the basis of which the Tain Empire grew. The essence of this crisis consisted in the withering away of the state allotment system and in the development of the estate economy of the feudal lords.

The law said that land could not be sold or mortgaged, because it was state property. But local officials monitored the implementation of this law, and they often sought to do the opposite, that is, to ensure that such prohibitions did not work. Along with feudal landownership, landownership represented by the category of land "assigned by title" has become widespread in China.

In China, the social division of labor has progressed all the time. The development of the Chinese cities of the Tain Empire demonstrates that many of them arose and developed already as handicraft and trade centers. This testified to the growth of commodity production, exchange and trade. Property stratification in the community has increased significantly.

The decline of state ownership of land led to a weakening of centralization.

A significant increase in the layer of consumers of urban goods in the person of the feudal lords, as well as in the person of the peasants, contributed to the further development of handicrafts and trade. New cities sprang up. The main impetus to the development of trade was given by the development of trade credit. At this time, bills appeared, or, as they were then called, "flying money". Usury transactions played a significant role. Salt monopoly was especially profitable.

The new socio-economic conditions of society left their mark on the social life and literature of the country. At this time, journalism reaches its heyday. Its brightest representative was Han Yu (768-823). Numerous articles, messages, prefaces to various works, etc. belong to his pen. In his consideration of the relationship between nature and man, Han Yu placed man in the general row of everything that exists in the world, did not fundamentally separate him from nature. His main philosophical treatise is "On Man". It was in man that he saw not only a personality, but also the basis of all social life.

The continuous struggle within the empire, which lasted for two centuries (from the 60s of the 60th century to the XNUMXs of the XNUMXth century), the transition to new forms of feudal property led to an increase in the political fragmentation of the country.

The most striking expression of the aggravation of class contradictions at that time was the powerful peasant uprising of 875-884, which went down in history under the name "Huang Chao uprising".

Even despite the fragmentation of the country, which came after the fall of the Tain dynasty, elements of centralization still remained in the political system of China, which made political unity stronger than in the states of Europe of that period.

Since its inception, the history of the Sung Empire has been one of continuous struggle to preserve Chinese territory. At first, the greatest danger was posed by the Khitan, who, having captured part of northern China, continuously organized new campaigns against China.

There was a new danger on the western frontier of the empire. From the 30s. 1044th century the Tangut state, called Xi-Xia, is strengthened. In XNUMX peace was concluded with the Tanguts.

The existence of the Sung Empire was marked by the cultural flourishing of the country. This is especially noticeable in the field of education. The main centers of education were not government schools, but private (shuuan).

In an environment of busy city life, printing was widely used, which in turn contributed to the spread of education.

In the X century. The compass appeared in China.

In the XI-XII centuries. a hallmark of progressive social thought was a great interest in the human person, which was characteristic of the late epoch.

The heyday of philosophical thought in China in the XI-XII centuries. Among the greatest thinkers are Zhou Tung-yi, Zhu Xi. They created a new direction in philosophy, referred to in Chinese literature as "Neo-Confucianism". Here we find elements of a dialectical and spontaneously materialistic approach to being.

In the history of Chinese art as a whole, the Sung school of painting occupies an outstanding place. The favorite themes of artists at that time were landscapes, animals, as well as birds, flowers. A prominent representative of this school was the artist Zhao Ji.

A new genre - the folk story - was created by folk storytellers, the first reports of which date back to the XNUMXth century. In the Sung capitals, such storytellers appeared more and more, and their art was popular. They were even invited to the imperial palaces.

3. What is the essence of medieval Japan?

Despite the fact that Japan in its historical development was in close contact with China, similar changes began here much later. End of the XNUMXth century in China was marked by the decline of the allotment system. For Japan in the XNUMXth century. was a period of strengthening state ownership of land. The transition to a new form of feudal land ownership was completed only by the middle of the XNUMXth century.

In the XNUMXth century The Nar Monarchy was formed - an early feudal state with centralized administration. This became possible thanks to the approval of state ownership of land. There was also an upswing in the productive forces. It occurred primarily in agriculture. Iron agricultural implements were widely used.

Mining industries developed. Iron, copper, gold, silver, sulfur and mica were actively mined.

There was an increase in trade. So, in the city of Nara, places were allocated for two markets. Trade here was regulated by specially developed rules.

For this time, a certain rise in the field of education is indicative. Schools were created in which the children of noble persons were engaged. Education here was almost entirely based on the study of Chinese literature and law.

In the Nar monarchy during the entire VIII century. struggle within the ruling class did not stop. Pushed out of power by the groups that came to power after the Taika coup, some members of the old tribal and slave nobility sought to restore their former position. This group was headed by the Otomo clan. At the head of the group that came to power after the coup of 645 was the Fujiwara clan. In the 80s. XNUMXth century this struggle ended in the defeat of the Otomo clan, which testified to the strength of the emerging feudal relations. The Fujiwara sought to weaken the imperial house.

With the assertion of the power of the Fujiwara clan, the transition from the dominance of state feudal property to the dominance of the property of individual feudal lords was connected. The country already had such forms of land ownership as "official" and "rank" allotments, allotments for merit. At first, the ownership of such lands was conditional, but gradually estates based on the landed property of individual feudal lords grew up on this soil. The new form of feudal property (743) was fully established by the middle of the XNUMXth century. Members of the expanded Fujiwara house, having seized important posts and many "allotments", gradually turned them into their own estates.

With the growth of the economic and political power of large feudal lords, the central state power, under the real rule of the Fujiwara house and only the nominal rule of the emperors, lost all significance in the country. The events of 1069 clearly revealed the transition to feudal fragmentation. A new emperor was elevated to the throne of the Fujiwara House. Formed two camps, which since 1086 claim the position of the central government in the country. The feudal lords cooperated with this or that camp as much as it was beneficial for them. There was a fierce struggle between them over new estates.

Large groups of feudal lords with their leaders began to take shape. In 1192, the victors proclaimed their leader, Shogun Minamoto Yoritomo, the ruler of the state.

IX-XII centuries in Japan are characterized by the flourishing of art. The clearest evidence of this is the sculpture of numerous Buddhist temples, paintings in the palaces of the nobility, as well as all kinds of works of applied art. Architecture has made great strides. Painting and music flourished especially.

XNUMXth century was marked by an event of great importance: its own Japanese script was created. Until that time, the Japanese wrote in Chinese characters. The new writing was sound. This contributed to the rapid development of literature, which is especially true of fiction. It is based on folk legends and stories. Court poetry is also developing. There are collections - poetic anthologies.

For a number of decades, a bloody struggle went on with varying success, which ended by the end of the XNUMXth century. defeat and death of the Taik. At the head of the country stood warlords (shoguns), who then ruled Japan until the bourgeois revolution, the so-called Meiza revolution.

The unlimited power in the hands of samurai warriors encouraged them to consider themselves superior to other people. The samurai environment had to develop its own special code of conduct, views, morality. This code, which finally took shape in the XNUMXth century, was called bushido - "the way of the warrior." Its main feature was the desire to perpetuate the relationship of domination and subordination, the hierarchy within the samurai itself. Bushido prescribed the samurai selfless devotion to the commander, readiness to sacrifice not only himself, but also his loved ones to military duty.

All the content and orientation of bushido were deeply consistent with the ideology of Buddhism, which underwent significant changes in the samurai environment: aestheticization, admiration of external imagery, characteristic of the court nobility, disappeared. Samurai's attitude to Buddhism had other features: it was distinguished by severe fanaticism, blind faith in karma - an inextricable chain of causes and effects that determine the life of each person even before birth and in subsequent rebirths, as well as the fate of his descendants, up to the last generation. .

4. How did Islam originate, what are its main features? What was the Islamic state of the Middle Ages?

"Islam" in Arabic means "giving oneself to God." The third world monotheistic religion after Judaism and Christianity - Islam - arose in the XNUMXth century. in the Arabian desert. God (Allah in Arabic) sent down a revelation to Muhammad (Mohammed), which means "praiseworthy." Islam is based on the Koran (from the Arabic "quran" - reading aloud).

Mohammed came from the powerful Meccan tribe of Quraish, he was the grandson of Abu al-Muttalib, the head of the Hashim clan, and the son of Abdullah. Muhammad lost his mother at the age of six. His uncle Abu Talib became his guardian. A few years later, Muhammad was welcomed by the wealthy widow Khadija. She liked him and she decided to marry him. The wedding took place in 595. Muhammad became the Prophet fifteen years later.

Revelations have multiplied. Muhammad began preaching in 611. Fearing that Muhammad would undermine faith in idols and prevent the pilgrimage to Mecca, the wealthy Meccans opposed him. In 622, together with 75 companions, he took refuge in Yathrib, which has since become known as Medina, the city of the Prophet. A religious leader, statesman and military leader, Muhammad founded the first Muslim city. He signed the covenant of the Medina community together with other people, and his companions adopted the name of Muslims. The Meccans had several battles with Muhammad's associates: he won the battle of Badr (624), lost the battle of Uhud (625), and won the "battle of the ditch" (627), defending Medina from the enemy. In 630 he entered Mecca in triumph. He returned there two years later on the so-called Farewell Pilgrimage. On June 8, 632, the Prophet died suddenly in Medina. The Muslims began to conquer the world.

After himself, Muhammad left the teachings set forth in the Koran, which is the word of God, and the model - the life of the prophet, which every Muslim should imitate. His companions actually observed his actions, his behavior and remembered what he said on certain occasions. "Traditions about words and actions" ("Hadith") constitute a collection (Sunnah). Islamic law (Sharia) is based on two sources - the Koran and the Sunnah. Islam is simple, it knows neither sacraments nor monasticism. Dogmas tell him what to believe, Sharia tells him what to do and what not to do.

A Muslim has five main duties, "five pillars of faith" ("lasso"). The first is the confession of faith ("shahada"). The second is prayer ("saayat"). The prayer is said five times a day. The third pillar is associated with the month of Ramadan, when a believer from sunrise to sunset must observe fasting and abstinence ("saum"). The fourth pillar of Islam is almsgiving (zakat), a tax that the rich pay to help the poor. The fifth is the pilgrimage ("Hajj"). Every Muslim, if his means allow, should visit Mecca once in his life.

There are few dogmas in Islam. The first and main one is the belief in monotheism ("tawhid"). Then one should believe in angels, in particular in Jabrail, who transmits divine commands, in Michael, in Israfil. Each person also has two guardian angels. In addition, one should believe in the Last Judgment, after which the good will go to heaven, and the evil - to the fire of hell. Social relations are regulated by prescriptions and prohibitions. So, the duty of a Muslim is to get married. The Qur'an allows a man to take four wives (provided that he can provide them with everything they need and support them accordingly). Otherwise, he must be satisfied with one, but he can divorce her and take another wife. The Qur'an commands the thief's hand to be cut off, but this punishment is rarely used. It is forbidden to eat pork and drink wine, but the last prohibition was not always respected.

In the X and the first half of the XI century. Iran experienced an unprecedented upsurge in agriculture and handicrafts. This was facilitated by the fall of the dominion of the Arab Caliphate and the creation of independent feudal states. In the west of Iran, the state of the Buyids was created, in the east of Iran and in Central Asia, the state of the Samosnids.

At this time, large irrigation works were carried out everywhere in Iran. Fars in the second half of the 10th century. By order of the Buyid sovereign Azud-ad-Doule, the famous "Azud dam" was built on the Kur River, it was made of stone slabs with lead fasteners. An artificial lake was formed. XNUMX large water-lifting wheels were placed along its banks; canals were diverted from the reservoir.

Great progress has been made in viticulture. More than 100 varieties of grapes were known only in Khorasan.

Wheat, barley, rice, cotton, raisins, etc. were exported to other countries from Iran.

Brocade and gold embroidery were produced in large quantities. In large cities, copper, silver and gold items, weapons, and medicines were produced.

The slave trade flourished.

5. What is unique about the Umayyad Caliphate?

Great wars of conquest began under Caliph Omar, who brought Islam to the very center of ancient civilization. In 636, the battle near the Yarmuk River put an end to Byzantine rule in Syria. Damascus fell, and the road opened to the west, to Egypt, which, having crossed the Isthmus of Suez in 639, conquered Ali, and further to Roman Africa, where Okba Ben Nafi penetrated, who founded Kairouan in 670 and moved further to the Atlantic ocean. In the east, the battle of Cadissia in 636-637. led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire of the Persians and allowed the Muslims to advance to the banks of the Indus, where they encamped in 711.

In the meantime, having defeated Ali, Muawiya from the powerful Meccan family of Banu Umayya became caliph in 661. He founded the Umayyad dynasty, moved the capital of the empire from Medina to Damascus, surrounded himself with courtiers, established a real royal ceremonial, took literature and art under his patronage, continued the policy of conquest and handed over the rule to his heirs. The horsemen of Allah, whose number in big battles did not exceed 20 thousand, converted everyone to their faith with the help of the sword, but also with the help of the Koran, the revelations of which were accepted, as a rule, benevolently. The new converts, in turn, took up the cause, like the Berber Tariq ibn Zesyad, who in 711 landed in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, at the rock that received his name - Jebal Tarik, or Gibraltar - and conquered Andalusia. Several Muslim detachments moved further north and reached Poitiers, where in 732 they were stopped by Charles Martel. A dizzying epic, but every medal has a flip side.

For the second time since the time of Alexander the Great, the lands of Asia, Africa and Europe were merged into a single religious, economic and cultural entity. The caliphs considered Jews and Christians, as well as Zoroastrians and Buddhists, as "People of the Book", whose knowledge was used to translate texts of the Greco-Roman, Persian and Indian civilizations, found cities, build palaces and mosques, and develop an exquisite lifestyle.

But in the empire itself, the Arabs had the predominant influence. Converts, contrary to the precepts of the Koran, were considered second-class citizens and had to seek patrons among Arab tribes or noble Arabs. The zealous caliph Yazid II dealt harshly with "dhimmis", non-Muslims who paid taxes, and humiliated Christians by forcing them to wear special clothes. Arab dominance caused civil strife within the Muslim community and led to uprisings. The Kharijites captured Mecca in 747 and united the entire north of Africa under their rule. The Shiites also rebelled. Hussein, the son of Ali, opposed the caliph Yazid, the son of Muawiya, who killed him along with his associates near Karbsla in 680; in 740, Zaid, the grandson of Hussein, in turn rebelled and ended up in Kufa just like his grandfather. New uprisings took place in 747-748. - this time in Khorasan (Iran). The end of the magnificent Umayyads was drawing near. He got bloody.

6. What are the specifics of the Abbasid Caliphate?

The reign of the Abbasid dynasty was bloody. Accusing the Umayyads of immoral behavior, Abu-l-Abbas as-Saffah ("he who shed blood"), the great-grandson of Abbas, Muhammad's uncle, exterminated members of the reigning dynasty in 750 in Damascus. Under the Abbasids, who ruled until 1258, the empire became cosmopolitan and open to Iranian influence. So, the famous family of Barmekids gave several viziers (ministers).

The heirs of the eastern despots, the caliphs, brought in their court an unparalleled splendor and luxury. In 762, al-Mansur (754-775) founded Baghdad ("city of peace") in Iraq and made it the capital of the empire. One of his most famous successors, Harun al-Rashid (786-809), who symbolically handed over the keys to Jerusalem to Charlemagne, became the hero of many tales of the Thousand and One Nights. For three centuries Abbasid Iraq was the center of world civilization. All branches of knowledge developed there: history, geography, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, physics, astronomy. All the great scientists of that time were Muslims.

The era of the Abbasids is the era of rapid growth of cities - Samarra, Bukhara, Samarkand, Fez. The great builders of palaces, the caliphs, also created a tax department and central administration bodies for the treasury, the army, and legal proceedings ("sofas"). To transmit orders, they updated and improved a wonderful service borrowed from Byzantium and Iran - mail ("barid"): more than a thousand postal stations passed the messenger, bringing to the central authorities information about the situation on the borders, the state of affairs in the provinces, the actions of petty rulers and officials. It was also necessary to maintain order: from the army of fellow believers from the time of the first conquests, they had to move to a professional army consisting of mercenaries.

The golden age of Andalusia and the Maghreb, as in a mirror, reflects the heyday of the Abbasids, differing, however, in less pomp, but more sophistication and sensitivity. Abd-ar-Rahman I, who escaped death during the extermination of the Umayyads, founded the Emirate of Cordoba in 756. Abd-ar-Rahman III (912-961) turned it into a caliphate, and declared himself caliph.

Chapter 7. New history of Europe and America

1. By what criteria was the periodization of the history of the New Age?

Modern times open the most important historical epoch in the history of Western civilization, when in the course of the most complex socio-political processes its modern appearance was gradually formed.

The term "new history" appeared in social and political thought as early as the Renaissance, when, while comprehending the development of human civilization, humanist thinkers proposed a three-part division of history (ancient, medieval, and new). This concept is firmly entrenched in historical science. To date, new history is understood as the process of formation and establishment of bourgeois relations as the basis of Western civilization.

The new historical period has its own periodization, which reflects the changes taking place in society during this period of time.

Historians of different schools interpret the question of the periodization of modern history in different ways. In Russian historiography, its beginning is associated with the English Revolution, which broke out in the middle of the XNUMXth century. and became a vivid symptom of the crisis of feudal relations. This revolution became the starting point of a broader process - the modernization of English society, which created the basis for the industrial revolution. This process, in turn, created the economic foundation of the future industrial society. And the fact that England entered this path earlier than others ensured her unconditional and long-term leadership in world affairs, which continued until the XNUMXth century. England has become a kind of standard, which was equal to all other countries that were on the periphery of Western civilization.

Of course, modernization (the transition of society to a more developed state) is a long and complex process, during which, on the basis of industrialization, changes cover all aspects of society: the economy, politics, and spiritual life. Thanks to the completion of the industrial revolution, manual labor is mechanized, technological processes are becoming more complex, and the division of labor is deepening. In the political field, modernization is manifested in the democratization of state and public life. The power of kings and emperors is limited by constitutions and parliaments, and in a number of countries the republican state system wins. The principles of the rule of law and civil society are being strengthened, and individual rights are being expanded. In the field of culture, the process of modernization leads to the strengthening of the rational principles of life, the further secularization of consciousness. In the course of modernization, the birth and development of an industrial society takes place.

It should be emphasized that the process of destruction of traditional society was uneven. In England and France, the formation of an industrial society took place evolutionarily in Germany, Italy, the USA due to targeted reforms, in countries far from the center (Latin America, Spain), modernization processes spread very limitedly.

The English Revolution marked the beginning of modern European history. But in historiography no less debatable is the question of determining its upper limit. In Soviet times, the point of view prevailed, according to which the period of modern history ended in 1917, when a socialist revolution took place in Russia, which opened a new era in the development of mankind. Domestic historians proceeded from the theory of imperialism developed by V. I. Lenin, which substantiated the inevitability of the transition to a more perfect and just type of society - socialism.

But real life turned out to be more complex and diverse than it seemed at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. New factors appeared that had an exceptionally serious impact on the development of Western civilization. It turned out that bourgeois society has not exhausted in the twentieth century. reserves for further progress. On the other hand, the building of a socialist society also encountered many problems along the way.

Therefore, at the present stage, the upper limit of modern history ends at the turn of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. - the period when the entry of the leading Western countries into the phase of industrial society was basically completed.

2. What were the prerequisites, stages, results of the bourgeois revolution in England?

Of great importance for the victory of capitalism over the feudal system was the victory of the English bourgeois revolution in the middle of the XNUMXth century.

The coexistence of two socio-economic structures (feudal and emerging bourgeois) increased the conflict potential of English society. But most clearly this confrontation was seen on religious grounds. In England there were people who were not satisfied with the existing order of things. They sought to restructure society, to change the relationship between society and government.

England at that time was an absolute monarchy. Since 1625, it was headed by the representative of the Stuart dynasty, Charles I. His sole rule caused growing discontent in various sectors of society, primarily among the gentry (noble landowners), the merchant bourgeoisie, and the owners of manufactories. Almost all representatives of the emerging bourgeoisie were not satisfied with the financial policy of the royal government, the growing tax burden. Irritation was also caused by the way these funds were spent. For the most part, they went not to serve the real state interests of the country, but to cover the exorbitant expenses of the court. Irritated by the foreign policy of Charles I, seeking to improve relations with England's worst enemy - Catholic Spain.

The House of Commons of the English Parliament became the center of social discontent, and Puritanism (an English variety of Protestantism) became the ideological basis of the protest. The conflict between the royal dynasty and the English Parliament was the main cause of the revolution.

In 1928, Parliament presented its claims to the King in the "Petition of Right", which defended the traditional rights and freedoms of the British. The monarch at first accepted the conditions of parliament, but soon changed his policy: he dissolved parliament and ruled alone until 1640.

The establishment of the "solid" power of the king did not bring peace to the country. The king, by his policy, did not contribute to the reduction of the protest potential of society. The situation worsened during the war waged by England in Scotland. During this period, the requirements for convening parliament were updated.

On November 3, the new parliament met. It went down in history under the name of the Long Parliament, the convocation of which is considered to be the beginning of the revolution, since the deputies did not hide the fact that they would seek to limit the arbitrariness of the court.

These events split the country into two opposing camps: royalists - supporters of royal power - and supporters of parliament.

In the parliament itself, by 1641, there were disagreements that were most clearly manifested during the discussion of the program document - the "Great Remonstrance". Consisting of 204 articles, it contained a detailed list of the king's abuses and put forward a demand to establish the king's rule under the control of parliament. The king was outraged by the attack on his rights. In 1642 he declared war on parliament. The civil war broke out in the country.

At first, success in it accompanied the king. But by 1644, a turning point was outlined in the course of hostilities. This was due to the name of Oliver Cromwell, who led the parliamentary army. The outcome of the war was determined in the battle near the village of Naseby in June 1945. The King was forced to leave England. The civil war ended with the victory of Parliament.

A moderate grouping of Presbyterians, after a series of transformations in the country, strove for political stability. But the radical representatives of the Presbyterians - the Independents, who were supported by the revolutionary army, believed that the changes needed to be expanded, not limited only to satisfying the interests of large owners, but of all trade and financial strata. Even more radical demands were put forward by the Levellers (equalizers), whose recognized leader was J. Lilburn. Disputes between the various factions of Parliament intensified. The king took advantage of this. In February 1648, civil war broke out again in the country. It ended with the victory of Parliament. In 1649 the king was executed, and in May 1649 England became a republic.

In 1660, the restoration of the monarchy took place in England. But it was no longer an absolute monarchy, as before, but a constitutional one.

3. What were the essence and consequences of the industrial revolution in England?

As a result of the victory of the revolution of the seventeenth century. In England, the capitalist system in agriculture began to develop rapidly, and a revolution began in industrial production.

The ideas of a republican structure, people's rule, equality of all before the law have been developed in the country. The proclaimed political principles and the new economic order formed the basis of a new industrial civilization.

In the eighteenth century English agriculture successfully fed cities and industrial towns. Large landownership created the conditions for an increase in grain production, which led to a decrease in grain prices. The growth of the urban population supported the demand for agricultural products. The rise of agriculture influenced the development of industry.

The industrial revolution began in light industry. Here, replacing manual labor with machines required less capital investment and brought quick financial returns. The invention of the steam engine, another new technology, dramatically expanded production capabilities. The flow of improvements, the accumulation of huge funds required a different organization of production. Manufactory was replaced by a factory - large-scale machine production, designed to make a profit.

The industrial revolution had not only a technical, but also a social side. In the course of the transformations, two main classes of industrial society were formed: the industrial bourgeoisie and hired workers. These two new social groups had to find their place in the old social structure and develop rules for their relationship with each other. This process was not easy, stretched out for many decades, its dynamics determined the main parameters of the development of society.

The Industrial Revolution changed the face of England. Large industrial centers arose (Manchester, Birmingham, Sheffield). By the end of the XVIII century. Already a quarter of the population lived in cities. Transport infrastructure developed rapidly: a network of canals was built throughout the country, paved roads were built. The formation of the internal market, which was based on a solid industrial base, was completed. It was in the industrial sector that the main part of the national wealth was now created.

The way of life and working conditions that developed during the industrial revolution did not suit everyone in the country. Relations between the owners of industrial enterprises and the hired workers who worked there were rather complicated. During that period, the degree of exploitation of workers was high. This situation gave rise to spontaneous protest.

During the industrial revolution, the first mass movement of workers arose - the movement of machine destroyers. This movement gained its greatest scope in 1811-1813. Its participants called themselves Luddites, after the worker Ned Ludd, who, as it were, was the first to break his machine.

The Luddite movement expanded rapidly. The authorities saw it as a threat to the existing legal order. Already in 1769, Parliament passed a law on the death penalty for damage to cars.

The persecution of the Luddites did not solve the problems - the situation of the workers remained extremely difficult. Therefore, there was a desire to change it. The unwillingness of employers to meet the demands of the workers fueled the conflict that destabilized society. Convinced of the inefficiency of Luddism, the workers began to look for other ways to fight for their rights. This is how the idea of ​​creating trade unions (trade unions) was born, which gradually occupied their niche in the structure of society and turned into the main form of organization of workers.

The Industrial Revolution, which began in England, could not be kept within national boundaries. More and more countries were included in the sphere of the industrial revolution. In each of them he went at a different pace, had his own specifics. However, the end result was the same: the industrial revolution radically undermined the foundations of the feudal order, creating the foundation of a new "industrial" society in Europe.

In the eighteenth century in the New World, a modification of European civilization is also emerging. Thus, within the framework of a single Western civilization, various forms of bourgeois progress were formed.

4. What were the results of the struggle for the independence of the British colonies? How was the United States of America formed?

The first English settlements on the territory of the modern United States appeared at the beginning of the XNUMXth century.

By the middle of the eighteenth century. There were three types of colonies: New England, South and Mid-Atlantic. Politically, they had a lot in common. Most of the power belonged to the governor, appointed by the English king. Many had colonial assemblies, although their rights were limited.

The most developed in socio-economic terms were the colonies in New England. In the southern colonies, the labor of slaves brought from Africa was widely used. The mid-Atlantic colonies became the center of grain farming and trade. Thus, the financial resources of the colonies accumulated in New York and Philadelphia.

By the middle of the eighteenth century. a single internal market began to form in the colonies, trade relations developed. The settlers developed a single historical destiny, the common language was English. This changed the nature of the relationship between the colonies and the mother country. Britain tried to rigidly tie the colonies to itself. Until the middle of the eighteenth century. the parties managed to avoid conflict situations.

But the situation changed dramatically after the Seven Years' War, which most researchers regard as the starting point of the confrontation that led to the formation of the United States. During the war of the British against the French colonists, the British had to turn to the help of the inhabitants of their American colonies. Those willingly helped the British, believing that, by ousting the French, they would gain access to new lands. But the inhabitants of the English colonies were not allowed to enter the lands that had gone to England after the war. Moreover, England passed a number of laws restricting the rights of colonists. The latter launched a protest campaign against the oppression of rights. The British government also did not give up trying to maintain control over the development of its colonies. Then the idea of ​​a boycott of English goods arose among the colonists. In 1773, the people of Boston attacked English ships in port and threw bales of taxed tea overboard. This event became known as the Boston Tea Party. In response, measures were taken that outraged the colonists. In 1774, the 1st Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, in which representatives from all the colonies took part. But at this stage, the colonists did not yet seek to bring matters to a break with England. But in England, the attitude towards the initiatives of the colonists was different. In April 1775, armed clashes began between the British troops and detachments of colonists, ready to defend their rights with weapons in their hands. Thus began the War of Independence. The colonists entrusted the creation of a regular army to J. Washington, who had a reputation as a capable military leader.

The positions of the supporters of a break with England were strengthened. As a result, on July 4, 1776, the Congress, sitting in Philadelphia, adopted the Declaration of Separation from England. The declaration proclaimed the creation of an independent state - the United States of America (USA). Its author was T. Jefferson, one of the prominent figures in the American Revolution.

The Declaration of Independence proclaimed the principle of popular sovereignty as the basis of the state system, affirmed the rights of the people to revolt against the enslavers, to life, freedom, equality. July 4th is celebrated in the United States as Independence Day.

However, it was not enough to proclaim independence - it had to be won. The fate of the young state was decided on the battlefields. The colonists were opposed by the regular army of the British. In 1777, in the Battle of Saratoga, the Americans managed to break the resistance of the British. In 1781, the American army inflicted a decisive defeat on the British at the battle of Yorktown, which predetermined the outcome of the civil war. In 1783, a peace treaty was signed, according to which England recognized the formation of the United States and the expansion of their territories.

In 1787, in Philadelphia, a special meeting of state representatives drafted the US Constitution, which consolidated the republican system, headed by the president of the country. George Washington became the first head of the USA.

5. What was different about the colonial period in Latin America?

By the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. in the New World, several types of colonial possessions were formed. The Spaniards were the first to begin the development of South and Central America. By the middle of the seventeenth century they owned vast estates from California to Tierra del Fuego. Almost simultaneously with them, the Portuguese settled on the coast of modern Brazil. Then the British, French and Dutch joined the process of colonization. Thus, most of the Western European countries were involved in this complex process, which in the long run had a huge impact on the entire world history.

By the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. in the New World, several types of colonial possessions were formed. Latin America was dominated by the Spanish model of colonialism. Naturally, Spain, like any other metropolis, sought to transfer its rules and customs to overseas colonial possessions. In Spain, the "Royal Council of the Indies" was established, which exercised control over the entire administrative and economic life of the Spanish colonies. On the territory controlled by Spain, a system of viceroyalties was created, which were ruled by viceroys appointed by Madrid. They owned all the military and civil power in the entrusted territory.

In the Spanish colonies in America, there were several ways. The feudal system dominated, which was significantly supplemented by slave labor on plantations and mines. Elements of capitalist relations appeared in the cities.

The policy of the Spanish authorities in the field of agrarian relations was inconsistent. On the one hand, it kept the Indian community as an administrative and tax unit. On the other hand, another economic institution became widespread - the encomienda, that is, the estate provided to the Spanish noble settlers, who were transferred to the care of the community Indians. They had to work on this estate, and their owners had to take care of introducing the Indians to Christian values ​​​​and pay a poll tax for them to the treasury.

The Spanish colonists brutally exploited the Indians. Their numbers steadily declined, resulting in vast vacant lands that were expropriated by large landowners for their own benefit. This was how the active formation of a layer of large owners - landowners, who gradually began to occupy leading positions in colonial society, proceeded. Their interests often began to diverge from the course pursued by the royal government in the colonies.

It should be emphasized that the Spanish regime failed to develop a clear long-term strategy for the economic development of its colonies. His policy in this area was full of contradictions. For the Spanish elite, these territories were primarily a source of huge superprofits due to the export of precious metals from there. However, this work stimulated the colonists to create a certain infrastructure on the ground. But people connected to its functioning began to show dissatisfaction with the guardianship of the Spanish authorities. In this environment, separatist sentiments gradually arose, they turned into one of the sources of social tension in the colonies.

An important feature of the colonial society in Latin America was that in it social differences were intertwined with racial and ethnic ones. The Spanish colonists felt more privileged. Below them were the Creoles - the descendants of Spanish settlers born in the colonies. In this environment, those tendencies were born that led in the long term to the formation of a Latin American community.

The main part of the population of the Spanish colonies in America were mestizos (various variants of mixing whites, Indians and blacks). The lower rungs of the social hierarchy were Indians and Negroes. Despite severe social inequality, all these groups interacted with each other, formed a qualitatively new civilization - Latin American, which since the XNUMXth century. entered into a complex relationship with European civilization.

6. What was the impetus for the start of the French Revolution?

The initial impetus to the revolutionary events was given by the Seven Years' War, which demonstrated the weakening of the power of royal France. The country had to look for ways to more effectively manage, solve economic and financial problems. Attempts to at least partially solve these problems were made by the Minister of Finance of Louis XVIII, Jean Turgot, but he could not significantly change the feudal system that prevailed in the country.

Meanwhile, the situation continued to worsen. In the second half of the 80s. XVIII century the country was experiencing a commercial and industrial crisis caused by the influx of cheap British goods. For several years in a row there was a crop failure in the country. To avoid bankruptcy, the king decided to tax the privileged classes. But in order to give the proposed measures legitimacy, Louis XVI had to convene the Estates General, which had not met since 1614.

On May 5, 1789, the King opened the Estates General at the Palace of Versailles. He ordered new taxes to be approved. But representatives of the third estate did not want to play the role of extras, to approve the proposals of the king. On June 17, the deputies of the third estate declared themselves representatives of the whole nation - the National Assembly, the decisions of which even the king himself cannot change. Representatives of the first and second estates joined these deputies. They were also ready to do away with absolutism.

The indignant king ordered to close the meeting room. But the deputies of the third estate decided not to stop fighting until the Constitution for France was created.

After some confusion, the king launched a counteroffensive. The royal troops began to gather in Paris. A rumor began to spread around the city that government troops would be concentrated in the fortress-prison - the Bastille. All estates hated this symbol of royal arbitrariness.

On July 14, armed citizens besieged the Bastille and took it. After that, the political initiative passed into the hands of the National Assembly. On August 26, 1879, the deputies of the assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, in which the general principles for building a new society were proclaimed.

A new round of political struggle began, the center of which was the National Assembly. At first, moderate monarchist-constitutionalists dominated there. Their leaders were Marquis J. Lafayette and Count O. de Mirabeau. A small group of left deputies was headed by M. Robespierre, the future leader of the Jacobins.

By September 1791, the preparation of the first Constitution of France was completed. Executive power remained with the king and the ministers appointed by him. The highest legislative power was concentrated in the unicameral Legislative Assembly. The judicial system was based on the election of judges and the participation of jurors in the proceedings.

All this did not suit the king, plans for a coup were hatched in his circles. But, being in revolutionary Paris, there was little the king could do. Then he made an unsuccessful attempt to escape from Paris. This event accelerated the split of the revolutionary forces and strengthened the position of the opponents of the monarchy. In the Legislative Assembly, this opposition group represented the department of the Gironde in the predominant majority, so its members were dubbed the Girondins.

In the spring of 1792, the threat of foreign occupation loomed over France. The war began with Austria and Prussia. The Legislative Assembly adopted a decree proclaiming "The Fatherland is in danger!". Volunteers began to form battalions of the revolutionary army. Its radical elements demanded the king's arrest, accusing him of links with the anti-French coalition. They sought to establish a republican system in France. The implementation of these plans was facilitated by the uprising that broke out on August 10, 1792 in Paris. The king and his entourage were arrested. Power in the capital passed into the hands of the Commune.

Meanwhile, the situation on the fronts continued to deteriorate. But on September 20, the revolutionary army at the battle of Valmy managed to defeat the interventionists and go on the offensive. On September 21, 1792, the National Convention opened in Paris, and the next day France was proclaimed a republic.

7. What were the stages in the development of the revolutionary movement in France?

The revolution brought about a new balance of power in the National Convention. His left wing was made up of the Jacobins, led by M. Robespierre, J. J. Danton, L. Saint-Just. Their main opponents were the Girondins. Most of the deputies did not have a clear political orientation, for which he was called "bog". The left forces were in the minority, but the strategic initiative increasingly passed to them. At their insistence, the king was put on trial and sentenced to death. On January 21, 1793, he was executed.

Among the left forces, an even more radical group of the so-called rabid (J. Roux, J. Varlet) emerged, who demanded harsh repressive measures against all bourgeois circles in France. Such sentiments led to the consolidation of all opponents of the revolution. In 1793, the internal counter-revolution tried to take revenge. In the north-west of France, in the Vendée, an uprising of counter-revolutionary forces broke out.

The Jacobins tried to mobilize all their forces to fight the internal and external enemies of the republic. At their insistence, the Revolutionary Tribunal was created - a court with emergency powers. This act marked the beginning of the transition to a policy of revolutionary terror. In April 1793, the Committee of Public Salvation was created, to which all the powers to wage war and fight counter-revolution were gradually transferred.

At first, the tightening of the revolutionary regime helped the Jacobins in the fight against their opponents, including the Girondins. But the situation continued to be an emergency, and this prevented the Jacobins from realizing their socio-economic plans.

On June 2, 1793, a new popular uprising broke out in Paris, which led to the fall of the Girondins. Power in the country passed completely into the hands of the Jacobins. On June 24, a new constitution was adopted. The first place among the administrative structures of the state was taken by the Committee of Public Safety, headed by M. Robespierre.

But as the confidence in the irreversibility of the initiated revolutionary changes grew in society, the desire to clearly define what the new France would be like grew. If the struggle against internal and external enemies united the Jacobins, then the need for a more precise definition of social guidelines introduced seeds of discord into their camp. Within the Jacobins themselves, divisions quickly grew. Among the deputies of the Convention, a conspiracy against Robespierre matured. July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor on the revolutionary calendar) Robespierre was arrested and executed without trial. The Jacobin dictatorship fell. A new stage began in the history of France.

The Thermidorian coup did not mean the restoration of the monarchy. It symbolized the rejection of the most radical version of the reorganization of society and the transfer of power into the hands of more moderate elements. In autumn, another Constitution was prepared, which reformed the legislature. Now it belongs to the bicameral Legislative Assembly. The convention was abolished. The executive power was concentrated in the hands of the Directory, consisting of 5 people.

The fate of the Directory increasingly depended on success in the fight against the anti-French coalition. It was obvious that the restoration of the "old order" was possible only from outside; this automatically increased the role of the army in revolutionary France. In this milieu, the revolutionary General Napoleon Bonaparte began to enjoy increasing influence. Fame brought him brilliant victories in Italy.

On November 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire according to the revolutionary calendar), he was appointed commander of the troops of the capital district. The next day he dissolved the Legislative Assembly and abolished the Directory. Power passed to the three consuls, and in essence to Napoleon.

Thus ended the period of violent social upheavals that radically changed the face of France. During this time, the foundations of the feudal-absolutist system were destroyed to the ground, and conditions were created for the development of bourgeois relations. The revolutionary events in France were of enormous historical proportions; they opened a new chapter in the history of human civilization. These events destroyed the old order not only in France, but throughout Europe. Almost the entire nineteenth century passed under the banner of the revolutionary struggle in France.

8. How did Napoleon's wars go? What were the preconditions for the crisis and collapse of the Empire?

In 1793, revolutionary France was able to turn the tide of the war in its favor and remove the threat to its sovereignty. The opportunity opened up for the new France to move along a revolutionary path. But France did not stop at the tasks of implementing revolutionary changes within its own borders. She began to seek to export her valuables outside the country.

With the coming to power in France of the Directory, the role of external expansion intensified even more. Actually, the fate of the Directory largely depended on the success of the French army. The role of the army was strengthened even more after Napoleon came to power. The new head of France did not encroach on the main gains of the revolution. But he significantly expanded the powers of the executive branch. Gradually, all power was concentrated in the hands of Napoleon - the first consul, elected for 10 years. The other two consuls had an advisory vote. Legislative power essentially turned into an appendage of the executive. Its functions were reduced to the approval of legislative initiatives, which were introduced by the first consul and the government accountable to him.

At the time of Napoleon's coming to power, the internal situation of France was difficult. Realizing that the increase in taxes would not add to his popularity, Napoleon took the path of increasing indirect taxes, reducing taxes on capital. These measures stimulated the industrial development of the country, the process of introducing machine technology into production. It was at this time that the industrial revolution began in France.

Napoleon paid great attention to the development of foreign trade, seeing in it a source of spreading French influence and replenishing the treasury.

Napoleon had a plan to reorganize all relations in Europe. He began to lean towards the idea of ​​the unification of Europe and its construction on imperial principles.

France resumed another round of hostilities in 1805, when a third anti-French coalition was formed, which included England, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples.

Napoleon intended to strike the first blow against England. However, in the naval battle at Cape Trafalgar, the Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated by the British under the command of Admiral G. Nelson, and Napoleon had to part with his plans to occupy the British Isles.

Then he directed the main blow against Austria, seeking to strengthen his position in the center of Europe. Austria was conquered. In Germany, on the site of numerous states under the auspices of France, the Confederation of the Rhine was created. In 1806, Napoleon announced a blockade of England, but this move caused irritation throughout Europe, which enjoys cheap English goods.

The militaristic policy of Napoleon led to disproportions in the development of France. In this regard, Napoleon took a break in the war and went to the signing of the Tilsit peace. Meanwhile, anti-Napoleonic sentiments were growing in Europe itself, manifesting themselves most clearly in Germany and Spain. Europe did not take measures to transform it by force. In France itself, dissatisfaction with the expansionist policies of Napoleon grew. However, Napoleon himself stubbornly sought to establish complete control over the continent.

Russia began to appear to him as the main obstacle on this path. By 1812, the contradictions between the two great powers reached a critical level. On June 24, 1812, the French army began the war against Russia. The Patriotic War began in Russia. It ended with the complete defeat of Napoleon's army and its expulsion from the territory of Russia.

The defeat of Napoleon in Russia stimulated the growth of anti-French sentiment in Europe. March 31, 1814 Allied troops entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Fr. Elbe. True, he made an attempt to return to power, but on June 8, 1815, at Waterloo, he was finally defeated. The long period of almost uninterrupted wars that began as early as 1792 and engulfed all of Europe was over.

Such events did not pass without a trace for Europe. During these years, the roots of feudalism were cut in Western and Central Europe, and bourgeois relations began to actively develop.

9. How was the "Viennese system" created and how was the Holy Alliance formed?

After the defeat of Napoleon, the European states strove for a stable and lasting peace. However, guarantees were needed that would securely fix the new world order and make it possible to avoid new military clashes.

Among the leaders of European states, the idea of ​​convening an all-European congress has matured, where problems of post-war settlement in Europe could be discussed.

The congress opened at the end of 1814 in Vienna and lasted until July 1815. In the course of complex discussions, the congress participants managed to agree on general principles on which the future model of international relations could be built.

Firstly, it was decided to create a barrier around France, which could isolate her if the situation worsened. Secondly, it was decided that all members of the anti-French coalition should be compensated for their participation in the fight against Napoleon. Thirdly, the European states agreed to maintain the balance of power that had developed after the defeat of Napoleon.

On the basis of these general principles, concrete questions of post-war settlement were decided. So, France was deprived of all the conquered territories, and its borders returned to the borders of 1790. Austria regained Lombardy, received Venice. The Rhineland, Pomerania and Northern Saxony joined Prussia. England expanded its colonial empire. Russia received part of the Duchy of Warsaw, and its early acquisitions - Bessarabia and Finland - were also recognized. The territory of modern Belgium was included in the Netherlands. Schleswig and Holstein went to Denmark. The Papal States and the Kingdom of Neopolitan were restored. The possessions of the Sardinian kingdom expanded somewhat. The union of Sweden and Norway was sanctioned.

In addition to territorial issues, a number of economic and diplomatic issues were considered at the Congress of Vienna.

A special place at the Congress was occupied by the problem associated with the proposal of the Russian emperor to create the Holy Alliance - an organization of monarchical states to protect Europe from revolutionary ideas.

The model of international relations created in Vienna had both strengths and weaknesses. She proved to be quite stable and stable. The mechanism of international relations created in Vienna made it possible to develop solutions on the basis of which the settlement of disputed issues was achieved. But the organizers of the Vienna system took little account of the influence of the ideas of the French Revolution on European civilization. The principle of maintaining a balance of power in Europe increasingly came into conflict with the liberal idea, with the growth of national self-awareness. The Vienna system, having become stable, turned out to be static. But in any system, changes occur, new factors appear that undermine the foundations of the system.

In the colonies of the leading European powers, actions began that led to the undermining of the capabilities of the colonial empires. Revolutions broke out in European states. All this undermined the possibilities of the Vienna system, threatened to draw Europe into a new series of wars.

New problems were generated by the industrial revolution, the solution of which depended on the internal stability of European states, and, consequently, their ability to influence the international situation.

In the middle of the XIX century. another wave of revolutionary uprisings swept through Europe, giving rise to a whole series of new conflicts in the sphere of international relations. The issues of German unification and state building in Italy became more acute. This meant that the period of sustainable development of the Vienna system was coming to an end.

In 1853 another aggravation of the Eastern Question took place. Russia stepped up support for the Orthodox peoples that were part of the Ottoman Empire. Supported by England and France, the Turkish Sultan decided to go to war with Russia. Thus, in Europe there was a clash of three great powers.

The war, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1856, was an important milestone in the process of restructuring the Vienna system. The weakening of Russia upset the pan-European balance of power. This narrowed the possibilities of the Vienna system in maintaining stability on the continent.

10. What were the main stages of the post-war development of the leading Western European countries (20-50 years of the nineteenth century)?

After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, a contradictory situation developed in Europe. On the one hand, the political elites of European states sought stability and struggle against the ideas of revolutionary transformation of the world. But keeping the world in a static state was difficult. The further development of Western civilization was carried out not only in an evolutionary, but also a revolutionary version.

After the defeat of the Empire, the revolutionary struggle did not subside in France. Here, with the support of the great European powers, the Bourbons were returned to power, who began to actively return the pre-revolutionary order.

Secret societies began to emerge in the country, aiming to overthrow the Bourbons. The Restoration regime laid the foundation for the conflict, which began to determine the dynamics of the country's further development.

Protecting the interests of only the bourgeoisie led to the radicalization of other sections of the population, primarily workers, who demanded better working conditions. As a result, Louis-Philippe, who came to power on a wave of support from bourgeois forces, had to abdicate. February 25, 1848 France was proclaimed a republic. The regime established after the Revolution was called the Second Republic. But in 1851, Louis Napoleon (Napoleon I's nephew) carried out a coup d'état and was later proclaimed emperor.

The end of the Napoleonic wars dramatically increased the international status of England. The rapidly proceeding industrial revolution gave rise to crisis situations, led to the polarization of the social structure of England, an increase in the pauperization of the population, and the enrichment of only a part of society. This led to increased social tension. The situation was aggravated by the fact that there was also no consensus in the very ruling elite of society. The old elite was not going to give up its positions to the new, bourgeois one. But in England, even radical forces did not try to solve problems in a revolutionary way. Changes occurred due to the reform of the political system of the country. The confrontation of forces resulted in a party confrontation between the main competitors - the Tory and Whig parties. The Tories rejected projects to reform the country's political system. The Whigs criticized the actions of the Tories. The change in the course of the country was seen by the Whigs in the gradual pushing of the Tories from power by peaceful means. In 1830, the Whigs won the parliamentary elections. The government was headed by C. Gray, a supporter of the modernization of the political system. But this government did not solve the labor question. As a result, a mass movement unfolded in England - the Chartist movement, which defended the demands of ordinary Englishmen. The revolutions that broke out in 1848 in a number of continental European countries played into the hands of the radical circles of the Chartist movement. But there was no revolution in England. The government managed to pacify the radicals. In addition, a long economic recovery began in the country, which removed the acuteness of many social problems. The Chartist movement died out. The development of the country went along an evolutionary path.

The revolution in France made serious adjustments to the development of the German lands. In Germany, after the Napoleonic invasion, there was a rapid growth of national consciousness. This gave Prussia a historic chance to become a leader in the unification process of the German lands. But during the reign of Napoleon, Prussia failed to resolve these issues. Prussia suffered a defeat in the war with Napoleon. This event highlighted the need to modernize the conservative Prussia. First of all, military reform was carried out in the country. This increased the possibilities of Prussia in the struggle for leadership in the German lands. After the military reform, serfdom was abolished in the country. Later, a tax reform was carried out and the secularization of church lands was carried out. Much attention was paid to the construction of the central vertical of power, which was seen as a reliable means of increasing the efficiency of the system for managing unification processes. In 1848, the Constituent Assembly was convened, which was to develop and adopt the Constitution of Prussia. But the conservative forces managed to block the speeches of the most radical forces. As a result, the conservative-protective model of the country's development retained its right to exist.

11. How did the industrial revolution end? Development of capitalism

In the nineteenth century the industrial revolution, which began in England, stepped into France, Germany, and other European countries. Huge cities and factory chimneys have transformed the continent. The Industrial Revolution also developed rapidly in the United States.

Achievements of human civilization in the nineteenth century. began to be measured by success in the development of machine production. Technological progress has become one of the main values.

England remained the most developed country in the field of industrial production. It was here that a new branch of industry arose - mechanical engineering. A rapidly developing domestic market and foreign trade were served by a developed railway network. The industrial revolution also affected the agricultural sector of the country, in which progressive methods of agriculture and new technology began to be applied.

By the end of the century, the country was on wheels. Mass production of automobiles began. The telephone and telegraph became more accessible, facilitating communication processes. Technological progress made changes in military equipment. Firearms became widely used. At the turn of the nineteenth century. electricity began to enter the life of people.

The initial capitalist development was called the era of free competition. Entrepreneurs fought for favorable conditions for the production and sale of goods. This struggle was not limited and acted as the main stimulus for the development of the economy. Economic crises became the main regulator of the spontaneous market, after they were overcome, a new rise in production began.

But the use of highly developed technology, complex technology was possible only within the framework of large production structures that began to appear in the second half of the XNUMXth century. In order to avoid intense competition among themselves, large industrialists began to negotiate prices, the quantity of products produced, and even sales markets. Thus, various organizational forms of mergers of enterprises arose - cartels, syndicates, trusts, concerns.

In the event that an industrial or financial corporation concentrated in its hands dominance in any branch of the economy, it became a monopoly. But tens of thousands of independent medium and small enterprises continued to exist in society. But the monopolistic sector of the economy became dominant.

Free competition capitalism has been replaced by monopoly capitalism. On the one hand, it made it possible to introduce new technology and increase labor productivity, but, on the other hand, the dominance of monopolies posed a threat to the free market and limited the ability of other structures to also increase production.

The industrial revolution changed the social structure of Western European society. The number of bourgeoisie and hired industrial workers increased. By the beginning of the twentieth century. they became the main social groups of industrial society. As for the main classes of traditional society - landowning nobility and peasants, their numbers decreased. But these changes took place depending on the pace of modernization of a particular country.

Thus, in England, the classical landlord and peasant economy disappeared already in the XNUMXth century. The property of seigneurs on land in France was destroyed by the revolution. The US has never had the classes of a traditional society. The landlord economy was preserved in Austria, Italy, and the German states. But after the Napoleonic wars, reforms were carried out here as well, which contributed to the development of capitalist relations in agriculture.

Modernization processes destroyed class distinctions between people. Within the leading social groups there was a process of stratification. The bourgeoisie, the working class and the peasantry were heterogeneous.

With the development of industrial society, the old aristocracy lost its leading position. Many aristocratic families went bankrupt. Gradually, the aristocracy merged with the bourgeoisie, which led to the emergence of a new "upper class". In the nineteenth century, the leading economic and political positions passed to the bourgeoisie.

12. What were the ways of economic and political development of France in the second half of the nineteenth century?

On the anniversary of the coronation of Napoleon I on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor under the name of Napoleon III.

The political regime of the Second Empire was established in the country. The new emperor enjoyed the support of the peasants, a significant part of the bourgeoisie. But among Republicans, Napoleon III was unpopular.

Napoleon III wanted to strengthen his not very popular regime with the help of military victories. France, together with England, participated in the Crimean War, and colonial wars continued in Algeria. Together with England, French troops fought in China. Many military plans cost money. Despite the successes in the economic development of the country, revolutionary ferment was growing in it. Within the country, the liberal opposition intensified, demanding the establishment of a republic.

A government crisis developed in France - the Second Empire barely held power. In this situation, Napoleon III and his entourage decided that a victorious war with Prussia could save the situation. It was supposed to prevent the unification of Germany, which was seen as a threat to France's leadership in Europe. On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. But the Franco-Prussian war ended with the complete defeat of France. The surrender of the Sedan fortress was especially tragic. It was here, near Sedan, that Napoleon III found his Waterloo. The second empire ceased to exist.

After the military defeat, the Parisian deputies, meeting in the town hall, proclaimed a republic and formed the Provisional Government of National Defense. In January 1871, this government signed an armistice with Prussia and then held elections for a National Assembly that would approve the peace treaty. According to this treaty, France was obliged to transfer Alsace and more than a third of Lorraine to Germany, as well as pay 5 billion francs in indemnity. The National Assembly approved these conditions.

The war upset the economic development of the country. This led to the intensification of the revolutionary struggle. On March 18, 1871, the Parisians opposed the current government. On March 26, elections were held for the Paris Commune, a body of city self-government. Government officials and most of the wealthy strata of the capital left Paris and moved to Versailles. The Versailles government considered the Communards to be rebels, and from the beginning of April, armed clashes began between the fighters of the Commune and the Versailles troops. On May 21, the Versaillese managed to break into Paris. On May 28, the Communards ceased resistance.

After the suppression of the Paris Commune, political reaction raged in France. The political initiative passed into the hands of the monarchists. But among their supporters there was no unity regarding the prospects for the development of the country. This saved the republic. In 1875, the National Assembly had to adopt a constitution that established a republic in France. This is how the Third Republic arose, which lasted until the Second World War.

From the end of the 1870s. the country began a period of reforms. The French people achieved the adoption of a number of democratic laws. France became the first secular state among Western European countries. The possibilities of the monarchists were gradually reduced. Republican principles were strengthened in the life of French society. The labor movement was gaining momentum in the country, and the socialists began to play an ever greater role in it. In 1880 the Labor Party was formed. The socialists J. Guesde and P. Lafargue took a great part in its formation. In 1905, the United Workers' Party was created, the leader of which was an outstanding figure in the socialist movement, J. Jaurès.

The structuring of the socialist forces changed the overall picture of the political life of the country. Instead of an alternative - a republic or a monarchy - a different perspective loomed before French society.

But along with the leftist movement in the country there were forces of reaction that fomented chauvinism and revanchism. The ideas of revenge - the return of Alsace and Lorraine, which had gone to Germany after the Franco-Prussian War - pushed the ruling circles first to prepare, and then to participate in the First World War.

13. How was the British Empire created?

The time of greatness and prosperity of England is the Victorian era, the beginning of which dates back to the 40s. nineteenth century During these years, England becomes the leading industrial country in which the processes of modernization developed most successfully. It has achieved dominance in the world market.

In this era (named after the 64-year reign of Queen Victoria), the monarchy was able to maintain order and well-being for a large part of the country's population. During the reign of Victoria, England becomes an empire, the queen receives the title of empress. Victoria raised the prestige of the monarchy. But in the country the monarchical regime was limited by the Constitution, and parliament played an important role in the political life of the country.

It is believed that it was during this period that a "complete parliamentary regime" was formed in England, based on the responsibility of the Cabinet of Ministers to Parliament.

England's foreign policy was colonial in nature. By the middle of the nineteenth century. it became a huge colonial empire, the most important part of which was India, with a population of 300 million people. British troops fought wars of conquest in Iran and Afghanistan. Colonial conquests later spread to West Africa. During these years, England actively continued the colonization of Australia and the development of Canada. The colonies served as a source of raw materials and food for England; those for whom there was no work at home went there, and this made the political situation in England calmer.

Thanks to the huge super-profits generated in the vast colonial empire, a relatively high standard of living was maintained for the majority of the population in England itself. Therefore, for the political elite of the country, a matter of paramount importance was the further strengthening of the colonial empire. In the country's parliament, two leading political forces continued to coexist - the Tory and Whig parties. In the 1860s they became known as the Conservative and Liberal parties, respectively. There were no fundamental differences between them. Both parties supported the reformist path of the country's development, but each of them responded to this call of the times in its own way. Prominent politicians of that time were the leader of the Conservatives, B. Disraeli, and the leader of the Liberals, W. Gladstone.

In the 1870s liberals and conservatives carried out reforms of the electoral law, civil service, and education through parliament. Trade unions were legalized and became increasingly involved in the political struggle. Based on them in the early twentieth century. The Workers' (Labor) Party took shape. For the first time since the Chartist movement, the English working class created its own independent political organization, standing on the positions of reformism.

The activation of the labor movement exacerbated the problem of maintaining social stability in the country. It was not clear what line of development the new political force would support - the reform of society or its radical reorganization.

The solution of this fundamental problem was complicated by the aggravation of England's old disease - the Irish question. Representatives of the Irish national liberation movement defended at that time the idea of ​​home rule (self-government) for Ireland.

In 1886, the government of England decided to introduce a gormul to Ireland, but Parliament did not pass this law. This idea ran into fierce resistance from various political forces in England. Opponents of this idea were afraid that granting Ireland self-government would stimulate erosive processes in the entire body of the empire. The prospects for the continuation of the movement of English society along the evolutionary path became more and more problematic.

By the end of the nineteenth century. the costs of expanding the British colonial empire began to be felt. English capital preferred to invest in overseas possessions, where the percentage of profit was much higher than at home, and the return on capital investment was faster. This led to the fact that the British economy itself began to feel a lack of funds for further development and modernization. This circumstance prompted to think about the future of the empire.

The First World War distracted England from solving domestic political problems.

14. Ways to unify Germany?

By decision of the Congress of Vienna, instead of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, the German Confederation was created, which included 35 sovereign monarchies and 4 free cities. Its strongest members were Austria and Prussia, competing with each other for leadership in the Union, and in the future for leadership in a single German state.

The question of the unification of the country became the main thing in the life of the Germans. To resolve this issue in a revolutionary way in Germany in the first half of the nineteenth century. failed.

The question of the unification of Germany remained the main one in the second half of the nineteenth century. After the defeat of the revolution, the path of unification became real, in which the Prussian monarchy played a leading role. But the Austrian monarchy also defended this path. The rivalry led to military conflicts and even wars, from which Prussia emerged victorious.

In the 1860s new people come to the management of Prussia. After the death of Friedrich Wilhelm IV, his brother Wilhelm I becomes king in 1861.

He valued the greatness of Prussia above all else, and to maintain it he strove to have a strong army. The king believed that the unification of the country could only take place by force of arms. To solve this problem, the king needed a strong chancellor, who in 1862 became an experienced politician Otto von Bismarck.

The Franco-Prussian war, which ended with the defeat of France and the unification of Germany, became the strongest catalyst for the unification processes in Germany. A peace treaty with France had not yet been signed, but already on January 18, 1871, the German Empire was solemnly proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. The Prussian king Wilhelm became emperor (Kaiser) of the united country.

The new state included 22 monarchies that retained their autonomy, 3 free cities - Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck. Prussia was 2/3 of the German Empire.

In the spring of 1871, the first Imperial Reichstag adopted a constitution establishing Prussia's leadership role in the empire.

Period from 1871 to 1878 was a time of active arrangement of the life of the country in the new conditions. A unified management of the country's infrastructure was created, reforms were carried out to modernize its economy. After the defeat of France, the empire received Alsace and part of Lorraine - lands that made it possible to develop heavy industry. In addition, German entrepreneurs successfully used the experience of modernization in other countries, introduced advanced technology and the latest scientific achievements. The country, being surrounded by France and Russia, continued its course towards militarization. The German Empire was becoming a powerful industrial power. It rapidly increased its share in the emerging system of the world economy.

The country's party system played an important role in the consolidation of the new state. It was its constituent components that allowed the most diverse social forces to feel their involvement in political unification processes. Political forces actively helped the Chancellor cement the foundations of the new state. But the desire of Reich Chancellor Bismarck to unify the whole of Germany on the model and likeness of Prussia gave rise to a number of internal political conflicts.

As the pace of industrialization increased, so did the labor movement. Since the mid 1870s. the influence of workers' parties begins to grow rather quickly in it. In 1875, the disparate workers' parties merged into a single Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). The influence of this party, which set the goal of creating a "free people's state", grew. Bismarck, with varying success, fought against the opposition, at the same time he tried to implement social reforms that could prevent the radicalization of the left.

Bismarck's strategic plans were interrupted by the death of Emperor Wilhelm I. In 1890, Bismarck resigned.

The new politicians who replaced Bismarck are beginning to closely link the prospects for their country's progress with expansion, with the struggle for leadership not just on a European but on a global scale. The Pan-German League played an important role in promoting these ideas. His work was patronized by the emperor himself.

15. What happened in the USA in the XNUMXth century?

After the end of the War of Independence, the territory of the United States stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi, and by the middle of the nineteenth century. it expanded to the Pacific Ocean.

Unlike the European states, the Americans built a new society almost from scratch, boldly experimented, found ways to solve many complex socio-economic problems. In a country with heterogeneous regions - North, South and West, political parties arose, which became the main tool with which the main political forces tried to embody their ideas about the development of the country.

In the 90s. XVIII century in power was the Federalist Party, which expressed the interests of the trade and financial circles of the North of the country. The main ideologist of the federalists was A. Hamilton, who served as Minister of Finance in the administration of George Washington.

His government program provided for a set of measures to encourage the development of primarily industry and transport infrastructure. The one-sided orientation of policy towards the interests of commercial and financial circles could not but irritate the representatives of agrarian America. The leader of these circles, T. Jefferson, insisted that the government take measures that contribute to the achievement of the public good. A. Hamilton won this fight. This uncompromising policy stimulated the formation of the opposition.

In 1796 presidential elections were already held on a party basis. With great difficulty, the federalist candidate, J. Adams, managed to achieve victory. He, having received power, decided to limit the activity of the opposition. This led to tension in the political situation in the country. The election of 1800 was won by opposition leader T. Jefferson, who followed the path of strengthening consensus tendencies. But he gave preference to the solution of agrarian issues.

True, the evolution of the United States has not been smooth. In 1819, an economic crisis broke out in the country. The appearance of harmony in the relations of various social forces was broken. The question of the fate of the institution of slavery was on the agenda. The inter-party struggle has again become an integral attribute of US political life.

The country managed to move forward in an evolutionary way. The rapidly unfolding industrial revolution made it possible to find solutions to many controversial problems. In the political struggle, of course, it was not possible to do without crises. So, by the middle of the nineteenth century. The United States faced the problem of choosing the path of further development. There were two possibilities. The first was to fully concentrate on the program of internal improvements. There was another way - the way of expanding the territorial possessions of the United States at the expense of the lands that belonged to the economically weak Mexico. The capture of these lands during the war in 1846 increased the opportunities of the southerners. But here the abolitionist movement intensified. Southerners, in turn, sought to remove restrictions on the spread of slavery. Disputes took on a fierce character, threatening the stability of the country. In 1854 the conflict between the free and slave states reached such a pitch that the situation threatened to break out into civil war. It became impossible to get away from resolving the issue of the fate of slavery. The Republican Party, which was formed in 1854, became the center of attraction for all anti-slavery forces. In 1860, the Republicans nominated A. Lincoln as their presidential candidate. Southerners did not want to accept the election of an opponent of slavery to the presidency. 11 slave states rebelled - they left the Union and formed their own confederation in Richmond (Virginia). Thus began the Civil War (1861-1865). The bloody war ended with the victory of the northerners. This war cost the life of A. Lincoln. On April 14, 1865, he was assassinated by a supporter of slavery.

In February 1865, Congress passed a constitutional amendment permanently banning slavery in the United States. In addition, the Americans managed to maintain the integrity of the state. The war strengthened the possibilities of the bourgeoisie and opened the way for the further development of modernization processes.

16. What was the impetus for the wars of independence in Latin America?

At the beginning of the nineteenth century. in the Spanish colonies of America, a patriotic movement of Creoles arose, thinking about secession from Spain. Secret organizations were created in the colonies, and the leading documents of the French Revolution were illegally distributed.

The defeat of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain by the Napoleonic army created favorable conditions for the rise of the liberation movement in the Spanish colonies.

Initially, Venezuela became the center of the struggle for independence. It was there that the National Congress met, which in 1811 proclaimed the independence of the country. Among the members of the "Patriotic Society", which led the liberation movement, a young officer, S. Bolivar, stood out. The formation of the revolutionary army is associated with his name, he made a great contribution to the formation of the new state.

In 1812, the Spaniards and their supporters managed to defeat the rebels and push them to New Grenada. A rebellion also broke out in this colony, and a decision was made to create a Confederation, or the United Provinces of New Grenada. From this bridgehead, under the leadership of S. Bolivar, a new offensive began, which ended in 1813 with the restoration of the Venezuelan Republic. However, it was not possible to consolidate the success again. Most of the country again returned under the control of the mother country.

These harsh lessons prompted the leaders of the liberation movement to include in their programs such issues as the abolition of slavery and the allocation of land to the peasants. These provisions, at least in part, but reflected the aspirations of the bulk of the population of the colonies. This increased the influx of forces into the troops of S. Bolivar.

In 1816 a new phase of the armed struggle against the Spaniards began. Having defeated them in Venezuela, S. Bolivar moved to New Granada. In 1821, both of these territories were liberated from the Spaniards. Venezuela and New Granada united into a single state - Great Colombia.

Around the same time, an uprising broke out against Spanish domination in the southern part of Latin America, in the territory of modern Chile, Argentina, Uruguay and Peru. The base for the liberation movement in this part of Latin America was the province of Mendoza, where a revolutionary army was created under the leadership of José de San Martin. It was from there that he began his campaign, which led to the liberation of Chile. In 1821, his troops in Peru united with the troops of S. Bolivar. The Spaniards, however, did not lay down their arms, the struggle in this part of the continent continued until 1824.

The greatest bitterness was distinguished by the struggle for the independence of Mexico. In this country, the national liberation movement was intertwined with the social struggle of the peasants for land. But in 1821, Spanish rule was also put an end to in Mexico.

In an effort to strengthen the independence of the young Latin American states, S. Bolivar advocated their unification into a confederation. But this initiative did not receive local support. S. Bolívar's popularity was declining, and in 1830 he resigned. Only many years later his merits received universal recognition. His memory is preserved in the name of one of the South American republics - Bolivia.

The bourgeois revolution in Portugal in 1820 led to the rise of the independence movement in Brazil. The former colony declared independence and declared itself an empire.

In 1868, a mass uprising for independence began in Cuba. But the Cuban army had to fight for liberation from colonial dependence for many more years. Only in 1895 was the independence of Cuba proclaimed and the Cuban Republic established.

The national liberation movement in Latin America ended in victory. But some newly formed states turned out to be fragile and fell apart.

Political independence did away with the many restrictions that fettered the economic development of the colonies. More favorable conditions were created for capitalist development and entry into the world market. But in the new states, the features of a traditional society were preserved, which slowed down the process of progressive change. The Latin American states had to go through many more trials before they were able to take advantage of the opportunities provided by independence.

17. How did science develop?

XIX - early XX century. - a special time in the development of science. Great discoveries followed one after another.

The process of industrialization required the intensification of scientific work. At the same time, technological progress made it possible to create the instruments necessary for scientific research.

The main feature of the natural scientific discoveries of the nineteenth century. was that they radically changed the established ideas about the structure of matter, space, time, movement, about the development of living nature, about the place of man in nature, about the origin of life on Earth.

Among the great discoveries of the century is the discovery of electromagnetism, made by M. Faraday. This discovery led to the creation of an electric motor.

A real sensation was the discovery of D. K. Maxwell. He developed the electromagnetic theory of light, which generalized the results of experiments and theoretical constructions of many scientists in the field of electromagnetism, thermodynamics and light. Maxwell's theory was presented by him in 1873, and in 1883 the German engineer G. Hertz confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves. Based on these discoveries, the telegraph and radio were created.

The Dutch physicist H. A. Lorenz continued to develop the electromagnetic theory, he tried to explain it from the point of view of the atomic structure of matter. In 1891, the English scientist J. Stoney came to the conclusion that the atom is not indivisible, but consists of electrons. Thus, a new picture of the world was gradually formed, which exists today.

At the end of the nineteenth century. in Germany, the physicist V.K. Roentgen discovered invisible rays, which he called X-rays. The great discovery immediately received practical application in medicine - an X-ray machine was created on its basis. Roentgen was the first physicist to be awarded the Nobel Prize.

The phenomenon of radioactivity was studied by a whole group of scientists, including A. Becquerel, P. Curie and M. Sklodowska-Curie, E. Rutherford, N. Bohr. This group of scientists created the doctrine of the complex structure of the atom. The discovery of radioactivity opened the way to the world of microparticles.

A revolution in natural science was also made by Charles Darwin's teaching on evolution in living nature. L. Pasteur's research in the field of microbiology served as the basis for the doctrine of immunity. A great contribution to the development of medicine was made by J. Corvisart. R. Laennec, R. Koch.

The rapid development of industrialization changed the education system and its organization. The main thing in this case was the task of expanding the accessibility of education. In the nineteenth century reforms were carried out in the European states and the USA in school education. Primary education became compulsory, it acquired a secular character. The problems of creating secondary schools were not ignored. D. Dewey, who became the most famous American teacher and philosopher of the late XNUMXth century, had a great influence on the formation of the secondary school.

The new processes that took place under the influence of industrialization were comprehended at the philosophical level as well.

Liberal ideas enjoyed the greatest influence in the West. Liberalism, like most other ideological concepts, has its roots in the Enlightenment. In the nineteenth century Enlightenment ideas were further developed. The most prominent representatives of this doctrine in this period of time were D. Bentham, D. Mill, G. Spencer, who defended the priority of the rights of the individual. Liberals were consistent supporters of the idea of ​​social progress. History was viewed by them as a continuous progressive movement towards more perfect forms of social organization.

A radical reaction to the rapid development of bourgeois relations was the Marxist doctrine, which proceeded from the fact that capitalist relations lead to antagonistic contradictions that will inevitably lead to the elimination of capitalism and the establishment of socialism. Supporters of Marxism were champions of the revolutionary way of implementing the idea of ​​social progress.

Theorists of conservatism enjoyed a certain influence in Western countries. A prominent representative of this concept is E. Burke. Conservatives advocated the preservation of traditional values, without which society could degenerate.

18. What was the uniqueness of the development of the culture of the XNUMXth century?

The originality of the spiritual climate of the XNUMXth century. could not affect the development of artistic culture. At the beginning of the century, France set the pace for the development of art. With the coming to power of Napoleon, the leading artistic movement - classicism - was somewhat transformed. He became more conventional and cold. Neoclassicism of the new century is called Empire style, the style of the Empire. This style is monumental in the exterior, exquisitely luxurious in the interior, using ancient Roman architectural forms. During this period, structures were erected designed to inspire the idea of ​​the greatness of Napoleon's power (Vendôme Column, Arc de Triomphe on Place de l'Etoile, etc.). The Empire style is gaining popularity throughout Europe. During this period, the fate of Napoleon himself was also attractive. It served as proof that a person of a new era can achieve everything thanks, first of all, to his personal qualities. D. Byron and G. Heine thought about Napoleon, David and Gro painted him, Beethoven was going to dedicate his third symphony (Eroic) to him.

The defeats of Napoleon and the restoration of the Bourbons brought disappointment to the progressive intelligentsia of France in the possible reorganization of society, which the enlighteners of the eighteenth century passionately dreamed of. With the collapse of divine ideals, the foundations of classical art were also destroyed. Based on the awareness of the critical lessons taught by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, a new powerful trend is born in Western European countries - romanticism, which tries to look for the norms of beauty and justice outside the framework of eighteenth-century rationalism.

The Romantics absolutized the role of feeling, idolized the imagination, and sought to comprehend the secret of personality through penetration into its inner, spiritual world. The romantics denied the need for an objective reflection of reality; they tended to gravitate toward symbolism and convention. Romanticism manifested itself most clearly in European literature. The greatest representative of English romanticism, the poet D. G. Byron, became the “ruler of thoughts” of his time. A prominent representative of German romanticism was G. Heine. French romanticism was represented by R. Chateaubriand, J. de Staël, A. De Lamantine, V. Hugo, J. Sand and others. The work of the poet Charles Baudelaire was close to romanticism.

The great masters of the Romantic era were promoted by the fine arts. French artists T. Gericault, E. Delacroix worked in this genre. In England, the landscape painter D. Constable won the sympathy of the romantics.

Music played an important role in the European culture of romanticism. Famous works in the romantic spirit are written by R. Schumann, F. Schubert. In the second half of the nineteenth century. R. Wagner was a prominent representative of romanticism in music.

In the second half of the nineteenth century. realism is emerging in European culture as an independent artistic system. The desire for objectification, the disclosure of the essence of social contradictions makes realism the opposite of the romantic direction. The most significant achievements of realism were in prose.

Its representatives were A. M. Stendhal, O. Balzac, P. Merimee, G. Flaubert, E. Zola in France, C. Dickens, W. M. Thackeray in England.

Brilliant examples of realism were also given by the fine arts, represented primarily in the activities of French artists - T. Rousseau, J. F. Millet, G. Courbet.

In the last third of the nineteenth century. after the fall of the Paris Commune, the position of academicism, which demanded the inviolability of certain aesthetic forms, was strengthened in European culture. But this art finds sharp opposition among the European intelligentsia. The most radical reaction to it was Impressionism, which was then replaced by Post-Impressionism. Masters of the new direction have created new artistic techniques to convey a sense of light, to capture the variability of the beauty of the surrounding world. Famous impressionist artists were E. Manet, O. Renoir, E. Degas and others.

The discoveries of the Impressionists affected the development of musical art. K. Debussy acted as an innovator in this genre.

At the end of the nineteenth century. developed a new genre of culture - cinema, which in the twentieth century. will win the sympathy of the audience.

Chapter 8. New history in the countries of the East and Asia. Colonies and dependent countries

1. What was the colonial expansion?

Beginning in the sixteenth century the colonial conquests of Europeans expanded with each century, conquering more and more new areas of the East. The colonialists were mainly engaged in unequal trade.

In the nineteenth century the picture is changing. It was the time of the colonial conquests of industrial capitalism, when the flow of factory goods began to turn the countries of the East into markets and sources of raw materials. Trade ties became stronger, and Western goods ruined traditional crafts and changed the life of the colonial outskirts.

Ownership of colonies raised the prestige of states. By the end of the nineteenth century. the division of the world between European states and the United States was basically completed. The old colonial system gave way to a new system, in which the West did not just plunder the colonies, but penetrated into all spheres of their life: political, economic, social and spiritual.

Vast territories of Asia and Africa were turned into colonies and dependent states. The only exception was Japan, which, without any outside interference, but drawing on the achievements of the West, carried out modernization transformations.

The onslaught of the industrially developed West on the countries of the East caused mass protest movements. But, on the other hand, the introduction of the industrial West into these regions drew the colonial and dependent countries into the world market and contributed to the development of capitalist relations there.

The process of colonial expansion of Western European capitalism especially intensified in the second half of the nineteenth century. During this period, control over Egypt acquired particular importance. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 changed the direction of trade flows. England and France sought to expand their zone of influence in Egypt. England sought to establish its control over the entire largest waterway in Africa - the Nile. That is why in 1884 British troops invaded the Sudan. In this direction, England had a conflict with France, which also sought to establish its control over the Nile zone.

The strengthening of England's position in the Eastern Mediterranean prompted France to intensify its actions in North Africa. The French had long been established in Algeria. Now they sought to subjugate Tunisia. In addition, even under Napoleon III, France sought to gain a foothold in Indochina. In the 1880s it intensified its expansion in this region. This caused concern in England. The strengthening of France in this region could threaten the colonial rule of England, primarily in India. In an effort to stop the process of further expansion of the French presence in the region, England captured Burma.

Intensive colonial expansion continued to develop on the African continent. The object of French expansion was the northwestern, western and partly central parts of the continent. England focused on the development of the southern regions of the continent.

Other European states also took part in the division of Africa. So, Italy captured Eritrea and part of Somalia. Germany began to gain a foothold in what is now Namibia, in Togo and Cameroon. At the same time, Germany stepped up its operations in the Pacific.

Complex collisions unfolded around the vast areas of Equatorial Africa, located in the basin of the river. Congo. In this area, the interests of England and France clashed rather sharply. On the issue of the division of these territories, a special international conference was convened, which was held in 1885 in Berlin. At the conference, a compromise solution was adopted, according to which an "independent state of the Congo" was created in the center of Africa, which could actually exploit English, French and German capital.

As a result of the rapid development of colonial expansion, the general nature of international relations became more complicated, new complex problems and contradictions appeared in them, leading to an increase in conflict in the world.

In colonial policy, Britain and France achieved the greatest success. Germany was clearly losing in this rivalry and felt disadvantaged. Colonial expansion led to the fact that a group of states appeared, dissatisfied with the results of the division of the world.

2. What is the peculiarity of Japanese capitalism?

Until the nineteenth century Japan remained out of reach for Europeans. The situation changed by the middle of the century. In 1854, the American squadron, under the threat of cannons, forced the Japanese rulers to "open" the country. Following the United States, other European countries were admitted to Japan. Japan was emerging from an era of isolation. Foreign goods poured into the Japanese market, undermining traditional forms of management. This worsened the life of not only ordinary peasants and artisans, but also merchants and princes. Slogans aimed at expelling foreigners became popular.

In 1868, a revolutionary coup took place in Japan, as a result of which power passed into the hands of the 15-year-old Emperor Mutsuhito. He was crowned Emperor Meiji (enlightened rule). This event went down in history as the Meiji Revolution. This coup was revolutionary not only in form, but above all in content: this event gave impetus to reforms that radically transformed the country.

The imperial court moved to Edo, soon renamed Tokyo. Japan has entered an era of modernization. The government faced a difficult task: it had to adopt Western experience so as not to lose its national face.

The agrarian reform was the first to be carried out in a traditional society, establishing private ownership of land and allowing its purchase and sale.

The administrative reform destroyed the power of the princes. The country was divided into provinces and prefectures, headed by officials appointed by the government. Military reform introduced universal military service in Japan. The new army, created according to the European model, has acquired a high combat capability. A judicial reform was also carried out in the country, estates were abolished. The financial reform introduced a single monetary unit - the yen.

In 1889, the country's constitution was published on behalf of the emperor, in which the emperor retained vast rights to govern the country. The country's parliament was bicameral. The country began the process of creating political parties.

The reforms opened up space for private enterprise. The construction of industrial enterprises and transport infrastructure began in the country. But since there was little private capital in Japan and there was no experience of modern entrepreneurial activity, the state had to actively intervene in the economy. By order of the emperor, "exemplary" factories were built at the expense of the treasury, which were then sold or leased on preferential terms to commercial and industrial firms close to the imperial environment.

Japan gradually turned into an industrial power. This was facilitated by the traditional inclination of the Japanese to useful borrowings, the lack of contempt for foreign culture.

Much attention in the country during this period was given to education. Japanese youth got the opportunity to study in Europe and the USA. Foreign experts were invited to Japan.

The main ideological system in the country remained the traditional religion - Shintoism. Within its framework, patriotism and devotion to the emperor were especially valued. Gradually, within the framework of Shintoism, ideas began to spread about the exclusive mission of Japan, which was to unite all the countries of Asia in order to successfully resist the advance of the West in this region.

By the 1890s Japan moved to active actions to subjugate its influence to neighboring states. Japan was particularly attracted to Korea and Manchuria. Japan's expansionist plans were successful. Japan succeeded in subjugating Korea, winning the war with China, as a result of which the island of Taiwan went to Japan.

In the Far East, relations between Japan and Russia became especially acute. As a result of Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Japan received South Sakhalin, the fortress of Port Arthur, established its dominance in South Manchuria. Later, Japan and Russia entered into a series of agreements on the division of spheres of influence in China. This weakened the Russo-Japanese contradictions, but intensified the contradictions between Japan and England and the USA. In the future, the aggressive plans of the ruling circles will lead the country to participate in the First World War.

3. Why did China remain a "closed" country for so long and how did it "open"?

From the time of the establishment of the Manchu Qin dynasty in China, a policy of isolation of the country began to be pursued. The contacts of the Chinese with foreigners seemed dangerous to the authorities. But huge China, which was at the stage of traditional society, attracted the Western bourgeoisie. China exported silk and tea, for which Great Britain paid with opium exported from India. After the Chinese authorities banned the import of opium (its smoking became a disaster for the country), the "opium wars" (1840-1842, 1856-1860) began, culminating in the defeat of China. The fruits of victory, in addition to England (it received Hong Kong, which became its colony), France and the United States took advantage. The active colonization of China by European powers began.

The defeat of China in the "opium wars" led to the weakening of imperial power. This destabilized the social situation in the country. The Qin Empire failed to ensure harmony between the various segments of the population. In China, secret societies began to emerge in opposition to the ruling regime. Riots and unrest broke out all over the country. Especially strong in the middle of the nineteenth century. was the Taiping movement, led by a native of the peasants, Hong Xiuquan. The participants in this movement to strengthen Confucian values ​​became known as the Taipings. In 1850, the Taipings launched an open rebellion. Having mastered a vast territory, primarily the valley of the river. Yangtze, the rebels announced the creation of a new state with its capital in Nanjing. Continuing to fight against the imperial government and the feudal lords, the Taipings began to carry out reforms that reflected the peasants' utopian dreams of creating a just society. But in 1864, government troops defeated the Taipings, and their state ceased to exist.

Meanwhile, in China itself, Empress Ci Xi came to power, who was in power from 1861 to 1908. She had to include China in the modernization process, to pursue a policy of China's self-strengthening. The aim of this course was to put Western technology and science at the service of the state. The industrial sector began to develop in the country, but enterprises of foreigners and the state prevailed. Misappropriation of funds allocated for the development of industry and the rearmament of the army was widely practiced. Despite the fact that the modernization was carried out indecisively, the process of formation of the Chinese national bourgeoisie was going on. The industrialization of the country was hampered by the lack of reforms in the agricultural sector. The course of self-reinforcement did not lead to the desired results.

The need for reforms in political and economic life became more and more obvious. Kang Yuwei becomes the leader of the reformers. His supporters advocated the introduction of a parliamentary monarchy in the country, the implementation of socio-economic reforms. The most radical supporters of the reforms were determined to remove Ci Xi from power. The coup attempt failed. The Empress again managed to concentrate all power in her hands.

The rejection of reforms once again exacerbated the political crisis in the country. Since the autumn of 1898, the activities of the secret society "Fist in the name of peace and justice" (in Chinese - "Yihetuan") intensified. It was a protest against the destruction of ancient traditions, against the invasion of China by the achievements of European civilization.

Empress Ci Xi decided to use the Yihetuan to fight against Western powers and restore the country to its former glory. She allowed the rebel troops to occupy Beijing and signed a decree declaring war on the European powers. In response, the leading European states and Japan sent their troops to suppress the uprising. On August 14, 1900, foreign troops occupied Beijing. As a result of large-scale military intervention, the uprising was crushed. After that, foreign powers imposed a new unequal treaty on China. The country had to pay a huge indemnity, foreigners got the right to keep their troops and fleet in China.

At the end of the nineteenth century. China entered a period of deep crisis, which ended with the revolution of 1911-1912, the overthrow of the Manchurian monarchy and the proclamation of the Republic of China.

4. Why is India called the "pearl" of the British Empire?

By the beginning of the nineteenth century. almost the entire territory of the country was in the hands of the British East India Company and its subordinate vassal principalities. In turn, it consisted of two parts: the so-called British India, which was under the control of officials of the East India Company, headed by a governor-general, and the second part, which consisted of more than 550 Hindu and Muslim principalities. Formally, they were ruled by local princes, but all their domestic and foreign policy was controlled by the British.

In various ways, England pumped huge amounts of money out of India. There was a system of taxes that ruined the local population. In addition to taxes, there were government monopolies on salt and opium. Opium was exported to China and brought huge profits to the British.

In 1833, the activities of the East India Company was terminated. The industrial bourgeoisie, which had become more influential after the parliamentary reform of 1832, wanted to use India itself as a market for raw materials and for the sale of manufactured goods. The East India Company was left to manage the colony and the army.

Technological progress has not bypassed India. Railways were built in the country, foreign trade developed, cities grew, irrigation canals were laid. But the English factory industry undermined the economy of traditional Indian society. Many artisans lost their livelihood. Indian cities were not industrial, they were only trading centers, They could not absorb the released labor force. Masses of unemployed people began to leave for the countryside, but it was not easy to find work here either. Famine and epidemics claimed millions of lives.

In the country, an increasing number of people expressed dissatisfaction with the rule of the British. General discontent soon turned into an uprising that began in 1857. Having suppressed the uprising, Great Britain carried out some reforms in the country. In 1858 the East India Company was liquidated. India came under the rule of the crown. The Governor-General of India became known as the Viceroy. In 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India.

But it was not possible to liquidate national liberation sentiments in India. The leading organization of the national liberation movement was the Indian National Congress (INC). This organization was formed in 1885. The INC became a symbol of the unity of India in its movement towards independence.

The National Congress was dominated by a moderate liberal bourgeois-nationalist wing, which determined the program of the organization and its requirements: protection of the national industry, tax cuts, creation of a bank credit system, expansion of self-government and elected representation, cooperation with the colonial authorities. However, there were also more radical movements in Congress, whose representatives accused the British of economic robbery of the country and bringing the people to complete impoverishment. Realizing the impossibility of an armed struggle against the colonialists, representatives of the "extreme" trend called for a mass boycott of British goods.

At the end of the nineteenth century. the national liberation movement was on the rise. Many factors contributed to this: first of all, the strengthening of the positions of the national bourgeoisie, the patriotic intelligentsia, who had awakened to the active struggle of the workers. Peasants' protests against feudal exploitation became commonplace.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. in the national liberation movement, M. K. Gandhi became a prominent personality, introducing a new organizational form into the struggle - "non-violent resistance". The basis of Gandhi's teachings was the theory of non-violence by L. N. Tolstoy, the ideas of peaceful mass action, peaceful processions and other non-violent performances. Gandhi was an opponent of violence and armed struggle, realizing that India, with its vulnerable and explosive division into castes, linguistic and national groups, various confessions, should avoid extremes. The theory of non-violent resistance, or civil disobedience, and the experience of its application in India subsequently gained wide popularity in the international arena.

Chapter 9. Recent history of Europe and America

1. How did the economic development of the leading countries of Europe and America take place in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?

At the end of the nineteenth century. in Europe and North America there have been major changes in all spheres of life, and above all in the economic. By this time, the period of formation of the capitalist structure had ended. Reforms began to play an important role in the politics of the bourgeoisie.

For a number of leading capitalist countries, following Great Britain, the era of the "coal and steel industry," that is, the accelerated development of heavy industry as the basis for industrialization, ended. The rate of development of railway construction has somewhat moderated. In North America (first in the USA, then in Canada), the colonization of free lands ended.

New technologies and new equipment became the main direction in capitalist economic development. This allowed scientists to name new processes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. second industrial revolution. Since the beginning of the twentieth century. transcontinental railways and highways, ocean-going ships and airplanes, telephone and radio are becoming symbols of modern times. Technological maturity at the beginning of the twentieth century. belonged to several "advanced" countries - Great Britain, Germany, the USA, partly France and Belgium. At that time, Sweden, Italy, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Canada, and Japan also embarked on the path of accelerated industrialization. Germany has been especially successful in completing industrialization and in developing advanced industries, especially the chemical industry and electric power; in the creation of the largest factories and the concentration of financial institutions and banks.

The agricultural sector played an important role in the economic life of European countries. The processes of restructuring the economy in an intensive way have also intensified here. The increase in the productivity of agricultural production was carried out through the introduction of the latest technologies, reorientation to new market demands. Agricultural production became more and more closely integrated into the overall economic system, and thus the gap between the two main sectors of the economy, inherited from traditional society, began to be bridged.

Rapid industrialization expanded the capacity of the domestic market of the leading countries of the world. This determined the growth of foreign trade. The struggle for control of national markets became more and more fierce.

New phenomena in the development of capitalism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. became known as imperialist.

Among the many works on the problem of the transition of capitalist countries to the imperialist stage of development, V. I. Lenin's popular essay "Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism" occupies a prominent place. His task was "to show what was the final picture of the world capitalist economy at the beginning of the XNUMXth century."

V. I. Lenin reduced the variety of features of the latest capitalism to five characteristic features: the transformation of competition into a monopoly; the fusion of industrial and banking capital and the formation of finance capital; the predominant importance of the export of capital before the export of goods; the formation of international alliances of monopolies, the completion of the territorial division of the world by the major capitalist powers. Since the central signs were the assertion of the dominant position in the economy of the largest corporations and the "replacement" of free competition capitalism by monopoly, the newest phase of capitalism was called monopoly capitalism. But the theory of "imperialism" underestimated the viability of capitalism, its potential for self-regulation and self-reform. Already the experience of the history of the early twentieth century. showed that the economic and social reforms of the bourgeois states have become an important means of adapting the bourgeoisie to new conditions.

During the period of imperialism, the influence of big business on the general course of state policy increased. However, the state power also had a certain independence. In a number of capitalist countries, labor legislation was strengthened in order to regulate socio-economic relations, and antitrust laws began to appear.

2. What events caused the First World War?

In the late nineteenth - early twentieth centuries. the system of international relations has become more complex and explosive. New powerful forces have appeared on the international arena. In Europe, as a result of the completion of the unification processes, Germany and Italy entered the international scene. Their clash with Britain, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary and other imperialist states was inevitable.

In Asia, Japan claimed the leading roles, which clashed its interests with the interests of Russia, England, Germany, France and the United States.

At the center of the conflicts was the Ottoman Empire, which occupied vast territories in North Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Europe, which became the object of the imperialist division.

The tangle of international contradictions was determined by the difference between the global interests of the "old" and "new" great powers. The most acute clashes and conflicts were associated with the struggle for colonies, for spheres of influence and for militarily dominance at sea and on land.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. the formation of blocs of countries participating in the First World War took place. On the one hand, these were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, which took shape in the Triple Alliance (1882), and on the other hand, England, France and Russia, which created the Entente (1904-1907).

By 1914, the contradictions between the two military-political groupings of the European powers had escalated to the limit. The Balkan Peninsula became a zone of special tension. The ruling circles of Austria-Hungary, following the advice of the German emperor, decided to assert their influence in the Balkans by attacking Serbia. Soon there was a reason to declare war. The Austrian command launched military maneuvers near the Serbian border. The head of the Austrian "military party" heir to the throne Franz Ferdinand defiantly paid a visit to the capital of Bosnia, Sarajevo. These actions caused great excitement among the patriotic Serbian youth. On June 28, 1914, the Great Serbian nationalists shot Archduke Franz Ferdinand. For the military circles of Austria-Hungary, there was a convenient pretext to defeat Serbia, but they feared Russian intervention. Enlisting the support of Germany, on July 23, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia. Not wanting a peaceful resolution of the conflict, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28. In support of Serbia, Russia began a general mobilization. Russia refused Germany's demand to stop mobilization. Then, on August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia, and on August 3, France.

German troops moved to France through the territory of Belgium, trampling Belgian neutrality. England demanded respect for the rights of Belgium and the immediate withdrawal of troops. Having received no answer to her ultimatum, she declared war on Germany on August 4. 38 states were gradually drawn into the military conflict started by the largest European countries. The war became global.

With the outbreak of war in Europe, three fronts arose: Western, Eastern and Balkan. In October 1914, Turkey entered the war on the side of Germany. A front was formed in Transcaucasia.

The main events in 1914 unfolded on the Western and Eastern fronts. The German command planned to defeat France as soon as possible, and only then focus on the fight against Russia. In accordance with these plans, German troops launched a massive offensive in the west.

In September 1914, a grandiose battle unfolded on the Marne, on the outcome of which the fate of the entire campaign on the Western Front depended. In fierce fighting, the Germans were stopped and then driven back from Paris. The plan for the lightning defeat of the French army failed. The war on the Western Front became protracted.

Almost simultaneously with the battle on the Marne, major battles unfolded on the Eastern Front - in Poland and Galicia. The Austro-Hungarian army was defeated in these battles, and the Germans had to urgently help their ally. The enemy managed to stop the offensive of the Russian troops on the Eastern Front, but here the German command for the first time felt what it meant to wage a war on two fronts.

3. How did the situation develop at the front and in the rear in 1915-1916?

By the beginning of 1915, it became obvious that in reality the war was noticeably different from what it was seen by the staff of the General Staffs of the great powers in the pre-war period. Due to the fact that the war had become protracted, it was important for its main actors to enlist the support of new allies in order to break the existing balance of power in this way. In 1915, the scope of hostilities expanded due to the entry into the war of two new countries - Bulgaria on the side of Germany and Italy on the side of the Entente. But the fate of the war was still decided on the Eastern and Western fronts.

In 1915, the Russian army began to experience difficulties caused by the fact that the military industry could not provide it with the proper amount of ammunition, weapons and ammunition. Germany decided in 1915 to strike the main blow on the Eastern Front. In the winter and spring of this year, fighting unfolded along the entire length of this front. In Galicia, things went well for the Russian troops. The Austrian troops suffered defeat after defeat, and the threat of complete defeat hung over them. In May, the Germans came to the aid of their ally, whose unexpected strike between Gorlice and Tarnow led to a breakthrough in the front and the forced withdrawal of Russian troops from Galicia, Poland and Lithuania. Throughout the summer, our troops had to fight heavy defensive battles, and only in the autumn did they manage to stop the German offensive.

In 1916, hostilities on the Western Front intensified. In February 1916, the German command launched its largest-scale operation, trying to capture the strategically important French fortress of Verdun. However, despite colossal efforts and huge losses, the German troops were never able to take it.

To weaken the onslaught of the Germans on Verdun, the Anglo-French army, in turn, tried to break through the German defense line near the Somme River. In this battle, which lasted from July to the end of November 1916, the British and French used tanks for the first time. Nevertheless, the battle on the Somme did not bring tangible operational results.

The situation on the Eastern Front was more successful for the Entente. In the midst of the fighting near Verdun, the French command again turned to Russia for help. The call for support also came from the Italian army, which was defeated by the Austro-Hungarian troops. In the summer of 1916, the Russian command launched a series of offensive operations. The army under the leadership of General A. Brusilov broke through the Austrian front on the line Lutsk - Chernivtsi. Russian troops again occupied most of Galicia and Bukovina, putting Austria-Hungary on the brink of military defeat. The Brusilovsky breakthrough stopped the activity of the Austrians on the Italian front and greatly facilitated the position of the Anglo-French troops near Verdun and on the Somme. The dispersion of combat forces in many directions weakened Germany.

The huge scale of hostilities led to the depletion of material and food resources in all the warring powers. In all the warring countries, military fatigue was felt, and anti-war protests grew. The situation in the countries of the German bloc was especially difficult. In Germany, the number of workers on strike was steadily growing. On May 1, 1916, on the initiative of K. Liebknecht, a left-wing Social Democrat from the Spartak group, a mass demonstration took place along the streets of Berlin under the slogans "Down with the war!", "Down with the government!"

In Austria-Hungary, the anti-war sentiments of the working masses were closely intertwined with the national liberation movement.

Turkey is in a deep economic crisis. Discontent grew in Bulgaria. Even in Britain and France, where the crisis was not so deep, there were major strikes and demonstrations.

However, the most acute was the situation in tsarist Russia. The futility of 30 months of almost uninterrupted battles, the death of millions of soldiers, the collapse of the national economy, devastation, famine, the disintegration of the government apparatus - all this restored broad sections of the population against tsarism. Autocracy in Russia was in deep crisis. As a result, in February 1917, a revolution took place in the country, which led to the overthrow of the tsarist regime.

4. What were the results of the First World War?

The February revolution that took place in Russia excited the politicians of all leading states. Everyone understood that the events unfolding in Russia would directly affect the course of the world war. It was clear that this generally weakened the power of the Entente, but instilled optimism in the leadership of Germany, which hoped that at last the scales had tangibly swung in their favor.

However, in April 1917, when the United States entered the war on the side of the Entente, the situation not only leveled off, but also became more profitable for Germany's opponents. But at first this event did not bring tangible results to the Entente. The Allied spring offensive on the Western Front choked in blood. The attempt of the offensive of the Russian troops in the south-western direction in the Carpathian region ended in complete failure. The Germans took advantage of this failure and went on the offensive in the Baltic. In early September 1917, they occupied Riga and began to directly threaten the capital of Russia - Petrograd.

In the meantime, tensions grew in the country. In the autumn of 1917, Russia entered a phase of the most acute systemic crisis, the country was on the verge of a catastrophe. On November 7 (October 25, old style) a new revolution took place in Russia. Petrograd again became the center of events, where power passed into the hands of the Bolsheviks. VI Lenin headed the new government - the Council of People's Commissars. It immediately announced Russia's withdrawal from the war.

But the proposal of the Soviet government for the immediate conclusion of a general peace was rejected by the other countries of the Entente. In response to this, the Bolshevik leadership began negotiations with representatives of Germany and its allies. They took place in Brest-Litovsk in a very complex and controversial environment. The Germans understood that the possibilities of the new government at this stage were limited, and they tried to use these negotiations to gain unilateral advantages. The most difficult negotiations continued until March 3, 1918, when, finally, a very difficult peace treaty for Russia was signed.

While the fate of Russia was being determined in the east, fierce fighting continued on other fronts. They went with varying degrees of success. The defeat of the Italian troops in the battle of Caporetto in October 1917 was offset by the success of the British in the Middle East, where they inflicted a number of serious defeats on the Turkish troops. The Entente countries sought not only to achieve a turning point in hostilities, but also to seize the initiative on the ideological front. In this regard, the key role belonged to US President Wilson, who in January 1918 delivered his famous message, which went down in history under the title "Wilson's 14 Points". It was a liberal alternative to the Peace Decree and at the same time a platform on which the United States proposed to implement a post-war peace settlement.

However, in order to proceed with the implementation of these plans, it was still necessary to achieve victory in the war. There, the scales were steadily leaning towards the side of the Entente. Germany's position continued to deteriorate. The situation inside the country sharply worsened, the strike movement grew, and a financial crisis was looming.

Nevertheless, the Germans in March - July 1918 made several attempts to achieve a turning point in the course of hostilities on the Western Front. The German army managed to approach Paris at a distance of about 70 km. However, there was not enough strength for more.

On July 18, 1918, the Allies launched a powerful counteroffensive. The German army no longer had the strength to hold the offensive of the Entente troops. At the end of October 1918, it became clear to the German command that defeat was inevitable. The war was entering its final stage. The processes of disintegration swept Austria-Hungary, at the end of October Turkey withdrew from the war. In November 1918, an uprising of military sailors broke out in Germany in Kiel, which grew into a revolution. The German Kaiser Wilhelm II fled to Holland. F. Ebert, the leader of the Social Democrats, became the head of the country. Germany capitulated. The armistice was signed on November 11, 1918 in Compiègne. With the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne, the World War ended.

5. How has the map of Europe changed since the First World War?

After an armistice was signed in the Compiegne Forest on November 11, 1918, and Germany admitted defeat, the victorious powers faced the problems of a post-war settlement. This question was extremely relevant, since by the time the war ended, four empires had collapsed at once, occupying most of Central and Eastern Europe. On their ruins, several revolutions broke out at once. The situation threatened to spiral out of control.

The final terms of the peace treaty with Germany were determined at the Paris Peace Conference of the victorious countries, which began to work on January 18, 1919.

The key role in the work of the conference was played by the great powers that formed the backbone of the Entente. The problem of a post-war settlement turned out to be quite complicated, since each of the leading victorious powers had its own interests, which by no means always coincided.

France took the toughest stance. She sought the maximum weakening of Germany, even her dismemberment. French diplomats demanded that the Saar coal basin and German lands on the left bank of the Rhine be annexed to France. In addition, France expected to receive its share in the division of the colonies of its defeated opponents.

London took a softer position. By the start of the Paris Conference, the UK had already implemented a number of its plans. Germany ceased to be her rival at sea and a serious competitor in world markets. The weakening of Germany was unprofitable for Great Britain, as this could lead to the strengthening of the position of France. A relatively strong Germany was also necessary as a barrier against the spread of Bolshevik ideas in Europe.

The US position was officially stated in the "14 points of Wilson". The American president was particularly interested in the idea of ​​creating the League of Nations, an international peacekeeping organization in which the United States hoped to play a leading role. The American delegation advocated moderation in its demands on Germany in order to prevent the superiority of France and England in post-war Europe.

On June 28, 1919, the final text of the peace treaty with Germany was signed at the Palace of Versailles.

Peace conditions for Germany were difficult. There has been a significant change in its boundaries. She lost Alsace and Lorraine, which went to France, the Eupen and Morenay districts were transferred to Belgium, Northern Schleswig - to Denmark. Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a free city. The Saar coal basin was transferred to France. Part of Upper Silesia went to Poland. In general, Germany lost 1/8 of its territory. She also lost all her colonies. It was decided to carry out the disarmament of Germany. Germany was forbidden to have a submarine fleet and military aviation. Germany pledged to pay reparations to the victors.

The Paris Conference left open many questions of the post-war world: about the fate of the Far East region, about the situation in Russia, where the Civil War was raging, about the problems generated by the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

The results of the Paris Conference testified that the European powers continue to dominate world politics. This did not suit the United States and Japan, whose power was constantly growing.

The end of the Paris Peace Conference did not bring the long-awaited stabilization to the world. Civil wars and acute social conflicts continued in many states. One of the tangled knots of contradictions began in the Far East, where the interests of Japan, the USA and England clashed. The situation there escalated so much that the press began to talk about the possible start of a new war.

However, it did not come to that: American diplomacy suggested holding an international conference to discuss controversial issues. It opened on November 12, 1921 in Washington. Nine powers took part in its work, and its result was the signing of agreements that made it possible to complete the construction of the world post-war settlement, the construction of which began at the Paris Peace Conference. As a result of the conference, Japan strengthened its position, and China's sovereignty was recognized.

6. European countries and the USA in the post-war period

The transition from war to peace in European countries proved to be lengthy. The conclusion of peace treaties, the formation of new states on the ruins of empires, the decline of social movements, the cessation of anti-Soviet intervention and the beginning of the normalization of relations between Soviet Russia and the West opened the way to stabilization. This process of normalization of life began first in the victorious countries. The United States, France, England, Scandinavian countries, having completed the transfer of the economy to a peaceful track, embarked on the path of economic growth, which continued until the start of the global economic crisis of 1929-1933.

The most important condition for stabilizing the economic life of European countries was to overcome post-war inflation, restore the stability of national currencies, primarily in Germany, which experienced economic chaos until 1924. The implementation of the Dawes plan, which provided loans to Germany, opened the way to the restoration of its economy, which in turn allowed to restore the normal conditions of international economic exchange. Suspension of post-war inflation has become one of the important prerequisites for economic growth.

In the 1920s in the leading capitalist countries, a structural restructuring of the economy took place, the post-war devastation was overcome, and socio-economic living conditions improved. Much attention was paid to the intensification of production processes and the improvement of their technical level. This made it possible to sharply increase labor productivity, efficiency and profitability of production. The most rapid economic development was in the United States. In those years, the American word "prosperity" (prosperity) expressed optimism and faith in the era of crisis-free economic development. An important role in ensuring economic growth in a number of European countries was played by state regulation, which supplemented the market mechanisms of economic development.

But economic stabilization in the capitalist world proved to be fragile. Its main weakness was the growing by the end of the 1920s. the gap between the mass production of goods and the low effective demand of the population. A crisis in the sale of goods, a crisis of overproduction, was brewing. On October 24, 1929, a panic broke out on the New York Stock Exchange: everyone wanted to sell their shares. The capitalist world, following the United States, plunged into the abyss of the global economic crisis.

This crisis completed the historical evolution of the type of capitalist economy that was characteristic of the late 20th and early 30th centuries. This crisis was not typical. The cyclical crisis of overproduction coincided with a structural crisis. New equipment and technology created in the 1929s and 1933s could ensure mass production, but this process of renewal could not reach the level of growth without ensuring the conditions for mass consumption. For mass production, a mass buyer was needed. The traditional market mechanism for overcoming the crisis of XNUMX-XNUMX. turned out to be ineffective, it had to be supplemented by mechanisms of state regulation. The crisis aggravated the social situation in the capitalist countries. The only way out of this situation could be to change the social functions of the state.

The most successful search for ways out of the crisis was carried out by the prominent English economist J. M. Keynes. His theory proposed to expand the volume of consumption, demand by increasing government spending from the budget and even at the expense of public debt, in order to prevent overstocking and at the same time redistribute funds in favor of those in particular need, for the organization of public works, new jobs. Keynesianism is also associated with proposals for the creation of structures of social partnership and the stability of wages and its growth in connection with the growth of labor productivity.

In the 1930s The reformist way out of the crisis was characteristic of countries with reserves and strong democratic traditions. These countries included the UK, France, the Scandinavian countries, the USA, Canada and a number of others.

7. What were the results of the First World War for the countries of Latin America?

The First World War accelerated the further capitalist development of the countries of Latin America. The influx of European goods and capital temporarily decreased. Prices on the world market for raw materials and food products of the countries of the region increased. Prices for Cuban sugar increased, for example, 11 times. This contributed to the accumulation of capital, the growth of local production, and relatively stable rates of economic development. During the war years, for example, about 6 new industrial enterprises sprang up in Brazil.

In the 1920s the conjuncture on the world market, favorable for the goods of Latin America, remained. However, economic growth continued to be based mainly on extensive factors. The dominance of latifundism in the countryside, the orientation of production to the external market, and dependence on foreign capital remained characteristic.

Politically, Latin American states in the 1920s were in most cases republics rather in name only. The masses of the illiterate population, especially outside the major economic and cultural centers, did not participate in the elections and could not constitute a proper "civil society" and the social basis for a representative democracy.

In the more backward countries of the region, the republican façade was covered by authoritarian and dictatorial conservative regimes ruled for many years by autocratic dictators - "caudillos".

In the more developed capitalist republics - Argentina, Chile, Uruguay - after the war, conservative oligarchic regimes were replaced by constitutional liberal-democratic governments. The reforms adopted by these governments (and also in Mexico after the revolution of 1910-1917) became a new phenomenon in the history of the region.

Liberal reformism here expressed the interests of the strengthened local bourgeoisie, as well as the broader masses of the population - the petty-bourgeois, middle strata, to a certain extent, the working people. It developed under the influence of the reformism of the leading capitalist powers of the early twentieth century. - the era of the establishment of industrial capitalism.

Reformist governments paid great attention to social policy. Their activities in this direction were stimulated by the rise of the labor movement in Latin American countries.

The region was not spared by the economic crisis of the 1930s. During the years of the crisis, the demand for traditional products of Latin America fell sharply. This led to the ruin of huge masses of manufacturers. The country was engulfed in unemployment. The economic crisis has led to increased social instability and violent political change. In a number of countries, the forces of the right opposition have become more active. At the same time, events developed differently in different countries. In Argentina, for example, as a result of a military coup, conservative groups came to power. In Brazil, on the contrary, the crisis shook the position of the "coffee" oligarchy that ruled here, which was used by the opposition bourgeois-nationalist circles. The bourgeois revolution of 1930 put an end to the oligarchic regime.

In Colombia in the same year, the conservative oligarchic regime was replaced by a liberal-reformist one. Chile and Cuba in the early 1930s. as a result of revolutionary mass demonstrations, dictatorial regimes collapsed.

State regulation of the economy in Latin American countries in the 1930s. expressed in the introduction of high protectionist duties on imports and other forms of stimulating economic development: the provision of loans, subsidies, financial and tax benefits to local entrepreneurs, the development of the public sector.

These measures coincided in time with similar measures in the developed countries of Western Europe and North America and were carried out not without their influence.

An important problem in the interwar period for the countries of Latin America was their relationship with the United States. During World War I, the US increased its penetration into Central and South America. But later, fearing the growth of anti-American sentiment and seeking to consolidate its influence in the region, the United States switched to a policy of good neighborly cooperation.

8. How did fascism originate in Italy?

Italy was the birthplace of fascism. It arose on Italian soil in the difficult post-war years and was the product and reflection of the complex and painful processes that were then taking place in this country. Fascist organizations began to emerge in Italy in the spring of 1919. The leader of this movement was Benito Mussolini, a former socialist expelled from the party in 1914 for disagreeing with its anti-war platform. Until 1921 it was a movement, not a political party. There was no clear program for its participants yet. They exploited the emotions that then dominated Italian society - disappointment and discontent. And hence the thirst for change, which the Nazis promised.

Mussolini's numerous speeches lavishly promised to ensure the greatness of the nation, and his own government and democracy as a whole were bitterly criticized for its failure to defend the interests of the nation.

Fascist organizations not only propagated their ideas, they created "self-defense units", which were usually called blackshirts. They were used to intimidate opponents of the Nazis. The fierce anti-communism of the Nazis began to attract the sympathy of those in power, who were seriously concerned about the growth of the influence of leftist forces. Using the political instability characteristic of Italy in the early 1920s, the Nazis began to openly claim power, claiming that only they were able to restore order in the country. To this end, in 1921 they transformed their movement into a party.

At the end of 1922, the fascists made demands to the government regarding the provision of a number of key administrative posts to them and declared that, in case of refusal, they would launch a mass campaign of their supporters against Rome. The situation escalated to the limit. The government resigned because King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign a decree declaring a state of emergency in the country.

Instead, he invited Mussolini to Rome and invited him to head the government. On November 30, 1922, the participants in the fascist march on Rome entered the capital, and on the same day Mussolini headed the government, which at first had a coalition character.

The government of B. Mussolini immediately began to expand its own powers. In 1923, an electoral reform was carried out that was beneficial to the ruling party. The Grand Fascist Council, headed by B. Mussolini, carried out the development of legislative initiatives. The fascist armed detachments (blackshirts) acquired the status of a state institution, personally subordinate to Mussolini.

Since 1923, the persecution of dissidents began. Those who did not agree with the policy of the fascist party were fired from their jobs.

One of the most popular critics of fascism was the member of parliament, the well-known journalist Giacomo Matteotti. He was killed by fascist mercenaries. This event shook all of Italy. A wave of mass demonstrations swept across the country demanding the resignation of the government and the punishment of the murderers. But the anti-fascist forces failed to create a strong bloc of resistance to fascism. This allowed B. Mussolini to take revenge. In 1926, a series of laws were passed that banned all legal anti-fascist activity: all parties except the fascist were subject to dissolution, opposition newspapers were closed, and prominent representatives of the anti-fascist movement were arrested. In 1928, the supreme legislative power was finally transferred to the Great Fascist Council.

The economic crisis of 1929-1933 affected Italy. In many leading Western countries, state levers of influence on the economic life of the country were strengthened. In Italy, the fascist dictatorship offered its own methods for solving this problem. The main institution of state regulation was production corporations, with the help of which it was planned not only to regulate the economy, they were also supposed to personify the "monolithic unity" of the nation.

In the future, Mussolini began to lean towards the idea of ​​the need to intensify external expansion, in which he saw a chance to overcome internal difficulties.

9. What was Roosevelt's New Deal?

By the beginning of the 1930s. The USA became the recognized economic center of the capitalist world, the personification of technological progress.

But the economic crisis of 1929-1933. convincingly demonstrated that the "unique" system of American private enterprise, which quite recently seemed almost a role model for the political and business elite of other Western countries, was on the verge of economic and moral bankruptcy.

In the country, industrial production fell by almost 1929% from 1932 to 50, and about 13 million people lost their jobs. Social problems have become more acute. The depth of the crisis and its worldwide scale required the adoption of emergency and large-scale measures.

During these years, the Republican Party was in power in the United States. President Herbert Hoover advocated the principles of individualism and liberalism, which implied the non-interference of the state in business affairs.

But the crisis led to the bankruptcy of the ideology of "solid individualism." This allowed the Democrats led by Franklin Delano Roosevelt to come to power during the unfolding election campaign of 1932. The state of emergency called for extraordinary measures. President F. Roosevelt proposed them in the form of the New Deal. The name "new course" became the essence of the policy, which was filled with real content only during the so-called "100 days" period of reforms in March-June 1933, when the new president pushed a whole package of laws through Congress.

The essence of these laws was the incredible scale of state regulation of the economy for America and the capitalist world.

The president's first measures were stabilization of the banking system and organization of assistance to the unemployed, the creation of appropriate government agencies to provide assistance on a federal scale, in states and municipalities. For these purposes, the Emergency Federal Relief Organization was created, which appropriated $500 million for distribution to those in need. An important measure was the implementation of a program called the Civilian Reserve Corps. As part of this program, the unemployed, especially young people, were placed in special camps where they received shelter, food, and clothing. They were engaged in public works: landscaping parks, building roads, bridges, etc.

Among the activities carried out during the first phase of the New Deal were laws regulating agricultural relations, aimed at increasing farmers' incomes by increasing the prices of their products.

The central link in the legislation of the first 100 days was associated with the regulation of industrial relations. The fundamentals of the policy of the new administration were reflected in the Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), adopted in the summer of 1933. It consisted of three parts. The first part provided for the introduction of "codes of fair competition". It was a forced restriction of competition. At the same time, prices and production volumes were determined taking into account the size of the market, which made it possible to sell the manufactured products. The balance between the volume of production and the volume of the consumer market has become the starting point for the industry to emerge from the crisis.

The second section of the NIRA regulated relations between entrepreneurs and workers. One of the articles of the law provided for the recognition of trade unions, the right of workers to negotiate and conclude collective agreements with employers on conditions of employment and labor. In 1935, based on the articles of the NIRA, the Labor Relations Act was adopted, which recognized the principles of collective bargaining practice as a national policy of the United States and a mechanism for regulating the conflicting interests of workers and entrepreneurs.

The third part of anti-crisis measures provided for large allocations for public works and the construction of state industrial, military and other facilities.

F. Roosevelt's proposals after overcoming the crisis caused a wave of protests from entrepreneurs. The big press also took up arms against F. Roosevelt. However, in 1936, F. Roosevelt was again supported by voters, he assumed the presidency for a new term.

10. How did the revolution of 1918-1919 go? in Germany?

The end of the First World War did not mean that calm times had returned to Europe. Revolutions broke out in Hungary, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Turkey, and Finland. The revolutionary wave that engulfed these countries also had an impact on neighboring states. Radical elements have become noticeably more active even in such stable and stable countries as the USA and Great Britain.

But the most dramatic events unfolded in Germany. The revolution there began with an uprising of sailors in Kiel. By November 7-8, 1918, unrest swept almost all major cities. Performances in the capital were especially massive. Under their pressure, the head of government, Prince Max of Baden, announced on November 9 the abdication of the Kaiser, who fled abroad.

Germany was proclaimed a republic. A new government was created - the Council of People's Deputies (SNU), headed by a prominent figure in the German Social Democrats F. Ebert. This body consisted of representatives of two parties - the SPD and the USPD. However, a day later, the SNU had a competitor in the struggle for power. On November 10, 1918, the Berlin Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies adopted the appeal "To the Working People!", in which Germany was declared a socialist republic, and the Workers' and Soldiers' Soviets were the bearers of political power. At this stage of the revolution, dual power developed in Germany: in parallel with the SNU, Soviets existed and operated. It was obvious that such a situation could not exist for a long time. Indeed, in November-December 1918, a sharp political struggle was going on in German society, the results of which were to determine the scenario according to which the revolution in Germany would develop.

To prevent further radicalization of the masses, the SNU in November 1918 published its program for further action. It declared in general terms that the government would strive for the "implementation of socialism." However, basically this document only stated the changes that had already taken place by now. The government reiterated its commitments to introduce an 8-hour day, expand the social security system, and hold elections for a Constituent Assembly based on universal suffrage.

The main ideological opponent of the ruling forces was the Spartak group, on the basis of which the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) was created at the end of December 1918. Unlike the social democrats, who defended the evolutionary path of development, the communists believed that only a social revolution could eliminate the contradictions existing in society and bring society to a qualitatively new stage of development. In this situation, the leaders of the KKE, K. Liebknecht and R. Luxembourg, saw their main task in turning the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies into bodies of genuine democracy, which would take on the mission of reorganizing society on socialist principles.

The SNU did not lose hope of seizing full power. In January 1919, a fierce struggle for power between the communists and the social democratic forces flared up again. The government of F. Ebert managed to suppress the mass protest demonstrations organized by the communists. During the barricade battles, the leaders of the KKE, K. Liebknecht and R. Luxembourg, were killed. In an atmosphere of terror against the leftist forces, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held on January 19, which were won by representatives of the bourgeois parties. The Constituent Assembly began its work on February 6, 1919 in the small town of Weimar. The central problem that this body had to solve was the drafting of a new German Constitution. F. Ebert became the interim president of the country, and the government, which included representatives of the SPD, the NDP and the CDA, was headed by F. Scheidemann.

On July 31, 1919, the Constitution of the country was adopted, which consolidated the changes that had taken place in German society under the influence of the revolution. In a short time, Germany made a leap forward in terms of political development - from a conservative imperial form of political organization to a democratic republic.

11. How did the Nazis come to power in Germany?

Economic crisis 1929-1933 had the most devastating impact on Germany. Having not fully recovered from the consequences of the world war and revolutionary upheavals, and burdened with the burden of reparations, the German economy did not have serious reserves to resist the pressure of a powerful crisis. Its scale was enormous. There were 7,5 million unemployed people in the country. The wages of workers have fallen catastrophically. More than 30 thousand small and medium-sized enterprises went bankrupt. Even large corporations were seriously affected.

When the crisis broke out, the government was in power, headed by the leader of the SPD G. Müller. But in March 1930 the government resigned. The new government was headed by G. Brüning. His cabinet did not have a majority in the Reichstag and administered the state through emergency measures. Legislative functions of Parliament were reduced almost to nothing.

The Brüning government sought to shift the consequences of the crisis onto the shoulders of ordinary Germans. The emergency program to combat the crisis, adopted in the summer of 1930, significantly reduced the capabilities of the social sphere. This did not contribute to the growth of the popularity of the government and democratic institutions in general in the eyes of voters. Under these conditions, the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) or Nazi Party began to actively increase its political success. It arose back in 1919. At its origins were A. Hitler, R. Hess, G. Strasser and others. It was not numerous, but in the elections of 1930 6,5 million Germans voted for it, and it became the second largest party strength in the Reichstag.

Rigidly centralized, with strict inner-party discipline, built on the principle of leaderism (fuhrerism), this organization turned in a short time into a powerful force capable of crushing its opponents. But not only this explained the success of the Nazis. Hitler proposed a program for the development of society, in which there were motives that were attractive to a wide variety of social forces.

There were several ideas at the center of the Nazis' mindset. They proceeded from the fact that the world is divided not by class, but by nationality. The nation is the unit from the totality of which the world community is formed. Nations are not equal: there are higher ones, but there are also lower ones. The Nazis considered the Germans to be among the highest nations, and that is why they were destined for a historical mission - to create a "new world order."

To implement this installation, it was necessary to revise the results of the war, to destroy the Versailles system. This could be done only by a strong, monolithic Germany, guided to "great achievements" by the will of the Fuhrer. These general ideas were concretized in relation to the needs of each social group of German society, and on the whole, an attractive political program of action was obtained for the general population, exhausted by the crisis.

The ruling elite of Germany began to gradually support the Nazis as the only force capable of preventing revolution, economic collapse and ensuring the revival of "great Germany".

The Weimar Republic was less and less needed by the ruling elite of the country. In this environment, plans for the transfer of power to Hitler were intensively discussed.

The decisive step in this direction was taken on January 30, 1933, when the country's President P. Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor. New elections were scheduled for March 5, 1933. The Nazis did not yet have full confidence in a decisive political success. Then they went on a provocation, organizing on February 27, 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire.

On March 24, 1933, the Reichstag gave Hitler emergency powers. By the summer, all non-fascist organizations and parties were dissolved or self-liquidated. The organs of the Nazi Party began to perform state functions. After the death of Hindenburg on August 2, 1934, Hitler began simultaneously to fulfill the duties of Reich President and Reich Chancellor, and a little later he was proclaimed Chancellor for Life and Fuhrer of the German people. A new state was formed in Germany - the Third Reich, totally controlled by the Nazis.

12. How did international relations develop on the eve of World War II?

During the years of the economic crisis of 1929-1933. further destruction accelerated and the collapse of the Versailles-Washington system occurred. The rivalry between the leading capitalist countries intensified. The desire to impose their will on other countries by force was constantly growing.

Powers appeared on the international arena, ready to unilaterally go to the scrapping of the international situation that existed at that time. Japan was the first to embark on this path, aggressively defending its interests in China and the Pacific. In 1931, she carried out the occupation of Manchuria - one of the developed provinces of China.

Tensions also escalated in Europe. The main events unfolded in Germany, which was preparing for a radical demolition of the existing world order.

The USSR and France showed serious concern about the developments in Germany. These states came up with the idea of ​​creating a system of collective security in Europe.

Meanwhile, the situation in Europe was heating up. In 1933 Germany withdrew from the League of Nations. The country was building up its military power at a steady pace. Germany, Italy and Japan sought to dismantle the Versailles-Washington system. On October 3, 1935, Italian troops invaded Ethiopia. It was an act of undisguised aggression. Not all European politicians, not in words but in deeds, were ready for decisive action against the aggressor. Many politicians explained the increased aggressiveness of Germany, Italy and Japan by the fact that these powers were infringed in the process of the formation of the Versailles system. Consequently, if to a certain extent we meet their demands, it will be possible to restore the collapsing consensus in international relations. A. Hitler felt this policy of "appeasement" best of all. In March 1936, German troops entered the Rhineland demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles. This move by Germany did not meet with condemnation in the West. Hitler began to feel more and more confident. The strategic tasks of Germany dictated the need to unite the forces of the countries concerned. In 1936-1937. The Anti-Comintern Pact was formed, which included Germany, Japan and Italy. Their main opponents - England, France, the USSR, the USA - failed to show the proper will, overcome the differences that separated them and come out as a united front against the militaristic forces.

Taking advantage of this, in March 1938, Hitler carried out his long-standing plan for the Anschluss (absorption) of Austria, which became part of the Reich. In the autumn of 1938, Hitler began to put pressure on Czechoslovakia so that the government of this country would agree to the transfer of the Sudetenland to Germany. On Hitler's part, this was a risky move, since Czechoslovakia had contractual ties with France and the USSR. However, the President of Czechoslovakia, E. Benes, did not dare to turn to the USSR for help, he placed his hopes only on France. But the leading Western European countries sacrificed Czechoslovakia. England and France gave the green light to the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in exchange for Hitler's assurance that he had no more territorial claims against his neighbors.

With each passing day, the approach of a new war became more and more obvious.

This circumstance prompted Britain and France to start negotiations with the USSR on possible joint actions in the event that Hitler launched a large-scale aggression against other European states. But these negotiations were difficult, the parties did not trust each other.

In this situation, the Soviet leadership, in order to ensure the security of the country, decided to drastically change the orientation of its foreign policy. On August 23, 1939, a non-aggression pact was signed between the USSR and Germany. This agreement corresponded to the state interests of the USSR, as it gave him a respite from participation in the impending war. As for the spheres of influence that were discussed in the German-Soviet negotiations, this was a common practice, only those regions that were traditionally part of Russia were assigned to the sphere of Soviet influence.

13. What was the beginning of World War II?

The unwillingness of the leading Western European countries to conduct constructive negotiations with the USSR on joint actions against a possible aggressor led to the strengthening of Germany.

On September 1, 1939, after staging a provocation on the German-Polish border, the Germans attacked Poland, which had mutual assistance treaties with England and France. Contrary to Hitler's expectations, Poland's allies Great Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3. The dominions and colonial possessions of England and France entered the war. The Second World War has begun.

The Polish troops fought courageously, but they could not resist the aggressor's army. Two weeks after the start of the war, the Polish army was defeated. In place of Poland, a general government was created, controlled by the German command. As for Western Belarus and Western Ukraine, which were then part of Poland, after its surrender, Soviet troops entered this territory, which was included in the USSR.

For the time being, calm reigned on the Western Front. The Anglo-French troops stationed there did not take any action against Germany, although they had a large numerical superiority, since the main forces of the German army were in Poland. The military confrontation on the Western Front, which lasted until the spring of 1940, was called the "strange war." The governments of England and France during this war followed a defensive strategy.

At the end of November, the war began in northern Europe. The Soviet government, having lost hope for a negotiated settlement of the border conflict with Finland, decided to achieve its goal by force. On November 30, 1939, Soviet troops began military operations against Finland. This war was unsuccessful for the USSR. This action damaged the prestige of the USSR: it was expelled from the League of Nations. In the West, they tried to use this event to form a united anti-Soviet front. At the cost of heavy losses, the USSR managed in March 1940 to end this war. The Finnish border was moved away from Leningrad, Murmansk and the Murmansk railway.

In April 1940, the "strange war" ended unexpectedly. On April 9, the Germans occupied Denmark and landed in Norway. On May 10, the Germans, bypassing the Maginot Line, invaded Belgium and Holland, and from there into Northern France. In the Dunkirk area, the Anglo-French grouping of troops was surrounded by the enemy. The Germans quickly began to advance towards Paris. On June 10, 1940, the government fled Paris. A few days later, the government was headed by Marshal F. Pétain, who turned to Germany with a request for peace.

The war was gaining momentum, more and more new countries and territories were included in its orbit. In 1940 Italy showed aggression against British Somalia, Egypt, Greece. September 27, 1940 Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact dividing the world into spheres of influence. Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria were involved in the orbit of this pact.

There was also a war in the Far East, where the conflict zone in China was steadily expanding.

In the spring of 1941, Yugoslavia found itself at the center of the conflict. Under German pressure, the Yugoslav government signed a protocol to join the Triple Alliance. This caused an explosion of indignation in the country. The government has fallen. On April 6, German troops invaded Yugoslavia. She was under the control of the enemy.

On June 22, 1941, German troops crossed the Soviet border without declaring war. The Great Patriotic War began. Hitler planned to end the war in this direction in 8-10 weeks. At first, the Soviet troops suffered heavy losses. The Germans quickly moved inland. Fierce fighting went on all along the Eastern Front. The Germans were preparing to strike the main blow in the Moscow direction. In December 1941, German troops approached Moscow. But they failed to take it by storm. On December 5, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive. The calculations of the Nazi command for a lightning defeat of the USSR failed.

The common danger hanging over the USSR, the USA and England stimulated their unification within the framework of the anti-Hitler coalition.

14. How did the turning point occur during World War II?

A turning point in the war was outlined in the summer - autumn of 1942. The first successes that made it possible to change the general strategic situation were achieved in the Pacific Ocean. On May 7-8, 1942, in a major naval battle in the Coral Sea, the Japanese attack squadron was defeated, as a result of which the Japanese plans for the invasion of Australia were crossed out. In early June, in the area of ​​Midway Island, the American fleet and aircraft dealt a blow to the Japanese fleet of such force that Japan could not recover until the end of the war. As a result, the initiative in this direction passed to the allies.

The Battle of Stalingrad unfolded on the Eastern Front, the outcome of which largely determined the overall outcome of the war.

After the defeat near Moscow, the German command was preparing for a new blitzkrieg. The capture of Stalingrad by the Germans would have made them masters of the situation on the entire Eastern Front. But on November 19, 1942, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive, surrounding 22 fascist divisions near Stalingrad, numbering more than 300 thousand people. On February 2, this grouping was liquidated. At the same time, enemy troops were expelled from the North Caucasus. By the summer of 1943, the Soviet-German front had stabilized.

Using the configuration of the front that was favorable to them, on July 5, 1943, the fascist troops went on the offensive near Kursk in order to regain the strategic initiative and encircle the Soviet grouping of troops on the Kursk Bulge. During fierce battles, the enemy offensive was stopped. On August 23, 1943, Soviet troops liberated Orel, Belgorod, Kharkov, reached the Dnieper, and on November 6 Kyiv was liberated.

During the summer-autumn offensive, half of the enemy divisions were defeated, and significant territories of the Soviet Union were liberated. The disintegration of the fascist bloc began, in 1943 Italy withdrew from the war.

1943 was a year of a radical turning point not only in the course of hostilities on the fronts, but also in the work of the Soviet rear. Thanks to the selfless work of the home front, by the end of 1943, an economic victory over Germany was won. The military industry in 1943 gave the front 29,9 thousand aircraft, 24,1 thousand tanks, 130,3 thousand guns of all kinds. This was more than Germany produced in 1943. The Soviet Union in 1943 surpassed Germany in the production of the main types of military equipment and weapons.

Great assistance to the Soviet troops was provided by partisans operating in the occupied territory of the USSR. In some areas there were entire partisan areas. The German command was forced to send about 10% of its forces located on the Soviet-German front to fight the partisans.

Simultaneously with the Soviet troops, the armed forces of England and the United States went on the offensive. On November 8, 1942, a large Anglo-American landing force under the command of American General D. Eisenhower landed in North Africa, in the French possessions of Morocco and Algeria. The control of North Africa gave the Allies control of the Mediterranean and opened the way for them to invade Italy.

The prospect of the imminent defeat of the aggressors caused the rise of the resistance movement in the occupied countries. This movement was significant in France and Italy. The partisan movement in Yugoslavia, Greece, Albania, and Poland had a wide scope. The national liberation movement in Asia intensified.

The victories, above all, of the Soviet Army and the rise of the resistance movement in the occupied countries changed the attitude of the ruling circles of Britain and the USA to the problem of a second front. They did not want to delay the opening of the second front, because they believed that otherwise the Soviet Union would be able to liberate all of Europe on its own, and it would fall under the rule of the communists. To coordinate military plans, the heads of the three great powers of the anti-fascist coalition - I. V. Stalin, F. Roosevelt and W. Churchill - met in November-December 1943 in the capital of Iran, Tehran. The participants in the Tehran Conference agreed to open a second front in France by the summer of 1944. JV Stalin promised his allies after the end of the war in Europe to enter the war against Japan.

15. How did World War II end?

From the beginning of 1944, the Soviet army launched a powerful offensive on all fronts. By autumn, most of the territory of the Soviet Union was cleared of invaders, and the war was transferred outside our country.

Hitler's bloc began to rapidly fall apart. On August 23, 1944, the fascist regime fell in Romania, and on September 9, an uprising broke out in Bulgaria. On September 19, an armistice was signed with Finland.

The position of Germany worsened even more after the second front was opened in Normandy (France) on June 6, 1944. The allied troops pushed the Germans from Italy, Greece, Slovakia. Things were going well in the Pacific as well. In August 1944, after stubborn fighting, the Americans captured the Mariana Islands. From the air base located on these islands, American bombers could bomb Japan, the situation of which after that deteriorated sharply.

All this raised the problem of a post-war settlement to its full potential. In the autumn of 1944, at a conference in Dumbarton Oaks (USA), the preparation of the Charter of a new international peacekeeping organization, the United Nations, was basically completed. A little earlier, at a conference in Bretton Woods, issues related to the creation of an international monetary system were discussed. There, a decision was made to form two important international financial institutions - the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which supported the entire post-war monetary and financial system. The United States began to play a key role in these organizations, skillfully using them to strengthen its influence in world affairs.

The main thing at the final stage of the war was to achieve an early victory. In the spring of 1944, the war was transferred to the territory of the Reich proper. On April 13, Soviet troops took Vienna, and on April 24 the battle for Berlin began. On April 30, A. Hitler committed suicide, and on May 2, the Berlin garrison capitulated. On the night of May 8-9, 1945, the Germans were forced to sign an act of complete and unconditional surrender of Germany. The war in Europe is over.

The war in the Pacific was drawing to a close. But the high military command of Japan was not going to put up with the steadily looming disaster. However, by the spring of 1945, the strategic initiative had gone over to the side of Japan's opponents. In June, after heavy fighting, the Americans took the island of Okinawa, located in close proximity to the main territory of Japan. The ring around Japan was shrinking ever tighter. The outcome of the war was no longer in doubt.

Its ending was marked by one exceptionally important event: on August 6, 1945, the Americans dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima. On August 9, the Americans repeated their attack, the object of which was the city of Nagasaki. On the same day, the Soviet Union entered the war against Japan. On September 2, 1945, Japan capitulated, and thus World War II ended.

In the course of it, an exclusively aggressive grouping of states that openly claimed to redistribute the world and unify it in their own image and likeness was completely defeated. A serious regrouping of forces also took place in the camp of the victors. The positions of Great Britain, especially France, were noticeably weakened. China began to be considered among the leading countries, but until the end of the civil war there, it could only nominally be considered a great power. All over Europe and Asia, the positions of the left forces were noticeably strengthened, whose authority increased noticeably due to their active participation in the resistance movement, and, conversely, representatives of the right-wing conservative circles, who stained themselves with cooperation with the Nazis, were pushed to the sidelines of the political process.

Finally, not just two great powers appeared in the world, but two superpowers - the USA and the USSR. The equal power of these two giants, on the one hand, and the complete mismatch of the value systems that they represented, on the other, inevitably predetermined their sharp clash in the post-war world, and it was precisely this that until the turn of the 1980s-1990s. became the core of the development of the entire system of international relations.

16. What were the results of World War II? What changes took place in Europe and the world after World War II?

The Second World War left a seal on the entire history of the world in the second half of the XNUMXth century.

The war cost 60 million lives in Europe, to which must be added the many millions who died in the Pacific.

During the war years, millions of people left their former places of residence. Huge material losses during the war. On the European continent, thousands of cities and villages were turned into ruins, plants, factories, bridges, roads were destroyed, a significant part of the vehicles were lost. Agriculture was particularly hard hit by the war. Huge areas of agricultural land were abandoned, the number of livestock was reduced by more than half. Famine was added to the hardships of the war in the post-war period. Many experts believed then that Europe could not recover in the shortest possible time, it would take more than one decade.

After the war, the problems of post-war settlement came to the fore.

The victory of the anti-fascist coalition in World War II led to a new balance of power in the world. As a result of the defeat of fascism, the prestige of the Soviet Union increased, and the influence of democratic forces increased. The balance of forces within the capitalist system has changed. Defeated Germany, Italy and Japan dropped out of the ranks of the great powers for a while. Weakened the position of France. Even Great Britain - one of the three great powers of the anti-fascist coalition - has lost its former influence. But the power of the United States has increased enormously. Possessing a monopoly on atomic weapons and the largest army, far surpassing other countries in the field of economy, science, technology, the United States has become the hegemon of the capitalist world.

The main directions of the post-war peace settlement were outlined during the war by the leading powers of the anti-fascist coalition. At the conferences of the leaders of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain in Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam, as well as at the meeting of the leaders of the USA, Great Britain and China in Cairo, the main questions were agreed: on territorial changes, on the attitude towards the defeated fascist states and the punishment of war criminals, on the creation of a special international organization to maintain international peace and security. The allied powers decided to occupy fascist Germany and militaristic Japan in order to eradicate militarism and fascism.

The territorial seizures of Germany, Italy and Japan were cancelled. The USSR, the USA and England declared that it was necessary to restore the independence of Austria and Czechoslovakia, to return Northern Transylvania to Romania.

The Allies agreed to draw the border between Germany and Poland along the line of the Oder and Neisse rivers. The eastern border of Poland was to run along the Curzon Line. The city of Koenigsberg and the surrounding areas were transferred to the Soviet Union. Germany and its allies had to pay reparations to the countries that became victims of fascist aggression.

It was supposed to release from the power of Japan all the territories that it seized during the war years. Korea was promised independence. Northeast China (Manchuria), the island of Taiwan and other Chinese islands captured by Japan were supposed to be returned to China. South Sakhalin was returned to the Soviet Union and the Kuril Islands, which once belonged to Russia, were transferred.

The full implementation of the principles of a peaceful settlement agreed between the allies presupposed the continuation of cooperation between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain. However, after the end of the war, the contradictions between the main states of the anti-fascist coalition escalated.

Two superpowers appeared in the world - the USA and the USSR, two poles of power, to which all other countries began to orient themselves and which to a decisive extent determined the dynamics of world development. The United States has become the guarantor of Western civilization. Their main adversary was the Soviet Union, which now has allies. The discrepancy between the value systems that they represented predetermined their rivalry, and it was precisely this rivalry until the turn of the 1980s and 1990s. became the core of the development of the entire system of international relations.

17. How did the cold war start?

The victory of the members of the anti-Hitler coalition in the war opened a new chapter in the development of civilization. Further development of events could develop along the path of continuing cooperation between the allies. But in practice, a different scenario was realized.

The collective actions of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition were replaced by the split of the world into two systems, the confrontation between the USSR and the USA began. A period of sharp aggravation of international relations began, which went down in history under the name of the Cold War and was accompanied by sharp polemics on both sides.

One of the first propaganda acts of the Cold War was the speech of the former British Prime Minister W. Churchill, delivered by him on March 5, 1946 in the presence of President Truman in the American city of Fulton. In this speech, Churchill proposed the creation of an "association of English-speaking peoples" to fight against the USSR and communism, which would possess nuclear weapons and could count on overwhelming superiority over the USSR.

Faced with the threat of an atomic attack, the USSR accelerated work on creating its own nuclear weapons. On August 29, 1949, the first test of the Soviet atomic bomb took place.

But the arms race was not stopped at this stage. In 1952, the USA tested an even more powerful weapon - the hydrogen bomb, the USSR tested such weapons in August 1953. The USA created strategic bombers, and the USSR - intercontinental missiles.

An important area of ​​"competition" between the two great powers was the creation of military-political blocs. On April 4, 1949, an agreement on the creation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was signed in Washington. Initially, it included 12 states. This event opened a whole series of US actions aimed at forming around the world a network of its military-political alliances that surrounded the USSR along the entire perimeter of its borders. In 1954, the SEATO bloc was created, which included eight countries: the USA, England, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, and the Philippines. In 1955, the Baghdad Pact was concluded, which was signed by Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan, Iran and Great Britain. All of them maintained close ties with the United States. The USSR also sought to consolidate its zone of influence. In 1949, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was formed, which initially, in addition to the USSR, included five countries of Eastern Europe. To balance the influence of NATO, in 1955, under the leadership of the USSR, a military-political union was created - the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD).

The desire of the two powers in any way to change the balance of power in their favor led to the inevitable clash of their interests in all corners of the globe. A situation has developed that some scholars have dubbed conflict stability. This constant conflict often escalated into the most acute international crises, and even military confrontation.

The largest event of this kind was the war in Korea, which began in June 1950 as a conflict between two Korean states, but quickly internationalized and even ready to develop into a head-on collision of the two superpowers. Since 1946, there has been a war of French colonialists against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. These war centers have seriously destabilized the situation in the world.

After the armistice in Korea in 1953, there was a thaw in international relations. Conferences in Geneva became its two symbols: in April - July 1954 at the level of foreign ministers of 5 great powers (USA, USSR, China, England, France), and in July 1955 at the highest level. During these meetings, it was possible to somewhat reduce the overall charge of confrontation in the world. But the thaw in international relations failed to be consolidated. In the United States, leading politicians continued to advocate the idea of ​​forceful pressure and the use of nuclear weapons. The final point in the short thaw of 1953-1955. staged the Suez crisis (1956), when Great Britain, France and Israel unleashed aggression against Egypt, and the events in Hungary (1956), where an uprising broke out against the system that existed in the country.

18. Why did Germany split?

At the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the USSR, the USA and Great Britain agreed that after the surrender Germany would be subjected to a long occupation. The goals of the occupation were the disarmament, demilitarization and denazification of Germany, including the complete abolition of its armed forces, the destruction of the fascist party and all other fascist organizations, and preparation for the reconstruction of German political life on a democratic basis.

The territory of Germany was divided into four zones of occupation: Soviet - in the east, English - in the northwest, French - in the west and American - in the southwest. The capital of Germany - Berlin, located on the territory of the Soviet zone, was also divided into four sectors of occupation.

Supreme power in Germany was temporarily exercised by the commanders-in-chief of the allied forces, each in his own zone of occupation. The coordination of the actions of the four powers on all matters affecting Germany was carried out by the Control Council, which consisted of the commanders of the occupying forces. The general management of Berlin was entrusted to the quadripartite inter-allied commandant's office. The Control Council and the Inter-Allied Commandant's Office acted on the principle of unanimity.

But almost immediately, fundamental differences arose between the allies. The Soviet Union saw the future of Germany in a completely different way than the United States, Great Britain and France. Therefore, the situation in the eastern and western zones of occupation began to develop according to different scenarios.

In 1946, the USA and England united their zones of occupation into the so-called Bizonia. In 1948, the French zone joined them - Trizonia was formed. The occupying authorities in the western zones gradually transferred control functions to the hands of the German administration, headed by representatives of the bourgeois parties.

In 1948, at a meeting in London, the governments of the United States, England, and France decided to create a separate state on the territory of Trizonia. An important step along this path was the separate monetary reform carried out in Trizonia in the summer of 1948. It was also extended to West Berlin, occupied by the Anglo-American and French troops, but located in the Soviet zone of occupation. In response, the Soviet military administration imposed restrictions on transportation from Trizonia to West Berlin, effectively establishing a blockade of Berlin. An acute international crisis erupted, the main consequence of which was the impossibility of the former allies pursuing in the future any kind of coordinated policy on the German question. The division of Germany was practically inevitable.

The "Berlin Crisis" extremely aggravated relations between the Soviet Union and the Western powers. Some American generals offered to break through the blockade of Berlin by force and even use atomic weapons against the USSR, but the US government did not dare to take such measures and entered into negotiations with the USSR. In May 1949, the "Berlin crisis", which lasted about a year, ended with the USSR lifting restrictions on transportation to West Berlin.

In August 1949, elections were held for the West German parliament. The largest number of seats in it was received by the CDU / CSU bloc. After the completion of the constitution of the parliament on September 7, 1949, the formation of a new state was proclaimed - the Federal Republic of Germany. CDU leader K. Adenauer became its first chancellor.

After that, the formation of the East German state began in the Soviet zone of occupation. On October 7, 1949, the German Democratic Republic was founded. The Soviet military administration in Germany transferred its former control functions to the provisional government of the GDR. Thus, the long-awaited split of the country became a fact.

Two German states with different social and political systems arose on German soil.

No peace treaty with Germany was concluded, and conflicts between the two systems ran across the border between the two German states. Only in 1990, in connection with the reunification of Germany, both the occupation and the quadripartite agreements regarding Germany ceased to operate.

19. How was the post-war recovery of the world economy?

Before all the states participating in the war, the tasks of demobilizing multimillion-strong armies, finding employment for the demobilized, transferring industry to peacetime production, and restoring military destruction were acutely faced.

The economies of the defeated countries, especially Germany and Japan, suffered the most. In most European countries, the card distribution system was maintained, and there was an acute shortage of food, housing, and industrial goods. Only in 1949 did the industrial and agricultural production of capitalist Europe restore its pre-war level.

The economies of the United States and Canada, as well as some countries of Latin America that were not affected by the war, developed at a much faster pace.

The United States was far ahead of all other capitalist countries in terms of the rate of development and volume of industrial output. In 1948, the volume of American industrial production was 78% higher than the pre-war level. The United States then produced more than 55% of the industrial output of the entire capitalist world and concentrated almost 75% of the world's gold reserves in its hands. The products of American industry penetrated the markets where the goods of Germany, Japan or the US allies - England and France - previously dominated.

Second place in the capitalist world was occupied by Great Britain, followed by France and other countries.

The superiority of the United States was secured by a new system of international monetary and financial relations. In 1944, at the UN conference on monetary and financial issues in Bretton Woods (USA), it was decided to create the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which became intergovernmental institutions that regulate monetary and credit relations between their constituent capitalist states. The participants of the conference agreed to establish a fixed gold content of the dollar, on which the rates of other currencies were guided.

The US-dominated International Bank for Reconstruction and Development provided IMF members with loans and credits to develop the economy and maintain balance of payments equilibrium.

An important measure to stabilize the economic life of post-war Europe was the “Marshall Plan” (named after the US Secretary of State) - US assistance to Western countries for economic recovery. For 1948-1952 this aid amounted to $13 billion.

By the beginning of the 1950s. the countries of Western Europe and Japan largely overcame the consequences of the war. Their economic development accelerated. A rapid economic recovery began. They restored their economy and began to overtake rivals Germany and Japan. The rapid pace of their development began to be called an economic miracle.

In some European countries, partial nationalization of industry and banks was carried out. This was insisted upon by the broad masses of the people, who thus sought to open the way for social progress. Some circles of the bourgeoisie also advocated nationalization, believing that state regulation of the economy would be able to strengthen the positions of the bourgeoisie and save their countries from economic crises and social upheavals.

In the first post-war years in most European countries and the United States, state regulation of social relations intensified. Social legislation was updated and expanded, state regulation of relations between labor and capital was strengthened, paid holidays were restored, various social benefits were increased, including unemployment benefits, disability benefits, etc. Thus, an extensive social infrastructure was created. The state began to play a decisive role in the development of science, education and health care, in the construction of schools, hospitals, etc. As a result, capitalism acquired certain new features, and the material situation of the working people improved.

Serious changes have taken place in the ideology of the ruling classes of the capitalist countries. The leading role now began to be played by supporters of state regulation of the economy, who were inspired by the ideas of John Keynes and sought to adapt them to new conditions.

20. What were the main trends in the development of the countries of Eastern Europe after World War II?

The countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe (Poland, the German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania), which in the post-war period began to be called simply Eastern Europe, went through dramatic trials.

During the war years, some of them were occupied by German and Italian troops (Poland, Czech Republic, Yugoslavia, Albania), others were allies of Germany and Italy. Peace treaties were concluded with these countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania).

The liberation of Europe from fascism opened the way to the establishment of a democratic system and anti-fascist reforms. The defeat of the Nazi troops by the Soviet Army on the territory of these countries had a decisive influence on the internal processes in the states of Eastern Europe. They ended up in the orbit of influence of the Soviet Union.

Implementation in the countries of Eastern Europe in 1945-1948. democratic transformations (restoration of parliamentary regimes, multi-party system, universal suffrage, adoption of constitutions, agrarian reforms, punishment of war criminals, nationalization of the property of active Nazi criminals and their allies) were also characteristic of the countries of the European West. However, in the conditions of post-war Soviet-American rivalry and due to direct pressure and assistance from the USSR in 1947-1948. in the countries of Eastern Europe, the communist parties established themselves in power, which pushed back and liquidated their political opponents - the liberal democratic parties. Having completed the process of establishing autocracy, which was then called the period of people's democratic revolutions, the communist parties of the Eastern European countries proclaimed the beginning of the construction of socialism.

At the same time, the socio-economic and political system that had established itself in the USSR became the initial model. A greater or lesser degree of copying the experience of the USSR was typical for all countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. Although Yugoslavia chose a slightly different variant of socio-economic policy, in its main parameters it represented a variant of totalitarian socialism, but with a greater orientation towards the West.

In Eastern European countries, as a rule, a one-party political system was established. The created popular fronts sometimes included political representatives of parties that did not have political influence.

In the post-war period, in all countries of the region, the main attention was paid to the problems of industrialization, the development of heavy industry, first of all, since, except for Czechoslovakia and the GDR, all other countries were agrarian. Industrialization was accelerated. It was based on the nationalization of industry, finance, and trade. Agrarian reforms ended with collectivization, but without the nationalization of the land. The management system of all branches of the economy was concentrated in the hands of the state. Market relations were reduced to a minimum, and the administrative distribution system triumphed.

The overstrain of finances and the budget reduced the possibilities for the development of the social sphere and the entire non-productive sphere - education, health care, and science. Sooner or later, this was bound to have an impact on both the slowdown in the rate of development and the deterioration of living conditions. The model of an extensive type of production, requiring ever greater involvement of material, energy and labor costs, has exhausted itself. The world was entering a different reality - the era of scientific and technological revolution, which implies a different, intensive type of production. The countries of Eastern Europe proved to be immune to the new economic demands.

Further socialist development diverged more and more actively from the natural-historical process of the development of European civilization. The uprisings in Poland and strikes in other countries, the uprising in the GDR in 1953, the Hungarian uprising of 1956 and the "Prague Spring" of 1968, suppressed by the troops of neighboring socialist countries - all this is sufficient evidence of the implantation of the socialist ideal in the form he was understood by the communist parties of that time.

21. How was the development of the United States after the Second World War?

The United States emerged from the war as the most economically and militarily powerful country in the capitalist world. G. Truman, who took this post in 1945 in connection with the death of F. Roosevelt, became the President of the United States.

The transition of the economy and the social sphere, called reconversion, began at the final stage of the war. Arranging the life of demobilized soldiers and officers became one of the main problems of post-war perestroika. Many laws and government decisions were adopted to arrange for the participants in the war, to provide them with jobs, land, housing, medical care, and training.

The smooth flow of reconversion was facilitated by the presence of a capacious domestic market in the country. By the end of the war, the United States had $129 billion in liquid savings, the existence of which provided a powerful stimulus to the production of consumer goods and capital construction.

The positions of the country's big business have significantly strengthened. This created internal political difficulties in the implementation of the reformist policy initiated by F. Roosevelt. In 1947, the Taft-Hartley Act was passed, which significantly limited the democratic opportunities of workers. Plans were hatched to reduce taxes on corporations, to limit the policy of regulating socio-economic relations.

The internal political situation was also complicated by the impending presidential elections in 1948. G. Truman faced a difficult task: how to repel the onslaught of opponents of liberal reforms and with what program to go to those who were in favor of further socio-economic reform of the country. It was decided to focus on deepening reforms in the sphere of domestic policy and on the hard strengthening of the hegemonic position of the United States in the sphere of foreign policy. The combination of these two principles allowed Truman to maintain his position of power. The program of action proposed by H. Truman at a new stage in the country's development has gone down in history under the name "fair course." Assuming the presidency in 1949, H. Truman promised to achieve the abolition of the Taft-Hartley Act and the expansion of the social insurance system. He also talked about the adoption of federal legislation in the field of civil rights of the Negro population, about raising the minimum wage, about the adoption of a large-scale housing program for low-income families, about helping farmers.

However, it was not possible to fully implement the "social course" program. Representatives of the influential business elite were unwilling to bear the costs of maintaining new social programs. Truman's reformist plans were largely confused by the war in Korea that began in June 1950, which dramatically changed the general vector of US domestic political development. By this time, confrontational relations between the United States and the USSR also sharply intensified. The topic of "communist infiltration" into the authorities has become topical. So, in 1946, a commission was created to check the loyalty of civil servants. Representatives of the Republican Party demanded a decisive purge of all state structures from unreliable elements. Senator J. McCarthy contributed to the whipping up of anti-communist hysteria (hence the term "McCarthyism" as a manifestation of political intolerance). All these internal political processes reduced the chances for the successful implementation of the "fair course" program.

During the 1952 presidential election, the Republicans managed to win. The twenty-year "era of democrats" is over. Republican leader D. Eisenhower became the new president of the United States.

He gradually managed to extinguish the activity of the McCarthyists, as this had a destabilizing effect on the US political system, and this damaged both the development of the economy and the image of the United States in the international arena.

The regular presidential elections held in 1956 symbolized the establishment of consensus principles in society and the stabilization of all its constituent components. Both the elite and society were satisfied with the current state of affairs, and the task of the leadership was to continue to support the stable development of the country and public harmony.

22. What are the features of the development of Great Britain after the Second World War?

Great Britain emerged victorious from World War II, as one of the participants in the anti-Hitler coalition. Its human losses were less than during the First World War, but the material damage was estimated at many billions of pounds. In addition, Great Britain lost a significant part of its external financial assets, became a debtor to the United States and its dominions.

After the end of the war, there was a growing desire for progressive change among the working people within the country; among the peoples of the British colonies - the desire for national liberation.

In the context of a huge rise in democratic sentiment in the country, the popularity of the Labor Party, which traditionally fought for political influence with its rival, the Conservative Party, was actively growing.

In 1945, the success of the Labor Party. Labor came up with an extensive program of reforms in the social field. This program was called "Face to the Future". Its ultimate goal was the creation of the "Socialist Commonwealth of Great Britain". The Laborites saw the best path to this goal in the evolution of the economy in the direction of increasing the proportion of state property in it. In this regard, the central point of the program was the task of nationalizing a number of sectors of the country's economy.

The Labor program promised broad measures in the social field: improving the system of health care and social insurance, expanding housing construction, and improving the system of public education.

The Conservatives, absolutely confident in the popularity of their leader W. Churchill, did not even try to oppose anything to the expanded Labor program.

As a result, the Conservative Party was defeated in the July 1945 parliamentary elections. Almost half of the voters gave their votes to the Labor Party, which brought them an absolute majority in Parliament. K. Attlee became the new head of government.

The new government embarked on a number of serious reforms, significantly expanded the public sector in the economy, and implemented a nationalization program for a number of key sectors of the economy. Thus, having fulfilled an important part of their promises, the Laborites got into their hands powerful levers for managing macroeconomic processes, which allowed them to avoid the escalation of social tension at that time.

But the further implementation of social reforms in the field of health care, social insurance, education, and housing construction required significant public funds. To cover the steadily increasing government spending, the Laborites were forced to increase taxes and the public debt. Financial difficulties began to grow in the country, which forced the government in 1949 to switch to an economy regime. A temporary wage freeze was announced. But this did not improve the situation. Then the government resorted to the devaluation of the pound sterling by 30%, which had a negative impact on the standard of living of most of the British. Strong supporters of curtailing reforms appeared in the Labor Party. The factional struggle in the party weakened the position of the Laborites in the political process.

In 1951, the Conservative Party won the early parliamentary elections. Its former leader W. Churchill again took the chair of the prime minister. But the conservatives did not agree to dismantle the previously created socio-economic infrastructure.

This situation has led to the dominance of consensus tendencies in the political process of the country.

In April 1955 W. Churchill resigned. His place was taken by A. Eden, who had a reputation as a progressive conservative. But it was during his reign that the largest foreign policy crisis in the post-war history of Great Britain occurred, associated with the growth of the national liberation movement in the country's colonial possessions.

The government tried by force to reverse these unfavorable trends in the development of the empire. After the Suez adventure (1956), A. Eden was forced to resign. He was replaced by G. MacMillan, the new leader of the Conservatives.

23. What happened in France in the post-war period?

Already in the course of the liberation of France from the German occupiers, power in the country passed to the Provisional Government, in whose activities all the main forces of the Resistance movement, including the Communists, participated. General Charles de Gaulle became the head of the Provisional Government. It was the Provisional Government that had to solve the priority tasks related to the restoration of statehood and the transition to peaceful life. France had to find the optimal form of the political organization of societies, to enshrine it in the new Constitution.

It was these questions that found themselves at the center of the political struggle in the first post-war years. The collapse of the Third Republic, the collapse of the Vichy regime gave a powerful impetus to the party-political regrouping in France. Active participation in the resistance movement predetermined the strengthening of the left forces - communists and socialists. Conversely, the right-wing forces that collaborated with the Vichy regime withdrew from active political activity.

The leading bourgeois parties of the pre-war period united in a new party - the Republican Party of Freedom. But the MRP party (People's Republican Movement), founded in 1944, claimed the leading political positions in the country. She stressed the need for structural reforms, including the partial nationalization of banks and key industrial enterprises, as well as the development of social partnerships to create an "association of labor and capital."

Such a configuration of political forces predetermined the results of the first post-war elections, held in October 1945, in which the deputies of the Constituent Assembly were elected. This body was to develop and adopt a new Constitution. As a result of the elections, the communists, the MRP and the socialists won. It was decided to create a coalition government headed by de Gaulle. However, disagreements soon arose between the main political forces. In January 1946, after a conflict over military appropriations, de Gaulle announced his resignation.

The new coalition government was headed by the socialist F. Guen. At that time, the issue of adopting a new Constitution was in the center of attention. The government's proposals were opposed by right-wing forces and centrists. After that, re-elections of the Constituent Assembly took place. Its structure has changed somewhat: representatives of the MRP have strengthened their positions. The leader of the MRP, J. Bidault, took over as head of government. This time, the leading political forces managed to coordinate their positions on the text of the new Constitution. In October 1946 it was approved and France received a new constitution.

France established a parliamentary republic. The country entered the history of the development of the Fourth Republic. From that time until the fall of the Fourth Republic, governments were formed on the basis of a coalition of a number of parties. The multi-party system was one of the reasons for the instability of the regime - about 12 cabinets were replaced in 15 years. Another reason for the growing crisis of the republic over the years was the colonial wars waged by the ruling circles of the country: in Vietnam in 1946-1954, in Algeria since 1954.

Despite political instability, by 1948 France had brought industrial production to the pre-war level. We had to solve new problems of modernizing the economy. But the country had problems in implementing social development plans. This led to increased social tension.

The internal political situation was also complicated by the war in Algeria, where the French army could not cope with the national liberation movement that was gaining momentum.

On May 13, 1958, the ultra-colonialists mutinied in Algeria, seized power there, and demanded that power be transferred to General de Gaulle. He declared that he was ready to take full responsibility for the state of affairs in France, subject to the granting of emergency powers to him and the revision of the Constitution of 1946. France was on the verge of civil war. Under these conditions, the current politicians decided to accept de Gaulle's conditions. Thus ended the period of the Fourth Republic.

24. Federal Republic of Germany in the post-war period. How was the ascent?

After the surrender of Germany, the western zone of occupation returned to normal life. The occupying authorities held trials against war criminals, carried out decartelization, and restored political parties and trade unions.

But the socio-economic policy of the Western powers in Germany was characterized by a certain duality. On the one hand, none of the allies wanted the revival of a powerful, aggressive competitor. On the other hand, the West needed a strong Germany, which had to be actively involved in the fight against a common enemy - the USSR. This dilemma determined the actions of the Western powers in the German question.

The revival of the normal functioning of market mechanisms was launched by a separate monetary reform initiated by the United States in 1948. Although this reform aggravated the crisis and led to the final division of Germany, it had positive domestic political consequences for the western zone of occupation.

To transform the new Germany into a typical Western democracy, it was also necessary to create political structures that provide optimal conditions for the functioning of the state and society.

On the day of the fourth anniversary of the surrender of Nazi Germany, the Parliamentary Council, created on the initiative of the Western powers in their zones of occupation, approved the Basic Law, on the basis of which elections were held to the Bundestag - the lower house of the new West German parliament. The CDU/CSU block received the largest number of seats in it. The upper house of parliament was formed from the German lands. After the completion of the constitution of the parliament, on September 7, 1949, the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed. CDU leader K. Adenauer became its first chancellor.

The main task of the new government was to determine the strategy for the country's economic recovery and its further development. In contrast to the prevailing since the beginning of the twentieth century. The practice of centralized economy at a new historical stage adopted a program of transition to a free competitive market economy. This new order was called the "social market economy". According to him, market development had to be supplemented by a strong social policy of the state, capable of mitigating social contrasts and social injustice generated by market relations.

These ideas began to be put into practice by German Chancellor K. Adenauer and Economics Minister L. Erhard.

The social market economy model has been successfully implemented. In Germany, industrial modernization was completed, a powerful potential for the mass production of durable goods was created, the working population was practically fully employed, and living standards were raised. What happened in the German economy in the 1950s was not without reason called a miracle: in a short time, the country, which was in a state of devastation, reached the forefront on a global scale. In the 1950s the average annual growth rate of production in Germany remained at the level of 9%, which is an extremely high figure even for a highly developed country. This allowed the FRG to triple its national income by 1962.

In addition to domestic political and economic tasks, the government of K. Adenauer had to deal with foreign policy issues related to determining the place of the FRG in the bipolar system, restoring its status in international affairs. Germany was connected to the military-political structures of the West, including NATO. Germany actively participated in the development of economic integration of Western European countries. All these steps, along with the impressive success of its own economy, allowed the FRG to strengthen its position: having started in 1949 practically from scratch, in less than 10 years, the FRG managed to largely restore its prestige as a key European power.

But many factors that provided a powerful breakthrough for Germany in the 1950s had exhausted themselves by the end of the decade. This led to a decline in the influence of the CDU/CSU. Opposition grew. The country was moving more and more clearly towards strengthening its conservative positions.

25. The theory of the "welfare state": essence, causes of the crisis?

The concept of the "welfare state" flourished most in the late 1950s and early 1960s. According to this concept, in the Western countries such regulation of economic development was carried out, which led to the stabilization of social relations. As a result, a new society has emerged in Western countries, the features of which are the achievement of a high standard of living, determined by mass consumption and social security. In this society, much attention began to be paid to the development of education, health care, and the social sphere in general.

The theory of regulation of market relations was developed by the English economist D. M. Keynes back in the 1930s. (the theory of "effective demand"). But it wasn't until after World War II that Western and North American governments were able to apply Keynesian theory. The expansion of aggregate demand has created a mass consumer of durable goods. It was precisely due to the structural changes in the "production-consumption" system that occurred in the 1950s-1960s that it became possible for a relatively long period of economic recovery and high growth rates, reducing unemployment to the level of full employment in Western countries.

The symbol of this economic recovery was the car, which became available for personal use of millions of Westerners. Refrigerators, televisions, radios, washing machines, and so on became widely available. From a long-term perspective, the market for durable goods was approaching the mid-1970s. to the edge of saturation.

Profound changes have also taken place in the agricultural sector of Western European countries. The powerful development of biotechnology and agricultural engineering made it possible to complete the mechanization and chemicalization of agriculture in the post-war decade. As a result, by the mid-1960s. Western Europe not only became fully self-sufficient in food, but also became a major food exporter. The intensification of agricultural production led to a reduction in employment. The service sector, which also includes education, health care and the social security system, has become an important area for absorbing the vacant labor force.

The peak of social reform in Western countries came in the 1960s. The major social transformations carried out at that time, although they significantly changed the face of Western society, at the same time marked the limits of the possibilities of liberal etatism.

The rapid development of the scientific and technological revolution, which also occurred in the 1960s, inspired hope for a sustainable further economic growth. Scientific and technological revolution contributed to the growth of needs, led to a constant renewal of the range of products, which left an imprint on the entire sphere of production, dictated its own conditions. All these factors affected not only material production, but also the culture of society. 1960s were marked by a stormy surge of "mass culture" that influenced the entire lifestyle.

Funds for ensuring stable economic growth were obtained mainly from taxes, government loans and money emission. This led to the formation of a budget deficit, but at that time they did not see any particular danger in it. Scarce public funding for numerous social programs was supposed to expand demand, which increased business activity and, as politicians and economists believed, guaranteed social stability. But there were flaws in these theoretical constructions. Deficit funding was inevitably accompanied by rising inflation. These negative moments began to affect later, in the 1970s, when a massive criticism of Keynesianism began.

By the end of the 1960s. it became clear that economic growth in itself does not save society from shocks. By the turn of the 1960-1970s. it became obvious that the implementation of social reforms does not guarantee sustainable social progress. It turned out that they have a lot of vulnerabilities, and this in the 1970s. used by conservatives.

26. How was the development of the United States in the late 1950s and 1960s?

By the end of the 1950s. The rapid development of the scientific and technological revolution gave rise to new domestic and foreign policy problems that the United States faced. This required extraordinary recipes for their solution. During the election campaign of 1960, in the traditional confrontation between Republicans and Democrats, the latter, led by their leader J.F. Kennedy, won.

They won under the slogan of "new frontiers", which promised the Americans a change for the better, progress and prosperity. At the forefront was the increase in economic growth, which was supposed to give the state additional funds for the implementation of social reforms. But this orientation of the internal political course caused sharp discontent among the conservative forces.

The American society was especially excited by Kennedy's decision to start eliminating racial segregation and discrimination. Since the second half of the 1950s. In the United States, mass protests by African Americans for their rights began to rapidly gain momentum. This led to an increase in social tension, as local authorities did not want to abandon their previous policy towards the black population of the country. Subsequently, these issues still had to be resolved, as extremist sentiments grew among the Negro population. True, it took the US authorities a long effort to stabilize the situation.

The assassination of Kennedy on November 22, 1963 led to a change in the head of the White House. L. Johnson took over as president. He continued the policy of his predecessor. Moreover, on the eve of the next presidential election, led by the new leader, the Democrats decided to put forward an even more ambitious and large-scale program than the "new frontiers" for building a "great society." On its basis, important social reforms were carried out in the United States. A law was passed to help low-income families, a program for the construction of cheap housing was implemented, and medical insurance for the elderly was introduced. The implementation of social programs required a significant increase in government spending. For social purposes by the end of the 1960s. took about 40% of the federal budget. This course drew strong condemnation from the Republicans. The implementation of social programs met with serious obstacles caused by the fighting of the American army in Vietnam. This US intervention cost the Democrats power.

During the 1968 elections, the Republicans won, who nominated R. Nixon as their candidate for the presidency of the country, who adopted the slogan "law and order" during the election campaign, which promised the Americans the strengthening of law and order. At the same time, Nixon promised to end the Vietnam War, which had sparked a protest movement in the country.

Nixon weakened the regulatory functions of the federal government in the field of socio-economic relations. Appropriations for the fight against poverty and for the construction of cheap housing were sharply reduced. The federal government has moved to a policy of freezing prices and wages. But in the sphere of social policy, the Nixon administration did not go for drastic spending cuts.

More impressive were the achievements of the American administration of R. Nixon in the field of foreign policy. During this period, tension in Soviet-American relations somewhat decreased. In 1972, during the President's visit to Moscow, a number of bilateral agreements on the limitation of strategic arms were signed. There was a desire to curtail the American military presence in Vietnam.

In the 1972 elections, R. Nixon won again. However, he could not take advantage of his success. Already in 1973, a series of political scandals began in America over illegal eavesdropping by Republicans of Democratic campaign staff, which ended in 1974 with Nixon's resignation. These events, which went down in history as the "Watergate scandal", damaged the image of the US government. On top of all the troubles, the country was hit by an economic crisis that set the task of structural reforms of the economy.

27. How did the development of England in the late 1950s. and the 1960s?

If for most of the leading Western countries the end of the 1950s. and 1960s. were a time of rapid economic growth, the same cannot be said about the UK. English industry was stagnating, its position in the world economy was weakened. By the beginning of the 1970s. it occupied only fourth place in the global economic hierarchy.

The urgent tasks of modernizing production and renewing fixed capital that faced the country required significant funds. An even heavier burden on the country's economy was the growing military spending. They began to increase after the failure of the Suez adventure. The country's budget deficit was growing, and this, in turn, complicated the solution of the problem of increasing the effectiveness of British policy.

At the turn of the 1950-1960s. The difficulties of the British Empire increased significantly in connection with the powerful upsurge of the national liberation movement.

But, despite these difficulties, the Conservatives managed to stay in power until 1963, when a scandal erupted in connection with the love affairs of Secretary of Defense J. Profumo. In order not to undermine the reputation of the Conservative Party, G. MacMillan resigned. A. Douglas-Home took his place. There was a change of leader in the camp of the Laborites. The opposition party was headed by G. Wilson. Under the leadership of the new head of the Laborites, a program manifesto was prepared, in which the emphasis was on stimulating scientific and technological progress as a means of overcoming the stagnation of the British economy.

With this program, the Laborites entered the parliamentary elections held in 1964. The Laborites won by a small margin from the Conservatives. This allowed G. Wilson to form the fifth Labor government. Under his leadership, the "five-year economic plan" was approved by the parliament. It provided for an annual increase in production at the level of 5%, which would make it possible to eliminate the deficit in the balance of payments.

To fulfill the plan, G. Wilson had to ensure joint action (government - business - trade unions). Prepared in connection with this government document "Declaration of Intent" proposed to limit the growth of wages and price increases. This policy was called the "price and income policy". But after the 1966 elections, Labor moved to a forced wage freeze, which angered the unions. In 1967 G. Wilson had to devalue the national currency. But this did not change the economic situation. The domestic political situation was complicated by a sharp aggravation of the situation in Northern Ireland, where the Catholic minority became more active. In response to this, the Labor government in 1969 decided to introduce British armed forces into Northern Ireland. This marked the beginning of the long-term Ulster crisis.

Labor was defeated in the 1970 elections. The new conservative government was headed by E. Heath. His campaign program "Better Future" focused on stimulating the British economy, not by stepping up government regulation, but by supporting private enterprise. But this course led to the fact that powerful labor conflicts began to shake the country. The escalation of the conflict in Northern Ireland has added to the tense situation in the field of labor relations. In an effort to bring down the intensity of passions, London in March 1972 introduced its direct rule in this territory. In 1973 a referendum was held on the status of Northern Ireland. The majority on it were supporters of maintaining the union with Great Britain. However, the Catholic minority boycotted the referendum, was not going to put up with its results, and tensions in the province remained high.

All this weakened the position of the conservatives. During the regular elections, they again gave way to the Laborites, headed by G. Wilson. However, the new cabinet could not count on a speedy resolution of the crisis problems. These circumstances made the situation in the country unstable and did not allow hope for stabilization in the near future.

28. How was the struggle for the revival of the greatness of France?

In December 1958 Charles de Gaulle was elected President of France. Under the new Constitution, which laid the foundation for the Fifth Republic, de Gaulle received wide powers: he had the functions of head of state, supreme commander. He appointed the prime minister and ministers, without his signature no law could come into force. De Gaulle concentrated all power in his hands.

The most acute problem that Charles de Gaulle immediately had to face was the ongoing war in Algeria. Having overcome the resistance of the ultra-colonialists and suppressed the rebellion of the army command in Algeria, de Gaulle began negotiations with the Algerian Republic, and in March 1962 an agreement was signed in Evian on granting independence to Algeria.

The end of the war in Algeria allowed de Gaulle to intensify his actions on solving the socio-economic problems inherited from the Fourth Republic. The president understood that it was unrealistic to fight for the revival of the greatness of France without relying on an economic foundation. Therefore, in France, priority has been given to ensuring high rates of economic growth. De Gaulle associated the solution of this problem with the activation of the role of the state in stimulating economic development. In France, in those years, methods of socio-economic planning began to be used, the state sought to influence the sphere of finance in the direction it needed, to introduce advanced technologies into production, and to encourage scientific and technological progress.

Favorable changes in the economy also affected the social sphere. In the 1960s there has been a significant improvement in the level and quality of life of the population. Wages increased by 25%, paid holidays increased, the scope of the social security system expanded. The sphere of education has become more accessible to the general population.

The end of the war in Algeria changed the balance of power on the political scene. The positions of the ultra-right forces have sharply weakened. This led to the fact that the fear of a coup d'état disappeared in society and, consequently, the need to trust the fate of the state to a strong personality.

These circumstances contributed to the growth of the opposition and the intensification of its activities. Faced with the growth of the ranks of the opposition, Charles de Gaulle decided to try to further strengthen the role of the president in the political life of France. He proposed introducing direct presidential elections. He submitted this plan to a referendum held in October 1962. The president's idea was supported by the majority of the country's population. In an effort to consolidate his success, de Gaulle called new elections to the National Assembly. The President's plan succeeded. De Gaulle again won a victory and held positions of power for a relatively long time.

But in 1968 France was suddenly hit by a political hurricane. The root cause of the most acute crisis, which threatened to blow up the foundations of the Fifth Republic, was the speeches of radical students. The conflict between the students and the administration of the Sorbonne University ended in bloody clashes between the parties. This event shook the whole country. Trade unions and other left-wing forces came to the defense of the students. In May 1968 a powerful strike movement began.

De Gaulle managed to maintain control over the situation and even won again in the 1968 parliamentary elections. But to stabilize the situation, it was necessary to make adjustments to the political course. De Gaulle conceived a series of reforms to soften the class struggle and replace it with class cooperation, providing for the participation of workers in the management of enterprises. The beginning of the reforms was supposed to be laid by the draft law on the restructuring of local self-government bodies, drawn up in the spirit of "participation". To emphasize the importance of the bill, de Gaulle submitted it to a referendum and announced that if it was rejected, he would resign. But as a result of a referendum held in 1969, the majority of voters rejected the bill. De Gaulle immediately resigned the presidency and retired from the political scene.

29. Economic crisis of 1974-1975 and its influence on the development of Western civilization

Among the post-war economic upheavals, a special place belongs to the crisis of 1974-75. It covered almost all developed countries of the West and Japan.

The crisis led to the stagnation of the traditional sectors of the economy of these countries, to disruptions in the credit and financial sphere, and to a sharp drop in growth rates.

The use of anti-crisis measures based on neo-Keynesian recipes, which included an increase in government spending, tax cuts, and cheaper loans, only increased inflation. The use of reverse measures (cutting government spending, tightening tax and credit policies) led to a deepening recession and rising unemployment. The peculiarity of the situation was that neither one nor the other system of anti-crisis measures led to overcoming the economic shock.

The new conditions required fresh conceptual solutions concerning the development of methods adequate to the needs of the day for regulating socio-economic processes. The former Keynesian method of solving these problems has ceased to suit the ruling elite of the leading Western countries. Criticism of Keynesianism in the mid-1970s became frontal. A new conservative concept of economic regulation was gradually taking shape, the most prominent representatives of which at the political level were Margaret Thatcher, who headed the British government in 1979, and Ronald Reagan, who was elected in 1980 to the post of US President.

In the field of economic policy, the neoconservatives were inspired by the ideologists of the free market (M. Friedman) and supporters of the "supply theory" (A. Laffer). The most important difference between the new political economy recipes and Keynesianism was a different direction of government spending. The bet was made on reducing government spending on social policy. Tax cuts were also carried out in order to intensify the inflow of investments into production. If neo-Keysianism proceeded from the stimulation of demand as a prerequisite for the growth of production, then the neoconservatives, on the contrary, headed for stimulating the factors that ensure the growth of the supply of goods. Hence their formula: it is not demand that determines supply, but supply that determines demand.

In the field of monetary policy, the neo-conservative course relied on the monetarist recipes for a tough policy of controlling money circulation in order to limit, above all, inflation.

Proponents of neoconservatism also defined the relationship between state regulation and the market mechanism in a different way. They gave priority to competition, the market, and private monopoly methods of regulation. "The state for the market" - that was the most important principle of the new conservatism.

According to the recommendations of the ideologues of neoconservatism in the states of Western Europe and the USA, Canada carried out the same type of measures: reducing taxes on corporations with an increase in indirect taxes, reducing the contributions of entrepreneurs to social insurance funds, curtailing a number of social policy programs, denationalizing or privatizing state property.

Economic turmoil in the 1970s took place against the backdrop of a growing scientific and technological revolution. The main content of the new phase of its development was the massive introduction of computers in the spheres of production and management. This gave impetus to the beginning of the process of structural restructuring of the economy and the gradual transition of Western civilization into a new phase, which began to be called the post-industrial, or information, society. The introduction of the latest technologies has contributed to a significant leap in productivity. And this began to pay off and led to a way out of the crisis and another economic recovery.

True, the main costs of structural restructuring of the economy fell on the bulk of the population of Western countries, but this did not lead to social cataclysms. The ruling elites managed to maintain control over the situation and give a new impetus to economic processes. Gradually, the "conservative wave" began to decline. But this did not mean a change of milestones in the development of Western civilization.

30. What happened in the US during the era of the conservative revolution?

The highest rise of the "conservative wave" in the US is associated with the name of R. Reagan, who as early as 1976 announced his claims to power, when the US was pondering its defeat in Vietnam and the consequences of the Watergate scandal. This situation gave rise to doubts in the minds of Americans about the rationality and effectiveness of the path followed by America since the New Deal. This was taken advantage of by R. Reagan, who led his election campaign under anti-statist slogans. The "conservative wave" quickly gained momentum, and in 1980 R. Reagan won the election.

Central to the Reagan administration's strategy was the restructuring of the budgetary mechanism, which implied the abandonment of demand stimulation and the reorientation of budgetary practice towards balancing government revenues and expenditures. The reduction of the regulatory functions of the government was to be expressed in the relinquishment of control over the prices of oil and other energy carriers and in a significant relaxation of restrictions on entrepreneurial activity. In the field of social policy, a radical reduction in public spending was envisaged, including the elimination of appropriations for most aid programs.

In 1982, the president came up with the concept of "new federalism", the essence of which was the redistribution of powers between the federal government and the state authorities in favor of the latter. In this regard, the Republican administration proposed to cancel about 150 federal social programs, and transfer the rest to the state authorities.

In general terms, the results of Reaganomics can be expressed as follows: "The rich got richer, the poor got poorer." But, despite tough measures in the field of social policy, the US government did not face any serious outburst of protest. Moreover, R. Reagan's popularity was steadily growing. The reason for this paradoxical situation was that by the time of social transformations, a favorable economic situation had developed. By the 1980s the most difficult phase of the crisis was left behind, and an industrial boom began in America, which affected the standard of living of a significant part of American society. The share of people with low incomes has sharply decreased in the country. Moreover, those who have raised their social status through the social reforms carried out in the past have now themselves turned into critics of the continuation of the policy of supporting those who supposedly do not want to work and earn a living. R. Reagan's appeals found a benevolent response from them.

The foreign policy activities of the R. Reagan administration also impressed the voters. America, having overcome the "Vietnamese Syndrome", again began to demonstrate its muscles to the world. The struggle for the revival of "American power" has become an important means of consolidating society around the president.

In the election campaign of 1984, R. Reagan had practically no competitors. The 1984 campaign clearly demonstrated, on the one hand, the power of the "conservative wave" and, on the other hand, a serious crisis of Roosevelt-style liberalism. Opposition forces in such a situation had to quickly develop an adequate response to the challenge of the "conservative wave". To discredit the ruling regime, opponents used its criticism from moral and ethical positions. Their main argument was that in America, which upholds the priority of individual rights, a "permissive society" has developed in which drug addiction, crime, and sexual promiscuity flourish instead of traditional values.

But this did not stop the advance of conservative forces. Positions of the Republican Party in the Political Process of the 1980s were essentially unshakable. Even the departure of R. Reagan from the active political scene in 1988 did not change the situation. The representative of the Republican Party, George W. Bush, again became the next president of the United States. He had to further consolidate the economic success of the country, prevent the undermining of social stability, and continue the successful foreign policy of the country.

31. Neoconservatism and politics M. Thatcher. How did the UK become one of the leading countries?

Apart from the United States, the "conservative wave" had the greatest impact on the UK. In this country, she is associated with the name of M. Thatcher, who in February 1975 became the new leader of the British Conservatives. She led the party when the country's worst economic crisis in post-war history erupted.

The crisis was accompanied by a sharp drop in production, rising unemployment, and progressive inflation. Added to this was the fuel and energy crisis. The Labor Party's efforts to find ways out of the crisis did not bring tangible results.

In 1979, one of the brightest representatives of the "conservative wave" M. Thatcher came to power on the wave of British dissatisfaction with the ineffective policy of the Laborites.

The fundamentals of the policy that M. Thatcher began to pursue were formulated back in the mid-1970s. in a document titled "The Right Approach". It declared the fight against inflation to be its main goal. After coming to power, M. Thatcher abolished price controls and removed restrictions on the movement of capital. Subsidization of the state sector has sharply decreased, and since 1981 its wide privatization has begun. The use of monetarist methods did not mean curtailing state intervention in the economy. It's just that now it has begun to be carried out by other methods - through the state budget.

In the social sphere, M. Thatcher launched a tough attack on the trade unions. As a result of her policy, representatives of trade unions were excluded from participation in the activities of advisory government commissions on problems of socio-economic policy.

M. Thatcher's foreign policy was distinguished by high aggressiveness. A bet was made on the accelerated build-up of the country's armed forces, which contributed to the cultivation of imperial ambitions in the mass consciousness of the British. M. Thatcher, justifying her nickname "Iron Lady", toughened London's policy towards Northern Ireland. But M. Thatcher reached the peak of popularity during the Anglo-Argentine war over the Falkland Islands. Sensing this, she decided to use the "Falklands factor" in order to further strengthen the position of the Conservative Party in Parliament. Early elections brought another success to the Conservatives. The internal political situation in the country as a whole was favorable for the conservatives. The economy of the country since the mid-1980s. entered a phase of growth. At that time, its growth rate averaged 4% per year, labor productivity increased markedly, the introduction of the latest technologies into production was actively going on, which contributed to the growth of the competitiveness of British goods in world markets. The tax policy of the Conservatives stimulated the inflow of investments into the economy. All this led to an increase in the life of most of the English, and this could not but affect their political sympathies.

In 1987, regular early parliamentary elections were announced in the country. The Conservatives also won an impressive victory this time. After the elections, M. Thatcher successfully continued the same course and by the end of the 1980s. achieved a noticeable improvement in the entire monetary and financial sphere, and this helped to strengthen the position of England in the world economy.

But the situation at the turn of the 1980-1990s. was not so bleak. Government spending, especially for military purposes, grew. This could not but lead to inflation. Yes, and in the most conservative party there were leaders who were ready to challenge M. Thatcher's leadership in the party. In the autumn of 1990, M. Thatcher again entered the electoral struggle, but, without waiting for the second round of voting, she announced her resignation from the post of prime minister. M. Thatcher left big politics. The 10-year "Thatcher era" has ended - an important stage in the history of Britain, when the country's transition to the phase of a post-industrial society took place.

M. Thatcher was replaced by the moderate conservative J. Major, who was then replaced by the young Labor leader E. Blair. The change of parties at the helm of the state did not mean a change of milestones in the country's politics. True, new problems appeared on the agenda, which were already being solved by a new generation of politicians.

32. France after de Gaulle, ways of development?

After the departure of de Gaulle, not the best of times came for France. And in France, there were objective problems that the entire Western civilization had to face in the first half of the 1970s.

The initial impulse was given to them by the economic crisis of 1974. The sharp deterioration of the situation in the economy affected the standard of living of the majority of the French. Gaullist methods of solving problems no longer gave the desired effect. The situation was aggravated by the fact that in April 1974 French President J. Pompidou, de Gaulle's successor, unexpectedly died.

During the next elections, Giscard de Estaing, the head of the independent Republicans, won. The new president declared that his goal was to build an "advanced liberal society" in France. In accordance with this attitude, the emphasis was increasingly shifted to market methods of management. But the implementation of drastic monetary measures in a country with strong left-wing traditions could destabilize the situation. Therefore, in France, the transition to a post-industrial society was carried out not without elements of social maneuvering.

No less significant progress has been made in the sphere of foreign policy. In contrast to de Gaulle, the new president immediately began to improve relations with the United States and strengthen "Atlantic solidarity." French troops began to participate regularly in NATO exercises. The new president was also an ardent supporter of integration trends in Europe.

But in May 1981, during the presidential elections, the voters gave preference to the candidate of the left forces. For the first time in the history of the Fifth Republic, the socialist F. Mitterrand became president.

The transfer of power into the hands of the socialists meant a new turn in the development of the country's political system. The socialists did not begin to ignore the general trends in the development of the country, to revise the Constitution of the Fifth Republic. But they offered their own scenario for solving urgent problems. The socialists again returned to the practice of state regulation of the economy. Already in 1981, intensive nationalization of institutions and industries began. As a result, France has become the largest country in the West in terms of the size of the public sector in the economy. Reforms were carried out in the credit and tax area, the social sphere.

The restoration of the course towards the development of a socially oriented market economy led to the flight of capital from the country, the depreciation of the French currency, and an increase in inflation. Under these conditions, the socialists found themselves in a dilemma: either continue their attack on big capital, or slow down the reforms. The first path threatened with a sharp polarization of society. F. Mitterrand chose the second way. Already in 1983, a transition to a policy of austerity was announced. The "conservative wave", however, with some delay, began its run in France.

In this situation, the next elections were held in 1986. They ended with the defeat of the socialists. The right-wing forces got the opportunity to form a new government headed by J. Chirac.

Such sharp zigzags in the political development of France had a painful effect on the economic life of the country. J. Chirac dramatically changed the economic course: forced denationalization of state property began in the country, tax and credit policies became tougher. But these measures did not produce tangible results, as in England and the USA. This was actively used by the socialists led by F. Mitterrand. In the new elections, he managed to win again, but already at this stage the president did not conduct any social experiments. But even this did not allow France to fit into the post-industrial era. It was more difficult for the socialists to stay on the political stage. True, this time the right-wing forces, which controlled both the government and parliament, managed to reverse the economic situation. The government of E. Balladur managed to achieve tangible results: inflation was brought down, industrial production growth rates increased, and unemployment was reduced. In the presidential elections of 1995, the right-wing forces put an end to the country's political process. They won the elections, J. Chirac became the president of the country again.

33. What is the socio-economic and political crisis in Eastern Europe in the 1970s-1980s?

In the second half of the twentieth century. in the countries of Eastern Europe remained relatively stable growth rates of industrial production. The production of electricity, engineering products, and steel smelting were constantly growing. Between the countries that were part of the Warsaw Pact and the Comecon, there was an extensive system of communications. In 1971, at the regular session of the CMEA, a comprehensive program was adopted to further deepen and improve cooperation and develop economic integration.

The foreign policy position of the countries of Eastern Europe has also been strengthened. The CMEA countries, under the leadership of the USSR, played an important role in the preparation and holding of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. In the summer of 1975, together with other countries, they signed the Final Act of the Conference, which approved the principle of the inviolability of post-war borders in Europe and put forward a set of measures to strengthen peace and security.

However, since the second half of the 1970s the international situation and the socio-economic and political position of the European socialist countries became noticeably more complicated. World economic crisis 1974-1975 had a negative impact on the countries of the socialist camp.

The beginning of a new stage of scientific and technological revolution also posed extremely important and difficult problems for the socialist countries. With all the acuteness, all countries of the world faced the task of transforming the economy on the basis of the latest technology and technology, breaking the outdated sectoral structure of the national economy, and changing the methods of economic management. There was an urgent need to move from an extensive to an intensive type of economic development. Meanwhile, the administrative-command system that developed in the countries of Eastern Europe on the model of the Soviet model turned out to be not ready for new trends. Therefore, the crisis of economic and political structures began to deepen sharply in the countries of Eastern Europe. The USSR and other socialist countries failed to join the new stage of the scientific and technological revolution and to modernize their economies and political organization. The growing backlog in the scientific and technical equipment of production led to the fact that most of the products manufactured in the socialist countries could not withstand competition on the world market, which also complicated domestic political life. In the 1080s the lag of the socialist countries behind the pace of development of Western civilization has deepened even more. In these countries, there was a growing shortage of even basic commodities. In many countries, especially in the USSR, Romania, Vietnam, Cuba, even the food problem has become acute. The efficiency of the functioning of national economies in the socialist countries was constantly declining. Five-year plans, as a rule, were not fulfilled. The grips of inflation tightened more and more. Gross miscalculations in planning and in investment policy did not make it possible to eliminate deep disproportions in the economy and carry out the necessary structural changes. A huge number of unfinished construction of various facilities in the USSR, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and other countries held back attempts at modernization, hindered the technical reconstruction.

Difficulties in economic development led to a decline in the living standards of the population and led to serious complications in the social sphere. It was not possible to restrain this process by obtaining external loans and reducing the share of the accumulation fund in the national income, as the leadership of Poland, Hungary and Romania tried to do.

The socio-political situation in all the socialist countries became increasingly tense. Strikes, rallies, mass demonstrations became more frequent, during which protests were expressed against the worsening living conditions of workers, against the administrative system of government. Ideological disorientation and disbelief in the proclaimed but not realized values ​​of socialism began to appear in society. Demands for economic and political reforms were put forward more and more insistently. The trust in the ruling communist and workers' parties was clearly declining.

34. What processes took place in Eastern Europe at the turn of the 1980s-1990s?

The reform movement in most Eastern European countries intensified significantly in the second half of the 1980s. under the influence of perestroika in the USSR, initiated by the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M. S. Gorbachev and radically changed the political course of the Soviet Union.

However, the "renewal of socialism" that began in the USSR was slow, while economic and political transformations were carried out more actively in other European socialist countries. In Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, attempts were made to transform not only the economic, but also the political system. But these processes in a number of countries met with desperate resistance from conservative ruling circles, and in a number of countries (Romania, East Germany, Albania, North Korea) they were blocked by clan-family regimes.

A crisis that had been brewing for a long time by the end of the 1980s. intensified even more. It manifested itself in almost all spheres of life in Eastern Europe. This predetermined the emergence of a revolutionary peculiar situation in these countries. It took shape and developed differently in individual countries. But common to all countries was the desire to eliminate the monopoly power of the ruling parties, to establish a truly democratic form of government and, on the basis of broad democracy, to renew the socio-economic and political life of society.

The forms and methods of democratic revolutions were different - from the "velvet", calm revolution in Czechoslovakia to the bloody clashes in Romania, where the dictator Ceausescu tried so hard to suppress a popular uprising in December 1989.

Social ferment, protests against the existing regime, were most actively manifested in Poland and Hungary. It was here that they led to the first upheavals of the existing order. It was here that new political forces came to power, removing the ruling parties from leadership.

After the revolutions of 1989, radical socio-economic and political changes were carried out in all the countries of the socialist camp in Eastern Europe. The market economy was restored, the process of denationalization was carried out, unprofitable enterprises were closed. In the political field, a multi-party system was restored, the system of power organization was changed.

But the reform process faced difficulties. Ethnic problems have become aggravated in many countries. This led to the disintegration of a number of socialist countries. Thus, Czechoslovakia was divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Not preserved on the political map of the world and Yugoslavia, which was engulfed by internecine war and ethnic cleansing.

Rapid political changes were taking place in Bulgaria. After the removal of T. Zhivkov from power, an active process of democratization began in the country.

Democratic revolutions in Eastern Europe became the biggest event of the second half of the XNUMXth century. They resulted not only in the restoration of capitalist relations in the region, but also changed the alignment of forces on a global scale.

Democratic revolutions led to the collapse of the socialist system. The culmination of this process was the unification of the GDR and the FRG. The internal political crisis in the USSR itself, the stronghold of socialism, was rapidly growing. MS Gorbachev, who initiated the perestroika processes, was rapidly losing control over the situation in the country and the socialist region. In December 1991, the USSR ceased to exist, and with it the socialist system in Europe sank into oblivion.

The disappearance of the USSR, one of the centers of power, from the political map of the world led to the disintegration of the bipolar system of international relations. This process, in contrast to previous international transformations, was not accompanied by military-political cataclysms. This determined a number of features inherent in the formation of a new system of international relations. The collapse of the former confrontation between the USSR and the USA led to a situation where the formation of a new model began to depend on only one remaining superpower - the United States.

In the new international situation, the United States does not hide its hegemonic aspirations. But the problem of the future state of the world system is still vague.

35. What caused the unification of Germany?

Against the background of the crisis phenomena in the Eastern European countries, the situation in the GDR in the 1970-1980s. outwardly looked quite favorable. The country maintained a stable production process and a relatively high standard of living compared to other socialist countries. However, by the end of the 1980s. the situation has changed dramatically. There were disproportions in the economy in the country, the state budget deficit and external debt were growing.

The outflow of qualified personnel leaving the GDR increased annually. By 1989, the number of those who left for the FRG amounted to 350 thousand people. This led to a reduction in production volumes.

In a number of cities in the country, especially in Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin, rallies were increasingly held demanding political reforms, democracy and freedom.

Trying to stay in power, part of the leadership of the GDR began to look for a way out of the current situation on the path of political maneuvering. However, the tension in the country did not subside. Then another step was taken. On October 18, 1989, the plenum of the Central Committee of the SED released E. Honecker from the duties of general secretary. He was also released from the post of chairman of the State Council of the GDR. But the new leadership clearly did not keep up with the course of events, losing control over them.

During this period, relations between the GDR and the FRG changed dramatically. In November 1989, the leadership of the GDR decided to open its western borders for free travel to the FRG and West Berlin. The "Berlin Wall" has ceased to play its role. They began to take it apart for souvenirs.

In the GDR, a difficult process of reorganization of the ruling party - the SED - was going on. New parties and organizations were created. New political forces announced their rejection of the socialist path of development of the GDR. They saw the prospect of immediate development in saving the country through the reunification of Germany. The slogan of the unification of Germany became the main programmatic demand of the new political forces. These forces enjoyed active support from the political and state institutions of the FRG. Leading figures of the FRG and West Berlin, including Chancellor G. Kohl, took an active part in rallies and demonstrations held on German territory.

The question of the unification of the German states became the center of attention of the entire political life of the country. The official concept of the GDR politicians about the existence of two German nations - socialist and capitalist - was recognized as erroneous. The GDR government declared its desire to develop broad cooperation with the FRG and West Berlin and expressed its interest in receiving economic assistance from the FRG. At the same time, the loyalty of the GDR to its allied obligations was proclaimed.

The further fate of the country, the course of its economic and political development, its foreign policy were to be decided by the elections to the People's Chamber of the GDR, scheduled for March 18, 1990.

The Christian Democratic Union (CDU) received the majority of votes in the elections, the leading party, the SED, was pushed aside from the political scene.

The unification process in Germany had an impact on the entire process of ensuring international security.

The German problem became the subject of discussion of the four great powers - participants in the peace settlement after the end of World War II - the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France.

On September 12, 1990, the four victorious powers and representatives of the GDR and the FRG signed in Moscow the Treaty on the Final Settlement with regard to Germany, which actually drew a line under the results of the Second World War in Europe. The treaty and other documents recorded the recognition of the inviolability of European borders, a ban on Germany's possession of means of mass destruction, and determined the limits of the size of the Bundeswehr.

The process of German unification was accompanied by the adoption on October 1 by the foreign ministers of the four powers and two German states of the Document on the termination, with the unification of Germany, of the operation of quadripartite rights and responsibilities in relation to Berlin and Germany as a whole.

On October 3, the GDR ceased to exist, the unification of Germany was accomplished.

36. What integration processes took place in Europe in the second half of the XNUMXth century?

In the second half of the twentieth century. international relations on the European continent were characterized by the search for ways to ease tensions that could enhance the integration of European countries. Among the realistically thinking ruling circles and governments of the West, the idea of ​​negotiations arose, a search was made for ways to ensure security through closer cooperation and confidence on the European continent.

The initiative to convene a conference of European states to discuss measures to ensure collective security in Europe belonged to the Soviet Union and other socialist countries. But these proposals were largely propaganda in nature and did not change the confrontational course of the Soviet leadership. A manifestation of this course was the unjustified entry of troops of five countries - members of the Warsaw Pact into Czechoslovakia in 1968, which for some time suspended the processes of detente and integration in Europe. Nevertheless, the trend towards cooperation between European states continued to operate.

In March 1969, the WTO countries adopted an appeal to all European states with a call to start practical preparations for a pan-European conference. Interstate consultations began, which opened up a new phenomenon in international life - the pan-European process.

On the basis of major shifts in relations between the USSR and the USA, the USSR and the countries of Western Europe, consultations of a preliminary nature began in November 1972, as a result of which meetings of the foreign ministers of 1973 European states, the USA and Canada opened in July 33 in Helsinki.

The second stage of negotiations on the convening of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe took place in Geneva and lasted two years (from September 1973 to July 1975). On July 30, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe began in Helsinki at the level of heads of government, and on August 1, 1975, a solemn ceremony of signing the Final Act of the Conference took place.

This document was not a treaty, but it was of great moral and political significance, as it introduced new progressive norms into international relations. The final act assumed the continuity of the process of meetings and negotiations within the framework of the pan-European process.

This process was advanced in the 1980s. Of great importance for establishing an atmosphere of trust and mutual understanding were the negotiations that began in March 1989 in Vienna in the framework of the Helsinki process between 23 member states of the Warsaw Treaty Organization and NATO. In 1990, a meeting of the heads of state and government of European states, the United States and Canada was held in Paris, at which decisions were made to reduce the capabilities of the military machine of the ATS and NATO. This historic event opened a new page in the pan-European process, marked the end of the hostile confrontation in Europe. The final document of the meeting - the Paris Charter for a New Europe - outlined a constructive program of international cooperation in the world and Europe, expressed commitment to democracy based on human rights.

The process of pan-European integration intensified after the unification of Germany. New conditions for integration processes were created by the situation associated with the collapse of the socialist system in Europe.

New principles and forms of relations in Europe were developed at the Maastricht meeting of the heads of state and government of the European Union, held in December 1991. Documents on the monetary, economic and political integration of these countries were signed at the meeting. A new phase of deepening integration in Western Europe has opened.

The monetary and economic agreement provides for the transition of the EU countries from January 1, 1999 to a single monetary unit. The Maastricht agreements also provided for the problem of political integration of Western European states. It was supposed to expand all the main institutions of the EU - the Council of Ministers, the European Parliament, the Commission of the European Communities and other structures. Almost all the countries that were once part of the Warsaw Pact have also expressed their desire to join the EU and NATO.

37. Which Western countries at the end of the twentieth century. can be called "leaders"?

By the end of the twentieth century. the leading countries that make up the core of Western civilization have confidently entered the phase of post-industrial society. By this time, the most difficult part of the structural restructuring of the economy was over, and most countries in this region showed fairly stable and stable economic growth rates - an average of 2-2,5% per year.

Particularly successful last decade of the twentieth century. turned out to be for the United States, which went even further ahead of its competitors.

A peculiar sign of this decade was the process of globalization. This term refers to a multidimensional process, the main components of which are usually distinguished:

1) formation of a single world financial market;

2) formation of a unified information network;

3) liberalization of world trade;

4) a sharp expansion of transnational companies (TNCs) in the world economy.

The process of globalization is developing unevenly. The process of globalization of financial markets is going on most intensively. In recent years, the movement of speculative capital, torn off from the real sector of the economy, has been developing at a faster pace. The volume of transactions with currency, bonds and securities is growing especially fast. It is this part of the general global movement of capital that begins to have the greatest impact on the dynamics of the development of civilization. So far, adequate regulators of this sphere of capital movement have not been developed, and because of this, it is precisely this sphere that acts as the main source of instability in the global financial market, which has recently turned into several regional crises.

The core of the qualitative changes in the economy of Western countries were shifts in the field of information and communication technologies, which radically transformed the material basis of society. First of all, in these countries, the role of industrial-type production has noticeably decreased. This has altered the sources of economic growth. Among them, information, the main commodity in the global economy, began to occupy an increasing place. This has been made possible by the advent of the rapidly developing Internet.

Profound qualitative changes in the economy, caused by the process of its globalization, have also brought large-scale problems, which are called (and not without reason) global. Among them, the environmental problem comes to the fore. Scientific and technological progress has led to the fact that there is a threat to the safe habitation of man.

The demographic problem, traditional for humanity, also causes concern. The growth of the world's population so far has absolutely no correlation with the rate of economic growth. Most of the population growth is in countries with a low standard of living. And now hunger and poverty in a number of countries of the world are no exception.

A serious problem is the depletion of the planet's resource potential, especially the depletion of sources of raw materials.

The transition of the leading Western countries to the stage of post-industrial development has somewhat exacerbated social problems in the region. In these countries, despite the rapid change in the structure of the economy and favorable economic conditions, unemployment persists, a sharp gap in the income level of the richest part of society and those who are at the bottom of the social ladder.

The situation is also aggravated by the ongoing national-ethnic conflicts in countries such as Spain, Great Britain, France, Canada, and Italy. Political scandals also played a destabilizing role, for example, those connected with the attempt to impeach US President William Clinton in 1999, or with a series of revelations of the intentions of the governments of E. Blair and George W. Bush Jr. during the preparations for the war in Iraq.

But these trends have not weakened the conviction of Western civilization that the evolutionary path of development is the only possible one in the future. The sharp strengthening of conservative forces is a thing of the past. Today, Western countries are looking for ways to ensure social harmony and optimal forms of management of a post-industrial society. But this process is colliding with a growing anti-globalization movement, which makes it difficult to solve the problem of consolidating society.

38. How is the culture of Western countries developing in the first half of the XNUMXth century?

At the beginning of the twentieth century. major changes were taking place in the countries of Europe and America. The revolution in natural science, the new industrial age, the crisis of the classical worldview systems prompted a rethinking of the changed conditions of life and again raised the question of its meaning. Wars, militarism, the destruction of nature in connection with active industrial development, and the social tension that persisted in society inspired many people with anxiety. Among the creative intelligentsia and scientists, moods of pessimism and impending social disasters grew.

At this critical time, some thinkers turned to the classical philosophical legacy of Hegel (neo-Hegelianism), and the other to Kant (neo-Kantianism).

In the philosophical controversy of that time, polar points of view and theories collided. American pragmatism, which accused the old philosophy of being out of touch with life, offered to tackle the practical problems that arise in people's real lives. Supporters of the "philosophy of life", the founders of which are considered to be the German philosophers A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche, opposed rationalism, appealing to irrational principles in the human psyche. F. Nietzsche was especially critical of Christianity and rationalism, which, in his opinion, acted depressingly on the "will to live."

At the beginning of the twentieth century. the sciences of society and man have been enriched by a number of new concepts. The teaching of the French philosopher A. Bergson about intuition, which he opposed to rationalism, had a great influence on many figures of science and culture. No less significant was the influence of the doctrine of psychoanalysis, the foundations of which were laid by the Austrian scientist S. Freud. The doctrine of unconscious impulses allowed Freud to create a method for treating neuroses.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. received the development of sociology - the science of the various aspects of the development of society. The works of M. Weber, who studied the formation of a capitalist society, gained wide popularity. In particular, he tried to clarify the role of Protestant ethics in this process.

Ideological searches were also distinguished by figures of art and literature. At the beginning of the twentieth century. a neo-romantic direction arose, which sought to rethink the past of European and all world culture.

In line with the era of neo-romanticism, the forerunner of which was the composer R. Wagner, literary symbolism developed. Having originated in France back in the XNUMXth century, symbolism also captured other forms of art - theater, painting, music. The combination of the real and the mystical, the social and the individual, allegoricalness determined the aesthetics of symbolism.

Critical realism also retained its position in literature. Literary figures were concerned not only with creative problems, but also with all the complexity and inconsistency of life. R. Rolland, A. France, T. Mann, J. London, T. Dreiser, E. Sinclair worked in this direction. He did a lot to update the dramaturgy of B. Shaw.

In the visual arts, symbolism was embodied by the plastic means of the Art Nouveau style. Impressionism, characteristic of painting, was in deep crisis. It was replaced by a number of new artistic movements. So, the French artist P. Cezanne laid the foundation for post-impressionism. Its representatives sought to penetrate even deeper into the essence of phenomena, to express the inner world of man. Cubism had a great influence on the development of painting. The founders of this trend are the French artists P. Picasso, M. Duchamp and J. Braque. The Cubists created new forms of multidimensional perspective, decomposed the object into geometric forms and tried to create a new reality. Many artists, in search of new forms of perception of life, turned to ancient archaic cultures and oriental heritage. P. Gauguin, A. Matisse worked in this vein.

In theatrical art, special attention was paid to the elements of stage performance: scenery painting, unique costume design, and choreography. The theater of this time most fully embodied the ideas of synthetic art.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. a new art form appeared - cinematography. The movie stars of the beginning of the century - A. Did, M. Linder, Ch. Chaplin - gained world fame.

39. How is the culture of Western countries in the second half of the XNUMXth century developing?

After the end of World War II, cultural development in Western European countries, the United States was carried out on the basis of scientific discoveries and achievements made in the pre-war and war period. Significant scientific forces and resources were devoted to the mastery of atomic energy, the development of means of transport (especially jet aircraft), and the petrochemical industry. The creation of rocket engines and the flight of the first cosmonaut Yu. Gagarin marked the beginning of space exploration.

New prospects in scientific research were opened by the creation by the American scientist N. Wiener of cybernetics - the science of receiving, processing and transmitting information. A decisive leap was made by radio electronics, new types of radio equipment and televisions were created.

Major discoveries have been made in genetics and biotechnology. The structure of the DNA molecule was studied, new types of drugs were created. Genetic engineering has gone beyond laboratories. Her discoveries began to be applied in agriculture and medicine.

In the 1970s-1980s. a new phase of the scientific and technological revolution began. Computer technology entered the world, new types of electronic computers, industrial automation were created. New synthetic materials have appeared. Nuclear power plants began to play an important role in the energy balance of many countries of the world.

The scientific and technological revolution has made many cultural values ​​accessible to the general population. This led to the active spread of "mass culture". The production of cultural products and the "entertainment industry" were put on a commercial stream, turned into a source of income and an effective means of influencing the masses. "Mass culture" was used to distract the population from serious social, political and moral problems, to promote the values ​​and standards of the "mass consumer society".

In the second half of the twentieth century. Social-philosophical thought also bore the stamp of the impact of scientific and technological revolution. Social science included new theories of "industrial society", "post-industrial society". Much attention was paid to the comprehensive study of human problems. Philosophy addressed the problems of human life, its meaning, self-knowledge and the affirmation of man.

At the intersection of philosophy and sociology, a scientific school of structural-functional analysis was formed. Its prominent representative was T. Parsons. Representatives of this trend sought to create a general sociological theory that could be a tool for specific research. Sociological information could then be used to make informed decisions in the field of management, especially social processes.

The socio-political upsurge of the first post-war years led to the strengthening of realistic traditions in literature and art.

Nobel Prizes in Literature were awarded to realist writers A. Gide, F. Mauriac. The work of P. Eluard, a member of the French Resistance, gained wide popularity.

In West Germany, the main theme of the post-war period was the problem of overcoming the fascist past. It is expressed with the greatest force in the novels of G. Bell. The exposure of the fascist order and the defense of humanistic values ​​were the content of the German writers who remained in exile - T. Mann, E. M. Remarque.

American writers W. Faulkner and E. Hemingway worked actively in the USA.

The modernist direction of literature during this period was embodied by J.P. Sartre and A. Camus.

Postmodernist tendencies emerged in the post-war fine arts. Here the search for new forms, materials, methods of attracting the attention of the audience was most active. Non-objective art gained popularity. Its most prominent representatives were the Americans J. Pollak, W. Cunning, and others. In Europe, the leading role was played by the old masters P. Picasso, J. Mathieu, R. Guttuso, and others.

Complex processes took place in the musical culture of Western countries. Concert activity has acquired a wide scale. Along with academic music and jazz, pop music occupied an important place in musical culture.

Chapter 10. Countries of the East and Asia in modern times

1. Consequences of the collapse of the colonial system

One of the characteristic features of post-war development was the growth of the national liberation movement and national liberation revolutions, which ultimately led to the collapse of the colonial system of the Western countries.

National liberation revolutions were aimed at destroying foreign domination, winning national independence and creating sovereign states on the site of former colonial possessions.

By the end of World War II, the national liberation movement had reached its greatest extent in Asian countries.

As a result of the Japanese occupation in Burma, Indonesia, and the Philippines, the power of the European and American colonialists was eliminated. These countries fell into the zone of Japanese influence. In Vietnam (then part of French Indochina), the Vietnam Independence League was founded and the Vietnamese Liberation Army was created.

At the first news of Japan's surrender, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Burma declared their independence. In Vietnam, as a result of the August Revolution of 1945, power passed to the National Liberation Committee, headed by the leader of the Communist Party of the country, Ho Chi Minh.

The popular masses of the Philippines, India, Malaya, as well as Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, etc., resolutely demanded independence.

Faced with a powerful upsurge in the national liberation movement, the ruling circles of the metropolitan countries either sought to retain the colonies by military force or to recognize the independence of the former colonies.

In 1946, the United States announced that they were granting independence to the Philippine Islands. In the same year, England announced the abolition of the mandate for Transjordan (which took the name of Jordan). The British government agreed to grant self-government or independence to some of its former colonies in Asia. On August 15, 1947, England announced the division of India on religious grounds into two states - India and Pakistan - and granting each of them the status of a dominion (ie, the right to self-government). An outstanding figure of the Indian national liberation movement D. Nehru became the head of the first independent government of India, and the head of the Muslim League, Liaquat Ali Khan, became the head of the government of Pakistan. In 1950, India renounced its dominion status and declared itself a republic. In 1956 a republic was proclaimed in Pakistan.

In January 1948, the long struggle of the peoples of Burma ended in victory. The British government recognized its independence. Burma left the British Commonwealth of Nations. In 1948, he received the rights of a dominion that used to be part of the colony of India, the island of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).

Along with the British in the 1940s. part of the French and Dutch colonies achieved independence. In 1946, France was forced to confirm the independence of Syria and Lebanon and withdraw its troops from these countries. In 1947, the Netherlands recognized the Republic of Indonesia, although the Dutch troops tried to keep part of its islands under their control.

The final chord of decolonization was the liberation from colonial dependence of the peoples of Tropical Africa at the turn of the 60s. 40th century About XNUMX independent states arose on the ruins of the colonial empires of Great Britain, France, and Belgium.

Portugal resisted decolonization the longest. It fought against the rebels in Angola and Mozambique until 1974. Namibia's independence in 1990 crowns this global process of eliminating colonialism.

The emergence of about a hundred new states on the former colonial periphery is of great historical significance. These states have become an important factor in world politics. They make up approximately 2/3 of the UN member states. Decolonization is even more important for the development of human civilization on a global scale. Decolonization has changed the vector of historical development of the countries of Asia and Africa. The peoples of independent states now have the opportunity for independent development, taking into account national traditions and cultural and civilizational characteristics. The paths of diverse social development were opened.

2. What are "third world countries"?

The formation of more than a hundred new states has changed the political landscape of the planet. The liberated countries made up the majority of the countries of the world. They had to solve the primary tasks of overcoming backwardness from most European states. In this sense, they constituted, as it were, a third world, along with the existing first - capitalist and second - socialist worlds. Another common name for the classification of the newly-free countries was the concept of "developing countries" in contrast to the countries of the West, which have reached a high level of development.

Developing countries, that is, third world countries, were not homogeneous. In this world there is a huge variety of economic, social, political, national, religious and other specific conditions. Socio-political differentiation in the third world continues. There are big differences not only between Asia, Africa and Latin America per se, but on each of these continents there is a mosaic of states that differ significantly in level of development, interests, place in the region itself and in the international community.

In solving the problems facing each of the third world countries chose its own path of development. From the point of view of economic development, a special place is occupied by oil exporting countries with a stable source of income (in 1960 they united in the OPEC organization). The most dynamically developed "new industrial countries" (Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines). The countries of Latin America are also relatively developed. The countries of Tropical and South Africa remain the least developed in all respects.

However, despite all the significant differences from each other, the developing countries have a lot in common, which makes it possible to consider the liberated countries as a certain historical community that forms a special subsystem of international relations.

The combination of heterogeneity and at the same time common interests of developing countries in solving the problems of overcoming backwardness, achieving economic independence, developing the economy, social and cultural spheres, and gaining equality in international relations to a greater extent determines the degree of organizational formalization of cooperation between developing countries.

The most representative forms of cooperation between developing countries in the 1970-1980s. became the Non-Aligned Movement and the "Group of 77". The "Group of 77" includes 126 states, that is, almost all developing countries. In some issues, especially when solving economic problems, they carry out joint actions. A number of important UN documents have been adopted with the active participation of this group. The "Group of 77" maintains close coordinating relations with the Non-Aligned Movement. This movement arose in 1961 and immediately turned into a powerful institution for expressing the interests of more than 100 states in Asia, Africa and Latin America. It is as heterogeneous in its composition as the whole third world is many-sided. The Non-Aligned Movement (so named because it avoided an unequivocal focus on only one of the superpowers - the USA or the USSR) actively advocated for peace, disarmament and international security, for the restructuring of international economic relations.

The desire to ensure their interests in the system of interstate relations led to the formation of various economic and political regional organizations in the third world. Thus, in Latin America, the Latin American economic system was formed, uniting 26 states. There are also other regional organizations of an economic nature.

In Africa, regional organizations have been less developed, to a certain extent due to the considerable number of bilateral conflicts on this continent. The largest organization is the Organization of African Unity, which was established in 1963. Its goals are the development of political and economic cooperation between African countries and the strengthening of influence on the world stage, the coordination of activities in the field of foreign policy, economy, defense and culture.

3. What are the development paths of the newly-free countries?

The problem of choosing development paths after the Second World War, and especially after the completion of the collapse of colonial empires and decolonization, has become a common problem for all countries of Asia and Africa.

The choice turned out to be small: a socialist orientation or a Eurocapitalist path. In any case, cultural and civilizational features and traditions were decisive.

Many liberated countries, although politically opposed to the European metropolitan countries, borrowed the ideas of European civilization and embarked on the path of "catching up" development. The leaders of these countries were not going to restore pre-colonial orders and traditional society. They wanted to create a modern, advanced nation-state, the components of which would be highly developed industry, universal suffrage, literacy of the population and its access to modern medicine. Hence was the understanding of the main task of the moment - overcoming backwardness, modernization.

A number of countries (China, Vietnam, North Korea, and others) embarked on the socialist path of development. Already by the mid-1970s, for example, signs of an impending crisis began to be felt in China. He had to take a different path - the path of market reforms and the weakening of state regulation of the economy and other spheres of life. Vietnam by this time had only managed to unite.

By the beginning of the 1990s. the problem of building socialism was generally removed from the agenda as an orientation model of development. The collapse of the USSR and the entire socialist system led to the impossibility of a socialist choice on the part of any other countries. But the idea of ​​a socialist orientation turned out to be more tenacious. It has become widespread in a number of African countries and some Arab countries. But the implementation of nationalization, cooperation, the establishment of a one-party political system eventually turned into economic ruin, bureaucratization, corruption and the establishment of authoritarian-dictatorial regimes, which led to a series of military coups. Most of the countries that have chosen a socialist orientation have also had to begin the transition to market-private relations and multi-party systems with a strong role for the public sector and regulation, i.e., to make the transition to modernization.

Whatever path the liberated states took, they all faced the need to overcome the traditional way of life and economy, which actually became the reason for the colonization of these countries by more developed states.

The attempt of the newly-free countries to undermine the established international division of labor and world economic ties was unsuccessful. This turned out to be an impossible task. Carrying out import-substituting industrialization (the policy of reducing imports of cars from Western countries, the production of their own equipment) required funds. The liberated countries did not have enough internal sources. I had to turn to Western creditors. This led to an increase in the debt of third world countries. By the end of 1988, it had reached an astronomical figure - more than a trillion dollars. The critical situation, the threat of losing independence once again forced us to reconsider economic policy.

The problem of overcoming backwardness was aggravated by the increase in population growth rates that began after the war, mainly due to an increase in the birth rate in developing countries.

The population explosion caused agrarian overpopulation. The influx of people to cities increased, which also could not rationally master the mass of the unemployed population. Unemployment, in turn, contributed to the maintenance of low wages, which slowed down technological progress. Along with social problems, developing countries began to experience economic difficulties. This also led to socio-political instability. The liberated countries were like a seething cauldron. Revolutions and coups d'etat, civil wars and interstate conflicts - all this has become a characteristic feature of the development of the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

4. Newly industrialized countries. What countries are included?

The growth of external debt predetermined the direction of the search for a new economic policy for developing countries. Instead of import-substituting industrialization, it was decided to develop export opportunities in every possible way, since the growth of exports gave hope for an easing of the debt burden. The import of foreign capital began to be encouraged. And to attract it, it was necessary to carry out market reforms: to stabilize monetary circulation, for which it was necessary to reduce government spending, privatize the public sector, introduce free prices, etc.

First, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea embarked on this path of development, then Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines joined them.

Using foreign capital and technology, and abundant local labor resources, they managed to create a developed manufacturing industry, working mainly for export and successfully competing in the markets of Western countries. Having created the potential for accelerated development, these countries are achieving consistently high economic growth rates.

For this group of countries, Japan is an example of successful development.

Many of the processes that took place in Japan after the Second World War turned out to be good for her. After the American occupation in Japan, economic and political reforms were carried out that changed Japanese society and its political system. The rights of the emperor were limited by the new constitution, parliamentary democracy with a multi-party system was established in the country, which had not happened before.

The reforms played a big role in the revival of the country and the "Japanese miracle". In just a few decades, Japan has turned from an agrarian country into an industrial superpower. Already by the 1980s. the volume of industrial production in Japan exceeded the level of 1950 by 24 times. The average annual growth rate of production in the 1960s-1970s. accounted for 14,6%, while in the entire capitalist world 5,5%.

Japan is now actively developing the science and technology of tomorrow, the country has a developed infrastructure, education system, health care and social insurance.

Behind these achievements is hard and sometimes exhausting disciplined work. The success of this country is also connected with the state policy, which helps business, the development of science, education, and defends Japan's position in the international arena.

Among the "newly industrialized countries" South Korea has passed a difficult path to progress. In many ways, the tragic events on the Korean Peninsula were the result of the strategic position of the country, which competed with Russia, Japan, the United States, and China. In 1910, Korea became a colony of Japan. After the war, in 1945, North Korea was liberated by the USSR, in South Korea, the surrender of Japanese troops was accepted by the United States. The line of demarcation of the zones of influence of the two powers passed along the 38th parallel. The Soviet-American rivalry ended with the split of the country. In 1948, the Republic of Korea was formed in the south of the peninsula, and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the north. The problem of reunification of the country has not been resolved to this day. Relations between the two Korean states were complicated, armed clashes between them became commonplace. In 1950, a civil war began between them, which ended in 1953. It ended in vain, the unification of the country did not happen.

Significant changes have taken place in South Korea since the overthrow of the dictatorial regime of Syngman Rhee. But subsequent regimes, although they were dictatorial, began to modernize the country. Japan has become a model of national and economic development. Much aid to the country came from the United States. Along with capital, new equipment and technologies poured into South Korea. The country has taken a course on the purchase of patents and licenses. In the country, much attention was paid to control over the targeted spending of funds. The advantage of South Korean business was cheap labor. The problem of improving the material situation of the majority of the population in the country remains tense. This also affects the processes of democratization of public life. But the country is trying to solve these problems.

5. How is the situation in post-war China?

In October 1949, the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) was proclaimed in Beijing.

The coming to power of the Chinese Communists marked the beginning of a grandiose transformation of Chinese society.

The first most significant transformation was the agrarian reform. During it, 47 million hectares of land were redistributed among peasants and the layer of landowners was eliminated. Immediately after the reform, agricultural cooperation began; it ended in 1956.

Foreign property was confiscated, as was the property of pro-Kuomintang representatives. So industry and trade were in the hands of the state. There was a transition from a market economy to a planned one. At the same time, industrialization began in the country. The USSR provided great assistance in its implementation.

Politically, China has become a unitary state with limited autonomy for the national outskirts. While maintaining a number of political parties, power belonged to the Communist Party led by Mao Zedong.

In China, there were no crisis situations typical of Eastern European countries. On the contrary, China increased the pace of development and sought to acquire the status of a superpower. At the initiative of Mao Zedong, in 1958 the CCP approved a new political course - "three banners". Its constituent parts were the "Great Leap Forward", the "People's Commune" and the "General Line". It was proposed to accelerate development at the expense of not large, but small industry. The central planning of the economy was canceled, the initiative was transferred to the localities. To solve this problem, "people's communes" were created. They included an average of 30 thousand people, an egalitarian method of distribution was carried out. It was believed that the concentration of energy of hundreds of millions of Chinese and their unpaid labor would bring China closer to communism. To approach this state, China was even ready for a nuclear missile war. This somewhat cooled China's relations with the USSR.

The course of the "three banners" failed. The abolition of material incentives to work led to a drop in production, especially products. Famine broke out in several parts of China. Instead of a breakthrough, the country received an economic crisis. Opposition to the course of Mao Zedong began to form in the country. This forced Mao Zedong to start an open struggle with his opponents. He staked on the youth, whom in 1965 he called for revolutionary violence in order to create a new communist society in a society freed from the remnants of the old. Young supporters of Mao Zedong - the Red Guards - smashed the official institutions of the country - party committees, ministries, universities. All this was called the "great proletarian cultural revolution". It has created unimaginable chaos and mass violence. Subsequently, Mao Zedong tried to restore the controllability of the country, but his course became more and more obsolete. The denouement came after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976.

The positions of the so-called pragmatists have strengthened in the party, insisting on abandoning the historical leap ahead and on concentrating efforts on practical work to bring China into the ranks of the advanced countries. Deng Xiaoping became the leader of the "pragmatists". A new phase has begun in the history of China.

A powerful industry began to develop in the country. The legislation on foreign investments was liberalized. In agriculture, cooperatives were restored. China has switched to market forms of interaction. The country's economic growth rates are high. All these reforms have changed China.

Against the backdrop of the upheavals of the "cultural revolution", relations between China and the USSR deteriorated. China began to present territorial claims to the USSR. In 1969, border conflicts arose. The confrontation with the USSR improved China's relations with Western countries. The streak of recognition of China by these countries has begun. After "perestroika" in the USSR, Russian-Chinese relations normalized.

The events on Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 1989 became a turning point in China's development. But democratization did not begin in China; on the contrary, the political regime became tougher. But this did not lead to the curtailment of economic reforms.

6. India and Pakistan. What are the development paths?

The Indian Independence Act provided for the creation of two dominions, the Indian Union and Pakistan. The former British colony was divided along religious lines. The disengagement took place in the conditions of acute Indo-Muslim enmity and bloody clashes.

In 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted a new constitution, which came into force in 1950. The constitution proclaimed the Republic of India. The general parliamentary elections for the state legislatures brought victory to the Indian National Congress. Since that time, this party has led governments almost without change. The first government was headed by D. Nehru, then his daughter - I. Gandhi, then her son - R. Gandhi. After his assassination, N. Rao became the head of the government.

The first major reform of the new government was the solution of the agrarian issue. The land was given to the peasants. Supported the development of cooperation, the introduction of advanced agrotechnical methods of farming. India itself began to cope with food difficulties, although a significant part of its population is still on the verge of a half-starved existence.

India is developing along a Euro-capitalist path. A mixed economy with a strong public sector is based on competitive market relations and attraction of foreign capital.

In political development, India relies on the experience of the British parliamentary-democratic system. The principle of separation of powers, in line with European standards, is respected. There is a multi-party system in India.

However, India has many specific problems. The most acute is national-religious strife (Indo-Muslim clashes, the Sikh movement for political autonomy, Tamil separatist movements in the south, etc.). The problem of castes remains practically unchanged.

The demographic problem (high birth rate) remains a difficult problem in the country.

Pakistan was part of India. The complete Islamization of this region of the country has led to significant structural changes.

For a number of years, the Muslim League exercised political power in the region. Only in 1955 did the Constituent Assembly approve the constitution. Pakistan was declared an Islamic Republic. Unlike India, Pakistan has a presidential form of government. The government is headed by the prime minister. Both houses of parliament have limited powers. After the military coup in 1958, this tendency to limit representative bodies intensified.

In 1962 a new constitution was introduced. In 1977, the elected government of Z. Bhutto was overthrown and the military dictatorship of General Zia-ul-Haq was re-established. It was replaced by the government of B. Bhutto (daughter of Z. Bhutto). For a Muslim country, her coming to power was not traditional. Soon this government was overthrown. In 1993, B. Bhutto again headed the government.

Pakistan, like India, has taken the Eurocapitalist path, although the problem of democratization in the country is difficult to solve. In the 1970s-1980s. In Pakistan, reforms were carried out in the agricultural sector. In industry, the foundations of the state sector were created, private enterprise and foreign investment were supported.

In the course of the reforms, sharp contradictions were revealed between the eastern (Bangladesh) and western parts of the republic. This led to the eventual separation of Bangladesh from West Pakistan. Bangladesh became an independent republic.

However, the Republic of Bangladesh has not been able to overcome its economic backwardness. An attempt to solve these problems by relying on the development of the public sector and the centralization of economic management did not lead to the desired goals. In the 1980s a change of course followed, the privatization of the public sector was carried out, and the development of private enterprise was promoted. But for now, Bangladesh remains a poor country.

In the foreign policy of the Republic of Pakistan and Bangladesh, they follow different courses. Pakistan is the object of attention of the USA, Russia, China, Great Britain. After the collapse of the SEATO and CENTO military blocs, Pakistan became a member of the non-aligned movement.

7. Southwest Asia. Development features

The decolonization of Southwest Asia took the form of Britain's and France's renunciation of the mandates for Jordan, Iraq, Palestine, Syria and Lebanon during and after World War II. Somewhat later, independence was granted to the principalities of the Persian Gulf, which were under the protectorate of Great Britain. Only Aden (South Yemen) gained independence as a result of armed uprisings.

But the rivalry of the great powers here continued during the years of the Cold War. Arab-Israeli relations were especially tense in the region. The USSR staked on the Arab countries. The United States supported Israel, but at the same time took into account the strategic importance of the Arab states of the Persian Gulf - the world's main oil exporters.

During this conflict, Israel finally asserted its right to exist. This is how one of the most extraordinary phenomena in world history appeared. The people, which had long since lost their statehood, recreated it again. Despite the fact that Israel continues to have conflicting relations with the Arab world, it has emerged as a stable democratic state. A developed industry and intensive agriculture have been created in Israel. A developed economy, as well as considerable assistance from the United States and Jewish communities, allowed Israel to receive and equip hundreds of thousands of repatriates, most of whom have recently been Jews of the former USSR.

Having drawn closer to the USSR, many Arab countries tried at different times to carry out the "construction of socialism." But in most countries, a course was taken for modernization while maintaining the leading role of market relations and developing economic ties with the West. At the same time, the public sector was seen as an important tool for such modernization. Turkey advanced the furthest in this regard, having begun the transition to modernization as early as the 1930s.

In a peculiar form, the Arab monarchies of the Persian Gulf (Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia) carried out modernization, which became major oil exporters since the 1970s. dramatically increased their income. Over time, these countries created their own financial institutions. Countries began to manage their own capital. In these countries, modern infrastructure, transport, communications, capacities of the oil and gas processing industry have been created, agriculture has been modernized. But traditional relations are strong in these countries. Life here is regulated by the norms of medieval Islamic law. Absolute monarchies are preserved here, not limited by any representative bodies. This combination of modernity and tradition is made possible primarily by maintaining the overall high standard of living of the local population, as well as the widespread use of foreign rather than local labor in industry and services.

Iran, occupied in 1941 by Great Britain and the USSR, was in a state of instability for a long time. Only by the 50s. 1960th century Shah of the country Mohammed Reza Pahlavi managed to stabilize the situation in the country. In the XNUMXs he began the process of modernizing the country. These reforms broke the traditional way of life in the country. This caused social tension.

The Muslim clergy became the voice of discontent. It, headed by Ayatollah R. Khomeini (the highest cleric), opposed the reforms. R. Khomeini initially had a negative attitude towards the processes of modernization, believing that they contradict Islam. In 1963 he called for the overthrow of the Shah. He was exiled to neighboring Iraq, and then settled in Paris.

In 1979, the shah was overthrown, and the Islamic revolution won in the country. The Islamic State was headed by R. Khomeini. In the countries of the East, the trend towards the construction of secular states has already become stronger. The revolution in Iran began to move away from this principle. In Iran, the norms of Islamic law were restored. Non-religious and national parties were banned. The desire to revive ancient Islamic traditions has been called Islamic fundamentalism. Its appearance testifies to the complexity of the modernization process in Eastern countries.

8. Least developed countries. What lies ahead for them?

The most economically backward region of the world is represented by the states of Tropical Africa.

By the time these countries gained independence, most of the population was concentrated in the traditional sector. The modern sector was small and in most cases almost unrelated to the traditional one. Modernization in these countries has led to the fact that the rate of destruction of the traditional sector significantly outstripped the rate of creation of the modern one. The resulting "surplus" population found no use for itself. This extremely strained the social situation in the region. These problems were exacerbated by a sharply increased population growth rate.

The new ruling elite of African countries sought first of all to put an end to the most egregious signs of backwardness. These were unsanitary conditions, lack of access of the population to modern medicine. Enormous funds were allocated for this. Assistance from international organizations was sent there as well. These measures led to a sharp reduction in mortality. The birth rate has increased. This created the conditions for an unprecedented rate of population growth, in which Africa ranks first in the world.

The national question remains a problem in this region. African countries are characterized by ethnic diversity. Independence in Africa was gained not by nations, but by colonial territories. The borders of many African states, established by the colonial powers, are artificial. As a result, some large peoples (for example, the Fulani) are separated by state borders. In such conditions, with economic insolvency, it can be very difficult to keep civil peace. Therefore, many African states are characterized by interethnic, interethnic conflicts. Often they pose a threat to the integrity of these states. So, in 1967, the Iwo people in Eastern Nigeria announced their separation and the creation of an independent state. The territorial integrity of Nigeria was then managed to be preserved. Ethnic violence continues in Sudan, Liberia.

The complex ethnic composition of African states gives rise to another feature of political life - tribalism. Tribalism means adherence to ethnic isolation, in this case all socio-economic relations are refracted through ethnic ones.

All this left its mark on the political development of the countries of Tropical Africa. The absence of civil peace led to the failure of the first post-independence attempts to create democratic states. Soon, authoritarian regimes were established in these countries, relying primarily on the army. The political struggle in Africa for a long time took the form of periodic military coups and counter-coups. Political instability, of course, complicates the solution of economic problems.

In many countries, modernization was carried out in the form of "building socialism" (in Ghana, Guinea, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Congo). The struggle for economic independence in these countries often took the form of abandoning the production of traditional "colonial" goods. As a result, countries lost a reliable source of foreign currency. Over time, the relative prosperity of those countries that have maintained or increased their export potential has been revealed. These are exporters of oil (Nigeria, Gabon), copper (Zaire, Zambia), tea and coffee (Kenya), etc.

In the 1980s Sub-Saharan Africa faced new challenges. Their external debt grew at a high rate. Urgent measures were needed to save the economy. All forces were directed to the cultivation of export potential. With the assistance of international financial organizations, the restructuring of the economy began.

Countries had to abandon the systematic management of the economy and the strengthening of the public sector. The establishment of market relations began. These measures led to some economic recovery.

In order to prevent interstate conflicts, African countries agreed to adhere to the principle of respect for appropriate borders, which was included in the Charter of the Organization of African Unity (OAU).

List of used literature

1. Alekseev V. S., Trifonova N. O. History of the Middle Ages.

2. Becker KF History of the ancient world. M.: Olma-Press, 2001.

3. Wheeler R. Yu. History of the ancient world. M.: Respublika, 1999.

4. World History: A Textbook for High Schools / Ed. G. B. Polyak, A. N. Markova. M., 1997.

5. Glaukov I. D. The ancient world. Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 1998.

6. Evdokimova A. A. Early modern history. The era of the Reformation. Rostov-on-Don, 2004.

7. History of the ancient world / Ed. O. F. D'KONOVA Moscow: Nauka, 1989.

8. The history of modern times in Europe and America: 1945-1990: Textbook / Ed. E. F. Yaskova. M., 1993.

9. History of the Middle Ages: Textbook: In 2 volumes / Ed. S. D. Skazkina. M., 1977.

10. Culturology: Textbook / Ed. A. A. Radugina. M., 2000.

11. Latyshev VV Essays on Greek Philosophers / Ed. E. V. Nikityuk. St. Petersburg: Aliteya, 1997.

12. Manykin A. N. Modern and recent history of the countries of Western Europe and America. M., 2004.

13. World in the twentieth century: Textbook for 10-11 cells. educational institutions. M., 1997.

14. Yastrebitskaya A. L. Medieval culture and the city in the new historical science: Textbook. M., 1995.

Authors: Anna Barysheva, Irina Tkachenko, Oksana Ovchinnikova

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