Chapter 3. Ancient Greece

1. How did the Ancient Greek state arise and what were the periods of its formation?

The history of Ancient Greece can be divided into 5 periods:

1) Aegean, or Cretan-Mycenaean (III-II millennium BC), the period of decomposition of the tribal system, the emergence and development in certain areas of early class slave-owning states, which ceased to exist as a result of the Dorian migration;

2) Greece X-IX centuries. BC uh. - the period of temporary revival of primitive communal relations after the Dorian conquest and the subsequent pan-Greek development of class relations based on the ancient form of property;

3) archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC) - continuation of the previous period, the time of the formation of the ancient slave-owning society, the emergence of policies;

4) classical period (V-IV centuries BC) - the highest development of slave-owning relations in ancient policies.

5) Hellenistic period (the second half of the XNUMXth - the middle of the XNUMXst century BC) represented the further development of the slave-owning society in the vast expanses of the Middle East after the Greco-Macedonian conquest of the Persian state. This period ended with the conquest of the western part (up to the Euphrates) - by Parthia.

According to ancient Greek traditions, preserved in the Homeric poems and among Greek historians, the most significant tribes among the most ancient population in these areas were the Pelasgians. Herodotus considered them to be relatives of the Greeks. Cretans can be named among the most ancient island tribes.

В I millennium BC uh. the ancient Greek tribes finally formed and settled as follows: in the north of Greece and Central Greece - the Aeolians; The eastern part of central Greece, Attica, and the islands of the central Aegean Sea were inhabited by the Ionians. The Achaeans held out in the north and center of the Peloponnese. The rest of the Peloponnese was inhabited by the Dorians.

The Greeks did not have a common language for a long time and spoke numerous dialects that were equally understandable to the vast majority.

Balkan Greece, after the Dorian migration, socially degraded towards the widespread distribution of tribal relations. The Achaean states disappeared. The slang writing was forgotten. Surviving the defeat of Attica returned to tribal relations.

2. What was the Greek community of the policy?

The destruction of the Achaean states and the Dorian migration led to the fact that the processes of class formation in many Greek areas had to start anew. AT XI century. The Greeks lived in small isolated communities or ancestral villages. The rulers of the regions, dependent on the rulers of the Achaean states, now turned into leaders of independent patriarchal tribes - the Basilei. National assemblies acquired great importance. The most important achievement of this period was the spread of iron: the Bronze Age was replaced by the Iron Age. Period of Ancient Greek history XI-IX centuries BC uh. Traditionally, it is called Homeric after the legendary blind singer Homer.

The main business unit in X-IX centuries BC uh. there was a house - "oikos"; but there was no private ownership of land yet.

The community members lived in small families, sons inherited land allotments, who received equal shares by lot. Apparently, pastures remained common. Basilei and their relatives owned large cut-off plots - "temens" allocated from common tribal lands.

At this time, poor people appeared who worked as farmhands for rich owners.

Trade was underdeveloped. There was an exchange of surpluses in the farms of the basilei for overseas goods. Cattle were a common commodity. Trade was associated with robbery and sea robbery.

Intertribal wars became more frequent, there was a mixture of the population of different tribes.

Gradually, the position of basilei turned into a hereditary position in a certain aristocratic family.

The ancient Greeks considered the snowy peak of the mountain Olympus residence of their gods.

The social development of Greece in VIII-VI centuries. BC uh. was a continuation of the process of widespread formation of an early class society that began at the end of the Homeric era.

In Greece, small slave-owning states began to emerge, which were fortified settlements in which collectives of citizens-landowners lived, who jointly defended their common interests. These state formations received from the ancient Greeks the name of policies, that is, city-states.

The property stratification of intra-civil collectives is gradually increasing.

With the growth of the economic independence of the urban demos, the latter began to more actively seek the power of the aristocracy. The urban demos demanded the issuance of laws protecting its property and trade and religious activities from the abuses of the aristocracy.

The ruling landowning group of the tribal aristocracy opposed the urgent reforms.

Therefore, the urban and rural demos in VII-VI centuries. BC uh. began a decisive struggle for reform.

В VII-VI centuries. BC uh. In a number of economically developed policies, a new form of state power arose, known in science as the elder, or early, tyranny. The tyrants for the most part came from that group of aristocracy that joined the upper strata of the demos.

The older or earlier tyrannies were of short duration. During the time of tyranny, politicians grew up and gained political experience, more consistently defending the interests of the demos.

In the same policies, in which, after the overthrow of the power of the aristocracy and the tyranny that followed it, property stratification turned out to be sharp, an oligarchy arose (that is, the power of the few).

The Greek cities of Asia Minor, earlier than the policies of Balkan Greece, survived the era of struggle between the aristocracy and the demos and turned into rich trade and craft centers. This was facilitated by their transit geographical position at the junction of the ancient Greek and ancient Eastern worlds.

В VIII-VI centuries. BC uh. Greek colonization took place.

3. What kind of wars were waged between Greece and Persia?

Arising towards the middle 6th century BC uh. and conquered all Middle Eastern states in the second half 6th century BC uh. the enormous Persian power reached the height of its power during the reign of King Darius I, at the end of the 6th century. BC uh... Under Darius I, a system of governing a huge state was organized, the system of strategic and trade roads along which troops moved was improved, tribute was brought to the Persian capitals, regularly received from conquered tribes and peoples.

The systematic collection of large tributes gradually exhausted their economic opportunities. Therefore, the Persian state was interested in conquering new territories that had not yet been depleted by excessive extortions.

In order to strengthen his power over the rich coastal cities of the Greeks of Asia Minor, Darius I 513 BC uh. undertook a campaign through Thrace to the northern Black Sea region against the Scythians.

Scythians-the nomads chose the most expedient tactics in the fight against the Persian invasion: they destroyed wells and food along the route of the Persian army. Darius I had to stop and turn back.

But as a result of this campaign, the Persians captured Byzantium and the entire eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The borders of the Persian state came close to Greece.

The broad masses of the trade and craft population of the policies of the Balkan Greece, who in the recent past defeated the tribal aristocracy in a stubborn internal struggle, are now faced with a powerful and merciless external adversary. The aristocracy, on the other hand, was not averse to regaining the dominant position it had lost at the price of recognizing the supreme power of the Persians. There was no unity in the foreign policy of the Greeks towards Persia.

Gradually, such a situation arose that, on an insignificant occasion, a spontaneous uprising could break out. As a result of the internal struggle on the island of Naxos, the aristocracy was overthrown and expelled. The Milesian tyrant Aristagoras decided to restore the aristocracy and therefore turned to Darius I with a request for help in conquering Naxos.

The first successes of the Ionian uprising: it was unexpected for the Persians, but the forces were unequal. AT 454 BC uh. the uprising was suppressed.

The insignificant assistance that Athens and Eretria provided to the Ionians was used by Darius I as an excuse for the first campaign against Balkan Greece. AT 492 BC uh a large land army and navy under the command of Marzonius set out to conquer Greece. Darius I sent ambassadors to Greece with a demand to recognize the supreme power of the Persian state over himself. Most of the Greek city-states complied with this requirement.

В 490 BC uh. The second campaign against Greece took place. The purpose of this campaign was primarily a war against Eretria and Athens. Although news of the hostilities of the Persian fleet quickly spread in Greece, they did not mobilize the Greeks to unanimously resist the enemy. The aristocratic group expressed pro-Persian sentiments.

The Athenian strategists were divided over whether to start the battle first or organize the defense.

The victory of the Athenians during the marathon over the powerful Persian landing was of great moral and political significance. It gave the Greeks confidence in the possibility of defending their independence in the fight against Persian aggression.

В 481 BC uh. An alliance arose between Athens and Sparta, which was joined by a significant number of other Greek city states, although complete unity was not achieved.

In the spring 480 BC uh. The third Persian campaign in Greece began under the leadership of Xerxes himself. The continued lack of coordination between Sparta, Athens and other policies facilitated the Persian offensive.

The Salamis victory of the Greeks over the superior forces of the Persians led to a turn in the entire course of the war.

The war moved beyond the borders of Greece and continued at sea and in the region of the Black Sea straits. From a defensive one, it began to turn for the Greeks into an offensive one.

The war with the Persians continued intermittently until 449 BC uh.

The Greco-Persian wars ended with the victory of the Greeks, who defended the freedom and independence of their homeland from the aggression of the Persian despotism. Despite disagreements, at decisive moments they were able to unite and give a crushing rebuff to the invaders. But the Greeks were people of their own, slave-owning era. In the second period of the war, having made sure that the forces of Persia were exhausted, the Greek soldiers, to the best of their ability, plundered the Persian coast and turned the captives into slavery.

4. What were the characteristics of the large policies of Greece: Athens and Sparta?

The Spartan state was located in the south of the Peloponnese. The capital of this state was called Sparta, while the country itself was called Laconia.

Sparta is the oldest state of archaic Greece. AT 7th century BC uh. The Spartans undertook the conquest of the region's neighbors - Messenia. As a result of two Messenian wars, the territory of Messenia was annexed to Sparta.

The local population living in the fertile valleys was turned into disenfranchised helots.

The economy of Laconia was very undeveloped and primitive. Agriculture was the main occupation here. The craft was very little developed. The Spartan state forbade all foreign trade. A large amount of money was required to pay for products or crafts. Money was not only not carried in a purse, as is done now, but was stored in special storerooms.

The privileged class (estate) of Sparta - the Spartans constituted the so-called community of equals.

The Spartans were engaged in military affairs. In order to educate strong and strong warriors, there was a special education system in Sparta.

Each newborn was carried to the highest institutions of Sparta - Gerousia, i.e. the council of elders. If a child was born weak and sickly, he was thrown off a cliff. A healthy child was left with his mother until he reached the age of seven. Then he went to a public school, where he spent time until the age of majority, that is, until the age of 18. The school regime was very strict.

At school, the boys were engaged in physical exercises and military affairs. The purpose of education was to grow a strong, seasoned warrior. Philosophy and eloquence were not allowed. They learned to speak as briefly as possible - "succinctly" (from the name of the country - Laconia).

In Sparta, the only city in Greece, great attention was paid to the education of women. It was believed that only a healthy mother can have healthy children. Therefore, the girls did not do housework. It was all done by the helots. Spartans, from childhood, went in for gymnastics and sports, they knew how to read, write, count, like boys.

All the activities of the Spartan state were aimed at keeping the helots in obedience.

In the Spartan state there was a popular assembly. This meeting decided questions about war and peace, but there was no voting. Everything was decided by shouting.

Sparta had two kings at the same time. They had priestly functions and were considered sacred.

The most powerful and actually governing body was the assembly of elders - representatives of the most influential clans and families of Sparta.

The military advantage of Sparta and the Peloponnesian League led by it did not raise doubts throughout Greece.

The Spartan system was the most reactionary among the ancient Greek states.

Compared to other trade and craft policies, the rapid socio-economic and political development of Attica, led by the most famous policy in the historical tradition - Athens - came a little later.

According to legend, in ancient times the basilei ruled in Athens, whose residence was on a fortified rock - the acropolis.

However, the position of basileus was not abolished in Athens, but it gradually lost its political significance.

Head of the Athenian aristocratic polis for IX-VIII centuries BC uh. becomes a new additional person - archonite.

The popular assembly in Athens, as in other aristocratic policies, was untenable.

В 7th century BC uh. Crafts and trade began to develop in Athens.

The aggravated relations between the aristocracy and the demos decided to take advantage of the popular Athens Olympic winner Cylon to become an Athenian tyrant. Near 640 BC uh. at a festival in honor of Zeus, he captured the Acropolis with his followers.

В 621 BC uh. Archonite-dismothetes Draconite promulgated the legal norms he had written down. They went down in history under the name "Draconian laws", which became an epithet for excessively cruel laws in general.

To conquer the island of Salamis 594 BC uh. was elected Archon of Solon.

Solon's reforms can be divided into economic and political. With his reforms, he legalized those naturally developed socio-economic and political relations that were not allowed to proceed by the Eupatrides; who were in power before Solon.

The reforms of Cleisthenes completed the process of registration of the Athenian democratic slave-owning policy.

5. How did the Peloponnesian War unfold?

Peloponnesian war was generated by the accumulation and aggravation of internal contradictions in the slave-owning society of ancient Greece, which were based on the uneven development of its regions.

The first incident that hastened the start of the war occurred far from Corinth, Sparta and Athens in the colony of Epidamne and on the island of Corcyra. A democratic upheaval took place in Epidamnus. The oligarchs who fled the city launched an attack on Epidamnus. The Corinthians helped Epidamnus, but because of this, Corcyra opposed them. Corfu entered into XNUMXst Athenian Maritime Union, which was a violation of the peace concluded in the past between this and the Peloponnesian alliance. Democratic Athens helped the Kersk oligarchs against a common enemy - the oligarchic Corinth, which in turn helped the Epidamnic democrats. Thus the economic interests of Corinth and Athens prevailed over their political sympathies.

The second incident followed immediately after the first. Events unfolded in Pontdey. Megara took the side of Corinth. Both policies energetically persuaded Sparta to start military operations against Athens. Then a third incident arose: the Athenian people's assembly approved the Megarian psephism - a special decision declaring a boycott of the Megarian merchant ships in all the harbors of the members of the First Athenian Maritime Union.

Archdate War 431-421. BC uh. Under pressure from Corinth and Megara, military action against Athens was launched by the Spartans under the command of King Archidamus II, who developed a plan for waging war, taking into account the Spartans' superiority on land. Therefore, the war was called the Peloponnesian war, and its first period was called Archidamic. Given the economic and political situation in Attica, Archidamus expected to ruin its agriculture and, as a result, sentiment against Pericles and the urban demos of the rural demosatic peasants who supported him.

The Athenians opposed the Spartan plan of warfare developed by Pericles. The Athenians proceeded from the superiority of their navy.

The contradictions that caused the Peloponnesian war were still unresolved. The forces of the opponents were approximately equal. The war, limited to the Balkan Peninsula and nearby islands, did not lead to significant results. The irregular blockade of the Peloponnesian fleet by the Athenian fleet did not weaken the Peloponnesian alliance. The trade and craft strata of the Athenian demos were not satisfied with the draw of the war. The developed slave-owning economy required the expansion of the territories controlled by Athens, so the tendencies to resume the war are again reviving.

Alcibiades, a relative of Pericles, becomes the head of the supporters of the expansionist policy. He proposed a plan to conquer the rich and populous island of Sicily.

К 415 BC uh. the Athenians equipped about 260 warships and cargo ships and over 32 thousand. hoplites, sailors and oarsmen under the command of Alquiades and Nicias.

В 414 BC uh. the Athenian fleet was destroyed. The ground army was forced to capitulate, surrounded by the combined forces of the Syracusans and Spartans.

Dekelia War (413-404 BC). Almost simultaneously with the death of the Athenian army and fleet in Sicily, the Spartans invaded Attica and occupied the point of Dekeley. They set up their base here for conducting constant military operations against the Athenians and cut off communication with the island of Euboea, from there food was delivered to Attica.

В 411 BC uh. an oligarchic revolution took place in Athens itself. The oligarchs promised the war-weary population of Attica to negotiate peace with oligarchic Sparta. Negotiations with Sparta were unsuccessful, as the Spartans demanded the liquidation of the Athenian ofhe.

В 404 BC uh. The Spartans entered Athens and the Ofhe were dissolved. Athens was included in the Peloponnesian League. Democracy was replaced by oligarchy.

The fierce internecine war, which lasted with a short break for 27 years, ended with the victory of the backward Sparta over the much more economically and politically developed Athens. The Athenian democratic government made a number of mistakes, among which the Sicilian expedition was especially grave. But Sparta, even after the catastrophe of the Athenians in Sicily, was able to defeat Athens only with the financial assistance of Persia. Thus, the international situation also contributed to the defeat of Athens. But the roots of Athens' failures were also laid in the limitations of Athenian democracy. The socio-economic development that brought to life the XNUMXst Athenian Maritime Union required broad unification, the continuation of polis limitations, but the XNUMXst Athenian Maritime Union failed to overcome it.

The Peloponnesian War greatly weakened the whole of Greece, undermined its economic potential.

6. What countries did Alexander the Great conquer?

in Macedonia in 336 BC uh. After the murder of Philip, the power of Alexander was proclaimed.

В 335 BC e. Alexander the Great undertook a northern campaign to conquer the fallen Thracian tribes. The army won.

Rumors reached Alexander that the Greek cities, led by Athens and Thebes, had fallen away from Macedonia. But he decided to return to Macedonia first the Illyrian tribes and from Thrace went to Illyria.

Alexander moved with an army to the rebellious Thebes and laid siege to them. The inhabitants of Thebes were taken into slavery, and the city was razed and destroyed. This turn of affairs frightened other Greek cities, which began to express obedience to Macedonia.

The refusal to massacre Athens was due to the policy of Alexander, who did not want to spoil relations with the Greeks at the beginning of the Persian campaign.

After the complete restoration of his power in Greece, Alexander began to prepare for the Persian campaign, which his father failed to carry out - Philip.

The army of Alexander the Great was not numerous. It consisted of 30 thousand infantry and 5 thousand horsemen, but this army was well trained in the new military system. The army marched in the spring 334 BC

Persia showed at this time unpreparedness for defense. This huge state could collect its troops for two years. The Persian state was on the decline, it was torn apart by civil strife. Various victories and abuses restored the population of Asia Minor against the local Persian authorities. All these circumstances helped Alexander to invade Asia.

В 334 BC uh. A battle took place near the small river Granik. The Persians were defeated. After the victory at Granicus, the Macedonian army marched along the Asia Minor coast to the south. Alexander pursued political goals: he freed the Greek cities of Asia Minor from the Persian yoke.

All winter 333 BC uh. Alexander spent time in the center of Asia Minor, since the winter here was harsh and the Macedonian army could not march in such conditions. At the end of winter, Alexander hastily set out on a campaign.

The meeting of the Macedonian and Persian armies took place in the town of Iss on the northeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. After a stubborn battle, the Persian army was utterly defeated.

After the battle of Issus, Alexander went to Syria and Phoenicia. Of the Phoenician cities, only Tyre resisted, which Alexander could not take for seven months.

When Alexander was in Phoenicia, Darius III offered him peace on the following terms: he would give Alexander all of Asia Minor for possession, half of the Persian treasury and the hand of his eldest daughter.

The peace offer was rejected. But the military council showed that in the command staff of Alexander's army, opposition was beginning to oppose the continuation of the war.

В 332 BC uh. Alexander headed with his army to Egypt to take possession of this rich country and provide himself with a rear during his campaign to the East. The Egyptians welcomed the Macedonian troops.

Alexander was proclaimed Pharaoh by the Egyptian priests.

В 332 BC uh. Alexander founded Alexandria, a city on the Mediterranean coast in the Nile Delta, which was destined to play a major political, economic and cultural role in the Hellenistic era and beyond.

In the spring 331 BC uh. Alexander left Egypt and headed to Mesopotamia, where the troops of Darius III were already concentrated.

The army of Darius III approached Mesopotamia and stopped not far from the former capital of Assyria - Nineveh, in the town Gaugamela.

Battle of Gaugamelach was bloody and stubborn. After the victory at Gaugamela, Alexander took Babylonand then Susa.

When Bactria и Sogdiani (Central Asia) were conquered, Alexander went to Ivedia. The Macedonians were victorious.

Alexander's army reached only the tributary of the Indus Hyphasis, after which it had to turn back.

During the eastern campaign, new trade relations arose between Greece and the East, a new colossal state was formed from the Balkan Peninsula to the territory of India. This state was larger than Persia. It was managed differently. Each district (satrapy) was subject to the central authority of Alexander, who personally intervened in the affairs of various districts and sometimes deposed and executed satraps.

After celebrating victories in the eastern campaign, Alexander took up the internal affairs of his monarchy and preparations for the western campaign, which he decided to make.

Younger son Antipater Jonah hosted a feast, to which he invited Alexander. Returning from the feast, Alexander fell seriously ill, apparently, he was poisoned. At this time he was 33 years old.

Despite the fact that Alexander's campaigns were of an aggressive nature, the created Macedonian new state was more progressive in its economy, political system and culture than ancient Greece.

7. What were the main features of the Hellenistic era?

The Hellenistic era is understood as almost 300 years of the history of Greece, Macedonia, the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, Iran, Central Asia and the regions adjacent to them after the conquests of Alexander the Great. The period ended with the conquest of the Hellenistic countries from the west by Rome, and from the east by Parthia. The traditional date that ends the history of the Hellenistic era is considered to be 30 BC. when the last independent Hellenistic kingdom of the Ptolemies (Egypt) was conquered by Rome.

The term "Hellenism" was first used over 100 years ago by a German historian. C. Droysen.

The Hellenistic period was a time of close combination and mutual influence of ancient Greek and ancient Eastern socio-economic, political and cultural relations. At the same time, the colonization of the Middle East by the Greeks took place on an unprecedented scale.

Egypt was one of the most powerful Hellenistic states. Its capital - Alexandria - was the largest port, trade, craft and cultural center of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Three Greek cities were located in the main territory of Egypt: Alexandria, Ptolemais and Navkratia.

The royal court was in Alexandria. The nobles who belonged to the royal court were the king's advisers and bore the honorary titles of the king's "relatives", "friends", etc.

The Ptolemaic state owned a number of territories outside of Egypt: Cyrenaica, the island of Cyprus, Southern Syria, and Phoenicia. These possessions usually retained their local government, but under the control of the Ptolemaic governors.

By ancient Greek tradition and by right of conquest, the Ptolemies were the owners of their Egyptian land.

A significant part of the Egyptian land was cultivated by peasants under the direct supervision of officials of the royal financial administration. The king provided another part of the Egyptian land for the use of soldiers, priests, nobles, etc.

Temple land was more privileged. Taxes from this land were at the disposal of the priests, who contributed a certain part of them to the royal treasury.

Most of the territory of the Hellenistic world in 3rd century BC uh. controlled the Seleucid state.

Seleucids dominated the caravan and water routes connecting the Mediterranean with the countries of the Middle East, and traded through Central Asia and India even with China. In this trade, the Selivkids had competitors in the person of the Ptolemies.

In the state structure of the Seleucids, like the Ptolemies, they used the local and Greek-Macedonian experience. They retained the Persian administrative division into satrapies, but now they were headed by royal governors - strategists. The country was divided into Greek cities and Khorez.

The main support of the Seleucids has always been an army of Macedonians, Greeks and various Hellenized elements.

The situation in Europe was somewhat different from that in the Middle East.

Agrarian relations in Macedonia, in contrast to the Eastern Hellenistic states, developed on the basis of the ancient form of ownership. However, even in Macedonia there was a royal land; the tsar conceded part of this land for the use of soldiers and the service aristocracy. The administration of the country was concentrated in the hands of the king. The main direction of Macedonian foreign policy was the desire for hegemony in Greece and the Aegean.

The most powerful Hellenistic states - the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kingdoms - competed with each other for dominance in the eastern Mediterranean and sought to play an active role in Greece. At the same time, from time to time they entered into difficult relations with the third great Hellenistic power - Macedonia, which was directly interested in always keeping the Aegean Sea basin under its control.

The Hellenistic world was gradually conquered in the east by Parthia and in the west by Rome. Rome ensured the further development of the slave-owning society in the conquered territories.

The culture of the Hellenistic world was complex and diverse. It was a synthesis and various combinations of Greek culture and cultures of the countries of the Near and partially Middle East.

Hellenic culture is characterized by its Greek design. Absolutism became an important feature of the ideology of the ruling class, an important element of the official ideology of the Hellenistic states.

8. What was the uniqueness of the culture of ancient Greece?

The first Greeks appeared on earth around 2000 BC uh. These were Mycenaeans - Descendants of the Indo-European conquerors. AT 3200 BC uh. It was migrants from the East who brought the secret of metal working to the Aegean world. The Cyclades were the first to enter the metal age, called the bronze age.

During the excavations of dwellings and burials of the Cyclades, many different objects were found. It was a brilliant culture, which, however, did not have a written language.

In the Bronze Age, with a small time gap from the Cyclades, the culture of Crete flourished, named after the legendary Minoan king Minos. The Minoans joined in a variety of technical innovations, learned how to produce stone products, seals, and gold jewelry. Large settlements appeared in the eastern part of the island.

At Knossos, Mallia and Phaistos, the first palaces with complex layouts were erected, which testified to the vitality of the Minoan culture. Masters made sculptures from baked clay. The Minoans did not create large sculptures, but they were excellent at small objects.

By the end of the Bronze Age (1600-1100 BC) Mycenaean culture became one of the most developed in the Mediterranean. One of the reasons for its flourishing was trade. Mycenae was a well-organized society with a complex system of government, as described on clay tablets written in linear writing. The Mycenaeans possessed advanced technical knowledge, which made it possible to build bridges, fortresses, domed tombs, as well as carry out work on irrigation and drainage of soils. In art and religion, the Mycenaeans at first imitated Crete, but then developed something peculiar only to them, for example, strict and majestic architectural ensembles. The Mycenaeans were warlike, which affected the nature of their burial property.

В 6th century BC uh. The Athenian tyrant Pisistratus ordered the Iliad and Odyssey to be edited. Since then, the works of Homer have become a real textbook of life for little Athenians.

С 700s BC uh. under the influence of the East, a distinctive art called orientalizing begins to take shape. In the workshops of Corinth, the most powerful city of that era, new decorative motifs were invented and the technique of making black-figure tableware was mastered. Pottery from Eastern Greece depicted herds grazing peacefully against a background of rosettes. Orientalizing jewelry art, like ceramics, was distinguished by an abundance of decorations.

At the same time, the first statues of large sizes appear, made, on the contrary, in a strict style. They got the name Daedalic in honor of Daedalus, a mythical sculptor and inventor, originally from Athens.

The period of general Greek prosperity begins in 6th century BC uh. Cities and their colonies are decorated with monuments. Some of them were ordered by tyrants. Sculptures were created only for temples and tombs and never served as decoration for homes. TO 480 BC uh. Greek art enters its classical period.

The cult of Dionysus is associated with noisy choral singing in his honor - dithyrambs. AT XNUMXth century BC e. the poet Festides introduced into the performance a dialogue between the choir and the actor: thus was born the tragedy, which means "the song of the goat" - the favorite animal of Dionysus. Tragedy brings the hero to the stage at the most dramatic moment of his life. Competitions of tragedies were held during the Great Dionysia - holidays in honor of Dionysus.

These pieces were played only once and were not recorded. Of the more than 1000 tragedies composed in antiquity, only about 30 have come down to us.

"Persians", "Oresteia" - creations Aeschyluswho witnessed the Greco-Persian wars. Sophocles innovated the genre of tragedy by instructing three actors to dialogue with the choir in Antigone, Edin. Creation Euripides influenced Corneille and Racine.

The ancient Greeks did not have holidays, but they devoted two months of the year to holidays in honor of their many gods. Of particular importance were the celebrations dedicated to Athena, the divine patroness of the city of Athens.

According to legend, the first Olympic Games took place in 776 BC uh. Legend claims that the treadmill was invented by Hercules, who wanted to thank his father Zeus. Every Greek could take part in the competition, but only on the condition that he was a citizen. Slaves and foreigners could attend the Games as spectators.

В 6th century BC uh. sculptors learned to process stone well and accurately convey the outline of the human body in marble. By the end of the century, all proportions were already observed; the muscles were in their place. Then sculptors began to strive to convey movements. For this reason, sculptors turn to metal, which allows them to diversify the poses of statues to a greater extent. The creation of a bronze figure is preceded by several stages, starting with the production of a wax-coated clay model and ending with the casting of the statue in a mold, with the melting of the wax.

The emergence of Greek philosophy is associated with the name of Thales, who lived in 6th century BC uh. She reached her greatest prosperity in 4th century BC uh. From its first steps, Greek philosophy began to express the self-awareness of civilization, the key concept of which was the “polis”.

Hippocrates, a native of Kos and a contemporary of Pericles, founded the first medical school. Health and disease were henceforth perceived as natural phenomena.

Authors: Anna Barysheva, Irina Tkachenko, Oksana Ovchinnikova

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The existence of an entropy rule for quantum entanglement has been proven 09.05.2024

Quantum mechanics continues to amaze us with its mysterious phenomena and unexpected discoveries. Recently, Bartosz Regula from the RIKEN Center for Quantum Computing and Ludovico Lamy from the University of Amsterdam presented a new discovery that concerns quantum entanglement and its relation to entropy. Quantum entanglement plays an important role in modern quantum information science and technology. However, the complexity of its structure makes understanding and managing it challenging. Regulus and Lamy's discovery shows that quantum entanglement follows an entropy rule similar to that for classical systems. This discovery opens new perspectives in the field of quantum information science and technology, deepening our understanding of quantum entanglement and its connection to thermodynamics. The results of the study indicate the possibility of reversibility of entanglement transformations, which could greatly simplify their use in various quantum technologies. Opening a new rule ... >>

Mini air conditioner Sony Reon Pocket 5 09.05.2024

Summer is a time for relaxation and travel, but often the heat can turn this time into an unbearable torment. Meet a new product from Sony - the Reon Pocket 5 mini-air conditioner, which promises to make summer more comfortable for its users. Sony has introduced a unique device - the Reon Pocket 5 mini-conditioner, which provides body cooling on hot days. With it, users can enjoy coolness anytime, anywhere by simply wearing it around their neck. This mini air conditioner is equipped with automatic adjustment of operating modes, as well as temperature and humidity sensors. Thanks to innovative technologies, Reon Pocket 5 adjusts its operation depending on the user's activity and environmental conditions. Users can easily adjust the temperature using a dedicated mobile app connected via Bluetooth. Additionally, specially designed T-shirts and shorts are available for convenience, to which a mini air conditioner can be attached. The device can oh ... >>

Energy from space for Starship 08.05.2024

Producing solar energy in space is becoming more feasible with the advent of new technologies and the development of space programs. The head of the startup Virtus Solis shared his vision of using SpaceX's Starship to create orbital power plants capable of powering the Earth. Startup Virtus Solis has unveiled an ambitious project to create orbital power plants using SpaceX's Starship. This idea could significantly change the field of solar energy production, making it more accessible and cheaper. The core of the startup's plan is to reduce the cost of launching satellites into space using Starship. This technological breakthrough is expected to make solar energy production in space more competitive with traditional energy sources. Virtual Solis plans to build large photovoltaic panels in orbit, using Starship to deliver the necessary equipment. However, one of the key challenges ... >>

Random news from the Archive T-shirt will do an EKG 21.09.2021 American scientists have invented smart clothes that will be able to monitor human health online. The created material will be able to control the heart rate of the wearer, as well as to make an ECG (electrocardiogram) in real time. Smart clothes are washable, more comfortable than bulky heart monitors, and won't tear even with intense movement. According to experiments, T-shirts made of such material take a cardiogram much more accurately than conventional devices. You can connect Bluetooth to the "smart" T-shirt, which will transfer data to a smartphone.

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