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Philosophy (from Greek phileo - love, sophia - wisdom) - love of wisdom.

Philosophy - it is the science of the universal, it is a free and universal field of human knowledge, a constant search for the new.

Philosophy can be defined as the doctrine of the general principles of knowledge, being and relations between man and the world.

The purpose of philosophy is captivate a person with the highest ideals, take him out of the sphere of everyday life, give his life a true meaning, open the way to the most perfect values.

Philosophy as a system is divided: on the theory of knowledge; metaphysics (ontology, philosophical anthropology, cosmology, theology, philosophy of existence); logic (mathematics, logistics); ethics; philosophy of law; aesthetics and philosophy of art; natural philosophy; philosophy of history and culture; social and economic philosophy; religious philosophy; psychology.

Philosophy includes:

- the doctrine of the general principles of the existence of the universe (ontology or metaphysics);

- about the essence and development of human society (social philosophy and philosophy of history);

- the doctrine of man and his existence in the world (philosophical anthropology);

- theory of knowledge;

- problems of the theory of knowledge and creativity;

- ethics;

- aesthetics;

- theory of culture;

- its own history, that is, the history of philosophy. The history of philosophy is an essential component of the subject matter of philosophy: it is part of the content of philosophy itself.

The subject of philosophy - everything that exists in the fullness of its meaning and content. Philosophy is not aimed at determining the external interactions and the exact boundaries between the parts and particles of the world, but at understanding their internal connection and unity.

The main efforts of self-realized philosophical thought are directed towards finding the higher principle and meaning of being.

Fundamental problems (or sections) of philosophical science, its substantive self-determination - this is the uniqueness and meaning of human existence in the world, the relationship of man to God, the ideas of knowledge, the problems of morality and aesthetics, the problems of consciousness, the idea of ​​the soul, its death and immortality, social philosophy and the philosophy of history, as well as the history of philosophy itself.

Functions of Philosophy:

- worldview function (associated with the conceptual explanation of the world);

- methodological function (consists in the fact that philosophy acts as a general doctrine of the method and as a set of the most general methods of cognition and development of reality by a person);

- predictive function (formulates hypotheses about the general trends in the development of matter and consciousness, man and the world);

- critical function (applies not only to other disciplines, but also to philosophy itself, the principle "question everything" indicates the importance of a critical approach to existing knowledge and socio-cultural values);

- axiological function (from the Greek axios - valuable; any philosophical system contains the moment of evaluating the object under study from the point of view of the various values ​​themselves: moral, social, aesthetic, etc.);

- social function (based on it, philosophy is called upon to perform a dual task - объяснять social being and contribute to its material and spiritual change).

Every philosophy is outlook, i.e., the totality of the most general views on the world and the place of man in it.

Philosophy is the theoretical basis of the worldview:

- philosophy - this is the highest level and type of worldview, it is a system-rational and theoretically formulated worldview;

- philosophy - this is a form of social and individual consciousness, which has a greater degree of scientificity than just a worldview;

- philosophy is a system of fundamental ideas in the composition of the public worldview. World view - this is a generalized system of views of a person and society on the world and one's own place in it, a person's understanding and assessment of the meaning of his life, the fate of mankind, as well as a set of generalized philosophical, scientific, legal, social, moral, religious, aesthetic values, beliefs, beliefs and people's ideals.

A vision can be:

- idealistic;

- materialistic.

Materialism - a philosophical view that recognizes the basis of being matter. According to materialism, the world is a moving matter, and the spiritual principle is a property of the brain (highly organized matter).

Idealism - a philosophical view that believes that true being belongs to the spiritual principle (mind, will), and not to matter.

The worldview exists in the form of a system of value orientations, beliefs and convictions, ideals, as well as a way of life of a person and society.

Value Orientations - a system of spiritual and material goods, which society recognizes as the dominant force over itself, which determines the actions, thoughts and relationships of people.

Everything has significance, meaning, positive or negative value. Values ​​are unequal, they are evaluated from different points of view: emotional; religious; moral; aesthetic; scientific; philosophical; pragmatic.

Our soul has a unique ability to determine precisely its value orientations. This is also manifested at the level of worldview positions, where we are talking about the attitude to religion, art, to the choice of moral orientations and philosophical predilections.

Vera - one of the main pillars of the spiritual world of man and mankind. Every person, regardless of their statements, has faith. Faith is a phenomenon of consciousness, which has a tremendous power of vital significance: it is impossible to live without faith. An act of faith is an unconscious feeling, an inner feeling, to some extent characteristic of every person.

Ideals are an important part of the worldview. Man always strives for the ideal.

The One - This is a dream:

- about a perfect society in which everything is fair;

- harmoniously developed personality;

- reasonable interpersonal relationships;

- moral;

- beautiful;

- realization of their potential for the benefit of mankind.

Beliefs - this is a clearly defined system of views that have settled in our soul, but not only in the sphere of consciousness, but also in the subconscious, in the sphere of intuition, densely colored by our feelings.

Beliefs are:

- the spiritual core of the personality;

- the basis of the worldview.

These are the components of the worldview, and its theoretical core is the system of philosophical knowledge.

Philosophy is one of the most ancient ways of comprehending the world and determining a person's place in it. Prerequisites for the emergence of philosophy: interaction in the culture of worldview and categorical-logical complexes; structural and functional difference between them; rejection of the unreality of the myth, which prevented the formation of the fundamental principles of scientific ideology (consistency, invariance, universality); the destruction of the mythological identity of man and reality; formation of cognitive activity.

Social prerequisites for the emergence of philosophy: early science; separation of mental labor from physical; formation of democracy and a layer of free citizens.

The emergence of philosophy chronologically refers to the turn of the VIII-II centuries. BC e. At that time, in different parts of the world - in the Middle and Far East, ancient Greece - an ideological movement gained strength, strengthened, strengthened, in which a person realizes and comprehends the highest values ​​and goals, his place on earth.

A person in this period becomes a real person - spiritualized, intelligent, he has meaningful ideas about the universe.

Philosophy originated in the centers of civilization:

- Ancient India;

- Ancient China;

- Ancient Greece;

- Ancient Rome.

The founders of philosophy are considered to be:

- Lao Tzu (China);

- Kung Tzu (China);

- Shakyamuni (India);

- Zarathustra (Persia);

- Jeremiah (Palestine);

- Habakkuk (Palestine);

- Daniel (Palestine);

- Thales (Ancient Greece);

- Anaximenes (Ancient Greece);

- Anaximander (Ancient Greece).

These sages formulated the most important philosophical concepts and ideas.

Philosophy appeared as a result of the fusion of mythological and pra-scientific orders:

- from the mythology of philosophy got the subject area, thematic area, problems;

- philosophy is united with science by a demonstration, a method of fixing, certifying results, a justification apparatus.

The main merit of the first philosophers was the distinction between thought and the object of thought. They laid the foundation for a rationalization that transformed: heroic verisimilitude into civilian lifelikeness; the rite is back to normal; tradition into law; life into life; not subject to the mind, sensual-concrete into abstract-thinking, intelligible.

Philosophy replaced the mythological picture of the world and helped to rationally comprehend the world.

In ancient philosophy there were: comprehension of the surrounding world; the concept of human existence in the world; search for harmony in the relationship between the world and man.

The most important human qualities for ancient philosophy: knowledge, justice, virtue.

From the very beginning, the foundations were laid in philosophy humanism - the doctrine of man as the highest value and goal of social development.

Philosophy arose as a way of rational-conceptual understanding of the world and man in it, subsequently becoming an organic unity of scientific knowledge and wisdom of life.

The main theme of ancient philosophy was the theme of the origin (foundation) of the world and the most important characteristics of the universe.

The main ideas of ancient philosophy were: materialism, idealism, syncretism (fusion of scientific and non-scientific knowledge).

Philosophy is the doctrine of the universal principles and laws of the development of nature, society, knowledge and thinking.

Philosophy, literally translated, is the love of wisdom. For the first time the word "philosophy" was used by Pythagoras, and put into public use by Plato.

The first ancient Greek thinkers made nature the subject of study of philosophy - they investigated the problems of the emergence and structure of the world, they were looking for the fundamental principle of everything that exists, from which everything arises and into which everything turns.

The turn from space to man was made by Socrates, who posed the problems of the meaning of human life, death, etc. After this revolution, philosophy had a dual task - the study of the world and man in their relationship, interconnection.

Philosophy:

- the social self-consciousness of people, their common values ​​and ideals received theoretical expression in it;

- was an integrated way of spiritual development of socio-historical practice, the contradictions of the progress of civilization and culture. Purpose of philosophy:

- creation of a holistic worldview;

- explanation of objective reality and the ultimate foundations of human actions in the system of logical categories;

- the doctrine of the general principles of being;

- knowledge of existence;

- the study of man's relationship to the objective world and his place in this world. Distinctive features of philosophy:

- it is universal and abstract;

- it has a significant value component;

- it is called upon to affirm humanistic ideals (truth, goodness, justice);

- it reflects spiritual activity, explores and shows how the processes of reality are studied;

- it is the result of self-consciousness of the whole culture.

Philosophy, from the point of view of its purpose, is a reflection. Reflection - a peculiar phenomenon in the sphere of spiritual development of the world by a person, which does not coincide with either cognition or self-knowledge.

One of the most important features of philosophy is its universalism. This means that only in philosophical analysis is it possible to fix the existence of different ways of spiritual assimilation by a person of the world, take into account the specifics of each of them, compare the categories of good and evil, truth and benefit, etc., raise the question of their nature.

The main problems of philosophy:

- object and subject of philosophy (object - the world as a whole; subject - laws, properties and forms of being that operate in all areas of the material world, in all objects, processes, phenomena, since they are connected in an inseparable unity);

- fundamental principles of the world (the first side of the main purpose of philosophy);

- development of the world (dialectical and metaphysical ways of cognition);

- knowledge of the world (definition of the object and subject of knowledge, solution of the problem of truth, the role of practice);

- Man and his place in the world (the study of the universe, the development of human culture). The structure of philosophical knowledge:

- ontology (philosophy of being);

- epistemology (theory of knowledge);

- logic (knowledge of the principles of thinking);

- axiology (the doctrine of values);

- aesthetics (the study of beauty);

- Anthropology (study of the problems of nature, the essence of man);

- praxeology (social philosophy).

Philosophy (from Greek phileo - love, sophia - wisdom) - love of wisdom. Philosophical thought was born in the bosom of mythology as the first form of social consciousness. In its original content, philosophy practically coincides with the religious and mythological worldview.

Mythology - a system of legends, tales, legends, with the help of imagination, explaining the course and origin of natural and social processes. Mythology in its origin was a naive philosophy and science.

Myth - a figurative variation of the artistic epic with a pronounced attraction to the heroic-fantastic reproduction of the phenomena of reality, accompanied by a concrete-sensory personification of a person's mental states.

Myth structure:

- cognitive component - understanding of the world: the origin of things, the etiology of the world, etc.;

- prescriptive-incentive component - principles of life: values, attitudes, instructions, directives, ideals;

- practical component - world action: social interaction, interindividual communication, exchange of activities, self-affirmation, cult and ritual-mystical acts, symbolic rites, spells, etc.

In mythology, for the first time in the history of mankind, a number of philosophical questions are posed:

How did the world come into existence?

- how it develops;

- what is life;

What is death, etc.

Mythology was an attempt to explain the phenomena of nature and human life, the relationship of the earthly and cosmic principles.

Mythology - the initial form of worldview, it expressed: naive forms of explanation of natural and social phenomena; moral and aesthetic attitude to the world.

Mythological worldview - a system of views on the objective world and on the place of a person in it, which is based not on theoretical arguments and reasoning, but on the artistic and emotional experience of the world, on public illusions born of inadequate perception by large groups of people (nations, classes) of social processes and their role in them.

Close to mythological religious outlook, it also appeals to fantasy and feelings, but at the same time does not mix the sacred and the earthly.

Religion - attitude and worldview, as well as appropriate behavior, determined by belief in existence God deities; a sense of dependency, bondage, and obligation to a secret power that provides support and is worthy of worship. The basis of living religiosity is the mythological world-action and understanding of the world.

According to Kant, религия - this is the law that lives in us, this is morality, turned to the knowledge of God.

Faith is given by God to man:

- through education in a religious family;

- teaching at school;

- life experience;

- the power of the mind, comprehending God through the manifestation of his creations.

Freedom of Religious Belief is one of the inalienable human rights. Therefore, it is necessary to be tolerant towards representatives of other religions, atheists who are in disbelief: after all, disbelief in God is also faith, but with a negative sign. Religion is closer to philosophy than mythology. They are characterized by: a look into eternity, the search for higher goals, a valuable perception of life. But religion is mass consciousness, and philosophy is theoretical consciousness, religion does not require proof, and philosophy is always the work of thought.

Tongue - it is the most differentiated and most comprehensive means of expression that a person owns, and at the same time the highest form of manifestation of the objective spirit.

Language - a symbolic expression in writing and sound of a person's mental life. Structural units of the language - These are words and sentences, as well as texts made up of them.

In the historical development of the philosophy of language, three concepts are quite clearly visible:

- first - name philosophy (thing - essence (idea) - name (word), the word names the thing and the essence);

- second - predicate philosophy (predicate - a language expression denoting a sign, i.e. predicate philosophy is the philosophy of statements that have a truth function);

- third - philosophy of values (assumes value attitudes of the individual).

The language has:

- denoting function - words and sentences denote a certain process or subject;

- communicative function - involves establishing contact between persons, the ability to understand each other, encouraging the speaker to listen to his partner;

- public nature - this means that each subject must be expressed in a generally valid form, which dictates some restrictions. Language - this is a symbolization, an expression of the inner, spiritual life of a person. But symbolization is in a special form - individual-social, since the rules of linguistic communication are dictated by society.

Metalanguage called the language on the basis of which the study of another language is carried out, the latter is called object language. The relationship between metalanguage and object language occurs in the process of translation, and translation is interpretation. Metalanguages ​​are widely used in science, here they fix, express knowledge of the most general nature.

The language of philosophy - it is a metalanguage of maximum generality, it is used by all educated people.

Philosophy of language - study of language from the point of view of its essence, origin and function in human society, in the development of culture.

The philosophy of language covers: the history of the language; linguistics; biology; logic psychology of language; sociology of language.

Modern research in the field of philosophy of language is characterized by two complementary directions:

- return to the internal and external reality of the actual state of the language;

- striving for a universal grammar and elucidation of the categorical foundations of human language. The essence of language is revealed in its dual function:

- serve as a means of communication;

- serve as an instrument of thought.

The logic of a language is formed by its grammar, the meaning of a language is its semantics, and the practical meaning of a language is its pragmatics.

In the linguistic system of philosophy, an important role is played by: abstract concepts as a sign of a rational attitude to the world; images and symbols, which are a means of artistic exploration of the world.

In addition to natural, in the world there are artificial languages ​​created by humans to solve specific problems. These languages ​​include: the languages ​​of science; machine languages; jargons; Esperanto.

Under the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, machine and formalized languages ​​began to play a particularly significant role.

Formalized languages ​​- these are mathematical or logical calculations, they use mathematical and logical signs, formulas, while excluding any kind of ambiguity and absurdity.

Science - this is the sphere of human activity, the function of which is the theoretical schematization and development of objective knowledge about reality; a branch of culture that did not exist among all peoples and not at all times.

Philosophy is a doctrine of the general principles of being, knowledge and relations between man and the world.

When considering the relationship between science and philosophy, there are at least three aspects of its interpretation:

- is philosophy a science;

- interaction of philosophy and private (concrete) sciences;

- correlation of philosophy and non-scientific knowledge. The scientific nature of philosophy cannot be denied, it is the science of the universal, a free and universal field of human knowledge, a constant search for the new.

Interaction of philosophy and private (concrete) sciences - specific sciences have their own subject of study, their own methods and laws, their own level of generalization of knowledge, while in philosophy the subject of analysis is the generalizations of particular sciences, i.e. philosophy deals with a higher one, secondary level of generalization. At the same time, the primary level leads to the formulation of the laws of specific sciences, and the task of the secondary level is to identify more general patterns and trends.

Philosophy itself has an impact on the development of the particular sciences, and not only is influenced by them. This impact can be both positive and negative.

The influence of philosophy is carried out through a worldview, which in one way or another affects:

- to the initial positions of the scientist;

- his attitude to the world and knowledge;

- on his attitude to the need to develop a particular field of knowledge (for example, nuclear physics, genetic engineering, etc.).

Philosophy and non-scientific knowledge Extra-scientific knowledge can be divided into:

- on the delusions, associated with the research of people who are convinced that they are creating a true science, which includes such "sciences" as astrology, occult "sciences", magic, sorcery, etc.;

- relation of philosophy and parascience, some authors call for the use of any teachings, up to mysticism, magic, superstition, astrology, etc., if only they had a therapeutic effect on today's sick society. They stand for boundless ideological pluralism. It must be said that the influence of parascience is greatest precisely at critical moments in the development of society, because parascience really performs a certain psychotherapeutic function, serves as a certain means of adapting to life in a period of social and individual instability.

In science, there are:

- empirical level of research - directed to the object being studied directly and implemented through experiment and observation;

- theoretical level of research - concentrated around generalizing ideas, principles, laws, hypotheses.

Science has an aspiration to the heights of human knowledge, the roads leading to these heights are ideals of science.

Ideals of Science - These are experimental and theoretical methods in science that allow you to achieve the most reasonable and evidence-based knowledge.

culture - a set of manifestations of life, creativity and achievements of a people or group of peoples.

According to its content, culture is stratified into a variety of areas and spheres:

- manners and customs;

- language and writing;

- the nature of clothing, settlements, work;

- setting up education;

- economy;

- warfare;

- political and state structure;

- the science;

- technique;

- art;

- religion;

- all forms of manifestation of the objective spirit. The word "culture" as a scientific term began to be used in the Enlightenment (from the second half of the XNUMXth century).

During the Enlightenment, the term "culture" was interpreted from two sides:

- as a way to elevate a person, improve the spiritual life and morality of people, correct the vices of society;

- as a really existing and historically changing way of life of people, which is due to the achieved level of development of the human mind, science, art, upbringing, education. Culture is interconnected with civilization. Civilization - this is all of humanity in a wide manifestation of symbolic wealth. Culture is the achievement of the work of civilization, the most perfect of which is the triumph of the human. From the point of view of philosophy, culture is the inner spiritual content of civilization, while civilization is only the outer material shell of culture.

Culture is a means and a way of developing the spiritual principle in a person, having as its goal the formation and satisfaction of his spiritual needs; civilization gives people the means of subsistence, it is aimed at satisfying their practical needs.

Culture is spiritual values, achievements of science, philosophy, art, education, and civilization is the degree of development of society from the technological, economic, socio-political side.

Culture is a distinctive feature of the human way of life from the animal, but at the same time it carries not only positive, but also negative, undesirable manifestations of human activity.

In philosophy, culture is understood as the sphere of information support of society. Culture in this sense is a collective intelligence, a collective mind that forms, accumulates and stores social information used by a person to transform the world around him and himself. Social information is encoded using human-created symbolic means. The most important of the sign means is language.

People differ from animals in their understanding of reality with the help of social information. There are three main types of meanings in social information: knowledge; values; regulations (rules of action).

The relationship between knowledge, values ​​and regulators determine the features:

- spiritual culture (mythology, religion, art, philosophy);

- social culture (moral, legal, political);

- technological culture (technical, scientific, engineering).

All peoples in the process of their historical development create their own national culture. But there are also cultural universals - common features that characterize culture as the collective intelligence of all mankind as a whole developing in time.

Philosophy - one of the most ancient areas of knowledge, spiritual culture. Appearing in the VII-VI centuries. BC e. in India, China, Ancient Greece, it became a stable form of consciousness that interested people in all subsequent centuries.

The vocation of philosophers was the search for answers to questions, and the very formulation of questions that related to the worldview. Understanding such issues is vital for people. This is especially felt in the era of revolutions and changes with their complex interweaving of problems - after all, it is then that the worldview itself is actively tested by deeds and transformed. This has always been in history, but never before has life set the task of philosophical understanding of everything that is happening so acutely as in the current period of history, at the very beginning of the XNUMXrd millennium.

From the very beginning of studying philosophy, students already have some idea about this subject: they can, with more or less success, recall the names of famous philosophers, explain in a certain sense what philosophy is.

In the list of questions (everyday, political, industrial, scientific, etc.) it is often possible to single out questions of a philosophical nature without special preparation, for example:

- the world is finite or infinite;

- Is there an absolute, final knowledge;

What is human happiness?

- what is the nature of evil.

To these "eternal" questions today new, serious and tense ones are added:

- what is the general picture and trends in the development of modern society, our country in the current historical situation;

- how to assess the modern era as a whole, the social, spiritual, ecological state of the planet Earth;

- how to prevent mortal threats hanging over mankind;

- how to protect, defend the great humanistic ideals of mankind;

From its very birth to the present day, philosophical thought seeks to understand those issues of worldview that excite people outside of philosophy.

The study of philosophy helps to understand and realize spontaneously formed views, to give them a more mature character.

Ordinary people may be interested in philosophy from at least two points of view:

- for better orientation in their specialty;

- to understand life in all its fullness and complexity.

Human problems are important for philosophy. The greatest attention is paid to human problems during periods of great historical transformations of society, when there is a deep reassessment of values.

The subject of philosophical reflection has always been:

- natural and social world;

- man in his complex interaction with nature and society.

The originality of philosophy affected the nature of thinking - philosophers created mainly treatises that appealed to knowledge, the mind of people.

Philosophy performs a number of cognitive functions related to the functions of science. The most important functions of philosophy:

- generalization, integration, synthesis of all kinds of knowledge;

- discovery of the most common patterns, connections, interactions of the main subsystems of being;

- forecast, formation of hypotheses about general principles, trends in the development of specific phenomena that have not yet been worked out by special scientific methods.

History of philosophy studies the real process of the emergence, development and change of philosophical ideas.

Historical and philosophical process - this, figuratively speaking, is a "battlefield" on which the undying passions of thinkers boil, their points of view and arguments clash. The historical and philosophical process includes movement in space (national philosophical systems and traditions) and in time (types of worldview in specific eras of philosophical knowledge).

The subject of the history of philosophy - this is the process of the emergence, formation and development of the theoretical thinking of people, the formation and regular change of rational pictures of the world and the existence of people in it.

History of Philosophy:

- theoretical, extremely rational understanding of important worldview issues about the world and human existence in it;

- reflection of the general logic of the cultural development of mankind (the knowledge of the era about itself, the answer to the call of its time);

- the unity of the different, the multitude of epochs, directions and trends in them, individual schools, teachings and ideas, their lively dialogue;

- specific historical ideas of people about the world around them and their place in it;

- an endless creative process of theoretical search for truth;

- active dialogue of ideas, continuity and mutual enrichment of various worldview systems;

- the history of personalities, their life experience, intellectual search and reflections on the most important worldview issues. Historical and philosophical process in relation to thinkers: active self-expression of bright thinking individuals; the formation of a civilized, cultured, free person.

The most important systems of the historical and philosophical process:

- theological philosophy (the driving force is God);

- metaphysical philosophy (the driving force is a transcendental regularity, i.e. fate);

- idealistic philosophy (the driving force is the spiritual-scientific or spiritual-spiritual life of a person);

- naturalistic philosophy (the driving force is the nature of a person who has passions, motives);

- materialistic-economic philosophy (the driving force is economic relations).

The philosophy of history is:

- individualistic;

- collectivist;

- deterministic (fatalistic);

- indeterministic (activist).

In the history of philosophy one can see and trace the intellectual, moral and aesthetic experience of mankind.

Main problems in the history of philosophy:

- the meaning and purpose of human life;

- search and affirmation of the highest life truths and values.

The main stages of the historical and philosophical process: philosophy of the ancient world; medievalism; philosophy of the Renaissance; philosophy of modern times; philosophy of the Enlightenment; philosophy of the late XIX - early XX centuries; philosophy of the XNUMXth century

From the objective side, the history of philosophy is philosophy in its historical development, the process of development and movement of the thinking spirit in time (epochs) and in the space of social thought (national philosophical systems). From the subjective side, the history of philosophy is a scientific interpretation and description of the objective historical and philosophical process, which is taken in a certain chronological sequence and internal interconnection.

1. The philosophical thought of Ancient China and Ancient India is born against the background of mythology as the first form of social consciousness. The main property of mythology is the inability of a person to isolate himself from the environment and explain phenomena on the basis of natural causes; it explains the phenomena of the world by the action of gods and heroes. For the first time in the history of mankind, mythology also poses a number of strictly philosophical questions: what is life and death; how the world arose and how it develops, etc.

2. The philosophy of ancient China and ancient India is emerging as a form of social consciousness with the advent of class society and state. In ancient India, philosophy arose around the XNUMXst millennium BC. e., when slave-owning states began to form on its territory. The emergence of philosophy in China dates back to the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. BC e., when the process of class stratification of society began there: the growth of the economic and political power of the new landowners and the urban rich, as well as the ruin of the community members.

3. The philosophy of ancient China and ancient India is addressed to universal human values. A person must master philosophical wisdom in order to receive universal human values. To do this, he should learn to understand:

- in the problem of the world and its knowledge;

- in the problem of interaction between man and nature;

- in the problem of the meaning of human life, etc. The philosophy of Ancient China and Ancient India was interested in the problems of:

- beautiful and ugly;

- good and evil;

- justice and injustice;

- friendship, partnership;

- love and hate;

- happiness, pleasure and suffering, etc.

4. The pattern of development of the philosophy of ancient China and ancient India is ideological character philosophical knowledge. Philosophical views, theories, ideas, systems are either idealistic or materialistic, sometimes eclectic (combinations of the two previous types of worldviews).

Idealism is presented in the philosophy of ancient China and ancient India in its two varieties: as objective and as subjective idealism - this is the philosophy of "yoga", Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, Taoism.

In the philosophy of ancient China and ancient India, traditionally philosophical categories are used:

- traffic;

- opposite;

- unity;

- matter;

- consciousness;

- space;

- time;

- world.

The philosophy of ancient China and ancient India does not pose the problem of discreteness of matter and its structure. Matter is considered in it:

- as a kind of "hindrance" to the soul;

- as a kind of substantive beginning.

In solving problems of knowledge, the philosophy of ancient China and ancient India emphasized the importance of speculation for solving philosophical problems. At the same time, four sources of achieving truth were investigated: perception; conclusion; comparison; proof.

The most important problem of social philosophy is the problem of the people and the ruler.

Philosophy embraced all the spiritual values ​​of the Ancient World: art and religion; ethics and aesthetic thought; law and politics; pedagogy and science.

The entire spiritual civilization of ancient China and ancient India carries an appeal to the being of the individual, its self-improvement and self-awareness through the withdrawal from the material world.

Ancient world - era of Greco-Roman classical antiquity.

Ancient Philosophy - this is a consistently developed philosophical thought, which covers a period of more than a thousand years - from the end of the XNUMXth century. BC e. up to the XNUMXth century. n. e.

Ancient philosophy did not develop in isolation - it drew the wisdom of the Ancient East, such countries as: Libya; Babylon; Egypt; Persia; Ancient China; Ancient India.

From the side of history, ancient philosophy is divided into five periods:

- naturalistic period (the main attention is paid to the Cosmos and nature - Milesians, Elea-you, Pythagoreans);

- humanist period (the main attention is paid to human problems, first of all, these are ethical problems; this includes Socrates and the sophists);

- classical period (these are the grandiose philosophical systems of Plato and Aristotle);

- period of the Hellenistic schools (the main attention is paid to the moral arrangement of people - Epicureans, Stoics, skeptics);

- Neoplatonism (universal synthesis, brought to the idea of ​​the One Good). Characteristic features of ancient philosophy:

1) ancient philosophy syncretic - characteristic of it is a greater fusion, indivisibility of the most important problems than for later types of philosophy;

2) ancient philosophy cosmocentric - it embraces the whole Cosmos together with the human world;

3) ancient philosophy pantheistic - it comes from the Cosmos, intelligible and sensual;

4) ancient philosophy almost does not know the laws - she achieved a lot at the conceptual level, the logic of Antiquity is called the logic of common names, concepts;

5) ancient philosophy has its own ethics - the ethics of Antiquity, virtue ethics, in contrast to the subsequent ethics of duty and values, the philosophers of the era of Antiquity characterized a person as endowed with virtues and vices, in the development of their ethics they reached extraordinary heights;

6) ancient philosophy functional - she seeks to help people in their lives, the philosophers of that era tried to find answers to the cardinal questions of being.

The main names of ancient philosophy: Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Heraclitus of Ephesus, Xenophanes, Parmenides, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Democritus, Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus.

Ancient philosophy is multi-problem, it explores different problems: natural-philosophical; ontological; epistemological; methodological; aesthetic; brain teaser; ethical; political; legal.

In ancient philosophy, knowledge is considered as: empirical; sensual; rational; logical.

In ancient philosophy, the problem of logic is being developed; Socrates, Plato and Aristotle made a great contribution to its study.

Social problems in ancient philosophy contain a wide range of topics: state and law; work; control; War and Peace; desires and interests of power; property division of society.

According to ancient philosophers, the ideal ruler should have such qualities as knowledge of truth, beauty, goodness; wisdom, courage, justice, wit; he must have a wise balance of all human faculties.

Ancient philosophy had a great influence on subsequent philosophical thought, culture, and the development of human civilization.

1. The oldest philosophical school is Milesian (VII-V centuries BC). Her ancestors:

- Thales - astronomer, political figure, he made a revolution in the worldview, proposing the idea of ​​substance - the fundamental principle of everything, generalizing all diversity into a coexistent and seeing the beginning of everything in water;

- Anaximenes - suggested in the first place air, seeing in it the infinity and ease of change of things;

- Anaximander - was the first to propose the original idea of ​​the infinity of the worlds, he took apeiron (indefinite and limitless substance), the parts of which change, while the whole remains unchanged.

The Milesians, with their views, laid the foundation for a philosophical approach to the question of the origin of beings: to the idea of ​​substance, i.e. e. to the fundamental principle, the essence of all things and phenomena of the universe.

2. School of Pythagoras.

Pythagoras (VI century BC) was also preoccupied with the problem: "What is everything from?", but he solved it differently than the Miletians. "Everything is a number," is his answer. He organized a school that included women.

In numbers, the Pythagoreans saw:

- properties and relationships inherent in various harmonic combinations of existence;

- explanations of the hidden meaning of phenomena, the laws of nature.

Pythagoras was successfully engaged in the development of various kinds of mathematical proofs, and this contributed to the development of the principles of an exact rational type of thinking.

It is important to note that the Pythagoreans achieved considerable success in their search for harmony, an amazingly beautiful quantitative consistency that permeates everything that exists, primarily the phenomena of the Cosmos.

Pythagoras owns the idea of ​​the reincarnation of souls, he believed that the soul is immortal.

3. Eleatic school: Xenophanes, Parmenides, Ze-non Xenophanes from Colophon (c. 565-473 BC) - a philosopher and poet, he expounded his teaching in verse:

- opposed anthropomorphic elements in religion;

- made fun of the gods in human form;

- severely scourged the poets who ascribe to the celestials the desires and sins of man;

- believed that God neither in body nor spirit resembles mortals;

- stood at the head of monotheists and at the head of skeptics;

- Carried out the division of types of knowledge. Parmenides (late XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries BC) - philosopher, politician, central figure of the Eleatic school:

- distinguished between truth and opinion;

- the central idea is being, the ratio of thinking and being;

- in his opinion, there is not and cannot be empty space and time outside the changing being;

- He considered the existence to be devoid of variability and diversity;

There is existence, there is no non-existence.

Zeno of Elea (c. 490-430 BC) - philosopher, politician, favorite student and follower of Parmenides:

- his whole life is a struggle for truth and justice;

- he developed logic as dialectics.

4. School of Socrates.

Socrates (469-399 BC) did not write anything, was a sage close to the people, philosophized in the streets and squares, everywhere entered into philosophical disputes: he is known to us as one of the founders of dialectics in the sense of finding the truth through conversations and disputes; developed the principles of rationalism in matters of ethics, arguing that virtue comes from knowledge and a person who knows what good is will not act badly.

Medievalism - this is primarily the philosophy of feudal society, which is characterized by the dominance of theology and religion.

The main part of feudal culture was religion. The clergy was the only educated class, so jurisprudence, natural science, philosophy were brought into line with the teachings of the church:

- in China, the doctrine of Tao was adapted to the needs of religion: Tao appeared not as a natural law, but as a divine predestination;

- Buddhist philosophy began to develop the problems of the illusory existence and the truth of non-existence, the immortality of the soul and its reincarnation on the path to achieving the eternal spiritual world through the improvement of self-consciousness;

- Confucianism turned to the idealistic and mystical ideas of Buddhism and Taoism to justify the feudal system: people must meekly submit to fate, curbing all their "evil" thoughts;

- in Europe, the Christian religion was dominant, opposing the numerous scattered feudal states with its strict centralized system of control over the minds and souls of people.

The source of philosophical reflections were the dogmas of the Holy Scriptures. For the philosophy of the Middle Ages, a characteristic feature was theocentrism - appeal to God, his essence as the root cause and fundamental principle of the world.

Scholasticism (from the Greek. schole - school) is a medieval Christian philosophy that dominated school teaching and was entirely dependent on theology. The main task of scholasticism is the substantiation, protection and systematization of unshakable religious dogmas in an abstract, logical way.

The founder of Catholic theology and the systematizer of scholasticism was Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274).

The main works of Thomas Aquinas:

- "The sum of theology";

- "The sum of philosophy";

- "Sum against the pagans."

In the works of Thomas Aquinas, terms are introduced:

- being possible;

- being real;

- categories of matter as a possibility of being;

- categories of form as the reality of being. Interesting socio-philosophical views of Thomas Aquinas, he believed that personality - is "the most noble in all rational nature" phenomenon. She has intellect, feelings and will. The main themes of medieval philosophy:

1) theocentrism - the principle that God is the center of medieval philosophical and religious ideas;

2) monotheism - God is one and unique, unlike the ancient gods;

3) creationism - a doctrine that speaks of God's creation of the world out of nothing and gives an answer to the question posed in Antiquity about how the plural is born from the one;

4) symbolism - the principle of understanding the earthly as other being, the world of God;

5) medieval anthropocentrism - according to him, man is a privileged creature created by God, the master of everything created for him. The main problem of philosophy, according to the wise men of the Middle Ages, is not the Cosmos, but man. The Greatest Virtue - not intellect, not mind, but good will, obedience to the commandments of God. To be human, one must hope, believe, love, and live according to the ethical rules set forth by Christ in the Sermon on the Mount;

6) medieval hermeneutics - the art of interpreting texts.

Old Russian philosophy - this is the initial period of the formation of Russian philosophy, which refers to the XI-XVII centuries.

Distinctive features of ancient Russian philosophy - lack of independent status and combination with a religious worldview.

Within this historical type of philosophy, specific periods can be distinguished:

- XI-XIV centuries (the process of formation of ancient Russian philosophy);

- XV-XVI centuries (the heyday of ancient Russian philosophy);

- XNUMXth century (the beginning of a gradual change in the philosophy of the medieval type of the new European). Ancient Russian philosophy arises in Kievan Rus thanks to the process of Christianization the beginning of which was laid by the baptism of Russia in 988. Features and images of ancient Russian philosophy:

- Slavic pagan worldview and culture;

- many images, ideas and concepts of ancient philosophy;

- Eastern Christian philosophical and theological thought.

A characteristic feature of the development of Russian philosophy is that it passes through the development of all Russian culture. Many philosophical ideas are embodied and expressed through the images of literature, fine arts, and architecture.

The unity of philosophy and culture had positive and negative consequences:

- Russian culture was philosophically filled, spiritually rich and significant, because philosophy was organically woven into the common language of the culture that served as its home;

- this combination of culture and philosophy hindered the development of philosophy as an independent and professional activity, did not contribute to the development of the conceptual and logical apparatus of philosophical knowledge proper and the creation of philosophical systems.

The nature of ancient Russian philosophy was quite broad and ambiguous:

- it was common the doctrine of the elements as primary elements, originating from ancient philosophy, various natural phenomena and human nature were associated with the struggle, combination and mutual transition of water, fire, air, earth - the primary elements;

- philosophical knowledge fulfilled not only a worldview function, but also wisdom function, including worldly wisdom, righteousness of thoughts and deeds of people;

- ethical and historical thought was based on the theocratic principle of Christianity: empirical, earthly, secular reality was subject to the divine principle;

- the meaning of history was revealed through the struggle of two principles - God and the devil, personifying the forces of good and evil, light and darkness.

A set of rules for practical philosophy is filled with "Instruction" of the prince Vladimir Monomakh (1053-1125), who set out an ethical code of conduct, following which one can live in harmony with God, defeat the devil and his enemies.

From the XNUMXth century appears the idea of ​​Russian religious messianism - special mission of the Russian kingdom and people - the idea of ​​Holy Rus'. She became the first ideological formation of the national Russian self-consciousness.

Since the XNUMXth century many considered philosophy as a secular knowledge, thus beginning the process of its secularization - freedom from ecclesiastical influence.

In the XNUMXth century there was a gradual change of the medieval type of Russian philosophy by its new European type, and in the XNUMXth century. Russian philosophy was freed from ecclesiastical influence.

From the XNUMXth century begins a transitional era in the history of Western Europe - the Renaissance, which created its own brilliant culture. The most important condition for the flourishing of culture in the Renaissance was the demolition of the dictatorship of the church.

Anthropocentrism - the doctrine according to which man is the center of the universe and the goal of all events taking place in the world.

Humanism - a kind of anthropocentrism, views that recognize the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom and happiness.

Secular interests, the full-blooded earthly life of a person were opposed to feudal asceticism:

- petrarch, who collected ancient manuscripts, calls to "heal the bloody wounds" of his native Italy, trampled under the boot of foreign soldiers and torn apart by the enmity of feudal tyrants;

- Boccaccio in his "Decameron" he ridicules the depraved clergy, the parasitic nobility and glorifies the inquisitive mind, the desire for pleasure and the seething energy of the townspeople;

- Erasmus Rotterdam in the satire "In Praise of Stupidity" and Rabelais in the novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" they express humanism and the unacceptability of the old medieval ideology.

A huge influence on the development of the ideas of humanism was also exerted by: Leonardo da Vinci (his works of painting, sculpture and architecture, works on mathematics, biology, geology, anatomy are dedicated to man, his greatness); Michelangelo Buonarroti (in his painting "Lamentation of Christ", in the painting of the vault of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, in the statue "David" the physical and spiritual beauty of man, his unlimited creative possibilities are affirmed).

The philosophy of the Renaissance is filled with recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities.

Stages of development humanism:

- secular free-thinking, which opposes medieval scholasticism and the spiritual dominance of the church;

- value-moral emphasis of philosophy and literature.

A new culture and philosophy appeared in Italy, then embracing a number of European countries: France, Germany, etc.

The main features of the philosophy of the Renaissance:

- denial of "bookish wisdom" and scholastic word disputes on the basis of the study of nature itself;

- the use of materialistic works of the philosophers of Antiquity (Democritus, Epicurus);

- close connection with natural science;

- the study of the problem of man, the transformation of philosophy into anthropocentric in its orientation.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) - one of the first social philosophers of the Renaissance who rejected the theocratic concept of the state.

He substantiated the need for a secular state, proving that the motives for people's activities are selfishness, material interest. The evil of human nature, the desire for enrichment by any means reveal the need to curb human instincts with the help of a special force - the state.

The necessary order in society creates legal outlook people who cannot be brought up by the church, but only by the state, this is the main idea of ​​Niccolo Machiavelli.

Questions that Machiavelli considers:

- "Which is better: to inspire love or fear?"

- "How should sovereigns keep their word?"

- "How to avoid hatred and contempt?"

- "How should a sovereign act in order to be honored?"

- "How to avoid flatterers?" and etc.

Renaissance - the era of the revival of classical antiquity, the emergence of a new sensation, a sense of life, considered as akin to the vital sense of Antiquity and as opposed to the medieval attitude to life with its renunciation of the world, which seemed sinful.

The Renaissance in Europe spans the period from the XNUMXth to the XNUMXth centuries.

Neoplatonism - one of the forms of Greek philosophy, which arose as a result of mixing the teachings of Plato, Aristotle, Stoic, Pythagorean, etc. with Eastern and Christian mysticism and religion.

The main ideas of Neoplatonism:

- mystical-intuitive knowledge of the higher;

- the existence of a number of steps in the transition from higher to matter;

- liberation of a materially burdened person for pure spirituality with the help of ecstasy or asceticism.

The Renaissance uses Neoplatonism to develop philosophical thought. From ancient Neoplatonism, he adopted an aesthetic attention to everything bodily, natural, admiration for the human body in particular. The understanding of man as a spiritual person was inherited from medieval Neoplatonism.

Natural philosophy is a set of philosophical attempts to interpret and explain nature.

Goals of natural philosophy:

- generalization and unification of general knowledge about nature;

- clarification of the basic natural science concepts;

- knowledge of connections and patterns of natural phenomena.

The natural philosophy of the Renaissance was of a pantheistic nature, that is, without directly denying the existence of God, it identified him with nature.

The natural-philosophical views of the philosophers of the Renaissance are combined with elements of spontaneous dialectics, which largely comes from ancient sources. Noting the constant variability of all things and phenomena, they argued that over the course of many centuries the surface of the Earth changes, the seas turn into continents, and continents into seas. Man, in their opinion, is a part of nature, and his boundless love for the knowledge of the infinite, the power of his mind elevate him above the world.

Theosophy - wisdom from God. Theosophy is called the highest knowledge about God and the divine, which is achieved by direct contemplation and experience, due to which the mystery of divine creation becomes accessible.

A bright adherent of theosophy in the Renaissance is Nicholas of Cusa. He, like other thinkers, believed that knowledge was given to man by God. If we consider that knowledge is from God, and God is unknowable, then God is the limit of knowledge. God is the limit beyond which there is no knowledge, but there is faith, there is awareness of God. God is the truth, and the truth is not known, but is realized by man.

Pantheism - a doctrine that deifies the universe, nature.

Pantheism exists in four forms: 1) theomonistic pantheism endows only God with existence, while depriving the world of independent existence;

2) physio-monistic pantheism claims that there is only the world, nature, which the supporters of this direction call God, thereby depriving God of independent existence;

3) mystical pantheism;

4) immanent-transcendental pantheism, according to which God is realized in things. Supporters of pantheism in the Renaissance exalted the individual through God.

Starting from the XNUMXth century. natural science, astronomy, mathematics, and mechanics are rapidly developing; the development of science could not but influence philosophy.

In philosophy, the doctrine of the omnipotence of reason and the limitless possibilities of scientific research arises.

Characteristic of the philosophy of modern times is a strong materialistic tendency, stemming primarily from experimental natural science.

Major philosophers in Europe in the XNUMXth century. are:

- F. Bacon (England);

- S. Hobbes (England);

- J. Locke (England);

- R. Descartes (France);

- B. Spinoza (Holland);

- G. Leibniz (Germany).

In the philosophy of modern times, much attention is paid to the problems of being and substance - ontology, especially when it comes to movement, space and time.

The problems of substance and its properties are of interest to literally all philosophers of the New Age, because the task of science and philosophy (to promote the health and beauty of man, as well as increase his power over nature) led to an understanding of the need to study the causes of phenomena, their essential forces.

In the philosophy of this period, two approaches to the concept of "substance" appear:

- ontological understanding of substance as the ultimate foundation of being, the founder - Francis Bacon (1561-1626);

- epistemological understanding of the concept of "substance", its necessity for scientific knowledge, the founder - John Locke (1632-1704).

According to Locke, ideas and concepts have their source in the external world, material things. Material bodies have only quantitative features, there is no qualitative variety of matter: material bodies differ from each other only in size, figure, movement and rest (primary qualities). Smells, sounds, colors, tastes are secondary qualities, they, Locke believed, arise in the subject under the influence of primary qualities.

English philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) was looking for answers to being, speaking out against the materialistic understanding of substance. He, rejecting the real existence of material and spiritual substance, believed that there is an "idea" of substance, under which the association of human perception is summed up, which is inherent in ordinary, and not scientific knowledge.

The philosophy of modern times made a huge step in the development of the theory of knowledge (epistemology), the main ones were:

- problems of philosophical scientific method;

- methodology of human cognition of the external world;

- connections of external and internal experience;

- the task of obtaining reliable knowledge. Two main epistemological directions have emerged:

- empiricism (founder - F. Bacon);

- rationalism (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz). The main ideas of the philosophy of the New Age:

- the principle of an autonomously thinking subject;

- the principle of methodological doubt;

- inductive-empirical method;

- intellectual intuition or rational-deductive method;

- hypothetical-deductive construction of scientific theory;

- development of a new legal worldview, substantiation and protection of the rights of a citizen and a person. The main task of modern philosophy was an attempt to realize the idea autonomous philosophy, free from religious prerequisites; build an integral worldview on reasonable and experimental grounds, revealed by research on the cognitive ability of a person.

XNUMXth century commonly referred to as the Age of Enlightenment. Enlightenment began in England, then in France, Germany and Russia.

Ancestors of educational ideas - F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, R. Descartes, J. Locke.

The initial ideas of the Enlightenment: the cult of science; cult of reason; human progress.

All the works of the figures of the Enlightenment are imbued with the idea of ​​an apology for the mind, its luminous power, penetrating darkness and chaos. The Age of Enlightenment is characterized by a huge number of: ideological quests; scientific creative feats; socially shaking political events.

Enlighteners fought to ensure that there was no gap in society between poor and rich people, they took care of the spread of education among the masses.

Outstanding philosophers of the Enlightenment were: Voltaire (France); J.J. Rousseau (France); D. Diderot (France); K.A. Helvetius (France); P. Holbach (France); Charles Louis Montesquieu (France); Lessing (Germany); Wolf (Germany); Kant (Germany); Novikov (Russia); Radishchev (Russia); Belinsky (Russia); Chernyshevsky (Russia).

The philosophy of the Enlightenment is heterogeneous, it contains:

- materialistic worldview orientation;

- idealistic worldview orientation;

- atheistic views;

- deistic views.

The articles of dictionaries and encyclopedias, pamphlets and polemical publications widely disseminate scientific and philosophical ideas, which are presented in a lively, intelligible, witty form, attracting people not only with logical evidence, but also with emotional inspiration.

Philosophy of the Enlightenment of the XNUMXth century. presented in two directions:

- deist materialism Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Wolf and others;

- theoretical foundations of deism based on the materialistic natural science of Newton, Galileo, Descartes, presented by criticism in the works of Diderot, Holbach, Helvetius, La Mettrie and others. A prominent representative of the French Enlightenment is Francois Marie Voltaire (1694-1778), who entered the history of philosophy as:

- a brilliant publicist and propagandist of Newton's physics and mechanics, English constitutional orders and institutions;

- defender of individual freedom from the encroachments of the church, the Jesuits, the Inquisition.

The formation of the revolutionary ideology of Europe was greatly influenced by Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), author of the famous work "The Social Contract", which became the theoretical justification for a civil society based on freedom and unconditional equality of legal rights, and inspired the Jacobins in the era of the French Revolution.

Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755) said so well:

- one of the founders of geographical determinism, who believed that climate, soil and the state of the earth's surface determine the spirit of the people and the nature of the development of society;

- developed the idea of ​​the functional role of religion, necessary to maintain order in society and its morality.

In France, a group of philosophers worked - advanced thinkers, scientists and writers, who gathered around the publication of the Encyclopedia, the editor-in-chief and organizer of which was D. Diderot. Along with him, the publishers of the Encyclopedia were Helvetius, Holbach and La Mettrie. They created a fairly developed form of materialism, which influenced subsequent generations of philosophers and philosophical schools.

In Europe, the philosophy of the XVIII century. continues and develops the ideas of the XNUMXth century. During this period there is a further development by philosophical thought of the achievements of science and social practice.

Philosophical works are written and published in the language of the people who become familiar with the thinker's writings.

The main thoughts of the philosophy of the XVIII century .:

- the starting point of philosophizing - a reasonable person;

- the laws of nature and reason do not differ, because the laws of nature pass into the laws of reason;

- philosophy in the first place is the art of living in accordance with the laws of reason;

- philosophy is the basis of all sciences;

- the concept of the theory of knowledge is defined as epistemological sensationalism;

- the main reason for human failures is the lack of moral consciousness;

- a person is not free in his actions, because he is included in the system of necessary connections;

- religion and morality are not compatible, only atheism and morality are compatible.

Ontological problems are considered by the philosophers of the XVIII century:

- in the materialistic aspect;

- in the atheistic aspect.

In XNUMXth century philosophy materialism is developing greatly in its views on the explanation of natural phenomena. French materialism is of outstanding historical importance because it:

- opposed medieval scholasticism and all those institutions that bore the stamp of anti-humanism of the Middle Ages;

- substantiated his world outlook and human interests.

The most striking exponent of the philosophical views of French materialism was Paul Heinrich Dietrich Holbach (1723-1789). He wrote instructive atheistic pamphlets: "The System of Nature", "Christianity Exposed", "Religion and Common Sense", "Pocket Theological Dictionary" and others. in 1770, contained a presentation of the most important ontological problems: matter; nature; movement; space; time; causation; chance; needs, etc.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784) gives his understanding of the most important ontological problems in the works: "Philosophical principles of matter and motion", "Thoughts on the explanation of nature", "Letter on the blind for the edification of the sighted", "D'Alembert's Dream". Diderot introduced dialectics into the consideration of the problems of being. According to Diderot, all matter feels (this is the point of view hylozoism), but distinguish:

- "inert sensitivity";

- "active sensitivity". French materialism tried to bridge the gap between nature (plant and animal life) and man.

Problems epistemology along with ontological are the most important in the philosophy of the XVIII century. The source of knowledge philosophers of the XVII century. called the external and internal world of a person.

Materialists saw the role of both sensual and rational moments in cognition: the mind cannot tear itself away from the senses, but it should not overly trust them either.

The methods of knowledge are:

- observation;

- experiment.

The transition from sensual to abstract thinking, according to materialist philosophers, occurs as a continuous process: after desire, memory, comparison and judgment arise.

German classical philosophy represents a significant stage in the development of philosophical thought and culture of mankind.

It is represented by philosophical creativity:

- Immanuel Kant (1724-1804);

- Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814);

- Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling (1775-1854);

- Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831);

- Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (1804-1872). Each of these philosophers created his own philosophical system, filled with a wealth of ideas and concepts.

1. The role of philosophy in the history of mankind and the development of world culture is that it is called upon to be the critical conscience of culture, the consciousness arguing with reality, the soul of culture.

2. Human nature was explored, not just human history:

- for Kant, man is a moral being;

- Fichte emphasizes the effectiveness, activity of human consciousness and self-consciousness, considers the structure of human life according to the requirements of the mind;

- Schelling shows the relationship between the objective and the subjective;

- Hegel more broadly considers the boundaries of the activity of self-consciousness and individual consciousness: the self-consciousness of the individual in him correlates not only with external objects, but also with other self-consciousness, from which various social forms arise;

- Feuerbach defines a new form of materialism - anthropological materialism, in the center of which is a real person who is a subject for himself and an object for another person.

3. All representatives of classical German philosophy defined it as a special system of philosophical disciplines, categories, ideas:

- Kant singles out epistemology and ethics as the main philosophical disciplines;

- Schelling - natural philosophy, ontology;

- Fichte saw in philosophy such sections as ontological, epistemological, socio-political;

- Hegel defined a broad system of philosophical knowledge, which included the philosophy of nature, logic, philosophy of history, history of philosophy, philosophy of law, philosophy of state, philosophy of morality, philosophy of religion, philosophy of development of individual consciousness, etc.;

- Feuerbach considered the philosophical problems of history, religion, ontology, epistemology and ethics.

4. Classical German philosophy defines a holistic concept of dialectics:

- Kant's dialectic is the dialectic of the limits and possibilities of human cognition: feelings, reason and human reason;

- Fichte's dialectics is reduced to the development of the creative activity of the Self, to the interaction of the Self and the non-Self as opposites, on the basis of the struggle of which the development of human self-consciousness takes place;

- Schelling transfers the principles of dialectical development proposed by Fichte to nature, his nature is a developing spirit;

- Hegel presented a detailed, comprehensive theory of idealistic dialectics. He studied the entire natural, historical and spiritual world as a process, that is, in its continuous movement, change, transformation and development, contradictions, breaks in gradualness, the struggle of the new with the old, directed movement;

- Feuerbach in his dialectic considers connection phenomena, their interactions and changes the unity of opposites in the development of phenomena (spirit and body, human consciousness and material nature).

The initial period of the formation of Russian philosophy is the XI-XVII centuries, it is called differently: ancient Russian philosophy, Russian medieval philosophy, philosophy of the pre-Petrine period. The main feature of this period is the absence of an independent status and entanglement in the fabric of the religious worldview.

The second period in the development of Russian philosophy begins in the XNUMXth century.

Two main interrelated factors, under the influence of which not only philosophy, but also the entire spiritual culture of this time develops:

- the process of Europeanization of Russia associated with the reforms of Peter the Great;

- secularization of public life.

At this time, philosophy moves away from scholastic images and becomes free from the church. The first supporters of scientific knowledge and philosophy of the New Age in Russia were:

- M.V. Lomonosov;

- A.N. Radishchev;

- Feofan Prokopovich;

- V.N. Tatishchev;

- A.D. Kantemir and others.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765) laid the foundation for the materialistic tradition. He spoke from materialistic positions, but, like all materialists of that time, understood matter only as matter.

Lomonosov's philosophy is secularized, anti-clerical in nature, he rather sharply criticizes the church and the ignorance of the priests. But at the same time, he seeks to reconcile the natural-scientific and theological explanation of the world and does not reject God the Creator.

Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802), like Lomonosov, knew well Western philosophy, including French materialism.

After the publication of the famous work of Radishchev "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", in which he mercilessly denounces serfdom and autocracy, he becomes the first Russian philosopher who proclaimed the idea of ​​humanity not in the bosom of religious philosophy, but as the main core of secularized, secular social thought.

Independent philosophical creativity in Russia begins in the XNUMXth century, which is the third stage in the development of Russian philosophy.

The first who began independent philosophical work in Russia was Petr Yakovlevich Chaadaev (1794-1856). He expressed his thoughts in the famous "Philosophical Letters". The main teachings of Chaadaev were the philosophy of man and the philosophy of history.

Following Chaadaev, two directions appear that are opposite in understanding the meaning and significance of the Russian idea:

- Slavophiles (laid the foundation of Russian religious philosophy in the second half of the XNUMXth century);

- Westerners (they criticized the church and gravitated towards materialism).

In the late 60s - early 70s. XNUMXth century worldview appears in Russia populism. His main idea was the desire to come to socialism, bypassing capitalism, and the recognition of the originality of the path of development of Russia. The successors of Slavophilism in the 60-70s. came soil workers, the idea of ​​their philosophy is the national soil as the basis of the social and spiritual development of Russia.

The next stage (the end of the XNUMXth - the first half of the XNUMXth centuries) of Russian philosophy is associated with the emergence of philosophical systems.

Character traits:

- anthropocentrism;

- humanism;

- religious character;

- the emergence of Russian cosmism (mystical, theological).

1. An important role in the development of Russian literature and philosophical culture was played by Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802).

His most famous and striking work is "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", in which he mercilessly denounces serfdom and autocracy.

In the treatise "About Man, About His Mortality and Immortality", which he wrote in Siberian exile, the "picture of man" is considered from the angle of his natural connections. In this work, he emphasizes the ability of a person to see in everything, including himself, the presence of God, and at the same time he reproduces evidence both in favor of the mortality of the soul and in favor of its immortality.

2. N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) became known to educated, reading Russia after the publication of his work "Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality". Chernyshevsky saw in art a great force that could instill in a person the moral and civic qualities necessary for creative transformation, as well as his personal and social life.

Main works:

- "Aesthetic relations of art to reality";

- "Anthropological principle in philosophy";

- translation of J. S. Mill's Foundations of Political Economy;

- "What to do?".

In his utopian and nihilistic novel "What to do?" Chernyshevsky outlined the understanding of the socialist community - socialism based on the socialization of peasant and handicraft labor.

3. Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) - a great writer, author of brilliant realistic works. The most famous and popular among them:

- "War and Peace";

- "Anna Karenina";

- "Sunday";

- trilogy "Childhood", "Adolescence", "Youth". Tolstoy's artistic heritage is deeply philosophical. In his autobiographical trilogy "Childhood", "Adolescence", "Youth" he explores the dialectic of the soul, which consists in the desire of the individual to comprehend his inner essence, to moral perfection.

4. Fedor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (18211881) was not a philosopher by profession and did not create purely philosophical works. But his works of art, the heroes of these works, their experiences, actions and thoughts are permeated with philosophy. They are so philosophical, so deep in worldview ideas and problems that the latter often do not fit into the framework of the literary and artistic genre.

His main works:

- "Crime and Punishment";

- "Moron";

- "Demons";

- "The Brothers Karamazov";

- "Netochka Nezvanova".

The most important and defining theme of his literature is the problem of man, his fate and the meaning of life. But the main thing for him is not the physical existence of a person and not even the social benefits that are associated with him, but the inner world of a person, the dialectic of his ideas, which constitute the inner essence of his heroes: Raskolnikov, Stavrogin, Karamazov, Netochka Nezvanova, etc. e. The whole person is created from contradictions, the main of which is contradiction. good and evil. That is why man for Dostoevsky is the most precious creature, although the most terrible and dangerous.

Philosophical thought of the twentieth century. was under the direct influence of the contradictory, dramatic development of human civilization.

XNUMXth century is the era:

- social catastrophes;

- inhumane political regimes;

- numerous local and world wars;

- destruction of the natural environment;

- crisis of humanistic values;

- scientific and technological revolution;

- the flourishing of knowledge and education, etc.

In other words, the twentieth century - this is the age of conflicts between the reasonable and the unreasonable in the life and activities of man, their obvious and large-scale confrontation.

The main philosophical currents of this era were: irrationalism; rationalism; humanism; personalism.

1. Irrationalism - a direction in philosophy that defines instinct, inner feeling, intuition, love as the main sources that precede rational knowledge.

It was formed as a reaction to the negative manifestations of the human mind in public life. Irrationalism is interested in unconscious emotional-volitional processes, such as intuition, instincts, will.

The cult of reason is replaced by sharp criticism of irrationalism, knowledge by faith, historical optimism by pessimism, and the idea of ​​progress by disbelief in it.

Irrationalism criticized the proud and arrogant mind. According to irrationalism, the world is unreasonable and disordered; it opposes man as something external and absurd, spontaneous and beyond control.

2. Rationalism - a set of philosophical directions that consider the mind, reason, thinking from the subjective side and rationality, the logical order of things - from the objective side as the central point of their analysis.

Rationalism was formed as an expression of the progress of knowledge, science and technology, their great successes in modern times.

In the twentieth century rationalism developed under the direct influence of the scientific and technological revolution and the transition of a number of countries to the stage of post-industrial civilization. For the rationalism of the twentieth century. scientism is characteristic - an exaggeration of the role of science in public life. This trend is a cult of scientific and technical reason, its defense and justification.

Rationalism of the XNUMXth century relate:

- neopositivism;

- structuralism;

- neo-rationalism;

- critical rationalism.

Philosophical rationalism of the twentieth century. represents confidence in the ability of knowledge to be a social force and a spring for the further upward development of civilization.

3. Humanism - a philosophical direction, which is a reflected anthropocentrism, emanating from human consciousness and having as its object the value of a person, except for the fact that it alienates a person from himself, subordinating him to superhuman powers and truths or using him for purposes not worthy of a person.

The main idea of ​​humanism in the twentieth century. was the problem of human existence in the modern world, the search for ways to humanize social relations.

4. personalism - a direction in philosophy, for which a person is an acting and thinking person who takes a certain position.

The form of manifestation of personalism is philosophical anthropology.

XNUMXth century personalism defends its position as opposed to neo-realism and logistics.

In the 70-90s. XNUMXth century various philosophical schools are widely used.

1. Postpositivism. The main role in the postpositivism of the 90s. plays critical rationalism, the ancestor of which is the English philosopher Karl Popper - a very popular philosopher, sociologist, logician, mathematical logician.

At the end of the 40-50s. Popper writes works in which he defends the ideas of social reformism, while criticizing Marxism: "The Open Society and Its Enemies", "The Poverty of Historicism".

Popper explores important issues: the relationship between law and trend, the role of social technology in the life of society.

The essence of Popper's philosophical concept is that there are three worlds:

- philosophical;

- mental;

- the world of objective truth (the world of the growth of scientific knowledge).

According to Popper, the future of science lies in the principle falsification, to separate scientific knowledge from non-scientific knowledge. This principle is not logical, but methodological, its essence:

- if the theory is refuted, then it should be immediately discarded;

- only those theories should be considered scientific, which can be refuted, i.e., which are able to prove their falsity;

- it is important to distinguish between "factually false" statements and logically false (contradictory statements).

Methodology of science. American philosopher and historian of science Thomas Kuhn is a representative of one of the schools of postpositivism - philosophy of science. He became famous after the publication of his book "The structure of scientific revolutions", in which Kuhn outlined his concept of the philosophy of science, this is a competitive struggle of scientific communities, accompanied by a change in paradigms (models of theoretical thinking committed to various concepts, laws, theories and points of view, with the help of which the process of science development is going on).

Kuhn introduced the concept "normal science" which is understood as the development of science within a specific, specific paradigm.

The philosophy (methodology) of science is interconnected with such a philosophical direction as "scientific materialism". Its main representatives are American philosophers E. Nagel и D. Morgolis, Australian philosopher D. Armstrong, Argentine physicist and philosopher M. Bunge and more

The main task of "scientific materialism" is the correlation of matter and consciousness.

"Scientific materialism" unites several schools: the school of "eliminative materialism", which considers the mental and physical to be one (Armstrong, Wilks); the school of "cybernetic materialism", representing the mental as an analogy to the functions of a computer (Putnam, Sayre); the school of "emergent materialism", which understands the mental as the result of the evolution of matter (Bunge, Margolis, Sperry), etc.

Hermeneutics. Hermeneutics (explaining, interpreting) is the art and theory of text interpretation.

Hermeneutics of the 70-90s develop "understanding" not as an applied task that arises in the process of interpreting texts, but as a fundamental characteristic of a person, as something that determines human being and thinking.

Philosophy of intuitionism. In the 80-90s. the ideas of intuitionism spread, which connected intuition with modern scientific knowledge - medicine, biology, physics, etc.

Modern intuitionists offer a person to go beyond his sensual earthly experience and rely on spiritual, mystical, religious experience.

The main models of philosophical thinking in the XNUMXth century:

- positivism;

- Marxism;

- neo-Thomism;

- existentialism, etc.

These models address issues of common human value:

- the role of philosophical and scientific knowledge;

- man and his life;

- interaction of spiritual and material, objective and subjective;

- freedom and necessity, necessity and chance, freedom and responsibility, etc. Positivism. The second historical form of positivism arose in the late XNUMXth and early XNUMXth centuries. Its main representatives:

- German physicist E. Mach;

- Swiss philosopher R. Avenarius;

- French mathematician, physicist and philosopher J.A. Poincare;

- English mathematician and philosopher K. Pearson. This positivism was the philosophy of realism and asserted that any scientific knowledge (physical, astronomical, biological, etc.) is in itself philosophical knowledge and that philosophy cannot have its own subject separate from the sciences.

This form of positivism is called Machism. In the philosophy of Machism, subjective-idealistic ideas predominate.

The third historical form of positivism appears in the 20s. XNUMXth century Its ancestor was the Vienna Philosophical Circle, which arose at the Department of Inductive Sciences at the University of Vienna. The Vienna Circle included: M. Schlick, R. Carnap, G. Feigel, O. Neurath, E. Nagel, A. Ayer, F. Frank, L. Wittgenstein and others.

This form of positivism is called logical positivism. Logical positivism develops as an analytical philosophy, which, in turn, is developed in two directions:

- logical analysis of philosophy with using the apparatus of modern mathematical logic;

- linguistic philosophy, rejecting logic as the main method of research and engaged in the study of the types of expressions of ordinary language, including when it is used to develop philosophical concepts. Marxism. Marxist philosophy acts as a doctrine of man and the world, refers to the past, present and future. The main idea of ​​Marxist philosophy is not in the construction of any system, but in those laws of the development of society, which were discovered by K. Marx for the first time in the history of mankind.

Neo-Thomism. Neo-Thomism arose at the end of the XNUMXth century. and became widespread in the XNUMXth century. as a philosophical model of thinking of people living in countries dominated by the Catholic Church.

The basis of neo-Thomism was laid by the philosophy of the medieval scholastic Thomas Aquinas. Neo-Thomism deals with:

- philosophical substantiation of the existence of God;

- proof of various religious dogmas;

- consideration of "pure being" as a kind of spiritual principle;

- interpretation of natural scientific theories and social practice.

The most prominent representatives of neo-Thomism are Jacques Maritain, Etienne Henri Gilson, Jozef Maria Bochensky, Gustav Andreas Veter.

Existentialism. Existentialism is the philosophy of existence. This is an anthropological philosophy in its orientation, its central problem is the problem of man, his existence in the world. The idea of ​​the philosophy of existentialism is to help man and humanity.

Sigmund Freud - Austrian psychologist, neuropathologist, psychiatrist, he is characterized by studies of the phenomena of the unconscious, their nature, forms and methods of manifestation.

Freud's main works, containing philosophical ideas and concepts:

- "Mass psychology and analysis of the human "I"";

- "Beyond the pleasure principle";

- "I" and "It";

- "Psychology of the Unconscious";

- "Dissatisfaction in culture";

- "Civilization and analysis of the human "I"" and others. Freud put forward:

- the hypothesis of the exclusive role of sexuality in the occurrence of neuroses;

- statement about the role of the unconscious and the possibility of its knowledge through the interpretation of dreams;

- the hypothesis that the mental activity of the unconscious is subject to the principle of pleasure, and the mental activity of the subconscious - to the principle of reality.

For Freud's philosophy, the main idea is that people's behavior is controlled by irrational mental forces, and not by the laws of social development, that the intellect is an apparatus for masking these forces, and not a means of actively reflecting reality, of its ever more in-depth understanding.

Main study Freud is the most important, in his opinion, the engine of a person's mental life - "libido" (sex drive) defining contradictions:

- human and social environment;

- human and culture;

- man and civilization.

Through the prism of sublimation, Freud considered:

- the formation of religious rites and cults;

- the emergence of art and public institutions;

- the emergence of science;

- self-development of mankind.

From the side of philosophy, Freud gives his understanding of man and culture. culture he appears as "Super-I", based on the refusal to satisfy the desires of the unconscious, it exists due to the sublimated energy of the libido.

In his work "Dissatisfaction in Culture", Freud concludes that the progress of culture reduces human happiness, increases a person's sense of guilt due to the limitation of his natural desires.

In considering the social organization of society, Freud focuses not on its supra-individual nature, but on a person's natural tendency to destruction, aggression, which can be curbed by culture.

Carl Gustav Jung - Swiss psychologist, philosopher, culturologist, began his career as the closest associate of Sigmund Freud and popularizer of his ideas.

After Jung's break with Freud, there is a revision of ideas about the origin of human creativity and the development of human culture from the point of view of "libido" and "sublimation", the displacement of sexuality and all manifestations of the unconscious through the "Super-I".

"Libido" in Jung's understanding is not just some kind of sexual desire, but a flow of vital-psychic energy. Jung introduced such objects into scientific research as the doctrine of karma, reincarnation, parapsychological phenomena, etc. The main works of K.G. Jung: "Metamorphoses and symbols of libido"; "Psychological types"; "Relations between the Self and the unconscious"; "An Attempt at a Psychological Interpretation of the Dogma of the Trinity".

The most interesting representative of neo-Freudianism was Erich Fromm.

Major works: "Escape from freedom"; "Marx's concept of man"; "The Art of Love"; "Revolution of Hope"; "The Crisis of Psychoanalysis"; "Man for himself", etc.

Modernism (French moderne - the latest, modern) as a phenomenon had different explanations in the history of culture: as new in art and literature (cubism, Dadaism, surrealism, futurism, expressionism, abstract art, etc.); as a direction in Catholicism, which strives to renew the dogma on the basis of science and philosophy; as a comprehension of qualitatively new phenomena or a qualitatively new interpretation of what is already known in philosophy.

So, at one time they attributed to modernism:

- positivism;

- Marxism;

- Enlightenment.

Philosophical postmodern - the specificity of philosophical thought, which is represented by the following names:

- Jacques Lacan;

- Jacques Derrida;

- Georges Bataille;

- Gilles Deleuze;

- Jean Francois Lyotard

- Jean Bordrillard;

— Richard Rorty et al.

The main task of postmodernists - to break the centuries-old dictate of the legislative mind, to show that its claims to the knowledge of the truth are pride and lies used by the mind to justify its totalitarian claims.

Basic principles of postmodernity:

- objective essence - illusion;

- the truth is ambiguous, multiple;

- the acquisition of knowledge is an endless process of revising the dictionary;

- reality is formed under the influence of human desires and actions;

- human knowledge does not reflect the world, but interprets it, and no interpretation has advantages over another, etc.

One of the first thinkers of postmodern philosophy is the French Jean Francois Lyotard.

In his book The State of Postmodernity (1979), he explains the postmodern phenomenon as a cultural phenomenon in general, as a kind of reaction to the universalist vision of the world in modernist philosophy, sociology, religious studies, art, etc.

Lyotard believes that the difference between postmodern philosophy and Marxist philosophy lies in the affirmation of the idea of ​​choosing from several alternatives, which are presented not so much in the known as in the historical configuration of life practices, in the social sphere.

Postmodernism is represented by modern:

- post-structuralism (J. Derrida, J. Bordrillard);

- pragmatism (R. Rorty).

American philosopher Richard Rorty put forward the opinion that all philosophy that has existed so far distorted the personal existence of a person, because it deprived him of creativity.

In his teaching, Rorty combines pragmatism with analytical philosophy, arguing that the subject of philosophical analysis should be society and forms of human experience. For him, society is the communication of people, and the main thing in it is the interests of the individual, the “interlocutor”.

Postmodernist, French philosopher Jacques Derrida - one of the brightest representatives of modern post-structuralism.

Derrida criticizes the understanding of being as presence. He believes that the living present as such does not exist: it breaks up into the past and the future.

Many postmodernists offer a new type of philosophizing - philosophizing without a subject.

Postmodernism is a reaction to the changing place of culture in society: to the shifts taking place in art, religion, morality in connection with the latest technology of post-industrial society.

Postmodernism proposes to switch to humanitarization, anthropologization of philosophical knowledge.

Ontology (ontologie; from the Greek on - being and logos - teaching) - the science of being as such, of the universal definitions and meanings of being. Ontology is the metaphysics of being.

Metaphysics - scientific knowledge about the supersensible principles and principles of being.

Genesis - an extremely general concept of existence, of beings in general, these are material things, all processes (chemical, physical, geological, biological, social, mental, spiritual), their properties, connections and relationships.

Being - this is a pure existence that has no cause, it is the cause of itself and is self-sufficient, not reducible to anything, not derivable from anything.

The term "ontology" appeared in the XNUMXth century. Ontology began to be called the doctrine of being, consciously separated from theology. This happened at the end of the New Age, when essence and existence were opposed in philosophy. The ontology of this time recognizes the primacy of the possible, which is thought of as primary in relation to existence, while existence is only an addition to essence as a possibility.

Basic modes of being:- being as substance (true being is the original principle, the fundamental fundamental principle of things, which does not arise, does not disappear, but, changing, gives rise to the entire diversity of the objective world; everything arises from this fundamental principle, and after destruction returns to it again. This fundamental principle itself exists forever, changing as a universal substratum, i.e., a carrier of properties, or matter from which the entire audible, visible, tangible world of passing things is built);

- being as logos (true being has eternity and immutability as its attributes, it must always exist or never; in this case, being is not a substratum, but a universally reasonable order, logos, completely cleared of accidents and inconstancy);

- being as eidos (true being is divided into two parts - universal-universal ideas - eidos and material copies corresponding to ideas). Basic forms of being:

- the existence of things of "first nature" and "second nature" - separate objects of material reality, having the stability of existence; nature means the totality of things, the whole world in a variety of its forms, nature in this sense acts as a condition for the existence of man and society. A distinction should be made between natural and man-made. e. "second nature" - a complex system that consists of many mechanisms, machines, plants, factories, cities, etc.;

- the spiritual world of man - the unity in man of the social and biological, spiritual (ideal) and material. The sensual-spiritual world of man is connected directly with his material existence. The spiritual is usually divided into individualized (the consciousness of the individual) and non-individualized (social consciousness). Ontology gives an idea of ​​the richness of the world, but considers different forms of being as being side by side, as coexisting. At the same time, the unity of the world is recognized, but the essence, the basis of this unity, is not revealed. This order of things led philosophy to the development of such categories as matter and substance.

The first philosophers who introduced the category of "being" were: Parmenides; Democritus; Plato; Aristotle.

Parmenides and Heraclitus by being meant the whole world. For Democritus, being is not the whole world, but the basis of the world. This philosopher identified being with simple physical indivisible particles - atoms. He explained all the wealth and multitude of the world by the presence of an infinite number of atoms.

Being for Plato is something eternal and unchanging, which can only be known by reason. The philosopher opposed sensual being (the world of real things) to pure ideas, thereby reducing being to an incorporeal creation - an idea.

Aristotle rejected the Platonic doctrine of ideas as supernatural and independent entities not related to the existence of individual things (sensory being), and put forward a proposal to distinguish between different levels of being (from sensually concrete to universal).

Aristotle proposed ten categories of being:

- essence;

- quality;

- amount;

- attitude;

- place;

- time;

- position;

- possession;

- action;

- suffering.

In ancient Greek philosophy, the problem of being was looked at from two points of view:

- the problem of being was limited by nature itself (the earthly world and space);

- in the problem of being, the absolutization of knowledge about the object-sensory world (eternal incorporeal ideas) was revealed.

With the advent of the Christian era, there was a combination of philosophy with intense knowledge of God.

In the Middle Ages, the so-called ontological proof of the existence of God was formed, which consisted in the derivation of the Absolute Being from the concept of being, namely: that which is greater than which cannot be conceived cannot exist only in the mind. Or you can think about it and it is possible to exist outside the mind, which contradicts the original premise.

In the Renaissance, and especially in modern times, there is a secularization of philosophy, and subsequently a clear separation of philosophy and natural science. In this regard, the objectification of the concept of being takes place and, at the same time, the development of subjectivist concepts.

The term "ontology" appeared in the XNUMXth century. Ontology began to be called the doctrine of being, consciously separated from theology. This happened at the end of the New Age, when essence and existence were opposed in philosophy. The ontology of this time recognizes the primacy of the possible, which is conceived as primary in relation to existence. Whereas existence is only an addition to essence as a possibility.

In the XNUMXth century the philosophical understanding of being was supplemented by the principle of historicism, according to which the being of an object is revealed only through the fullness of its history. Philosophers of that time believed that it was possible to find a way in the process of cognition to move from an object given in thought through a phenomenon (phenomenon) to its being as such.

The first philosopher who substantiated the principle of the identity of being and thinking was Hegel. He denied the "external" cognizing subject, alien to the world of being.

Based on Hegelian objective idealism, the concept of being acquired the meaning not of a state, but of a regular and eternal movement. His existence is reality, limitation, finitude, unconsciousness, objectivity.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) - one of the greatest minds of mankind, the founder of German classical philosophy.

Kant's main works:

- "General Natural History and Theory of the Sky";

- "Critique of Pure Reason";

- Critique of Practical Reason.

There are two main blocks in Kant's work:

- theory of knowledge;

- the doctrine of being, morality and morality. The leitmotif of the whole philosophy of this thinker was his three famous questions:

- "What can I know?"

- "What should I do?"

- "What can I hope for?"

The work of Immanuel Kant is usually divided into two periods:

- "subcritical" - until the beginning of the 70s. XVIII century, during this period, the thinker turned to the philosophical problems of natural science, he proposed the idea of ​​the development of the world, that our planet previously had a completely different appearance than now;

- "critical" - this is the period when Kant made the subject of his close and critical study of the human mind, its structure and cognitive capabilities.

Kant argued that the solution of such problems of philosophy as the problems of human existence, the soul, morality and religion, should be preceded by an investigation of the possibilities of human knowledge and the establishment of its boundaries.

According to Kant, a critical analysis of the structure of human cognitive experience can lead to the conclusion that objective reality, as a being completely independent of our feelings and mind, is fundamentally inaccessible, unknowable for us.

Immanuel Kant by metaphysics meant any judgments that are not based on sensory data. But along with the epistemological explanation, he also allowed its ontological interpretation as a supersensible reality and assessed it as primary, which determines the world of sensory phenomena (called phenomena, and metaphysical phenomena are called noumena): this is a noumenal reality that affects our sensibility, i.e. e. affects it, but remains incomprehensible to the senses and to the mind.

The meaning of Kantian agnosticism, as is commonly believed, is that what a thing is for us (phenomenon) and what it represents in itself (noumenon) are fundamentally different. And no matter how hard we try to penetrate into the depths of phenomena, our knowledge will still differ from things, what they are in themselves.

Kant as a philosopher:

- raised the question of the fundamental limitations of human experience;

- recognized that reality always goes beyond the limits of any knowledge: in this sense it is "smarter" than any theories and infinitely richer than them;

- stated that the world is always known only in the forms of its givenness to man.

According to Kant, the process of cognition involves:

- sensory experience;

- reasoning thinking (the structure of which is made up of categories).

Kant considered the main function of his categories to be synthetic, because in the process of cognition, disparate sensory impressions are synthesized (combined) into stable complexes that become the subject of our judgment.

The focus of Kant's ontology is being-process, interpreted as life. According to the thinker, life is not an abstract concept, but the being of a certain individual.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). One of the brightest figures of irrationalism is Arthur Schopenhauer, who was dissatisfied with Hegel's optimistic rationalism and dialectics.

The basis of the world, according to Schopenhauer, is the will, which subjugates the intellect.

How strong the will is stronger than the intellect, according to Schopenhauer, can be judged by one's own actions, because almost all of them are dictated not by the arguments of the mind, but by instincts and desires. The strongest instinct in life is sexual love, that is, procreation, but in fact - the reproduction of new generations for suffering, torment and inevitable death.

Schopenhauer denied all the tenets of Christianity, including the immortality of the soul. According to Schopenhauer, the domination of world evil and faith in God are incompatible.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). Friedrich Nietzsche is a German philosopher and philologist, the brightest propagandist of individualism, voluntarism and irrationalism.

According to Nietzsche, мир - this is a constant becoming and aimlessness, which is expressed in the idea of ​​\uXNUMXb\uXNUMXb"the eternal return of the same".

Following Arthur Schopenhauer Nietzsche at the heart of the world called the will:

- as a driving force of formation;

- like a rush;

- as "the will to power";

- the will to expand one's Self, to expansion. Nietzsche's central concept is the idea of ​​life. He is the founder of the direction called philosophy of life.

In man, according to Nietzsche, the main thing is the principle of corporality and, in general, the biological organism; the intellect is only the highest layer necessary for the preservation of organismic formations, primarily instincts.

Henri Bergson. Henri Bergson (1859-1941) - French thinker, representative of intuitionism and philosophy of life.

Bergson's views can be defined as a retreat from the materialistic-mechanistic and positivist direction of philosophical thought.

Most important are his teachings: on the intensity of sensations; time; free will; memory in its relation to time; creative evolution; the role of intuition in understanding things.

Bergson proposed life as a substance as a kind of integrity that differs from matter and spirit: life is directed "up", and matter - "down".

Meaning of life, according to Bergson, it is comprehensible only with the help of intuition, interpreted as a kind of sympathy, accessible to direct penetration into the essence of the object by merging with its unique nature.

Issues that interested Bergson:

- soul and body;

- the idea of ​​spiritual energy;

- dreams, etc.

They were of particular importance to him because:

- he wanted to "liberate" the spirit from the body and thereby prove the possibility of the immortality of the soul;

- his interest in spiritualism and telepathy was associated with them.

Karl Marx. Karl Marx (1818-1883) - philosopher and socialist, creator of the "Communist Manifesto", founder of historical materialism.

Marx and Engels create their own new philosophy called "new materialism".

Applying materialist dialectics to the analysis of social life, K. Marx made two discoveries: the "secret" of surplus value in capitalist society; materialistic understanding of history.

Ontology - a discipline in philosophy that reflects the universal foundations, principles, organization, structure, dynamics of being.

Positivism - a philosophical trend that argued that only individual empirical sciences and their synthetic associations can be a source of genuine, positive knowledge, and philosophy as a special science cannot claim to be an independent study of reality. The positivist philosophers tried to comprehend the ways of comprehending the truth on the basis of precise, experimental knowledge. Such efforts were due to the struggle with philosophical ontology. The positivists declared themselves opponents of ontology.

Analyzing the relation of positivism to ontology is rather complicated. Positivism demands the study of phenomena without philosophy and any evaluative knowledge.

In this case, two things are confused:

- the role of philosophical thinking in cognition;

- evaluative nature of knowledge.

Philosophical methodology is an important part of world knowledge, and it is important to take into account the evaluative nature of knowledge when summarizing the material and not allow it in the research process.

Ontology, rejected by positivism, actually took possession of positivism itself in a different form - the denial of the essential development of the world, because the orientation towards actual, sensual, eventual knowledge leaves aside the knowledge of the essence of things, laws.

Positivism was perceived by researchers as a philosophy that:

- cuts off any speculations from science;

- rids philosophy of ontology;

- helps creativity, serious research work.

One of the reasons for the interest in positivism and its great vitality is the fact that many famous scientists and great thinkers turned out to be its followers.

Neopositivism - a philosophical trend that goes back to positivism, empiricism and empirio-criticism.

Its most famous representatives: R. Carnap; A. Ayer; B. Russell; L. Wittgenstein; J. Austin and others.

Under the general name of neopositivism, many theories are united:

- logical positivism;

- logical empiricism;

- logical atomism;

- philosophy of linguistic analysis;

- various areas of analytical philosophy, interlocking with the theory of critical rationalism. The main task of neopositivism is the struggle against ontology, philosophy in general, the desire to put itself above the struggle between materialism and idealism.

Neo-positivists completely abandoned metaphysics, and with it the idea of ​​absolute being and the ultimate foundation of the universe.

Neo-positivism completely rejected traditional philosophy, including speculative natural philosophy, and proposed to replace them with a new philosophy - philosophy of science. The main task of the philosophy of science was considered to be the analysis of the structure of natural scientific knowledge by formal logical means.

Negative features of neopositivism:

- reduction of philosophy to the analysis of the language of science, and philosophical methodology - to private scientific;

- absolutization of formal logic and artificial language in cognition;

- anti-historicism;

- exaggeration of the principle of verification;

- ignoring the socio-cultural factors of the cognitive process, etc.

Since the beginning of the XX century. the return to ontology begins. People's thoughts are again directed towards the simple, the single and the whole.

Russian metaphysics. Metaphysics - primary philosophy. Its task is to get to the bottom of the truth by describing the rich diversity and mysterious depths of being, as well as through the construction and interpretation of the connection of all things.

Subject of study of metaphysics: being; nothing; freedom; immortality.

Russian philosophers believed that philosophical problems and their solutions are fueled by the spiritual needs of people, or, to be more precise, are their reflection.

Russian philosophers associated the solution of the problem of being with the specifics:

- outlook;

- attitudes of the people;

- people of a certain culture.

Russian thinkers did not accept the European interpretation of being, because the specificity of the Russian worldview is based on a different worldview compared to the Western one.

Russian philosophy feeds on the juices of the Russian worldview and gravitates towards ontologism, rather than some form of subjective idealism.

The attitude of Russian philosophy to ontology has its origins in Russian religious consciousness. The essence of Russian religiosity is being in God. It was this religiosity that determined the philosophical solution to the theme of being.

Religious ontologism became the ancestor philosophical ontologism.

The idea of ​​the individual-personal sphere as a true being was alien to the Russian worldview and Russian religious philosophy.

The spiritual creativity of secular and religious thinkers in Russia was aimed at explaining the deepest ontological, existential origins of human life.

Neo-Thomism. Neo-Thomism is the philosophy of the Catholic Church, the core of neo-scholasticism.

Neo-Thomism arose at the end of the 1879th century, and the encyclical of Pope Leo XIII (XNUMX) called neo-Thomism the only true philosophy corresponding to Christian teaching.

Neo-Thomism is one of the most significant trends in philosophy, it has received its main distribution in Belgium and France, but has its representatives in almost all countries.

The most important research center is Higher Institute of Philosophy, which was founded at the University of Louvain in 1882 by Cardinal Desire Mercier.

Neo-Thomism deals with: the philosophical justification of the existence of God; proof of various religious dogmas; consideration of "pure being" as a kind of spiritual principle; interpretation of natural scientific theories and social practice; problems of metaphysics - the doctrine of action and potency: the presence of being is the action of a certain being, inactive potency expresses the real limitation of action, becoming is the transition from potency to action.

The main section of neo-Thomism - metaphysics, the doctrine of the principles of being, which is opposed to the intelligible and transcendent world.

The philosophy of neo-Thomism considers the infinite existence of God as an act and a potential.

The main problem of neo-Thomism is the problem God

God is comprehended as a reality: infinite; eternal; uncreated; perfect; personal.

Neo-Thomism also develops:

- problems of natural philosophy;

- problems of the spirit;

- questions of knowledge;

- problems of ethics.

Consciousness - the symbolic existence of brain structures, it reflects the world around us, reflects matter. Consciousness is often defined as a subjective image of the objective world.

Consciousness - this is an understanding by the subject of the nature of certain phenomena and processes, it is the result of cognition, and the way of its existence is knowledge.

In the history of philosophy, the first term was soul. After some time, philosophical analysis led to the need, along with the concept of "soul" as a special part of a person, to single out the concept "mind" as a component of the non-individual, supra-individual, but spiritual component of the world.

The concept of "mind" was also used to characterize the part of the individual consciousness, defined as the thinking part, in contrast to the feeling part, as well as in contrast to emotions and will.

The dominance of religious ideology in the past had sad consequences for the development of philosophy. It was also reflected in the research of the soul, the spiritual activity of man. Consciousness in its developed form acts as a unique property of a person, and religion (any world religion) could not help but pay attention to this and presented consciousness, the soul of a person as a gift from God, thanks to which a person became involved in God. And it was the traditional use of the word "soul" in the religious sense that made us abandon this word in science and use the word "consciousness".

Consciousness - this is one of the features of a person that determines his specific position in the world, his special ontological status.

Philosophy distinguishes the main types of the relationship of consciousness to the world:

- cognition (one of the forms of the existence of consciousness is knowledge);

- practice, which is a purposeful activity of a person gifted with consciousness;

- a value attitude to the world, to society, to a person, which is determined by a system of moral, aesthetic and other norms operating in society. Consciousness is multifunctional:

- it ensures the vital activity of a person and society to the same extent as material production;

- it gives rise to the world of ideal images, the world of special ideal objects and makes it possible to break away from the material world, go beyond its limits, rise above it;

- it ideally allows you to play actions and foresee the results of material actions, allows you to choose the best, as it seems to him, methods of action to achieve pre-set goals;

- it is able to rise above the real world and real relationships so much that it can lead a person into a fictional world, taking these fictions for the highest reality, for the truly existing world;

- it can switch the thoughts, feelings of a person to this world and subordinate to it many forms of human life.

At least two spheres of spiritual life arose and developed in life, where elements of fiction turned out to be predominant:

- religion;

- art.

Consciousness, on the one hand, can create opportunities for active transformative activity in material production, in science and technology, in social activities, on the other hand, it can allow a retreat into the world of art, into the world of religion, into the world of fantasy.

Consciousness - this is a certain state, peculiar only to a person, in which both the world and himself are available to him at the same time, consciousness instantly correlates, connects what he saw, heard a person with what he felt, thought, experienced.

Being - the general concept of existence, of beings in general, these are material things, all processes (chemical, physical, geological, biological, social, mental, spiritual), their properties, connections and relationships.

Being consciousness - this is an important part of human being, therefore, in consciousness one should single out and study not only that side of it that appears during the awareness of consciousness itself, not only its reflection, but also that side, which, constituting a living component of the living action of a real person, is not subjected to their reflexive analysis.

The question of the relationship between consciousness and being is of a different nature than the usual philosophical questions. There is an opinion that this is not so much a question as a semantic orientation of philosophical thought.

It is important to understand that the difference between the material and the spiritual, the objective and the subjective, constitutes a certain "nerve" of any particular philosophical question or reflection, regardless of whether the person who philosophizes is aware of this.

At the same time, this difference does not always result in a question, and after being translated into such a form, it grows into a multitude of interconnected questions.

The most complex interaction and opposition of being and consciousness, material and spiritual, grows out of all human practice, culture, permeates them. That is why these concepts, which have meaning only in pairs, in their polar correlation, cover the entire field of worldview, constitute its extremely general (universal) basis.

The most general, the most important prerequisites for human existence are:

- the presence of the world (primarily nature), on the one hand;

- people, on the other hand.

And everything else is derivative, comprehended as a result of the practical and spiritual development by people of primary (natural) and secondary (social) forms of being and the interaction of people with each other on this basis.

The main qualities of consciousness:

- cognitive and communicative equipment of consciousness - allows you to distinguish the existence of a person from the existence of other living beings;

- holistic connection and consistency of the interaction of individual structures of consciousness - allows the most complex system of very heterogeneous processes to work: mental, emotional, sensual, volitional, mnemonic (memory processes), intuitive, etc .;

- the intentional ability of consciousness, which expresses the orientation of consciousness to someone, to something or consciousness about someone, about something, distinguishes the orientation of consciousness "outward" and "inward", i.e. consciousness must be oriented either on the outer world of a person's being, or on his inner world;

- epistemic, which express the state of a person's inner world - these qualities imply a state of doubt, belief, faith, confidence, etc.

The main functions of cognition:

- cognitive (reflects reality);

- evaluative-orientational (evaluates the phenomena of reality and one's being in them);

- goal-setting (sets goals);

- managerial (controls one's behavior).

Consciousness - this is the highest function of the brain, peculiar only to people and associated with speech, which consists in the reasonable regulation and self-control of human behavior, in a purposeful and generalized reflection of reality, in a preliminary mental construction of actions and foreseeing their results. Consciousness instantly links between what a person heard, saw, and what he felt, thought, experienced.

Core of consciousness:

- Feel;

- perception;

- representation;

- concepts;

- thinking.

The components of the structure of consciousness are feelings and emotions.

Consciousness acts as a result of cognition, and the way of its existence is knowledge. Knowledge - this is a practice-tested result of cognition of reality, its correct reflection in human thinking.

Consciousness - moral and psychological characteristics of the actions of the individual, which is based on the assessment and consciousness of oneself, one's capabilities, intentions and goals.

Self-awareness - it is a person's awareness of his actions, thoughts, feelings, interests, motives of behavior, his position in society.

According to Kant, self-consciousness is consistent with the awareness of the external world: "consciousness of my own existence is at the same time direct awareness of the existence of other things that are outside me."

Man is aware of himself

- through the material and spiritual culture created by him;

- sensations of one's own body, movements, actions;

- communication and interaction with other people. The formation of self-awareness is:

- in direct communication of people with each other;

- in their evaluation relationships;

- in formulating the requirements of society for an individual;

- in understanding the very rules of relationships. A person realizes himself not only through other people, but also through the spiritual and material culture he created.

Knowing himself, a person never remains the same as he was before. consciousness appeared in response to the call of social conditions of life, which from the very beginning required from each person the ability to evaluate their words, deeds and thoughts from the standpoint of certain social norms. Life, with its strict lessons, taught a person to exercise self-regulation and self-control. By regulating his actions and foreseeing their results, the self-conscious person takes full responsibility for them.

Self-consciousness is closely connected with the phenomenon of reflection, as if expanding its semantic field.

Reflection - reflection of a person about himself, when he peers into the innermost depths of his inner spiritual life.

During reflection, a person realizes:

- what is happening in his soul;

- what is happening in his inner spiritual world. Reflection belongs to the nature of man, his social fullness through the mechanisms of communication: reflection cannot be born in the depths of an isolated personality, outside of communication, outside of familiarization with the treasures of civilization and culture of mankind.

The levels of reflection can be very diverse - from ordinary self-awareness to deep reflection on the meaning of one's life, its moral content. Comprehending his own spiritual processes, a person often critically evaluates the negative aspects of his spiritual world.

Consciousness - this is a function of the brain, peculiar only to people and associated with speech, this function consists in the reasonable regulation and self-control of human behavior, in a purposeful and generalized reflection of reality, in a preliminary mental construction of actions and anticipation of their results.

Language - the most differentiated and comprehensive means of expression that a person possesses, and at the same time the highest form of manifestation of both subjective and objective spirit.

Language and consciousness come from ancient times.

The two main features of the language are:

- serve as a means communication;

- serve as a tool thinking.

Speech - this is a process of communication (exchange of thoughts, feelings, wishes, etc.), carried out with the help of language.

Tongue - it is a system of meaningful and meaningful forms, it works as a mechanism of social heredity.

The process of communication consists of two interconnected processes: the expression of thoughts (and the entire wealth of the human spiritual world) by the speaker or writer; perception, understanding of these thoughts, feelings by the listener or reader.

Thinking and language are closely connected; this leads to the fact that thought receives its adequate (or closest to such) expression precisely in language.

Turning to other people, the speaker: tells them his thoughts and feelings; encourages them to do certain things. convinces them of something; orders; advises; dissuades them from doing something, etc.

Consciousness and language are a single whole: in their existence they presuppose each other, just as an internal, logically formed ideal content presupposes its external material form.

Language is a direct activity of consciousness. With the help of language, consciousness is revealed, formed.

With the help of language, there is a transition from perception and ideas to concepts; the process of operating with concepts.

Consciousness is reflection reality, and language is its designation и expression in thought.

But not everything can be expressed with the help of language, the human soul is so mysterious that poetry, music or the whole arsenal of symbolic means is sometimes needed to express it.

A person receives information not only with the help of ordinary language, but also through a variety of sign forms.

Sign - it is a material object, process, action that performs the role of a representative of something else in the process of communication and is used to acquire, store, transform and transmit information.

Sign systems are a material form in which consciousness and thinking are carried out; information processes are implemented in society; information processes in technology are implemented.

They include the entire sphere of the psyche and consciousness: conceptual components; sensory components; emotional components; volitional impulses.

Among the non-linguistic signs stand out:

- signs-copies (photographs, fingerprints, prints of fossil animals, etc.);

- signs-signs (chills - a symptom of the disease, a cloud - a harbinger of the approach of rain, etc.);

- signs-signals (bell, applause, etc.);

- signs-symbols (the double-headed eagle symbolizes Russian statehood).

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). Arthur Schopenhauer did not agree with the concept of the mind as an area of ​​conscious mental activity of human consciousness, introducing unconsciously irrational moments into it.

Schopenhauer saw the basic fact of consciousness in representation.

Intuition This is the first and most important kind of knowledge. The whole world of reflection is built on intuition.

According to Schopenhauer, only contemplation, free from any relation to practice and to the interests of the will, can be truly perfect knowledge. Scientific thinking is always conscious, because it is aware of its principles and actions, while the activity of the artist, on the contrary, is unconscious, irrational: it is not able to understand its own essence.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). The form of presentation of philosophical ideas by Friedrich Nietzsche is aphorisms, myths, sermons, polemics, declarations.

According to Nietzsche, in the mind are connected:

- ancient installation on the value of the objective world, the focus of attention on it;

- personal skill of work of consciousness with itself. Nietzsche sought to create the foundations of a new morality of the "superman" instead of the Christian one, to find a new way of religious consciousness. The world according to Nietzsche:

- this is life, which is not identical to organic processes: its sign is becoming;

is the will to power.

Karl Marx (1818-1883). Karl Marx was the ancestor of the idea of ​​the secondary nature of consciousness, its conditionality, determinism by factors external to it and, above all, by economic ones.

According to Marx, it is not consciousness that determines being and the world of phenomena, but vice versa: being determines consciousness, consciousness is a conscious being.

Karl Marx argued that a person, his consciousness and his entire spiritual life are determined by graceless social and economic relations.

Marx proposed to analyze consciousness and its content through the study of subject-practical forms of human activity, that is, to analyze consciousness woven into the existence of people.

Henri Bergson (1859-1941). Henri Bergson is one of the brightest representatives of the philosophy of life.

The most important philosophical work of Bergson is the "Experience on the Immediate Data of Consciousness", in which he introduces the concept of "pure duration" - the essence of consciousness and being.

Bergson, in his philosophy, turned to the life of our consciousness: after all, it is given to us directly in our self-consciousness, which shows that the finest fabric of mental life is duration, i.e., continuous variability of states.

Bergson's doctrine of the nature of consciousness and the conditions for the possibility of an open society was characterized in its time as a revolution in philosophy.

William James (1842-1910). William James is a North American philosopher, in his opinion, consciousness is dissected and has an expedient structure.

One of the most famous works of James - "Does Consciousness Exist", in which the philosopher denies the existence of consciousness as a special entity related to something.

In his opinion, the personality (a certain volitional center), and not consciousness, refers to the flow of sensations and experiences, which are the last reality given to us in experience.

Sigmund Freud - Austrian psychologist, neuropathologist, psychiatrist, he studied the phenomena of the unconscious, their nature, forms and ways of manifestation.

Freud's main works, which contain philosophical ideas and concepts: "Mass psychology and analysis of the human "I""; "Beyond the Pleasure Principle"; "I" and "It"; "Psychology of the Unconscious"; "Dissatisfaction in Culture"; "Civilization and Analysis of the Human "I"" and others.

Freud put forward a hypothesis about the role of the unconscious and the possibility of its knowledge through the interpretation of dreams.

Freud assumed that the mental activity of the unconscious is subject to the pleasure principle, and the mental activity of the subconscious is subject to the reality principle.

The main thing in the philosophy of Sigmund Freud was the idea that people's behavior is controlled by irrational mental forces, and not by the laws of social development, that the intellect is an apparatus for disguising these forces, and not a means of actively reflecting reality, more and more in-depth understanding of it.

The most important, according to Freud, the engine of a person's mental life is "libido" (sexual desire), which determines the contradictions between a person and the social environment, a person and culture, a person and civilization.

In his psychoanalysis, Freud considered:

- the formation of religious cults and rituals;

- the emergence of art and public institutions;

- the emergence of science;

- self-development of mankind.

Freud argued that the main part of the human psyche is unconscious, that a person is in constant striving to satisfy his inclinations, desires, and society is a hostile environment that seeks to limit or completely deprive a person of the satisfaction of his passions.

According to Freud, the personality is divided into the id; I (ego); Super-I (Super-ego).

It is the sphere of the unconscious, subordinated only to the principle of pleasure, it has no doubts, contradictions and denials.

Freud divides any instincts and associated drives into two opposite groups:

- Ego drives (instincts of death, aggression, destruction);

- sexual instincts (life instincts).

Freud proposes to consider the consciousness of the individual as a system of external prohibitions and rules (Super-ego), and the true content of the individual (Ego) as something "supraconscious" (It), which contains impulsive drives and passions.

According to Freud's philosophy, consciousness creates various kinds of norms, laws, commandments, rules that suppress the subconscious sphere, being for it the censorship of the spirit.

The subconscious sphere manifests itself in the areas:

- abnormal (dreams, random reservations, typos, forgetting, etc.);

- abnormal (neurosis, psychosis, etc.). Neo-Freudianism - a trend in modern philosophy and psychology that combined the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud with American sociological theories. The main representatives of neo-Freudianism:

- Karen Horney

- Harry Sullivan

- Erich Frome et al.

The main idea of ​​neo-Freudians was interpersonal relationships. Their main question was the question of how a person should live and what to do.

Society is recognized as hostile to the fundamental trends in the development of the individual and the transformation of his life values ​​and ideals.

Truth in the sogito tradition acts as a property of knowledge, appears in the paradigm of subject-object relations.

The clarification of truth in the cogito tradition is carried out by correspondence: the words of the subject must correspond to his judgment; the subject's judgments must correspond to reality.

Parameters of truth Objectivity. objective truth - this is a cognitive content independent of society as a whole and a person in particular.

Truth is a property of human knowledge, therefore it is in its form subjective. Truth does not depend on the arbitrariness of consciousness, it is determined by the material world displayed in it, therefore, in terms of content, it objective.

Absoluteness. The absoluteness of truth is its completeness, unconditionality, its inherent cognitive content independent of the subject, preserved and reproduced in the course of the progress of knowledge.

From absolute truth one should distinguish eternal truth, which means the immutability of truth, its validity for all times and conditions. Exaggerating the element of the absolute in truth, the theistic and dogmatic systems of philosophy, unfolding the doctrine of eternal truth, ignore such parameters of truth as: relativity; concreteness; procedurality; historicity.

Relativity. The relativity of truth is its incompleteness, conditionality, incompleteness, approximation, the entry into it of only subjectively significant components that are permanently eliminated from knowledge as things incompatible with nature.

Processuality. Truth is a dynamic quality of cognition that arises as a sovereign outcome of individual non-sovereign cognitive acts undertaken by humanity under given conditions.

Concreteness. The concreteness of truth is a synthetic, integral parameter; it follows from the absoluteness, relativity, and procedural nature of truth. Truth is always concrete, because it is received by the subject in a certain situation, which is characterized by the unity of place, time, and action.

The concreteness of truth is its certainty - regardless of the degree of rigor and accuracy, truth has a limit of positive applicability, where the concept of the latter is given by the area of ​​the actual feasibility of the theory.

The main points of the concreteness of truth:

- the truth is historical - it is realized in a certain situation, characterized by the unity of place, time, action;

- the truth is dynamic - the absolute is given relatively and through the relative, it has its limits and exceptions;

- truth is qualitative - there is a feasibility interval beyond which extrapolation of truth is unacceptable.

Although the basis of science is truth, science contains a lot of untrue:

- theories containing contradictions;

- unproved theorems;

- unresolved problems;

- hypothetical objects with unclear cognitive status;

- paradoxes;

- contradictory objects;

- unsolvable provisions;

- unreasonable assumptions;

- ideas and reasoning that generate antinomies, etc.

Science cannot skip hypothetical, unlikely knowledge due to the fact that: its inconsistency has not been fully proven; there are hopes for its early justification; a critical test of hypothetical knowledge provokes the production of new knowledge, etc.

The first who took a step towards abandoning the problem of consciousness were:

- John Dewey (1859-1952);

- Martin Heidegger (1889-1976);

- Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951).

John Dewey - American philosopher, one of the brightest representatives of neopragmatism.

Pragmatism is a trend in philosophy that originates from the American philosopher Pierce, it sees the most vivid expression of human essence in action and makes the value or lack of value of thinking dependent on whether it is action, whether it serves action, life practice.

The basic concept of the philosophy of this thinker was experience, which meant all forms of manifestation of human life. According to Dewey, philosophy did not emerge from surprise, as was believed in antiquity, but from social tensions and stresses. Therefore, the main task of philosophy is such an organization of life experience, primarily the way of social life, which would help to improve the way of life of people, their being in the world.

Dewey's main idea, which defines the essence of his philosophy, is instrumentalism.

Instrumentalism - a direction in philosophy, according to which the mind and intellect are in the same way a means (tool) of adaptation to changing conditions, like body parts and teeth.

According to this thinker, those ideas, concepts and theories are true that are productively beneficial, successfully work in vital circumstances, and lead to the achievement of pragmatic goals.

Martin Heidegger - German philosopher, supporter of existentialism.

Existentialism (from late Latin exsistentia - existence) - "the philosophy of existence", one of the most fashionable philosophical movements in the middle of the XNUMXth century, which was the most direct expression of that time, lostness, hopelessness.

According to the representatives of existentialism, the task of philosophy is not so much to deal with the sciences in their classical rationalistic expression, but rather with questions of purely individual human existence. People, against their will, are thrown into this world, into their own destiny and live in a world alien to themselves. Their existence is surrounded on all sides by some incomprehensible signs and symbols. The main questions posed by Heidegger:

What does a person live for?

- What is the meaning of his life?

- What is the place of man in the world?

- What is their choice of their life path? Ludwig Wittgenstein - Austrian thinker, logician and mathematician. Ludwig Wittgenstein:

- developed the ideas of linguistic philosophy;

- developed problems of mathematical logic;

- analyzed the language of mathematics as the most perfect language of scientific knowledge.

He proposed to reduce all scientific knowledge to logic and mathematics, thereby absolutizing the significance of formal transformations, supposedly capable of expressing meaningful statements about the world.

The main work of Wittgenstein's late period is the Philosophical Investigations, in which he interprets philosophy as an activity aimed at clarifying linguistic expressions. The task of philosophy is purely "therapeutic" - eliminating, by analyzing natural language, not only philosophical, but also other generalizations, which are evaluated by him as a kind of disease.

The history of Russian literature is a rich cultural and historical phenomenon.

The most meaningful period of Russian philosophy is the XNUMXth century. This period was the "golden age" in the history of Russian spirituality, the age of classics and universalism. This century is characterized by an organic synthesis of philosophical thought and the artistic word.

The beginning of Russian classical philosophy was laid by the work of Chaadaev (1794-1856). In his "Philosophical Letters" from a religious point of view, questions were posed:

- What are the features of the historical development of Russia and Western Europe?

- What is Russian national self-consciousness? The philosophical policy of Chaadaev gave impetus to a split in Russian philosophical thought in the XNUMXth century. and the emergence in it of two opposite currents - Slavophilism and Westernism.

The Slavophiles connected the fate of Russia with the development of the Russian national consciousness and the flourishing of the Russian Orthodox religion.

In the history of Russian philosophy, which has always paid great attention to the religious theme, a special place belongs to N.F. Fedorov (1828-1903), who made the idea of ​​"universal salvation" the basis of his entire system. A distinctive feature of Fedorov's thought is his irreconcilable attitude towards death, the need to actively overcome it. In his well-known work "Philosophy of the Common Cause" there is a call to "action", and not a passive contemplation of the world, and the belief is expressed that the mind and consciousness of a person can by themselves carry out this task.

Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev (1874-1948) - one of the brightest representatives of Russian religious philosophy. For the social reorganization of society, according to Berdyaev, what is needed, first of all, is not a technical reorganization, but a spiritual revival. For Russia, this is connected with the assertion of the "Russian idea". According to Berdyaev, the main distinguishing feature of the Russian idea is religious messianism, which permeates the entire society, its culture, consciousness. The essence of the Russian national idea is the realization of the kingdom of God on earth. Berdyaev is critical of the extremes of both Slavophiles and Westerners in their conclusions about Russia's place in world history. Russia, in his opinion, can realize itself and its vocation in the world only in the light of the problem of East and West. It is in the center of these worlds and must recognize itself as the "East-West", the connector, and not the divider of them.

Vladimir Sergeevich Solovyov (1853-1900) - Russian idealist philosopher, poet, publicist, literary critic. He became the founder of Russian Christian philosophy as an original holistic consciousness.

Solovyov's main idea is the idea of ​​"the all-being". The highest unity of existence, according to Solovyov, is God. The absolute depth and fullness of existence presupposes the principle of an absolute personality, energy-volitional, all-good, loving and merciful, but punishing for sins. Only God embodies the positive unity of existence. All the immeasurable diversity of existence is held together by divine unity. Everything material is spiritualized by the divine principle, acting as a world consciousness, that is, the meaning of things and events, which is associated with the idea of ​​creative mastery.

Cognition is the assimilation of the sensory content of the experienced, experienced, the state of things, states, processes in order to find the truth.

From the point of view of philosophy, knowledge is: sensual; rational; worldly; scientific; intuitive; artistic and others.

Mankind has always sought to acquire new knowledge. Mastering the secrets of being is an expression of the highest aspirations of the creative activity of the mind, which is the pride of man and mankind. Knowledge forms a complex system, acting in the form of social memory, its wealth is transferred from generation to generation, from people to people with the help of the mechanism of social heredity, culture.

Theory of knowledge - a special study of cognition, which is divided into:

- on the criticism of cognition, starting from the type of cognition that has existed so far, in which it critically denies existing knowledge;

- on the theory of knowledge in the narrow sense, the subject of which is this type of knowledge. Problems that the theory of knowledge studies:

- the nature of knowledge;

- possibilities and limits of knowledge;

- relation of knowledge and reality;

- the ratio of the subject and object of knowledge;

- prerequisites for the cognitive process;

- conditions for the reliability of knowledge;

- criteria of the truth of knowledge;

- forms and levels of knowledge, etc.

The theory of knowledge from the very beginning develops in interaction with science:

- some scientists study objective reality, while others study the very reality of research: this is a vital division of spiritual production;

- some find knowledge, and others - knowledge about knowledge, which are important for science itself, and for practice, and for the development of a holistic worldview. Theory of knowledge also called epistemology, or epistemology. These terms come from Greek:

- gnosis - cognition, recognition (cognition, knowledge);

- episteme - knowledge, skill, science.

In Russian, the term "knowledge" has two main meanings:

- knowledge as a given, an acquired fact;

- the process of recognition, the extraction of knowledge in the first sense. The main task of epistemology is to study the nature of "ready" knowledge, and not the methods of obtaining it.

Since truth is the objective side of knowledge, which is related to its subjective side, epistemology in its development determines the subject of the psychology of knowledge.

The theory of knowledge should:

- substantiate any knowledge, including natural science and philosophy;

- to explain the very possibility of such knowledge, its essence, the content of the concept of truth, its criteria. Theory of knowledge:

- explores the nature of human cognition;

- explores the forms and patterns of transition from a superficial idea of ​​things (opinions) to comprehension of their essence (true knowledge);

- considers the question of ways to achieve the truth, its criteria;

- explores how a person falls into error and how to overcome them.

The main question for epistemology has been and remains the question of what practical, vital meaning has reliable knowledge about the world, about man himself and human society.

Cognition - the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, conditioned by socio-historical practice, its constant deepening, expansion and improvement.

Types of knowledge:

Life knowledge. Worldly knowledge is based on observation and ingenuity, it agrees better with generally accepted life experience than with abstract scientific constructions, and is empirical in nature. This form of knowledge is based on common sense and everyday consciousness, it is an important orienting basis for the daily behavior of people, their relationship with each other and with nature.

Everyday knowledge develops and enriches itself with the progress of scientific and artistic knowledge; it is closely related to culture.

Scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge presupposes an explanation of facts, their comprehension in the entire system of concepts of a given science.

The essence of scientific knowledge is:

- in understanding reality in its past, present and future;

- in a reliable generalization of facts;

- in the fact that behind the accidental it finds the necessary, regular, behind the individual - the general and on this basis carries out the prediction of various phenomena.

Scientific knowledge covers something relatively simple that can be more or less convincingly proved, strictly generalized, put into the framework of laws, causal explanation, in a word, what fits into the paradigms accepted in the scientific community.

Artistic knowledge. Artistic knowledge has a certain specificity, the essence of which is a holistic, rather than dissected display of the world and especially a person in the world.

Sensory knowledge. Sense cognition has three forms:

- sensations (elementary form, it includes visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, olfactory, vibrational and other sensations);

- perception (structured image, consisting of several sensations);

- representations (an image of a phenomenon previously created or perceived by the imagination). Rational knowledge. There are three forms of rational knowledge:

- concept;

- judgment;

- inference.

Concept - this is an elementary form of thought, which is the result of a generalization carried out on a set of features inherent in a given class of objects.

Judgment - a thought that not only correlates with a certain situation, but is also an affirmation or denial of the existence of this situation in reality.

A concept and a judgment differ in that a judgment as a statement, in contrast to a concept as a statement, must necessarily be true or false. Judgment is a connection of concepts.

Inference - this is the conclusion of new knowledge, which implies a clear fixation of the rules. The conclusion must have a proof, in the process of which the legitimacy of the emergence of a new thought is justified with the help of other thoughts.

The concept, judgment and conclusion form a certain integrity in their unity, this integrity is called mind or thinking.

Intuitive knowledge. Intuitive knowledge is unconsciously obtained direct knowledge.

Intuitive knowledge is divided into:

- sensitive (intuition - instant feeling);

- rational (intellectual intuition);

- eidetic (visual intuition).

Cognition is the process of obtaining, storing, processing and systematizing conscious concrete-sensual and conceptual images of reality.

Knowledge divides the world into two parts:

- on the object (translated from Latin - to oppose oneself);

- on the subject (translated from Latin - underlying).

Subject of knowledge - deeply understood meaningful cognitive-transformative activism and its corresponding inclinations.

The subject is a complex hierarchy, the foundation for which is the entire social whole.

The real subject of cognition is never only epistemological, because it is a living personality with its interests, passions, character traits, temperament, intelligence or stupidity, talent or mediocrity, strong will or lack of will.

When the subject of cognition is the scientific community, then it has its own characteristics: interpersonal relationships, dependencies, contradictions, as well as common goals, unity of will and action, etc.

But most often under subject knowledge understands some impersonal logical cluster of intellectual activity.

Scientific knowledge explores not only the conscious attitude of the subject to the object, but also to himself, to his activity.

Object of knowledge - this is any given that exists independently of consciousness, on which the cognitive-transformative activity of the subject is aimed.

A fragment of being, which turned out to be in the focus of a searching thought, is object of knowledge becomes in a certain sense the "property" of the subject, having entered into a subject-object relationship with him.

The object in its relation to the subject is, to some extent, a cognized reality that has become a fact of consciousness, socially determined in its cognitive aspirations, and in this sense, the object of cognition becomes a fact of society.

From the side of cognitive activity, the subject does not exist without the object, and the object does not exist without the subject.

In modern epistemology, the object and subject of knowledge are distinguished:

- the object of knowledge is the real fragments of being that are being investigated;

- the subject of knowledge is the specific aspects to which the point of the searching thought is directed. Man is the subject of history, he himself creates the necessary conditions and prerequisites for his historical existence. The object of socio-historical knowledge is created, and not only cognized by people: before becoming an object, it must first be created and formed by them.

In social cognition, a person thus deals with the results of his own activity, and hence with himself as a practically acting being. Being the subject of cognition, it turns out to be at the same time its object. In this sense, social cognition is the social self-consciousness of a person, in the course of which he discovers and explores his own historically created social essence.

Objectivism - direction in epistemology, which ascribes to knowledge the comprehension of real objects and objective ideas.

Subjectivism - the doctrine of the exclusive subjectivity of intellectual truth, as well as aesthetic and moral values, the denial of their absolute significance.

science of logic - dialectics. Dialectics is the art of conversation, the ability to correctly argue one's thoughts. The idea of ​​logic reveals its content in the system of laws and categories of dialectics.

In dialectical philosophy there is absolutely nothing once and for all established, unconditional, holy. Dialectics sees on everything and in everything the imprint of an inevitable fall, and nothing can resist it, except for the continuous process of emergence and destruction, the endless ascent from the lower to the higher.

Objective dialectic called the dialectic of nature and material social relations.

subjective dialectic called the dialectic of the process of cognition and thinking of people. But it is subjective only in form.

System of Dialectical Philosophy:

The main laws of dialectics:

- the law of the transition of quantity into quality and vice versa;

- the law of mutual penetration of opposites;

- the law of negation of negation. Principles of dialectics:

- the principle of development through contradictions;

- the principle of universal interconnection. Categories (non-basic laws) of dialectics:

- essence and phenomenon;

- single, special, universal;

- form and content;

- cause and investigation;

- necessity and chance;

- possibility and reality.

Of course, all parts of this system are interconnected, penetrate each other, presuppose each other.

The main laws of dialectics, on the one hand, characterize the development process, during which contradictions lead to the destruction of the old and the emergence of a new quality, and repeated negation determines the general direction of the development process.

Thus, the contradictions that are formed in the system act as a source of self-propulsion and self-development, and the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones - as a form of this process.

Dialectics includes and overcomes two types of ideas about the process of development:

- the first represents development in the form of an arrow and asserts that in the process of development something completely new always appears and there is no repetition of the old;

- the second represents development in the form of a circular movement and asserts that in the process of development there is only a repetition of what has already been once. Logic is the ability to think correctly (logically). Distinguish:

- applied logic - covers in traditional logic the doctrine of method, definition and proof;

- pure logic - covers in traditional logic the doctrine of logical axioms, concepts, judgments and inferences.

Modern logic falls into many directions:

- metaphysical logic (Hegelianism);

- psychological logic (T. Lipps, W. Wundt);

- epistemological (transcendental) logic (neo-Kantianism);

- semantic logic (Aristotle, Külpe, modern nominalism);

- subject logic (Remke, Meinong, Driesch);

- neoscholastic logic;

- phenomenological logic;

- logic as a methodology and logistics, which is at the center of disputes about logic.

Logic is a general doctrine of historical development, self-movement of the object of knowledge and its reflection in thinking, in the movement of concepts. Even if a person thinks deeply, subtly and flexibly, he does it according to the laws of logic, provided that the train of thought is correct, without violating any of its principles.

A person comprehends the secrets of nature to satisfy his material, and then spiritual needs - this is the historical meaning of the emergence of knowledge and sciences. As society developed, it expanded its needs, finding new means and ways of cognition.

Knowledge - an objective reality in the mind of a person who, in his activity, ideally reproduces and reflects the natural objective connections of the real world.

Cognition - the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, conditioned by socio-historical practice, its constant deepening, expansion and improvement.

Knowledge is:

- sensual (acts in the form of images that arise in the human mind as a result of the activity of the central nervous system and sensory organs);

- logical (acts in the form of a logical reflection, that is, judgments and conclusions). Practice - this is the sensual-objective activity of people, their impact on a particular object with the aim of transforming it to meet historically established needs.

Practice - this is the basis for the development and formation of cognition at all its stages, the source of knowledge, the criterion for the truth of the results of the cognition process.

The most important forms of practice:

- material production (transformation of nature, natural being of people);

- social action (transformation of social life);

- science experiment (active activity, during which a person artificially creates conditions that allow him to explore the properties of the objective world that interest him).

The main functions of practice in the process of learning:

- practice is the basis of knowledge, its driving force;

- practice is the source of knowledge, since all knowledge is brought to life mainly by its needs;

- practice - the goal of knowledge, as it is carried out to direct and regulate the activities of people;

- practice - the criterion of truth, that is, it allows you to separate true knowledge from delusions. Practice is based not only on the sciences of nature and technology, but also on the sciences of society, since it:

- indicates and highlights the phenomena, the study of which is necessary for mankind;

- changes surrounding things;

- reveals such aspects of surrounding things that were not previously known to man and therefore could not be the subject of study. Through practice, it has been established that knowledge cannot be regarded as something ready-made, unchanging, frozen. In the course of practice, there is a movement, an ascent from inaccurate knowledge to a more perfect, accurate one.

The concept of experience has different meanings: experience (empiricism) is opposed to speculation and in this sense is a generic concept that subjugates observation and experiment; experience - a measure of skills and abilities - in the sense of life experience, computer experience, cooking dinner, etc.

The knowledge of the truth is based on experience, not only the experience of one person, but the hereditary information of the whole humanity. The whole history of scientific knowledge suggests that after the application of any discovery in practice, the rapid development of the corresponding field of scientific knowledge begins: the development of technology revolutionizes science.

Sense cognition - this is knowledge in the form of sensations and perceptions of the properties of things directly given to the senses.

empirical knowledge is a reflection of this indirectly. The empirical level of knowledge involves: observation; description of the observed; record keeping; use of documents.

Empirical knowledge is a higher level of knowledge than just sensory knowledge.

The starting point in sensory cognition is feeling - the simplest sensory image, a reflection, a copy, or a kind of snapshot of individual properties of objects.

Sensations have a wide range of modality:

- visual;

- auditory;

- vibration;

- skin-tactile;

- temperature;

- painful;

- muscular-articular;

- sensations of balance and acceleration;

- olfactory;

- taste;

- general organic.

The objective basis for the perception of the image as a whole is the unity and, at the same time, the multiplicity of various aspects and properties of the object.

A holistic image that reflects objects that directly affect the senses, their properties and relationships is called perception.

Memory, ideas and imagination. Sensations and perceptions are the source of all human knowledge, but knowledge is not limited to them. Any object affects the human senses for a certain time, after which the effect stops. But the image of the object does not immediately disappear without a trace, but is imprinted and stored in memory. No knowledge is inconceivable without the phenomenon of memory.

Memory is very important in cognition, it unites the past and the present into one organic whole, where there is their mutual penetration.

Representation - these are images of objects that once acted on the human senses and then are restored according to the connections preserved in the brain.

In the process of representation, consciousness for the first time breaks away from its immediate source and begins to exist as a relatively independent subjective phenomenon. Representation is an intermediate link between perception and theoretical thinking.

Imagination is a property of the human spirit of the greatest value, it makes up for the lack of visibility in the stream of abstract thought. Knowledge is impossible without imagination.

The main research methods in science, especially in natural science, are observation and experiment.

Observation - this is a deliberate, planned perception, which is carried out in order to reveal the essential properties and relations of the object of knowledge.

experiment called a research method by which an object is either reproduced artificially, or placed in certain conditions that meet the objectives of the study.

Scientific fact. Establishing facts is a necessary condition for scientific research.

Fact - this is a phenomenon of the material or spiritual world, which has become a certified property of our knowledge, it is a fixation of some phenomenon, property and relationship.

Facts acquire scientific value provided that there is a theory that interprets them, there is a method for classifying them, they are comprehended in connection with other facts.

methodology called the doctrine of the methods of cognition and transformation of reality.

method called the system of regulatory principles of transformative, practical, cognitive, theoretical activity.

Methodology specific methods, means of obtaining and processing factual material are called. The methodology is based on methodological principles and derived from them.

The method is inextricably linked with theory, which finds its expression in the methodological role of scientific laws. The solution of many specific problems presupposes as a necessary condition some general philosophical methods, the distinguishing feature of which is universality.

These methods include: laws and categories of dialectics; observation and experiment; comparison; analysis and synthesis; induction and deduction, etc.

Philosophical methods are methods of studying objects from the point of view of revealing in them the universal laws of motion and development, which manifest themselves in a special way depending on the specifics of the object. Moreover, each method makes it possible to cognize only some separate aspects of the object. Hence the need arises for the "mutual complementarity" of individual methods, which is due, among other things, to the fact that each method has certain limits of its cognitive capabilities.

Comparative historical method - This is the establishment of the difference and similarity of objects.

Comparison is a necessary method of cognition, but it only plays an important role in the practical activity of a person and in scientific research, when things that are really homogeneous or close in essence are compared.

The comparative-historical method allows you to identify the genetic relationship:

- certain animals;

- certain languages;

- peoples;

- some religious beliefs;

- artistic methods;

- patterns of development of social formations, etc.

Analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the mental decomposition of an object into its constituent parts or sides. Synthesis is called the mental unification into a single whole of elements dissected by analysis.

Abstraction, idealization, generalization and limitation. Abstraction is selection by thought:

- any object in abstraction from its connections with other objects;

- any property of an object in abstraction from its other properties;

- any relation of objects in abstraction from the objects themselves.

Abstraction is a necessary condition for the emergence and development of any science and human thinking in general.

An important part of scientific knowledge of the world is idealization as a specific kind of abstraction.

Idealization - the formation of abstract objects with the help of thought as a result of abstraction from the fundamental impossibility of realizing them in practice.

Generalization - the mental process of transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general.

Restriction process - mental transition from more general to less general.

Man's ability to abstract and generalize is of great importance in cognitive activity, in the general progress of the material and spiritual culture of mankind.

Epistemology - the doctrine of knowledge. Epistemology is historical in nature, because it develops along with the development of man and humanity.

The theory of knowledge in ancient Eastern philosophy is entirely subordinated to ethical, managerial and educational tasks. But, despite this, two main epistemological questions in Confucianism are posed:

1) Where does knowledge come from? 2) what is "knowledge"?

Thinkers of ancient Eastern philosophy believed that humanity acquires knowledge in the process of long and diligent study. But there are people with innate abilities, gifted people, but they are few.

According to the philosophy of the Ancient East, you need to learn life, namely the ability to live among people. The philosophers of that time under the word "knowledge" meant, first of all, practical, vital knowledge, and not abstract abstract postulates about the structure of the universe.

In ancient Eastern philosophy, the most important epistemological problems were posed:

- the ratio of sensual and rational in cognition;

- subordination of thought and language.

In the epistemology of the Ancient East, there are three methods of cognition:

- sensual;

- rational;

- mystical.

The first two methods - sensual and rational - assume that there is "someone" who wants to know "something". In the process of cognition, "someone" approaches "something", recognizes it, but at the same time leaves a boundary, a distance.

The mystical (supersensible and superrational) method presupposes the process of cognition through the fusion of the subject "someone" with the object "something". Often this process is possible only in the course of purposeful meditation. Before meditation, the cognizing subject must put things in order in the soul: extinguish the passions that prevent one from concentrating, self-discipline, and orient oneself towards higher goals.

The main thoughts of ancient Eastern philosophy:

- the world and each person are considered as a whole, more important than its constituent parts;

- methods of cognition associated with intuition are of great importance;

- cognition of the principles of the macrocosm was carried out with the help of a complex cognitive act, including cognition, emotional experience and volitional impulses;

- knowledge was connected with the will to implement moral norms in practice and aesthetic sensations;

- the inclusion of a person in the system of ethical norms, which were based on the global principles of the macrocosm;

- logic functioned by highlighting central concepts and constructing a series of comparisons, explanations, etc. in relation to them;

- the movement was presented in the form of cycles. The knowledge of truth is based on the intellect and experience, which are based on feelings. According to the belief of the thinkers of the Ancient East, the truth is comprehended in the process of contemplation, understood as the identity of knowledge. In their opinion, the truth is multifaceted, it can never be fully expressed, different opinions about the truth prove only its different sides.

The isolation of ancient Eastern philosophy from specific scientific knowledge led to the fact that in explaining the world it used naive materialistic ideas about the five primary elements, about the principles of yin and yang, about the ether, etc.

Parmenides (late XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries BC) - philosopher, politician.

Parmenides wrote a poem "On Nature", in which he figuratively presented the path of knowledge in the form of an allegorical description of the journey of a young man to the goddess, who reveals the truth to him.

From the very beginning of the poem, Parmenides proclaims the dominant role of reason in cognition and the auxiliary role of feelings. He shares the truth, based on rational knowledge, and opinion, based on sensory perceptions, which acquaint us only with the appearance of things, but do not give knowledge of their true essence.

He shared the philosophy:

- on the philosophy of truth;

- the philosophy of opinion.

Parmenides called reason the criterion of truth, but in the senses, in his opinion, there is no accuracy: you should not trust sensory perceptions, it is better to examine the evidence expressed by reason.

But at the same time, Parmenides does not renounce the sensible world. In the second part of the poem "On Nature" he argues that next to the world of truth, a world of opinion is necessary, because without it thinking is impossible.

One and the same world, according to Parmenides, taken in its two dimensions - human everyday life and intellect - splits into two:

- on the opinion of mortals;

- the truth.

According to the teachings of Parmenides, everything that surrounds a person is a convention.

Democritus (about 460 - about 370 BC) - ancient Greek pluralist philosopher, founder of atomism. Democritus surpassed many philosophers of his time in the wealth of knowledge, sharpness and logical correctness of his teaching.

According to Democritus, the whole world consists of atoms and the void in which these atoms fall. Democritus called atoms not only physical particles, but also units of the mind, and emptiness - stupidity.

Democritus proposed a scientific method of cognition, which was based on experience, observation and theoretical generalization of factual material.

Sensations, according to Democritus, represent, although insufficient, but a necessary source and basis of knowledge.

The universe, as Democritus argued, is strictly subject to the principle of causality: everything arises on some basis and due to causality. It was in causality that Democritus saw an explanatory principle in understanding the essence of things and events.

According to Democritus, the human soul consists of the smallest, round, fire-like, constantly rushing atoms; possessing internal energy, it is the cause of the movement of living beings. Thinking, according to Democritus, is a physical process.

Democritus explained the process of cognition from the dialectical-materialistic point of view.

According to Democritus, the world is known through the senses and the mind. But these two knowledges are incomparable.

Democritus shared knowledge:

- on the dark (sensory cognition - taste, smell, touch, sight, hearing, etc.);

- bright (true, rational knowledge - thinking, mind).

Sensual (dark) knowledge, according to Democritus, is approximate, relative, partial. The thought process, rational cognition acts as an addition to the sensual, when a person, by the power of thought, can penetrate the visible world, comprehend the universal and natural.

Thanks to Parmenides and Democritus, philosophy began an intensive development, its main goal was the question of man and his place in the world. Optimism in matters of knowledge was replaced by skepticism.

Plato (427-347 BC) - the greatest thinker, penetrating the entire world philosophical culture with his thinnest spiritual threads, he believed that the task of philosophy is the knowledge of eternal and absolute truths, which only philosophers who are endowed with the appropriate wise soul. According to Plato, philosophers are not made, philosophers are born.

Plato loved philosophy: all the philosophizing of this thinker is an expression of his life, and his life is an expression of his philosophy.

The main idea of ​​Plato: sensory perception does not give permanent knowledge, that is, it only provides an opinion, and not at all certainty.

According to Plato, the cosmos is a kind of work of art. The cosmos lives, pulsates, breathes, it is filled with various potentialities, and is controlled by forces that form common patterns.

According to Plato, the world is dual in nature, he shares:

- on the visible world of changeable objects;

- the invisible world of ideas.

Idea is a central category in Plato's philosophy. The idea of ​​a thing is something ideal. An idea is the meaning and essence of a thing.

The highest idea is the idea of ​​absolute goodness, the world mind, it deserves the name of the mind and the Divine.

In the Platonic doctrine of cognition, the role of the sensory level of cognition is underestimated. The philosopher believed that sensations and perceptions deceive a person. He even advised to "close your eyes and plug your ears" in order to know the truth, giving room to the mind.

Plato considers knowledge from the standpoint of dialectics. The concept of "dialectic" comes from the word "dialogue" - the art of reasoning, moreover, reasoning in communication, which means arguing, challenging, proving something, and refuting something. Dialectics - this is the art of thinking, thinking strictly logically, unraveling all kinds of contradictions in the clash of different opinions, judgments, beliefs.

Plato developed dialectics in particular detail:

- one and many;

- identical and different;

- movement and rest, etc.

Plato's philosophy of nature is closely related to mathematics. Plato explored the dialectic of concepts, which was of great importance for the subsequent development of logic.

Plato believed that everything sensual "eternally flows", constantly changes and therefore is not subject to logical understanding. The philosopher distinguished knowledge from subjective sensation. The connection that we introduce into judgments about sensations is not sensation: in order to cognize an object, we must not only feel it, but also understand it.

General concepts are the result of special mental operations, "self-activity of our rational soul": they are not applicable to individual things. General definitions and concepts do not refer to individual sensible objects, but to something else: they express a genus or species, that is, something that refers to certain sets of objects. According to Plato, it turns out that our subjective thought corresponds to an objective thought that is outside of us. This is the essence of his objective idealism. In Platonic objective idealism, the "world of ideas" gives rise to the "world of things." And although Plato claims that it is impossible to break ideas and things, nevertheless, the “world of ideas” turns out to be primary for him.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) - the great ancient Greek philosopher, scientist.

The views of Aristotle encyclopedically absorbed the achievements of ancient science, they represent a grandiose system of concrete scientific and philosophical knowledge in its amazing depth, subtlety and scale.

Aristotle is the ancestor of scientific philosophy proper; in his teaching, some sciences were illuminated from the point of view of philosophy.

The subject of knowledge for Aristotle is being.

The basis of knowledge is:

- in sensations;

- memory;

- habit.

Every knowledge begins with sensations: it is that which is capable of taking the form of sensible objects without their matter. It is impossible to acquire scientific knowledge through sensations and perceptions alone, because of the transient and changing nature of all things.

Forms of true scientific knowledge are concepts that comprehend the essence of a thing.

Aristotle developed the theory of knowledge in detail and deeply, after which he created a work on logic, which retains its enduring significance even now. In this work, he developed:

- the theory of thinking and its forms;

- concepts;

- judgments;

- inferences, etc.

Aristotle is the father of logic.

Aristotle analyzed categories and operated on them in the analysis of philosophical problems, he considered the operations of the mind, its logic, including the logic of propositions.

Aristotle formulated logical laws:

- the law of identity (the concept must be used in the same meaning in the course of reasoning);

- the law of contradiction ("do not contradict yourself");

- the law of the excluded middle ("true or not true, the third is not given").

Aristotle developed and put forward the doctrine of syllogisms, in which he considered all kinds of inferences in the process of reasoning.

The works of Aristotle cover almost all areas of ancient knowledge.

1. Logic. Subsequently, the logical works of Aristotle were united under the Latin name "Organon".

2. Proceedings from the field of the theory of physics.

3. Metaphysics (general questions of being).

4. Teachings about the parts of animals - biology.

5. Works on practical philosophy - ethics, politics, etc.

6. Aesthetics.

Aristotle considered his main task to get rid of mythologization and ambiguity of terms. The scientist tried to find exact knowledge on the way of transition from empirical to evidence-based knowledge, bearing in mind that the value of knowledge depends on its generalization.

In the works of Aristotle, the empirical principle of knowledge is distinguished. Knowledge must necessarily begin with the individual. The ratio of the individual and the general is controlled by such a science as logic. According to the philosopher, logic is also an ontology, because it is a science not only of how the transition from the individual to the universal is carried out in cognition, but also the science of the existence of the universal. From this it follows that science only begins with the individual, its true subject is the eternal imperishable essence. The single thing is the shell in which form and essence as such are realized. Every thing exists because of the form that is realized in it as an eternal essence.

The philosophy of modern times has done a lot for the development of the theory of knowledge (epistemology). The main ideas were:

- philosophical scientific method;

- methodology of human cognition of the external world;

- connections of external and internal experience. The main task was to obtain reliable knowledge, which would be the basis of the entire knowledge system.

To solve this problem, two main epistemological directions were created: empiricism; rationalism.

The founder of the empirical method of cognition was Francis Bacon (1561-1626), who attached great importance to the experimental sciences, observation and experiment. He considered experience to be the source of knowledge and the criterion of its truth, but at the same time he did not deny the role of reason in cognition.

Reason, according to Bacon, should:

- process the data of sensory knowledge and experience;

- find root causal relationships, phenomena;

- discover the laws of nature.

He singled out the unity of sensory and rational moments in cognition, criticized narrow empiricists who underestimate the role of reason in cognition, as well as rationalists who ignore sensory cognition and consider reason to be the source and criterion of truth.

Bacon offered an interesting and deeply meaningful critique of scholasticism. He argued that the new method first of all requires the liberation of the human mind from any preconceived ideas, false ideas inherited from the past or due to the peculiarities of human nature and authorities, and divided them into four kinds:

- "idols of the family" (false ideas, which are due to the imperfection of the human senses and the limitations of the mind);

- "idols of the cave" (a distorted vision of reality associated with the individual upbringing of a person, his education, as well as blind worship of authorities);

- "idols of the market" (false ideas of people that are generated by the misuse of words, especially common in markets and squares);

- "idols of the theater" (misconceptions of people, borrowed by them from various philosophical systems).

With his philosophy, Bacon sought to clear the minds of people from the influence of scholasticism, all kinds of delusions, and thereby create conditions for the successful development and dissemination of knowledge based primarily on the experimental study of nature.

After Bacon, an empiricist and sensualist in epistemology was Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). He considered the basis of knowledge to be the sensation caused by the action of a material body on a person.

Rationalism in the theory of knowledge of the 1596th century. represented by the teachings of Rene Descartes (1650-1632), Benedict Spinoza (1677-1646), Gottfried Leibniz (1716-XNUMX).

Descartes argued that intellectual intuition or pure speculation is the starting point of knowledge.

All ideas Descartes divided into two groups:

- come from the senses;

- congenital.

According to Descartes, the clarity and distinctness of our ideas is the criterion of truth. Spinoza distinguishes three types of knowledge:

- sensual, giving only vague and untrue ideas;

- through the mind, giving knowledge of modes;

- intuition revealing the truth.

Leibniz, in his philosophy on a rational basis, explores the combination of rationalism and empiricism.

Rationalism - this is the point of view of reason (mind). Rationalism, by the definition of philosophy, is a set of philosophical directions that make the central point of analysis:

- from the subjective side - mind, thinking, reason;

- from the objective - reasonableness, the logical order of things.

The brightest representatives of rationalism of the XVII century. were Rene Descartes and Benedict Spinoza.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650). Descartes is a French mathematician and philosopher who put reason first, reducing the role of experience to a simple practical test of intelligence data.

Descartes developed a universal deductive method for all sciences based on the theory of rationalism, which assumed the presence in the human mind of innate ideas that largely determine the results of knowledge.

The main concept of the rationalistic views of Descartes was substance.

Descartes proposed two principles for scientific thought: the movement of the external world must be understood exclusively as mechanistic; the phenomena of the inner, spiritual world must be considered exclusively from the point of view of clear, rational self-consciousness.

The first question of Descartes' philosophy is the possibility of reliable knowledge and the problem of the method by which such knowledge is to be obtained.

In the philosophy of Descartes, the method of scientific knowledge is called analytical or rationalistic.

This is a deductive method, it requires: clarity and consistency of the operation of thinking itself (which is provided by mathematics); dismemberment of the object of thought into the simplest elementary parts; studying these elementary parts separately, and then - the movement of thought from simple to complex.

Analyzing the nature of the soul, Descartes made an invaluable contribution to the psychophysiological essence of this phenomenon, giving the most subtle analysis of the neurophysiological mechanisms of the brain, revealing in essence the reflex basis of the psyche.

Descartes promoted the idea of ​​probabilism.

Probabilism - probability point of view:

- the view that knowledge is only probable because truth is unattainable;

- the moral principle according to which the law can be interpreted in the way that is most convenient for the acquisition of human freedom. Descartes argued that intellectual intuition or pure speculation is the starting point of knowledge.

Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677). Spinoza is a Dutch philosopher who opposed the dualism of Descartes with the principle of monism.

Spinoza's monism was pantheistic: he identified God with nature.

Spinoza was a follower of Descartes and proceeded from mathematical rigor in the application of reason.

The main source of knowledge Descartes calls intuition, which reveals the truth. From the truths (axioms) established with the help of intuition, all other conclusions and conclusions are derived deductively using the method of mathematics.

He introduced the term "innate ideas" - this is knowledge and ideas that cannot be acquired, because they are not related to the sensory world (these include logical axioms; moral values, etc.).

Intellectual intuition Descartes, and later Spinoza called the understanding of the essence of the subject, which is obtained with the help of intuition (spiritual vision), a direct understanding of the essence of things.

Empiricism - a cognitive-theoretical direction in philosophy, which derives all knowledge from sensory experience (empiricism). From the point of view of methodology - the principle, based on which all science, moreover, all life practice and morality, should be based on sensory experience.

Empiricism is divided:

- to radical (recognizes only sensory perceptions);

- Moderate (gives a decisive role to sensory perceptions).

The first and main researcher of nature in modern times was the English philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626). This philosopher became the founder of English empiricism, showed the way for the development of natural sciences.

In his research, he embarked on the path of sensory experience and drew attention to the exceptional significance and necessity of observations and experiments to discover the truth. He argued that philosophy should be primarily practical. Bacon considered the only reliable method of cognition to be induction, leading to the knowledge of laws.

He called the supreme goal of science the dominance of man over nature, and "one can dominate nature only by obeying its laws."

The path that leads to knowledge is observation, analysis, comparison and experiment.

The scientist must, according to Bacon, go in his research from the observation of single facts to broad generalizations, i.e., apply the inductive method of cognition.

In his treatise The New Organon, Bacon proposed a new understanding of the tasks of science. It was he who became the founder of a new science - the methodology of experimental natural science, which he claimed as a guarantee of the future power of man. If this methodology is followed, a rich harvest of scientific discoveries can be reaped. But sensory experience can give reliable knowledge only when the consciousness is free from false "ghosts":

- "ghosts of the family" - these are errors that follow from the fact that a person judges nature by analogy with the life of people;

- "ghosts of the cave" - ​​these are errors of an individual nature, which depend on the upbringing, tastes, habits of individuals;

- "ghosts of the market" - these are the habits of using current ideas and opinions in judging the world without a critical attitude towards them;

- "ghosts of the theater" is a blind faith in authorities. Do not refer to any authorities - such was the principle of modern science, Bacon saw the true connection of things in the definition of natural causality.

It is interesting to note that Bacon was a deeply religious man. According to the philosopher, science, like water, has either the heavenly spheres or the earth as its source. It consists of two types of knowledge:

- the first is inspired by God (theology);

- the second originates from the senses (philosophy).

Bacon believed that truth has a dual character: there is religious and "secular" truth. At the same time, he strictly delimited the spheres of competence of these types of truth. Theology is oriented towards the explanation of God, but in vain is the attempt of man to reach an understanding of God by the natural light of reason. Faith in God is achieved through revelation, while "secular" truth is comprehended by experience and reason.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) - German thinker, founder of transcendental philosophy.

The process of cognition, according to Kant, goes through three stages: sensory cognition; reason; intelligence.

1. Sensory knowledge.

Kant recognizes the existence of an external objective world, which he calls "things-in-themselves". They act on our senses and give rise to visual representations.

The subject of empirical visual representation is a phenomenon, it has two sides: its content, or matter, which is given in experience; its form, which brings these sensations into a certain order.

Form is a priori, which means that it precedes experience and does not depend on it. The form is in our soul.

There are two pure forms of sensory visualization:

- time;

- space.

Kant denies that time and space are objective forms of the material world. In his opinion, in the world of things-in-themselves, there is neither time nor space.

According to Kant, time and space are only subjective forms of contemplation imposed by our consciousness on external objects. This superimposition is a necessary condition for cognition, because outside of time and space we cannot cognize anything. But because of this, between things-in-themselves and phenomena lies an unbridgeable gulf (transcensus): we can only know phenomena and we cannot know anything about things-in-themselves.

This position of Kant is called dualistic: things-in-themselves exist outside of us, yet they are unknowable.

The subjective nature of time and space is explained by the fact that all people in all generations supposedly have the same ideas about them.

But the science of the XX century. refuted Kantian arguments:

- objective forms of time and space change and depend on motion and matter;

- subjective ideas about time and space are different for people of different ages, education, etc.

But although Kant's idea of ​​apriorism is erroneous, it has a rational grain. The individual forms of human consciousness are inherited, drawn from social experience, developed historically by everyone, but by no one in particular. In relation to individual experience, not only forms of sensory cognition can be a priori, but also forms of the work of reason - categories.

2. Reason is the second stage of knowledge.

If an object is given to us through sensibility, then it is conceived through the intellect. And knowledge can be accomplished only through their synthesis. Categories are the tools of rational cognition. Various phenomena are superimposed on a network of categories that give our knowledge no longer an empirically random, but a necessary, universal scientific character.

According to Kant, reason does not discover the laws of nature, but dictates them to nature. Cognitive ability and the unity of categories, according to Kant, have their source not in the objective material unity of the world, but in the transcendental unity of self-consciousness.

3. Reason is the highest stage of the cognitive process.

Reason, according to Kant, does not have a direct, immediate connection with sensibility, but is connected with it indirectly - through reason.

The basic ideas of reason, which Kant calls principles, perform the highest regulatory role in knowledge: they indicate the direction in which the mind should move.

One of the main directions of philosophical thought of the late XIX - early XX centuries. was neo-Kantianism. It was based on the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, while developing it in new conditions.

Neo-Kantianism is a philosophical movement, widespread mainly in Germany, associated with the name of Kant and his criticism.

The main ideas of neo-Kantianism:

- understanding of philosophy exclusively as a criticism of knowledge;

- limitation of cognition by the sphere of experience and rejection of ontology's claims to the status of a scientific discipline;

- recognition of a priori norms that determine knowledge.

Neo-Kantianism found its most striking expression in two German schools:

- Marburg;

- Baden (Freiburg).

Marburg school. Main names: Hermann Cohen (1842-1918); Paul Natorp (1854-1924); Ernst Cassirer (1874-1945).

Representatives of the Marburg school defined the subject of cognition not as a substance lying on the other side of any cognition, but as a subject that is formed in progressive experience and given by the beginning of being and cognition.

The goal of neo-Kantian philosophy is the creative work of creating objects of all kinds, but at the same time it cognizes this work in its pure legal basis and substantiates it in this cognition.

Cohen, who headed the school, believed that thinking generates not only the form, but also the content of knowledge. Cohen defines cognition as a purely conceptual construction of an object. He explained the cognizable reality as "an interweaving of logical relations" given like a mathematical function.

Natorp, following Cohen, considers mathematical analysis to be the best example of scientific knowledge.

Cassier, like his colleagues from the Marburg school, rejects Kant's a priori forms of time and space. They become his concepts.

He replaced the two Kantian spheres of theoretical and practical reason with a single world of culture.

Baden school. Main names: Windelband Wilhelm (1848-1915); Rickert Heinrich (1863-1936).

The main questions that were solved by the representatives of this school concerned the problems of the specifics of social cognition, its forms, methods, differences from the natural sciences, etc.

Windelband and Rickert proposed the thesis that there are two classes of sciences:

- historical (describing unique, individual situations, events and processes);

- natural (fixing the general, repetitive, regular properties of the objects under study, abstracting from insignificant individual properties).

Thinkers believed that the cognizing mind (scientific thinking) seeks to bring the subject under a more general form of representation, discard everything unnecessary for this purpose and retain only the essential.

The main features of social and humanitarian knowledge, according to the philosophers of the Baden school:

- its end result is a description of an individual event based on written sources;

- a complex and indirect way of interacting with the object of knowledge through these sources;

- objects of social knowledge are unique, not subject to reproduction, often unique;

- it entirely depends on the values ​​and evaluations, the science of which is philosophy.

Positivism - a philosophical direction that proceeds from the given, factual, stable, undoubted, positive and limits its research to them, and considers metaphysical explanations to be theoretically impracticable and practically useless.

Positivist thinkers believe that any genuine positive knowledge can only be obtained as a result of separate special sciences and their synthetic combination. The main slogan of positivism is that every science is a philosophy in itself.

Main representatives: Auguste Comte (1798-1857); Jones Stuart Mill (1806-1873); Herbert Spencer (1820-1903); Ernst Mach (1838-1916).

According to Comte, a person should strive to, by combining observations and experiments with reasoning, to know the real laws of phenomena. At the same time, Comte believed, it is necessary to abandon the possibility of achieving absolute knowledge and from knowing the internal causes of phenomena.

Comte developed a classification of sciences: mathematics (including mechanics); astronomy; physics; chemistry; biology; sociology.

Spencer in his epistemology reconciles empiricism with apriorism. He divides all knowledge into three types:

- ordinary (non-united);

- scientific (partially united);

- philosophical (completely united). Philosophy Spencer shares:

- general (serves to explain the main concepts);

- on a special one (coordinates the basic concepts with experimental data).

Ernst Mach analyzed the concept of "delusion" and its role in scientific knowledge, examined the similarities and differences between philosophical and natural scientific thinking.

Neopositivism is one of the main directions of Western philosophy in the 30-60s. XX century, the last stage in the development of positivism.

Key thinkers: Carnap, Frank, Schlick, Neurat, Reichenbach and others.

Neopositivism explored the most important problems of the methodology of science related to obtaining true knowledge: the problem of the relationship between the sensual and the rational in cognition; fact problems; problems of faith; problems of cognition and creativity; problems of the logic of knowledge; problems of the logic of knowledge growth, etc.

Neopositivism considered events and facts, i.e., "sensory data" located in the sphere of the subject's consciousness, to be the main prerequisites for any cognition.

An interesting feature of this trend is that it fundamentally identified the object with the theory of the object. This immediately removed the question of the existence of the objective world as an object of philosophical knowledge and led to the closure of philosophy only on the cognitive problems of logic and logical language, especially since the logico-mathematical language was traditionally considered a model of reliable knowledge.

Another fundamental feature was the replacement of the concepts of "objective fact" with "scientific fact".

The scientific language in logical positivism is constructed as follows: complex statements are deduced from primary atomic statements according to the rules of logic. In this case, the proposals of science can be:

- true;

- false;

- meaningless.

Nonsense sentences, according to Karnap, are not sentences in the proper sense of the word, but only resemble them in form.

Any philosophical propositions, according to Karnap, are also meaningless statements, because they cannot be verified by reduction to atomic statements fixing this or that "fact".

Pragmatism is a philosophical view that sees the most vivid expression of human essence in action and puts the value or lack of value of thinking in dependence on whether it is an action, whether it serves an action, life practice.

Charles Sanders Pierce (1839-1914) - American philosopher, logician, mathematician and naturalist, became the founder of pragmatism.

Peirce's philosophical views combine two opposing tendencies:

- positivist (empirical);

- objectively idealistic.

Peirce denied innate ideas and intuitive knowledge. The philosopher argued that the starting point of knowledge is "appearance".

According to Peirce, the concept of an object can be reached only by considering all the practical consequences that follow from actions with this object. Any knowledge about an object is always incomplete and refutable, hypothetical. This situation applies not only to ordinary knowledge and knowledge of the natural sciences, but also to mathematical and logical judgments, the universality of which can be refuted by counterexamples.

William James (1862-1910) - American philosopher and psychologist, one of the brightest representatives of pragmatism.

In the theory of knowledge, James recognizes the exceptional significance of experience. In his works, he, rejecting the significance of abstract, absolute principles, explores the concrete:

- data;

- actions;

- behavioral acts.

Contrasting rationalistic and empirical methods, he created a doctrine called radical empiricism.

According to James, the truth of knowledge is determined by its usefulness for the success of our behavioral acts, actions. James turned success not only into the only criterion for the truth of ideas, but also into the very content of the concept of truth: for a thinker, truth reveals the meaning of moral virtue, and not the completeness of semantic information about the object of knowledge.

The pragmatists, not excluding James, accused all of the old philosophy of being divorced from life, abstract and contemplative. Philosophy, according to James, should not contribute to the understanding of the first principles of being, but to the creation of a general method for solving problems that confront people in various life situations, in a stream of constantly changing events.

According to James, we are really dealing with what is experienced in our experience, which is the "stream of consciousness": experience is never given to us initially as something definite.

Any objects of knowledge are formed by our cognitive efforts in the course of solving life problems. The goal of thinking is the choice of means that are necessary to achieve success.

John Dewey (1859-1952) - American philosopher, one of the most interesting representatives of pragmatism. The fundamental concept of the philosophy of this thinker is experience, which refers to all forms of manifestation of human life.

According to Dewey, knowledge is a tool for adapting a person to the environment, both natural and social. And the measure of the truth of a theory is its practical expediency in a given life situation. Practical expediency is a criterion not only of truth, but also of morality.

Method - in philosophy and science, as well as in practical activities, the designation of a systematic way to achieve a certain goal, a certain way and manner of action.

Cognition considers its goal to obtain complete, exhaustive knowledge about any subject or phenomenon. Such knowledge in philosophy is called truth.

Truth - this is a reflection in the human mind of all the signs, properties, relationships and connections of an object, phenomenon, state.

Philosophy from the point of view of the theory of knowledge divides the truth:

- to absolute;

- relative.

Absolute truth is the ultimate goal, the ideal of human striving for knowledge. Absolute truth is the content of knowledge, not refuted by the subsequent development of science, but enriched and constantly confirmed by life.

Relative truth is the main one in social reality; people use it in everyday activities and in theoretical studies. Relative truth is constantly expanding, becoming fuller, deeper, striving to become absolute.

Truth and truth are the goal of science, the goal of art, the ideal of moral motives.

Truth - this is adequate information about an object, which is obtained through its sensual or intellectual comprehension or communication about it and characterized in terms of its reliability. Truth is not an objective, but a subjective, spiritual reality in its informational and value aspects.

Truth is a property of knowledge, not the object of knowledge itself.

Truth is not only the coincidence of knowledge with the object, but also of the object with knowledge.

Understanding truth from this point of view reveals its more subtle and adequate connections with beauty and goodness and turns their unity into an internal differentiated identity.

Knowledge is a reflection that exists in the form of a sensory or conceptual image - up to a theory as an integral system. Truth happens both in the form of a separate statement, and in a chain of statements, and as a scientific system.

Truth is often called an adequate reflection of the object by the cognizing subject, reproducing reality as it is in itself, outside and independently of consciousness. This is the objective content of sensory, empirical experience, as well as concepts, judgments, theories, teachings, and, finally, the entire integral picture of the world in the dynamics of its development.

The assertion that truth is an adequate reflection of reality in the dynamics of its development gives it a special value, which is associated with a predictive dimension. True knowledge helps people rationally organize their practical actions in the present and foresee the future. If cognition were not, from its very beginning, a more or less true reflection of reality, then a person could not only intelligently transform the world around him, but also adapt to it.

Truth is a characteristic of the measure of the adequacy of knowledge, the comprehension of the essence of the object by the subject.

The concreteness of truth is a property that is based on the knowledge of real connections, the interaction of all aspects of the object, the main, essential properties, the trend of its development.

Ancient Eastern philosophy was patriarchal and conservative in nature. In the first place in it were socio-political and moral-ethical issues.

The philosophy of the Ancient East had mythological roots, it animated the earth and sky, all nature as a means of human existence.

Ancient Eastern thinkers assumed that the world is ruled by a certain universal natural law, which manifests itself in all things and actions of people.

A large place in ancient Eastern philosophy was occupied by the idea of ​​the contradictory nature of the world, the eternal struggle in it: light and darkness; heat and cold; good and evil.

Thinkers put forward the idea of ​​the five primary elements of the world: metal; wood; Earth; water; the fire.

The main idea of ​​ancient Eastern philosophy was the unity of three realities - heaven, earth, man. According to the philosophers of that era, a person must clearly imagine his place in the world, connect, merge his own and natural forces.

The ancient Indian philosophy of man is studied mainly according to the monument of ancient Indian literature - the Vedas, which present simultaneously a mythological, religious and philosophical worldview.

There are many questions in ancient Indian philosophy such as:

- where did we come from?

- where we live?

- where are we going?

Man in the philosophy of ancient India is presented as part of the world soul. In the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, the boundary between the gods and living beings (plants, animals, man) turns out to be passable and mobile. But only a person strives for freedom, for getting rid of the passions and fetters of empirical being with its law of samsara - karma.

The philosophy of ancient China also presented an original doctrine of man. One of its most prominent representatives is Confucius, in literature, often referred to as Kung Tzu, the teacher Kun. Initial for him is the concept of "heaven", meaning not only part of nature, but also the highest spiritual force that determines the development of the world and man. But the central part of his philosophy is not the sky, not the natural world in general, but man, his earthly life and existence, that is, it has an anthropocentric character.

Along with the teachings of Confucius and his followers in ancient Chinese philosophy, another direction can be noted - Taoism. The founder of this trend is Lao Tzu.

The main idea of ​​Taoism is the doctrine of Tao (way, road) - it is an invisible, omnipresent, natural and spontaneous law of nature, society, behavior and thinking of an individual.

A person is obliged to follow the principle of Tao in his life, that is, his behavior must be consistent with the nature of man and the Universe. If one observes the principle of Tao, then inaction, non-action is possible, which will nevertheless lead to complete freedom, happiness and prosperity.

Ancient Eastern philosophy of man:

- orients the personality towards an extremely respectful and humane attitude towards both the social and the natural world;

- orients the person to the improvement of his inner world;

- orients the individual to improve social life, order, morals, management, etc.;

- is associated primarily with a change in the individual and his adaptation to society, and not with a change in the external world and circumstances.

Human society is part of nature. In the body of any person, natural chemical, biological and other processes take place.

Natural processes usually occurring in a society have a social form, and natural, primarily biological, patterns act as biosocial ones, which express the mutual influences of biological and social principles in the development of society.

The role of nature in the life of society has always been great, because it acts as a natural basis for its existence and development. Man satisfies almost all his needs at the expense of nature, primarily the external natural environment.

The development of each society, of all mankind is included in the process of the development of nature, in constant interaction with it, and, ultimately, in the existence of the Universe.

Nature has been the object of attention of philosophers and philosophical reflection throughout the history of philosophy.

Philosophical questions in relation to nature:

- the interaction of natural (material) and spiritual principles in the development of man and society;

- the relationship between nature and human culture;

- how the nature of the interaction between society and nature changes at different stages of the historical development of man;

- what is the nature of the interaction between society and nature in the modern era.

An organic connection with nature is a fundamental regularity in the development of society. It can be seen not only in the field of meeting people's needs, but also in the functioning of social production, and ultimately in the development of all material and spiritual culture. And it is clear that society cannot exist and develop without interaction with nature.

The presence of not only natural, but also social properties in a person, primarily the ability to think and carry out conscious labor and other activities, qualitatively distinguishes him from other natural beings and makes him and society as a whole be perceived as a specific part of nature.

Nature is a natural environment and a prerequisite for the existence and development of society. The natural environment includes the terrestrial landscape: mountains; plains; fields; the woods; rivers; lakes; seas; oceans, etc.

The earthly landscape constitutes the so-called geographical environment of human life. However, the natural environment is not limited to this, it also includes:

- bowels of the earth;

- atmosphere;

- space.

Of course, nature, not excluding the geographic environment, has one or another influence on the economic, political and spiritual development of society. But a stronger influence on them is exerted by the practical activity of a person, which is guided by his needs, interests, goals and ideals.

Over the past century, the degree of society's impact on nature has greatly increased due to the rapid development of science and technology. The human environment in the broadest sense becomes the environment for the active influence of the mind - the noosphere. As a result, the biosphere as a sphere of living nature, which includes human society, under its influence turns into a noosphere, the limits of which expand many times and are determined each time by the limits of penetration into the nature of the human mind.

Solving environmental problems is of great importance in the modern era. The term "ecology" comes from the Greek okos (house, dwelling) and logos (science). Ecology is the science of the relationship between society and nature.

The relationship between society and nature is complex and contradictory.

The dialectically contradictory interdependence of society and nature lies in the fact that, gradually increasing power over nature, society at the same time becomes increasingly dependent on it as a source of satisfaction of human needs and production itself. This refers primarily to the material support for the development of society and its culture.

The problem of the relationship between society and nature is a global, all-human environmental problem. It came to the fore long ago and became especially acute in the second half of the last century, when the scale and nature of people's impact on nature became threatening to their existence.

The essence of the modern environmental problem is a global change in the natural environment of human existence, a rapid decrease in its resources, a weakening of the recovery processes in nature, which calls into question the future of human society.

The natural environment of human existence is changing under the influence of both purely natural terrestrial and cosmic factors, and the activities of the people themselves. This is mainly the production activity of people, in which more and more natural material is involved - the bowels of the earth, rocks, soils, forests, rivers, seas, etc. - and which often disrupts the course of natural processes, which sometimes leads to unpredictable consequences.

The global environmental problem has many aspects, each of which is an independent, often large-scale, environmental problem, closely related to others.

The main methods of dealing with environmental problems:

- rational use of non-renewable natural resources (minerals, mineral resources);

- rational use of renewable natural resources (soil, water, flora and fauna);

- combating pollution and other damage to the natural environment (toxic chemicals, radioactive waste, etc.);

- protection of nature from incompetent and irresponsible interference in its processes. It is necessary to carry out a comprehensive and at the same time scientific impact on soils. The main direction in the development of agriculture in the advanced countries of the world is intensification, which means its ever greater transformation into science-intensive production using new equipment, advanced technologies, modern agronomic science, etc.

All-round protection of the animal and plant world is important and necessary, it is necessary to strengthen the protection of forests, rivers, lakes, seas and their inhabitants from all kinds of poachers who cause great harm to wildlife.

It is necessary to rationally use water resources, important:

- for drinking, maintaining the life of people, animals and plants;

- industrial production;

- transport purposes;

- watering and irrigation of arid lands.

Man is a complex integral system, which is a component of more complex systems - biological and social.

At the center of the philosophical doctrine of man is the problem entities person.

Philosophers saw the difference between a person and an animal and explained its essence, using various specific qualities of a person. In fact, a person can be distinguished from an animal both by flat nails, and by a smile, and by mind, and by religion, etc. to the features that distinguish it from the nearest species, as if from the outside. However, from the point of view of methodology, such a technique turns out to be not entirely legitimate, because the essence of any object is determined primarily by the immanent way of being of this object itself, by the internal laws of its own existence.

Such a substance, which underlies the historical existence and development of man and constitutes his essence, as modern science testifies, is labor activity, which is always carried out within the framework of social production. People cannot engage in labor activity without directly or indirectly entering into social relations, the totality of which forms society. With the development of social activity and labor production, the social relations of people also develop.

In this case, it is necessary to take into account the totality of social relations:

- material and ideal (ideological);

- present and past.

This position means that man must be understood dialectically. In other words, it cannot be reduced only to an "economic man", or only to a "reasonable man", or to a "playing man", etc. A person can be at the same time:

- producing;

- reasonable;

- cultural;

- moral;

- political, etc.

The other side of this question is that man is a child of human history. A person in the modern world did not come from "nowhere", he is the result of the development of a socio-historical process. In other words, we are talking about the unity of man and the human race.

A person turns out to be at the same time both an object and a subject of social relations, because he is not only the result of society and social relations, but, in turn, their creator.

There is a dialectical relationship between man and society:

- a person is a microsociety, a manifestation of society at the microlevel;

Society is a person in his social relations.

In its real manifestation, the essence is found in the existence of man.

human existence called the existence of an individual as an integral being in all the variety of forms, types and properties of its manifestation.

The integrity of being is expressed primarily in the fact that a person is the unity of three main principles:

- biological;

- social;

- mental.

Thus, man is a biopsychosocial phenomenon.

The problem of human existence found its most complete expression in existentialism (the philosophy of existence).

Ancient Greece gave rise to the Western European philosophical tradition in general and philosophical anthropology in particular.

In the philosophy of Ancient Greece, initially a person does not exist on his own, but only in a system of certain relations that are perceived as absolute order and space. With everything in his natural and social environment, neighbors and polis, inanimate and animate objects, animals and gods, a person lives in a single, inseparable world.

The concept of the cosmos had a human meaning, at the same time, a person was thought of as a part of the cosmos, as a microcosm, which is a reflection of the macrocosm, understood as a living organism. Such views on man existed among the representatives of the Milesian school, who stood on the positions of hylozoism, that is, they denied the boundary between the living and the inanimate and assumed the universal animation of the universe.

Appeal to anthropological problems is associated with the critical and educational activities of the sophists and the creation of philosophical ethics by Socrates.

In the concept of the sophists, three main points can be traced:

- relativism and subjectivism in the understanding of such ethical phenomena as goodness, virtue, justice, etc.;

- the introduction of man into being as the main character;

- filling the process of cognition with existential meaning and substantiation of the existential nature of truth.

In the Middle Ages, man is studied as part of the world order, which is established by God. And the idea of ​​man, expressed in Christianity, is reduced to the fact that he is "the image and likeness of God."

From a social point of view, in the Middle Ages, a person is proclaimed a passive participant in the divine order and is a creature created and insignificant in relation to God. The main task of people is to join God and find salvation on the day of the Last Judgment. Therefore, all human life, its metaphysical content is expressed in the paradigm: the fall into sin is redemption.

Outstanding representatives of medieval Christian philosophical anthropology were:

- Augustine the Blessed;

- Thomas Aquinas.

Augustine the Blessed believed that a person is the opposite of soul and body, which are independent.

According to Thomas Aquinas, man is an intermediate being between animals and angels.

In modern times, philosophical anthropology is formed under the influence of emerging capitalist relations, scientific knowledge and a new culture, which was called humanism.

The philosophy of the Renaissance (Renaissance) put a person on an earthly basis and on this basis tried to solve his problems. She affirmed the natural human desire for goodness, happiness and harmony. It is characterized by humanism and anthropocentrism. In the philosophy of this period, God is not completely denied, but the whole philosophy is imbued with the pathos of humanism, the autonomy of man, faith in his limitless possibilities.

German classical philosophy places man at the center of philosophical research. As an integral part of the sensual world of phenomena, a person is subject to necessity, and as a bearer of spirituality, he is free. But the main role is assigned by German thinkers to the moral activity of man.

Fedor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881) - a great humanist writer, a brilliant thinker, occupies a large place in the history of Russian and world philosophical thought.

The main works:

- "Poor people" (1845);

- "Notes from the dead house" (1860);

- "Humiliated and Insulted" (1861);

- "Idiot" (1868);

- "Demons" (1872);

- "The Brothers Karamazov" (1880);

- "Crime and Punishment" (1886).

Since the 60s. Fyodor Mikhailovich professed the ideas of pochvennichestvo, which was characterized by a religious orientation of the philosophical understanding of the fate of Russian history. From this point of view, the entire history of mankind appeared as the history of the struggle for the triumph of Christianity. The role of Russia on this path consisted in the fact that the messianic role of the bearer of the highest spiritual truth fell to the lot of the Russian people. The Russian people are called upon to save humanity through "new forms of life and art" thanks to the breadth of its "moral grasp".

Three truths propagated by Dostoevsky:

- individuals, even the best people, do not have the right to violate society in the name of their personal superiority;

- public truth is not invented by individuals, but lives in the feeling of the whole people;

- this truth has a religious meaning and is necessarily connected with the faith of Christ, with the ideal of Christ. Dostoevsky was one of the most typical exponents of the principles destined to become the foundation of our peculiar national moral philosophy. He found the spark of God in all people, including bad and criminal ones. The ideal of the great thinker was peacefulness and meekness, love for the ideal and the discovery of the image of God even under the cover of temporary abomination and shame.

Dostoevsky emphasized the "Russian solution" of social problems, which was associated with the denial of revolutionary methods of social struggle, with the development of the theme of Russia's special historical vocation, which is capable of uniting peoples on the basis of Christian brotherhood.

Dostoevsky acted as an existential-religious thinker in matters of human understanding; he tried to solve the "last questions" of being through the prism of individual human life. He considered the specific dialectic of the idea and living life, while the idea for him has an existential-energy power, and in the end, the living life of a person is the embodiment, the realization of the idea.

In The Brothers Karamazov, Dostoevsky, in the words of his Grand Inquisitor, emphasized an important idea: “Nothing has ever been more unbearable for a person and for human society than freedom,” and therefore “there is no concern more boundless and more painful for a person, how, having remained free, to find as soon as possible that before whom to bow."

Dostoevsky argued that it is difficult to be a person, but it is even more difficult to be a happy person. The freedom and responsibility of a true person, which require constant creativity and constant pangs of conscience, suffering and worries, are very rarely combined with happiness. Dostoevsky described the unexplored mysteries and depths of the human soul, the boundary situations in which a person finds himself and in which his personality collapses. The heroes of Fyodor Mikhailovich's novels are in conflict with themselves, they are looking for what is hidden behind the outside of the Christian religion and the things and people around them.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) - German philosopher and philologist, the brightest propagandist of individualism, voluntarism and irrationalism.

There are three periods in Nietzsche's work:

1) 1871-1876 ("The Birth of Tragedies from the Spirit of Music", "Untimely Reflections");

2) 1876-1877 ("Human, too human", "Colorful opinions and sayings", "The Wanderer and his shadow", "Merry Science") - a period of disappointment and criticism - "sober";

3) 1887-1889 ("Thus Spoke Zarathustra", "Beyond Good and Evil", "Twilight of the Idols", "Antichrist", "Nietzsche against Wagner").

Cognition for Nietzsche is interpretation, interpretation, closely related to the inner life of a person, he rightly notes that the same text allows for multiple interpretations, since thought is a sign with many meanings. To understand a thing, it is necessary to translate the human into the natural, therefore one of the most important means of cognition is the translation of the human into the natural.

According to Nietzsche, man is "a disease of the Earth", he is fleeting, he "is fundamentally something erroneous". But it is necessary to create a genuine, new man - a "superman", who would give a goal, would be the winner of "being and nothingness" and would be honest, first of all, before himself.

The main problem of man, his essence and nature is the problem of his spirit.

According to Nietzsche, spirit:

- this is endurance;

- courage and freedom;

- affirmation of one's will.

The main goal of human aspirations is not benefit, not pleasure, not truth, not the Christian God, but life. Life is cosmic and biological: it is the will to power as the principle of world existence and "eternal return". The will to live must manifest itself not in a miserable struggle for existence, but in a battle for power and superiority, for the formation of a new person.

In his book Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Nietzsche proclaims:

- that man is something that must be overcome;

- all creatures created something that is higher than them;

- people want to become the ebb of this great wave, they are ready to return to the beasts than to overcome a person.

The real greatness of man is that he is a bridge, not a goal. Nietzsche wrote: "Man is a rope stretched between animals and the superman."

Nietzsche's superman is the meaning of being, the salt of the earth. In his opinion, the superman will take the place of the dead God. Nietzsche believes that the idea of ​​the superman as a goal to be achieved returns to man the lost meaning of existence. Superman can only come from a generation of aristocrats, masters by nature, in whom the will to power is not crushed by a culture hostile to it, from those who, united with their own kind, are able to resist the majority who do not want to know anything about the true destiny of modern people.

Nietzsche, under the influence of Dühring's physical and cosmological research, developed the idea of ​​eternal return, which should compensate for the hope lost along with Christianity for a possible eternal life beyond the grave. If we follow this idea logically, then people are doomed to eternity, because they already live in eternity. Eternity, according to Nietzsche, coincides with the moment.

Philosophical anthropology is a philosophical concept based on the works of Max Scheler, which covers real human existence in its entirety, determines the place and attitude of man to the world around him.

Man is a complex integral system, which, in turn, is a component of more complex systems - biological and social. The meaning of the problem of anthropology can be characterized by the question: "How was man historically formed as a biosocial being?"

Philosophical anthropology is a very influential trend in philosophical thought in the XNUMXth century. The focus of this trend is the problem of man, and the main idea is the creation of an integral concept of man.

Outstanding Representatives:

- M. Scheler;

- A. Gelen;

- G. Plesner;

- E. Rothhacker.

Philosophical anthropology, having declared itself a fundamental philosophical discipline, tries to find ways of posing and solving all philosophical problems on the basis of certain characteristics of a person.

Unlike rationalistic teachings, philosophical anthropology involves the mental and spiritual life of a person (emotions, instincts, inclinations) into the scope of research, which often leads to irrationalism: representatives of this direction absolutize this side of the inner world of a person, belittling the rational principle.

The main line of this current is the search for the anthropobiological foundations of human life, culture, morality, law, and social institutions. Public life is reduced to interpersonal relationships, which are based on the natural sympathies of people.

Max Scheler (1874-1928) - German philosopher, one of the founders of philosophical anthropology as an independent discipline, sociology and axiology - the doctrine of values.

Scheler acutely felt the crisis of European culture, the source of which he considered the cult of profit and calculation. Scheler, in contrast to the logic of the intellect, put the logic of feeling; he interpreted the latter as an intentional act through which the cognition of value is realized.

From the point of view of philosophical anthropology, a person:

- unique and universal (he is the crown of nature, which has no equal, he has unique abilities, but he is also universal, nothing is alien to him - neither space, nor gross instincts, nor sublime, refined activity);

- is the ratio of the internal and external (the spiritual world of a person is his internal dominant, but it is symbolized in various forms of his activity, in the game, work, artistic creativity, after which he turns out to be a social, public being);

- this is a unity consisting of parts (a biological, rational, acting, rational, sensual, ethical person - all this is combined in each specific individual);

- this is a historical being, and as such, he seeks to organically infiltrate the future (a person is concerned about his future, because crises await him everywhere, he is a society in crisis);

- he cannot avoid the burden of responsibility to himself (realizing this, he sees a way out of the situation in the synthesis of humanistic positions and ideals, as well as in their renewal).

Philosophy of History - philosophical assessment and interpretation of the results of historical research and presentations of history.

History - this is human social memory, self-knowledge and self-consciousness of people: what has disappeared actually lives in consciousness.

The most important systems of the philosophy of history:

- theological philosophy of history (the driving force of history is God);

- metaphysical philosophy of history (the driving force is a transcendental regularity, i.e. fate);

- idealistic philosophy of history (the driving force is the spiritual-scientific or spiritual-spiritual life of a person);

- naturalistic philosophy of history (the driving force is the nature of a person who has passions, motives);

- materialistic-economic philosophy of history (the driving force is economic relations). As the science of philosophy of history arose in modern times, this term was introduced by the great thinker Voltaire. The prerequisite for the emergence of the philosophy of history was the basis of Christianity with its innovative universal aspiration.

Principles of understanding history from the point of view of philosophy:

- the principle of distinguishing the past, present, future time of life;

- the principle of striving for a certain desired state, which determines the meaning of all previous development (expectation of the future);

- the principle of the accumulative nature of human activity, which forms a new quality of life.

The main questions that are considered in the philosophy of history:

What makes human society develop?

Does history have a direction, and if so, which one?

How much does our history shape the present and the future?

What can people expect in the future?

- Are there any laws in history that can be known and controlled by history, or is history dominated by an incomprehensible fate?

In the history of philosophy, there are many concepts that can be divided into three groups:

- concepts of one-line progressive development;

- concepts of multilinear development;

- concepts of cyclic development.

Karl Jaspers (1883-1969) - the famous German philosopher, classic of European philosophy - in his book "The Origins of History and Its Purpose" proposed a scheme of world history:

1) prehistory, or the "Promethean era" (the beginning of speech, the emergence of tools, the ability to use fire), when a person is just beginning to be a person;

2) cultures of antiquity that existed for millennia (ancient oriental, ancient Greek, etc.);

3) "Axial time" - the time of the formation of a true person;

4) the scientific and technological era, whose transformative effect is experienced by modern man. Objective factor in history - this is mainly labor, production and forms of social relations, which to a large extent are the crystallization of the previous activities of people. But any new generation does not simply repeat what was done by their predecessors, but realizes its own needs and interests, realizes its own goals. The diverse activities of people, their living labor is what constitutes the essence of the subjective factor of history. The subjective factor is called so because it reveals the activity of the subject of history, which are the masses, social groups and individuals.

Augustine (354-430) - a brilliant, outstanding thinker who wrote the final pages in the history of the spiritual culture of Rome and all Antiquity with his numerous works and laid a powerful foundation for the religious and philosophical thought of the Middle Ages. He was the inspirer of numerous and varied ideas and trends in theology, general philosophy, scientific methodology, ethical, aesthetic and historiosophical views.

According to Augustine, everything that exists, because it exists, is good. Evil is not a substance, but a defect, it is a deterioration of the substance, vice and damage to the form, non-existence. But good is a substance, "form" with all its elements: type, measure, number, order. God is the source of being, pure form, the highest beauty, the source of goodness. The maintenance of the existence of the world is the constant creation of it by God again. If ever the creative power of God stops, the world will immediately return to non-existence.

Augustine's worldview is deeply theo-centric: in the center of spiritual aspirations is God as the starting and ending point of reflections. The problem of God and his relationship to the world is central to Augustine.

Creationism (creation), which is formulated in the Holy Scriptures, is comprehended and commented on by the largest thinkers. Augustine considers God as an extra-material Absolute, which is correlated with the world and man as his creation.

Augustine diligently contrasts his views with all varieties of pantheism, which means the unity of God and the world. God, according to Augustine, is supernatural. The world, nature and man are the result of God's creation, and they depend on their Creator.

Augustine viewed God as the person who created all things. Augustine emphasized the unequivocal difference between God, so understood, and Fate, fortune, which occupied and occupy such a large place not only in antiquity, but also to this day.

Augustine clearly emphasized the absolute omnipotence of God ("Confession", 1.4). According to Augustine, the Christian God absolutely mastered fate, subordinating it to his almighty will: it becomes a providence, its predestination. Augustine affirmed the principle of the incorporeality of God, deriving from this the principle of the infinity of the divine principle.

Augustine's reflections on the creation of the world by God led him to the problem of eternity and time. Of course, the question arose: does it mean that God was inactive before he created the world? Augustine naturally understood the incredible complexity of the problem of time.

After deep reflection, Augustine came to the conclusion: the world is limited in space, and its existence is limited in time. The beginning of the creation of the world is also the beginning of time.

He offered a surprisingly accurate definition of time: time is the measure of movement and change. His ingeniously simple philosophical definition of such a subtle phenomenon as time is true and quite scientific to this day.

Augustine, trying to establish the relationship between the present, the past and the future, brought out a brilliant idea: neither the past nor the future have a real existence - the real existence is inherent only in the present. And depending on it, we understand both the past and the future: the past owes its existence to our memory, and the future to our hope.

Philosophy of History - philosophical assessment and interpretation of the results of historical research and presentations of history.

Russian civilization is the last great civilization in terms of time.

Nikolai Berdyaev considered the Russian people to be an extremely polarized people, because completely incompatible opposites are combined in it. All the complexity and inconsistency of the Russian soul is connected with the fact that two streams of world history collide and interact in Russia - East and West. Russia unites two worlds within itself, and therefore two principles have always fought in the Russian soul: eastern and western.

Berdyaev calls Russian history discontinuous and identifies five periods in it, giving five different images of Russia: Kievan Russia; Russia during the Tatar yoke; Moscow Russia; Russia petrovskaya; Soviet Russia.

Now we can single out another one that Berdyaev did not live up to - the post-Soviet one.

Russian history has been one of the most painful stories:

- the fight against the Tatar-Mongol yoke and invasions;

- strengthening of the state;

- Time of Troubles;

- split;

- the violent nature of Peter's reforms;

- serfdom;

- persecution of the intelligentsia;

- the execution of the Decembrists;

- the regime of Nicholas I;

- illiteracy of the masses;

- the inevitability of the revolution and its bloody nature;

- the most terrible world war. An interesting social formation that existed only in Russia was the intelligentsia. The phenomena preceding its appearance are the loneliness of Chatsky, the groundlessness of Onegin and Pechorin. The intelligentsia emerged from different strata - first from the nobility, then from the heterodox environment. This is an idealistic class of people who are completely carried away by ideas and are ready to go to prison, hard labor and execution in the name of these ideas. Characteristic features of the Russian intelligentsia:

- groundlessness;

- schismatics;

- wandering;

- the impossibility of reconciliation with the present;

- striving for the future.

There were different moments in the existence of the Russian intelligentsia - an extra person, a penitent nobleman, an active revolutionary. This idealistic class was placed in a tragic position between the authorities and the people: on the one hand, it was never allowed into power, on the other hand, it was never understood by the people, poorly educated and clogged with prejudices. From this came the feeling of emptiness, ugliness, soullessness and philistinism of all the achievements of world and Russian development, revolution, civilization.

Slavophiles and Westerners also discussed the fate of the Russian people, but from two opposite points of view. Most importantly, the Russian philosophy of history had to resolve the issue of the meaning and meaning of Peter's reform, which cut the country's history into two parts. The Westerners were supporters of reform and saw the future of Russia in that it followed the Western path. The Slavophils believed in a special type of culture that arises on the spiritual soil of Orthodoxy. In their opinion, Peter's reforms and Europeanization were a betrayal of Russia.

The main thing is not to forget that Russia is the youngest civilization and its true possibilities in the new free state will soon be revealed in a new way with new perspectives.

The philosophy of history as a special type of theoretical reflections on the possible laws of the development of society arose relatively late, practically in modern times, although discussions about the origin of certain social forms were already present in mythology. This may explain the need to develop complex concepts - theoretical premises.

The initial premise of philosophical and historical thinking was identified only in the Christian doctrine, it determined the principles of understanding history:

- the principle of distinguishing the past, present and future time of life;

- the principle of striving for a certain desired state, which determines the meaning of all previous development (expectation of the future);

- the principle of the cumulative (accumulative) nature of human activity, which forms a new quality of life.

It became possible to talk about the philosophy of history as a secular doctrine only in the New Age, when rational methods of scientific and philosophical reasoning were affirmed. The search for the meaning of the world in modern European philosophy was not connected with God, but with the world itself. At first, attempts to clarify the nature of society in its historical dimension seemed of little interest. For the mechanistic worldview of the XNUMXth century. The uniqueness of the irreversible states of society that make up history was the raw material from which it was not yet possible to construct a model of its historical development.

The mechanistic explanation of history determined its originality as a form of mechanical movement, the properties of which in no way expressed the peculiarities of historical thinking. This model of history was built on the basis of the concept of substance, thanks to which its unity was confirmed.

In the XNUMXth century an enlightening concept of history was formed as a process of deploying a substantial idea (substance as the cause of itself). It was then that the great idea of ​​social progress, characteristic of European civilization, arose.

In the second half of the XIX century. a different cognitive situation developed, which changed the views on the problems of history.

From the point of view of the philosophy of life, before discussing the essence of history, it is necessary to understand the specifics of history as a way of existence. The philosophy of life explained historical life as a way of human existence, which has the properties of integrity. There has been a clear transformation of the subject of historical knowledge. The abstract essence of history has become a concrete way of life for people, which required a change in both the methods and the very structure of the cognitive process.

By the end of the XIX century. there was a crisis of historicism, there were several reasons for this:

- firstly, the liberalization of the spiritual atmosphere of life in Western Europe;

- secondly, the methodological difficulties of cognition, works on the philosophy of history of this period claimed to discuss the problems of historical ontology, and not to develop new theoretical projects of history;

- thirdly, axiological factors.

In our time, the philosophy of history has shown that history should not at all speak in the dry language of economic causes or establish historical laws and trends.

Social philosophy explores the state of society as an integral system, the universal laws and driving forces of its functioning and development, its relationship with the natural environment, the surrounding world as a whole.

The subject of social philosophy - society in a philosophical approach. Social philosophy - this is a section, a part of philosophy, and therefore all the characteristic features of philosophical knowledge are also inherent in social philosophy.

In socio-philosophical knowledge, such common characteristics are the concepts of: being; consciousness; systems; development; truth, etc.

In social philosophy, there are the same basic functions as in philosophy:

- worldview;

- methodological.

Social philosophy interacts with many non-philosophical disciplines that study society:

- sociology;

- political economy;

- political science;

- jurisprudence;

- cultural studies;

- art history and other social and human sciences.

Social philosophy helps to develop its concepts, to develop more deeply its subject of study, a complex of sciences about nature: biology; physics; geography; cosmology, etc.

Social philosophy is a kind of field of knowledge (within the framework of philosophy), which has an independent logic of philosophical reflections and a specific history of the development of its concepts, principles and laws.

In the study of social philosophy, it is necessary to know at least two narrow and generally unproductive research strategies:

1) naturalistic which seeks to reduce society to biological problems;

2) sociological, which absolutizes sociological factors in their development and in the determinism of the essence of man. Philosophical explanations of social philosophy, its tasks and subject dwell on the individual, on his multifaceted needs and ensuring a better human life.

In social philosophy there are different points of view on almost every problem and different approaches to them.

The most common approaches: civilizational; formational.

Philosophy is a complex type of knowledge, the ways of its installation: an objective way, objectivity, which characterizes science; the subjective way, the subjectivity that characterizes art; a way of sociability (a communicative way) peculiar to morality, and only morality; contemplation of a mystical quality (or "contemplative way of thinking"). Philosophical knowledge is a complex, integral type of knowledge, it can be: natural science; ideological; humanitarian; artistic; transcending comprehension (religion, mysticism); ordinary, everyday.

The main task of the science of society, namely social philosophy, is to:

- to understand the best system of social organization for this era;

- to encourage the ruled and the ruling to understand it;

- to improve this system, insofar as it is capable of improvement;

- to reject it when it reaches the extreme limits of its perfection, and build a new one out of it with the help of materials that have been collected by specialist scientists in each separate field.

Human - this is the highest level of living organisms on Earth, it is a complex integral system, which is a component of more complex systems - biological and social.

Human society - this is the highest stage in the development of living systems, the main elements of which are people, the forms of their joint activity, primarily labor, products of labor, various forms of property and the age-old struggle for it, politics and the state, a combination of various institutions, a refined sphere of the spirit.

Society can be called a self-organized system of behavior and relationships of people with each other and with nature: after all, society is initially inscribed in the context of relationships not with the entire Cosmos, but directly with the territory on which it is located.

Society as a whole is an association that includes all people. Otherwise, society would be only a certain number of separate disparate individuals living separately in a given territory and not connected by threads of common interests, goals, deeds, labor activity, traditions, economy, culture, etc. People are created to live in society.

The concept of society includes not only all living people, but also all past and future generations, that is, all of humanity in its history and perspective.

Society at each stage of its development is a multifaceted formation, a complex interweaving of many diverse connections and relationships between people. The life of society is not only the life of its constituent people.

Society - it is a single whole social organism, its internal organization is a set of specific, diverse connections characteristic of a given system, which are ultimately based on human labor. The structure of human society is formed by:

- production and the production, economic, social relations that develop on its basis, including class, national, family relations;

- political relations;

- the spiritual sphere of society's life - science, philosophy, art, morality, religion, etc. There is a dialectical relationship between man and society: man is a microsociety, a manifestation of society at the microlevel; society is a person in his social relations.

State called the structure of domination, constantly renewed as a result of the joint actions of people, actions that are performed thanks to representation, and ordering social actions in one area or another.

The state is the result of the historical development of society, its natural separation of various social groups, the result of the progressive development of productive forces, which was accompanied by the separation of various types of labor and the formation of the institution of property.

The main features of the state:

- a special system of bodies and institutions exercising the functions of power;

- a certain territory to which the jurisdiction of this state extends, and the territorial division of the population, adapted for the convenience of management;

- the law that fixes the corresponding system of norms sanctioned by the state;

- sovereignty, that is, the independence and supremacy of state power inside and outside the country.

Elements of historical consciousness appeared along with the formation of human society.

The rather complicated life of the tribal period led to the emergence of the need to think about the past of the family, clan, tribe. A person has reached the realization that he has not only the present, but also the past and the future. He began to realize that the new generation is only a link in the general chain of human development.

History called the public memory of mankind, its self-knowledge and self-consciousness: what has disappeared actually lives in consciousness.

The beginning of the understanding of social life is connected with the idea that the present has been prepared by the past. Subsequently, the path of historical consciousness led to the conviction that in order to understand the present, it is necessary to know not only the past, but also the future. Mankind began to understand that the past gives birth to the present, the present prepares the future, without "looking" into which it is impossible to fully comprehend not only the present, but also the past.

Socio-philosophical thought arose as a simple description of labor processes, military campaigns, customs, civil life of society, differences in the state structure, but gradually began to highlight the knowledge of the causes of social processes as a specific subject (Democritus, Aristotle, Lucretius).

Ancient philosophers tried to somehow unravel and define the nature of social relations, the essence of historical development and its laws: - according to Plato, society arises because people need each other to meet their needs;

- according to Aristotle, a person is born as a political being and carries within himself an instinctive desire for a life together. The initial inequality of abilities is the starting point of this striving for sociality, hence the difference in the functions and place of people in society;

- according to Lucretius, the reason for the exit of a person from the animal state is the development of material culture: the use of the skins of dead animals, the construction of dwellings, and mainly the production of fire. In the Middle Ages, the history of mankind, as a rule, was determined by divine providence:

- history is predetermined by God;

- all vices are the result of the fall of people;

- society is based on inequality, with which people must come to terms.

The Renaissance introduced new elements of the secular philosophy of history (the concept was introduced by Voltaire), which meant a universal historical review of human culture.

Philosophers of the XVII-XVIII centuries. criticized the theological concepts of the Middle Ages and proposed to consider the history of society as a continuation of the history of nature and to reveal the "natural" laws of social life.

Enlighteners of the XNUMXth century:

- put forward the ideas of historical progress (J. Vico, J.A. Condorcet);

- formulated the principle of the unity of the historical process (IG Herder);

- laid the foundations of the history of culture (Voltaire);

- substantiated the position on the influence of the geographical and social environment on a person (Sh.L. Montesquieu, J.J. Rousseau).

From the end of the XNUMXth century the main idea of ​​social philosophy is the idea of ​​economic rationality, which is embodied in modern society and determines all spheres of interpersonal relationships and culture.

Culture is a combination of material and spiritual values, as well as ways to create them, the ability to use them for the further progress of mankind, to pass on from generation to generation.

It is customary to distinguish:

- material culture (means of production and objects of labor involved in the whirlpool of social life);

- spiritual culture (religion, science and the degree of implementation of its achievements in production and life, the level of education of the population, the state of education, medical care, art, moral norms of people's behavior in society, possession of the logic of thinking and the richness of the language, the level of development of material and spiritual needs and people's interests).

Culture is a historically developed multi-level system that has its own material forms, its own symbols, traditions, ideals, attitudes, value orientations and, finally, a way of thinking and life - this centering force, the living soul of culture. And in this sense, the existence of culture acquires a supra-individual character, existing at the same time as a deeply personal experience of the individual.

Culture incorporates all the achievements of mankind in the field of both material and spiritual production. The initial form and primary source of the development of culture is human labor, the methods of its implementation and the results. The world of culture exists outside the consciousness of individual people as the realized thinking, will and feelings of previous generations of mankind.

Without culture, outside of it, the life of man and society is impossible. Any new generation begins its life not only surrounded by nature, but also in the world of material and spiritual values ​​that were created by previous generations. Abilities, knowledge, human feelings, skills are formed in the course of assimilation of an already created culture.

Culture is not a passive storage of material and spiritual values ​​created by previous generations, humanity actively uses them creatively for social progress.

Culture is a combination of:

- results of human activity;

- historically developed ways of work;

- recognized methods of human behavioral acts;

- manners of communication, called etiquette;

- ways to express their feelings;

- techniques and levels of thinking.

Culture is material and spiritual values. From this point of view, values ​​are called: the definition of one or another object of material or spiritual reality, which highlights its positive or negative value for man and mankind.

Within culture as a holistic entity, two aspects are distinguished:

- scientific and technical;

- humanitarian and artistic.

Mass character of culture - this is not only its low level, as if only for primitive thinking, but also a formal characteristic - a kind of art market. Because it is possible and necessary to give the broad masses of the people something real in order to raise them to spiritual loftiness, even to the greatest masterpieces of culture.

To improve the culture of the people, one must turn to the history of culture, to the entire cultural heritage of mankind, and not try to drag the highly educated strata of society down - to something simplified.

The basis of ancient Greek culture is made up of two cults:

- the cult of Apollo - the cult of light, proportion and measure, reason and science;

- the cult of Dionysus - a dark cult, the cult of the earth, fertility, wine and intoxication, the cult of carnal love. The term "culture" began to be used as a scientific term from the second half of the XNUMXth century. - Ages of Enlightenment. Philosophers and scientists of the XVIII century. began to use this word to denote the specifics of the human way of life, in contrast to the natural, spontaneous, animal life. Thus, the term "culture" in the scientific language from the very beginning served as an expression of the idea of ​​culture as a sphere of development of "humanity", "human nature", "the human principle in man".

From the point of view of this idea, the term "culture" was interpreted from two points of view.

1. As a means of elevating a person, improving a person, improving the spiritual life and morality of people, correcting the vices of society. The development of culture was associated with the upbringing and enlightenment of people. In the period from the end of the XVIII century. up to the beginning of the XNUMXth century. the word "culture" was often replaced by the words "enlightenment", "humanity", "reasonableness". From this point of view, only the totality of the best creations of the human spirit, the highest enduring spiritual values ​​that are created by man, enters the field of culture.

2. How people's way of life, which exists in reality, really exists and changes historically. This way of life is determined by the achieved level of development of the human mind, science, art, upbringing, education. From this point of view, culture embraces everything that distinguishes the life of human society from the life of nature, all aspects of human existence. But at the same time, although culture distinguishes the human way of life from the animal, it carries both positive and negative, undesirable manifestations of human activity.

The culture of the Renaissance is filled with recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities. She approved a new criterion for assessing public relations - human.

At the first stage of its development, the culture of the Renaissance acted as a secular freethinking, which opposed medieval scholasticism and the spiritual dominance of the church.

Further, the culture of the Renaissance is affirmed through the value-moral emphasis of philosophy and literature. Already an elementary list of the works of Renaissance philosophers gives an idea of ​​​​this:

- "On the advantage and superiority of man" - Fazio;

- "On pleasure as a true good" - Lorenzo Balla;

- "On noble morals and free sciences" - Vergerio;

- "On Dignity" - Manetti;

- "Against hypocrisy" (two different treatises with this title, written by Leonardo Bruni and Poggio);

- "On the nobility of laws and medicine" - Salutati;

- "On the means against a happy and unhappy fate" - Petrarch, etc.

Renaissance culture originated in Italy. In the future, it also covered a number of European countries: France, Germany, etc. It was the role played by ancient culture in the formation of the culture of a new era that determined the name of this era itself as the Renaissance, or Renaissance.

Culture - a set of material and spiritual values, as well as ways to create them, the ability to use them for the further progress of mankind, to pass on from generation to generation.

Culture characterizes people, determines the measure of their development, ways of self-expression in activity.

Material and spiritual culture, traditions and moral norms, the specificity of relations between the individual, society and the state are formed and developed over the centuries, passed down from generation to generation, from one era to another.

In the twentieth century an interesting phenomenon arose, never before encountered in human history - mass culture.

In our time, it is not necessary to have a poetic talent - it is often quite enough to master the technique of versification (having, of course, a certain level of poetic culture and ear, as in music) - and you can write good poetry, publish books.

Popular culture also has positive aspects: it is not necessary to understand the basics of cybernetics in order to work on a computer, you can only know in what order to press the buttons.

Mass culture saves people's time and energy, but it also saves them from having to think. You can succeed only by mastering the technique and technology of action.

The main tragedy of modern culture is that when the discoveries or inventions of talented individuals become widespread, they lose their meaning and original meaning quite a lot.

The culture of our time is universally represented as a set of knowledge, methods and actions, that is, as something external in relation to man. It becomes something that can be mastered by learning, taking note of, affirming, and that can be discarded when no longer needed.

Eastern and Western civilizations interact with each other. As a result of this interaction, various "hybrid" societies arise, which adopt a new culture on the basis of their culture.

Today, the society is faced with the following questions:

- Is it possible to perceive patterns of modern Western experience as some kind of ideal, or should these patterns be subjected to criticism;

- what is the way of Russia's entry into the world civilization - western or eastern;

- what are the ways of development of world civilization in our time.

The modern West is a synonym for the concept of "developed countries". According to this sign, some political scientists began to attribute Japan to the West, which is completely unjustified. Regardless of the fact that Japan has a technological basis in common with Western countries, it remains a country of Eastern civilization even in terms of the way it adopts universal human values.

The culture of Russia entered the culture of the West quite a long time ago. This mainly applies to Christianity, enlightenment, social utopianism, avant-gardism, elements of rationalism, etc. But nevertheless, our country entered Western culture primarily with its rational layer of social consciousness: Dostoevsky, Pushkin, Tolstoy. But the culture of Russia has everything: elements of Europe and Asia.

When considering the culture of Russia, it is necessary to take into account its Slavic-Turkic historical roots, which help to better understand the relationship between statehood and the market, natural community and civil society, collectivist and individual consciousness.

Art called a professional type of activity in which the aesthetic consciousness from an accompanying element turns into the main goal.

In art, aesthetic consciousness becomes the main thing. Aesthetic is a directly given sensual expressiveness of the inner life of an object, imprinting in itself a two-way process of "objectification" of human essence and "humanization" of nature and perceived by a person disinterestedly, experienced as an independent life value.

The aesthetic attitude to reality, which is contained in all types of human activity, could not but become the subject of independent cultivation. The sphere of human activity, in which the aesthetic, embodied in the artistic, is the content, the method, and the goal, is art.

Art is a means of self-expression of a person, and, therefore, the subject of art is the relationship between a person and the world, the person himself in all his dimensions - psychological, social, moral and even everyday. Art not only relates to man in his wholeness, but also affects all the deepest and yet unexplored layers of that most amazing phenomenon in the world that is man - the secret of the mysteries of nature.

Unlike philosophy, science, religion and ethics, art begins where the goal of aesthetic activity is not the knowledge or transformation of the world, not the presentation of a system of ethical norms or religious beliefs, but the artistic activity itself, which ensures the creation of a special (second along with the subject) , an exquisitely fictional world in which everything is an aesthetic creation of man. Two features make up the peculiarity of art:

- firstly, this world is not a product of pure fiction, which has nothing to do with the real world;

- secondly, this reality, called the artistic picture of the world, is only a more or less plausible image of life, but not life itself.

Art is an expression of the inner essence of a person in its integrity, which disappears in the private sciences and in any other concrete activity, where a person realizes only one side of himself, and not his whole self.

In art, people freely and sovereignly give birth to a special world, just as nature creates its own world. In art, a person makes his subjective content a universally significant and integral objective being.

The creation of a work of art and its aesthetic experience requires the whole person, because it includes the highest cognitive values, ethical tension, and emotional perception. Art appeals not only to the senses, but also to the intellect, to the intuition of a person, to all the refined spheres of his spirit.

Works of art are not only a source of aesthetic pleasure, but also a source of knowledge: through them, they are recognized, reproduced in memory, the essential aspects of life, human characters and interpersonal relationships of people are clarified. This internal combination of all the spiritual forces of a person in the creation and perception of works of art is provided by the syncretic power of aesthetic consciousness.

Art originated in primitive society, acquired its main features in Antiquity, but even at that time it had not yet begun to be thought of as a special kind of activity.

Up to Plato (including himself), the art was considered to be the ability to build houses, and navigation skills, and healing, and government, and poetry, and philosophy, and rhetoric. The process of separating aesthetic activity proper, i.e. art in our understanding, began in specific crafts (here it led to the creation, for example, of ornaments), and then was transferred to the field of spiritual activity, where the aesthetic was also not first separated from the utilitarian, ethical and educational.

For example, for us, Homer's poems are mainly works of art, but for his contemporaries they were so encyclopedically capacious that they were considered both as a philosophical generalization, and as an ethical standard, and as an exposition of a religious system, and as works of art.

The low visibility of what we now call art in ancient culture explains the fact that at that time, for example, such a genre of literature as widespread in modern times as the novel was not developed. Literature as a part of art was mostly represented by poetic works, while prose, for all its aesthetic design, was, as a rule, philosophical or historical in its goals.

Art often even frightened people with its mysterious power. Thus, it was assumed that any state striving for order should ban music (and other arts), because it softens morals and makes strict subordination impossible.

Orthodox Christianity in the first centuries of its existence forbade theater and painting as something that challenged the severe asceticism demanded by ethical Christian dogmas.

Even in modern times, when, due to the rapid development of social life, there could no longer be any talk of a ban on art, the state continued to impose strict censorship bans on literature, demanding from it the obedient chanting of the official worldview.

In the XIX and XX centuries. the problem of the relationship between art and ideology came to the fore. As a result of being vested with power, ideological systems that incorporate the political, moral and other attitudes of each given society often tend to suppress the freedom of art, to politicize it. But, unfortunately, at the same time, the semantic side of works of art is simply identified with a certain logically ordered system of political ideas, which leads to forgetting the specifics of artistic thinking proper, to the utilitarianization of aesthetic feeling.

As a result of ideological dictatorship, a so-called mass culture appears, in which aesthetic indicators are so reduced that any difference between such average art (that is, already pseudo-art) and ideology itself actually disappears.

Dominance in the cinema of the 70s. of the last century, the so-called production theme, which was presented and passed from one film to another by a banal scheme of struggle between, say, a young innovator and at first resisting, but then admitting his mistakes, the leader, had a negative impact on the general state of cinema.

Religion is an important and necessary phenomenon of the spiritual life of man and society. The study of religion is carried out by:

- theology (strives for an adequate interpretation of the facts of religious consciousness given by revelation);

- history (explores the process of emergence and development of religious consciousness, compares and classifies different religions in order to find the general principles of their formation);

- philosophy (analyzes the essence of religion, determines its place in the worldview system, reveals its psychological and social aspects, its ontological and cognitive meaning, highlights the relationship between faith and knowledge, analyzes the problems of the relationship between man and God, the moral meaning of religion and its role in society, in the development of spirituality of both man and mankind). The main function of religion is moral and social service: it is called upon to sow peace, love and harmony in the souls of the people.

The term "religion" is defined in different ways: some derive it from lat. religare - to bind, and others, such as Cicero, from relegere - to collect. The most adequate root is lat. religio - piety, holiness.

Religion - this is an expression of the recognition of the Absolute Beginning, i.e. God, on which everything finite, including man, depends, and the desire to harmonize our life with the will of the Absolute.

There are two sides to every religion:

- theoretical, which expresses the understanding of the Absolute;

- practical, in which a real connection between the Absolute and human life is established. Religion cannot be considered the expression of the activity of any one side of the human soul.

The whole person, with all his spiritual needs and inclinations, participates in religion.

There are many different opinions on the origin of religion. First of all, it is necessary to distinguish between the psychological motives for the emergence of religion, as well as the social roots of religious consciousness.

The principles that underlie the explanation of the emergence of religion are divided into two groups:

- supernaturalistic (they talk about the innateness of religious consciousness and point to revelation as its source);

- rationalistic (assume a conscious intention and reflection of a person in the formation of religion (euhemerism), purely pragmatic aspirations of certain individuals (T. Hobbes, G. Bolin-brock) for the sake of retaining power, the personification of known forces of nature (Epicurus, D. Hume), objectification of known spiritual qualities (L. Feuerbach, J. Renan), veneration of ancestors (G. Spencer)).

As for the problem of the relation of faith to knowledge, it is solved depending on the general philosophical positions of this or that thinker. There are three known approaches to this problem:

- scientist-positivist - explains religion as the lowest kind of knowledge and reduces it to superstition, which, with the development of science, is supposedly doomed to disappear;

- historical (evolutionary) - sees in religion a developing form of knowledge, which always retains its significance, even when it is part of a different, higher level of knowledge;

- absolute - considers religious and scientific knowledge as two different and legitimate forms of human spiritual activity: boundaries are constantly being searched for between them and specificity is thought out both in essence and in significance for a person and society.

Various religious models of philosophical thinking are widespread.

These include: the philosophy of the Catholic Church (neo-Thomism); philosophy of Orthodoxy; philosophy of Islam; various Eastern religious philosophical teachings: the philosophy of Buddhism, the philosophy of Taoism, the philosophy of yoga, etc.

The emergence of neo-Thomism dates back to the end of the XNUMXth century. and is widely used today as a philosophical model of thinking of people who live in countries dominated by the Catholic Church.

The encyclical of Pope Leo XIII (1879) declared neo-Thomism the only true philosophy corresponding to Christian teaching. The Higher Institute of Philosophy in Belgium and the Pontifical Catholic Academy in Rome became the international center of neo-Thomism.

The basis of this trend is the philosophy of the medieval scholastic Thomas Aquinas.

Neo-Thomism deals with: the philosophical justification of the existence of God; proof of various religious dogmas; consideration of "pure being" as a kind of spiritual principle; interpretation of natural scientific theories and social practice.

The most prominent representatives of neo-Thomism are:

- Jacques Maritain;

- Etienne Henri Gilson;

- Jozef Maria Bochensky;

- Gustav Andreas Vetter. Neo-Thomism tried to synthesize:

- empiricism and rationalism;

- contemplation and practicality;

- individualism and conciliarity;

- religion and science.

The representatives of neo-Thomism continue in a peculiar form the trend of turning philosophy into a servant of theology.

The main section of neo-Thomism - metaphysics, or "first philosophy", which means the doctrine of the principles of being, which is opposed to the intelligible and transcendent world. At this time, the transcendence of the concepts of "unity", "truth", "good", "beautiful" is affirmed; proves the existence of God analogies with the existence of the world.

The natural philosophy of this trend is based on the consideration of the dialectic of form and content, which was understood in the spirit of the teachings of Aristotle: matter is passive, and form is active, and only through form does matter acquire its definiteness, concreteness and vitality.

In the theory of knowledge, neo-Thomists turned to various forms of knowledge: sensory knowledge; rational knowledge; intuition.

The philosophy of neo-Thomism sees the meaning and purpose of human consciousness in the discovery of the transcendent and subjective in sensory perception. The human intellect must conform to divine truths. Science reveals only the external connections of phenomena and events, while the final causes relate to God.

This means that the creativity of the personality, its self-knowledge and freedom are organically connected with God.

Neo-Thomism also pays a lot of attention to socio-philosophical problems: forms of relationship between the individual and society (individualism, collectivism, solidarity, love for one's neighbor, family, state, division of labor, communication, etc.).

Of course, the main problem in neo-Thomism is the problem God God can be conceived as an infinite, eternal, uncreated, perfect personal reality. It was God who created everything that exists outside of him, is transcendent in relation to everything that exists, but retains an active presence in the world.

The science - it is a historically established form of human activity, which is aimed at the knowledge and transformation of objective reality, spiritual production, resulting in purposefully selected and systematized facts, logically verified hypotheses, generalizing theories, fundamental and particular laws, as well as research methods.

Science is at the same time:

- knowledge system;

- spiritual production of the knowledge system;

- practical activities of the basis of the knowledge system.

For any scientific knowledge, the presence of what is being studied and how it is being studied is essential.

What is researched reveals the nature of the subject of science, and how research is carried out reveals the method of research.

The great diversity of reality and social practice has determined the multifaceted nature of human thinking, different areas of scientific knowledge.

Modern science is a fairly ramified set of individual scientific branches.

The subject of science is:

- a world outside of man;

- various forms and types of movement of being;

- reflection in the consciousness of the forms and types of movement of beings, that is, the person himself.

According to their subject, sciences are divided into:

- on natural-technical, which study the laws of nature and ways of its development and transformation;

- public, which study various social phenomena and the laws of their development, as well as the person himself as a social being (humanitarian cycle).

Among the social sciences, a special place is occupied by a complex of philosophical disciplines that study the most general laws of the development of nature, society, and thinking.

The subject of science influences its methods, i.e., techniques, methods of studying the object.

In the modern world, the development of scientific knowledge is characterized not only by the emergence of related disciplines (for example, biophysics), but also by the mutual enrichment of scientific methodologies. General scientific logical techniques are induction, deduction, analysis, synthesis, as well as systematic and probabilistic approaches, and much more.

In any science there is an empirical level, that is, the accumulated factual material - the results of observations and experiments, and a theoretical level, that is, a generalization of empirical material, expressed in the relevant theories, laws and principles; evidence-based scientific assumptions, hypotheses that need further verification by experience. The theoretical levels of individual sciences are combined in a general theoretical, philosophical explanation of open principles and laws, in the formation of the worldview and methodological aspects of scientific knowledge as a whole.

An essential part of scientific knowledge is the philosophical interpretation of the data of science, which constitutes its philosophical and methodological basis. Even the selection of facts, especially in the social sciences, implies a great theoretical preparedness and philosophical culture of the scientist. At present, the development of scientific knowledge requires not only a theoretical understanding of the facts, but also an analysis of the very method of obtaining them, reflections on the general ways of searching for something new.

Science - this is a sphere of human activity, the main function of which is the development, systematization, verification of objective knowledge about reality.

Science appeared in Ancient Greece, its founders are Aristotle, Archimedes, Euclid, and others. For a long time, science did not develop, and only in the New Age (XVI-XVII centuries) did the situation change - science became the most important factor in life.

From the point of view of philosophy in science, there are two levels of research:

- empirical (aimed directly at the object under study and implemented through experiment and observation);

- theoretical (concentrates around generalizing ideas, laws, hypotheses, principles). An important feature of scientific research is the mutual loading of empirical and theoretical data.

1. Empirical method of research.

Experiment is the main way of empirical research. Experiment is the testing of phenomena that are studied under controlled and controlled conditions.

Components of the experiment:

- experimenter;

- phenomenon under study;

- appliances.

Another way of empirical knowledge is observation. Observation from the point of view of empirical knowledge is called a holistic way of studying phenomena, the observation of biological, astronomical, social and other processes.

2. Theoretical method of research. A theory is a system of concepts, laws and principles that allows one to describe and explain a certain class of phenomena. With the help of the theory, it is possible to explain a huge number of facts, to obtain capacious information in a concise form, to predict the future course of events.

Science is a complex and multifaceted social phenomenon: science cannot arise or develop outside society, but society at a high stage of development is unthinkable without science.

At different times, the role of science was not the same, but its significance was understood already in ancient times. In Antiquity science was the result of the division of mental and physical labor that had taken place. As an independent form of social consciousness, it began to function since the era of Hellenism, when the integral culture of Antiquity began to be divided into separate types and forms of spiritual activity. The emergence of proper scientific forms of knowledge, separate from both philosophy and religion, is associated with the name of Aristotle, who laid the initial foundations for the classification of various knowledge. In the Middle Ages, the process of development of knowledge also took place, although sometimes in a hidden form, such as chemistry (chemical thinking) in the form of alchemy.

feudal society with its capitalism posed such practical problems that could only be solved scientifically: production reached a scale that made it necessary to use mechanics, mathematics and other sciences. Science became the spiritual content of the productive forces, its achievements were embodied in technical innovations. The whole subsequent course of history is a steady and ever-deepening process of "scientificization" of production.

The subsequent development of science is determined by the steadily increasing needs of production and the expansion of the world market.

Positivism - a direction in science and philosophy, proceeding from the "positive", that is, from the stable, factual, undoubted.

The first positivism is called classical positivism, its representatives are: Auguste Comte (1798-1857); Mill Jones Stuart (1806-1873); Spencer Herbert (1820-1903) and others.

1. Auguste Comte - French philosopher, one of the founders of positivism and sociology.

Main works: "Course of positive philosophy"; "The Spirit of Positive Philosophy".

According to Auguste Comte, metaphysics (the doctrine of the essence of phenomena) should give way to positive philosophy. The French thinker called positive philosophy the totality of general scientific provisions of all the vast positive natural scientific and social material. That is why Comte's philosophy was called positive, that is, positive.

The main feature of positive philosophy is the recognition of all phenomena as subject to natural unchanging laws.

Comte considered the main features of positive philosophy to be that it is not divorced from life, relies on specific facts and generalizations of particular sciences, and is the result of their convergence.

An important concept in Comte's philosophy is "humanity", which gives it a systematization of thought.

In Comte's studies, a materialistic understanding of history is visible.

Positive philosophy has a concrete historical character, in connection with this, Comte distinguishes three main stages in the evolution of mankind: - theological - a fictitious state of the human spirit, which explains nature by the influence of numerous supernatural factors;

- metaphysical - an abstract state in which supernatural factors are replaced by abstract forces, real entities, with the help of which all observed phenomena are explained;

- scientific - a positive state of a person in which he strives to ensure that, by correctly combining reasoning with observations and experiments, he learns the real laws of phenomena.

Auguste Comte singled out four basic properties of philosophy: the study of positive philosophy is the only correct means of discovering the logical laws of the human mind; positive philosophy plays an important role in the general transformation of the system of upbringing and education; the study of the general positive sciences contributes to the progress of the individual positive sciences; positive philosophy should be considered a solid foundation for social transformation.

2. Mill Jones Stewart - British philosopher, economist, public figure.

The main merit of the scientist was the set of methods for inductive study of causal relationships developed by him in the "System of Logic". He also developed an intuitionistic interpretation of logic as the general methodology of the sciences.

Stewart considered induction the only acceptable method of cognition. The philosopher attached great importance to the moral perfection of the individual.

3. Spencer Herbert is an English philosopher who called his main goal the creation of a synthetic philosophy that combines the data of all sciences and formulates their general laws.

According to Spencer, philosophy is a homogeneous, holistic knowledge based on particular sciences and has reached the highest level of knowledge of the law, covering the whole world.

The second form of positivism - empirio-criticism (criticism of experience) - chronologically refers to the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries.

Empirio-criticism is represented by two major thinkers:

- Ernst Mach (1838-1916);

- Richard Avenarius (1843-1896). Empirio-criticism is a philosophical system of "pure experience", critical criticism that seeks to limit philosophy to the presentation of the data of experience with the complete exclusion of any metaphysics in order to develop a "natural concept of the world."

Ernst Mach is an Austrian physicist and philosopher who insists that it is not bodies that cause sensations, but complexes of elements, the totality of sensations forms bodies. The thinker considers his elements to be neutral, not relating them to either the physical or mental spheres.

The Austrian philosopher considered concepts as symbols that denote "complexes of sensations", and sciences as a whole - as a set of hypotheses that are subject to replacement by direct observations.

According to Ernst Mach, the world as a whole and all things in it are "complexes of sensations". The task of science is their description (with mathematical processing), i.e., an honest description of the facts of sensory perception to which thought adapts. Mach considers such a description to be the ideal of scientific research, from which everything superfluous (religious ideas, philosophical categories) should be removed to facilitate the thought process.

Avenarius and Mach proposed a critical analysis of experience to purge science of metaphysical claims.

The subject of the second positivism were:

- features of scientific thinking;

- the mechanism of knowledge formation;

- analysis of methods for obtaining true knowledge. This approach to positive knowledge made it possible to give an explanation of sensations, new in comparison with the first, classical positivism, as initial, "neutral", indecomposable into "physical" and "mental" elements.

The second positivism significantly influenced the intellectual and ideological climate of the first quarter of the XNUMXth century, when a conceptual rethinking of the content of the initial methodological provisions of classical science began.

The influence of the second positivism was experienced by:

- A. Einstein (1879-1955) - famous French mathematician and philosopher;

- A. Poincare (1854-1912) - German physicist, chemist, philosopher of science;

- W. Ostwald (1853-1932) - Nobel Prize winner in chemistry.

In questions of epistemology and methodology, the second positivism shared phenomenological and empirical positions. For example, for Mach a concept can be as meaningful as it expresses the direct connection of the data of sensory experience.

Ernst Mach explained science, its purpose and nature in an instrumentalist way, considering science as a set of operations that make it possible to act usefully in practice. The aim of science is a simple and economic description of facts. The function of science is adaptive-biological, helping a person to navigate in life.

The ideas of the second positivism had a significant impact on the intellectual, ideological and methodological climate of science in the late XNUMXth and early XNUMXth centuries, when radical qualitative changes began in cognition.

Positivism - a direction in science and philosophy that proceeds from the "positive", that is, from the given, stable, factual, undoubted, and limits its presentation and research to them, and considers metaphysical explanations theoretically unrealizable and practically useless.

Logical positivism - a philosophical trend, a modern form of positivism.

Post positivism - many concepts that have replaced logical positivism (neopositivism).

Supporters of various post-positivist trends largely disagree with each other, criticize outdated ideas of neo-positivism, while maintaining continuity with respect to it.

The main idea of ​​postpositivism is rational method of knowledge.

The brightest representatives of postpositivism:

- Karl Popper;

- Imre Lakatos;

- Paul Feyerabend;

- Thomas Kuhn.

1. One of the most interesting representatives of post-positivism is the modern English philosopher Karl Popper.

According to Popper, the task of the philosophy of scientific knowledge is to solve the problem of the growth of knowledge. The growth of knowledge can occur in the process of rational discussion, acting as a critique of existing knowledge. Popper's philosophy is rightfully considered critical rationalism.

According to Popper, scientists make discoveries by moving from hypotheses to single statements, contrary to the existing opinion of inductivists - from facts to theory. A scientific theory, Popper calls a concept that can be compared with experimental data, which means that it can be falsified at any time. Philosophy is not amenable to falsification, which means that philosophy does not have a scientific character. Popper's philosophy acts as a comprehension of the growth of scientific knowledge and includes the principles of rational-critical discussion, falsificationalism, and fallibolism.

2. Another representative of English post-positivism is Imre Lakatos, who put forward the methodology of research programs. According to Lakatos, it is important to compare theories with each other.

Lakatos, as a true post-positivist, drew attention to the need for a thorough study of the history of the development of scientific knowledge. Scientific research that is not accompanied by a study of the history of science leads to one-sided knowledge and creates the conditions for dogmatism.

3. Paul Feyerabend is an American philosopher who criticizes cumulativeism, according to which the development of knowledge occurs as a result of the gradual accumulation of knowledge.

This thinker is a supporter of the thesis about the incommensurability of theories. According to Feyerabend, pluralism should prevail both in politics and in science.

The merit of the American thinker is the persistent rejection of the ideals of classical science that have acquired stable features, science is a process of reproduction of theories in which there is no single line.

4. Another American philosopher Thomas Kuhn, following Feyerabend, criticizes the scheme for the development of science proposed by Popper.

Kuhn's main idea is that the activities of the scientific community play an important role in the development of scientific knowledge, and social and psychological aspects are of particular importance.

Empiricism - epistemological direction that derives knowledge from sensory experience.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) - Italian scientist, founder of experimental and theoretical natural science.

Experiment - systematic isolation, regulation and variation of conditions for the study of phenomena that depend on them, with the help of observations, on the basis of which knowledge of the regularity and patterns of the observed phenomenon is formed. Galileo Galilei is called the founder of experimental knowledge, followed by Francis Bacon.

Galileo was on the side of rationalism and believed that the world can be comprehended in a purely mechanical way, with the help of mathematics, mechanics and reason.

Galileo dealt with questions of mechanics, discovered some of its fundamental laws, indicating that there is natural necessity. The scientist was the founder of dynamics as a science of the movement of physical bodies. Galileo was one of the greatest astronomers of his time. Through his experimental science, he invented the telescope, with which he discovered the phases in the motion of Venus, spots on the sun, the rings of Saturn, the clusters of the Milky Way, and other phenomena of the cosmos.

His experiments went against theological teachings and brought the world under the heliocentric picture. Galileo recognized the existence of God, but believed that after the creation of the world, the Creator stepped aside and did not interfere in its further development. This point of view is called deism.

Galileo suggested discarding all fantastic constructions and studying nature empirically, looking for natural reasons for explaining phenomena.

Galileo Galilei considered his main task, first of all, to explain nature and its laws from the standpoint of science. The thinker formulated the basic principles mechanistic materialism. According to Galileo, the laws of nature are binding on all people. The world with its infinity is open for knowledge.

Truth, according to Galileo, is an intense endless process of deepening human thought into the object of knowledge.

According to Galileo, all phenomena can be reduced to their exact quantitative ratio, therefore, mathematics and mechanics are the basis of all sciences.

He was a promoter of experience as a path that can lead to truth. Galileo argued that two methods can lead to truth:

- resolutive (decomposition of the phenomenon under study into simpler elements, its components);

- composite (comprehension of the phenomenon as a whole).

Galileo was the ancestor of the basis of the natural science of the New Age, he proposed experiment as the basis of scientific knowledge.

Unlike experiments conducted by many scientists before Galileo, the experiment involves:

- isolation in a real object of an ideal component (when projected onto a real object of the theory);

- technical transfer of a real object to an ideal state, i.e. fully reflected in theory.

Experiences, as they are understood in the empirical tradition beginning with Bacon, provide some initial empirical material. And with the help of the experiment, scientific "ideal objects" are realized: ideal motion in a vacuum, ideal gas, etc.

Author: Zhavoronkova A.S.

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