Chapter 10. Countries of the East and Asia in modern times

1. Consequences of the collapse of the colonial system

One of the characteristic features of post-war development was the growth of the national liberation movement and national liberation revolutions, which ultimately led to the collapse of the colonial system of the Western countries.

National liberation revolutions were aimed at destroying foreign domination, winning national independence and creating sovereign states on the site of former colonial possessions.

By the end of World War II, the national liberation movement had reached its greatest extent in Asian countries.

As a result of the Japanese occupation in Burma, Indonesia, and the Philippines, the power of the European and American colonialists was eliminated. These countries fell into the zone of Japanese influence. In Vietnam (then part of French Indochina), the Vietnam Independence League was founded and the Vietnamese Liberation Army was created.

At the first news of Japan's surrender, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Burma declared their independence. In Vietnam, as a result of the August Revolution of 1945, power passed to the National Liberation Committee, headed by the leader of the Communist Party of the country, Ho Chi Minh.

The popular masses of the Philippines, India, Malaya, as well as Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, etc., resolutely demanded independence.

Faced with a powerful upsurge in the national liberation movement, the ruling circles of the metropolitan countries either sought to retain the colonies by military force or to recognize the independence of the former colonies.

In 1946, the United States announced that they were granting independence to the Philippine Islands. In the same year, England announced the abolition of the mandate for Transjordan (which took the name of Jordan). The British government agreed to grant self-government or independence to some of its former colonies in Asia. On August 15, 1947, England announced the division of India on religious grounds into two states - India and Pakistan - and granting each of them the status of a dominion (ie, the right to self-government). An outstanding figure of the Indian national liberation movement D. Nehru became the head of the first independent government of India, and the head of the Muslim League, Liaquat Ali Khan, became the head of the government of Pakistan. In 1950, India renounced its dominion status and declared itself a republic. In 1956 a republic was proclaimed in Pakistan.

In January 1948, the long struggle of the peoples of Burma ended in victory. The British government recognized its independence. Burma left the British Commonwealth of Nations. In 1948, he received the rights of a dominion that used to be part of the colony of India, the island of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).

Along with the British in the 1940s. part of the French and Dutch colonies achieved independence. In 1946, France was forced to confirm the independence of Syria and Lebanon and withdraw its troops from these countries. In 1947, the Netherlands recognized the Republic of Indonesia, although the Dutch troops tried to keep part of its islands under their control.

The final chord of decolonization was the liberation from colonial dependence of the peoples of Tropical Africa at the turn of the 60s. 40th century About XNUMX independent states arose on the ruins of the colonial empires of Great Britain, France, and Belgium.

Portugal resisted decolonization the longest. It fought against the rebels in Angola and Mozambique until 1974. Namibia's independence in 1990 crowns this global process of eliminating colonialism.

The emergence of about a hundred new states on the former colonial periphery is of great historical significance. These states have become an important factor in world politics. They make up approximately 2/3 of the UN member states. Decolonization is even more important for the development of human civilization on a global scale. Decolonization has changed the vector of historical development of the countries of Asia and Africa. The peoples of independent states now have the opportunity for independent development, taking into account national traditions and cultural and civilizational characteristics. The paths of diverse social development were opened.

2. What are "third world countries"?

The formation of more than a hundred new states has changed the political landscape of the planet. The liberated countries made up the majority of the countries of the world. They had to solve the primary tasks of overcoming backwardness from most European states. In this sense, they constituted, as it were, a third world, along with the existing first - capitalist and second - socialist worlds. Another common name for the classification of the newly-free countries was the concept of "developing countries" in contrast to the countries of the West, which have reached a high level of development.

Developing countries, that is, third world countries, were not homogeneous. In this world there is a huge variety of economic, social, political, national, religious and other specific conditions. Socio-political differentiation in the third world continues. There are big differences not only between Asia, Africa and Latin America per se, but on each of these continents there is a mosaic of states that differ significantly in level of development, interests, place in the region itself and in the international community.

In solving the problems facing each of the third world countries chose its own path of development. From the point of view of economic development, a special place is occupied by oil exporting countries with a stable source of income (in 1960 they united in the OPEC organization). The most dynamically developed "new industrial countries" (Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines). The countries of Latin America are also relatively developed. The countries of Tropical and South Africa remain the least developed in all respects.

However, despite all the significant differences from each other, the developing countries have a lot in common, which makes it possible to consider the liberated countries as a certain historical community that forms a special subsystem of international relations.

The combination of heterogeneity and at the same time common interests of developing countries in solving the problems of overcoming backwardness, achieving economic independence, developing the economy, social and cultural spheres, and gaining equality in international relations to a greater extent determines the degree of organizational formalization of cooperation between developing countries.

The most representative forms of cooperation between developing countries in the 1970-1980s. became the Non-Aligned Movement and the "Group of 77". The "Group of 77" includes 126 states, that is, almost all developing countries. In some issues, especially when solving economic problems, they carry out joint actions. A number of important UN documents have been adopted with the active participation of this group. The "Group of 77" maintains close coordinating relations with the Non-Aligned Movement. This movement arose in 1961 and immediately turned into a powerful institution for expressing the interests of more than 100 states in Asia, Africa and Latin America. It is as heterogeneous in its composition as the whole third world is many-sided. The Non-Aligned Movement (so named because it avoided an unequivocal focus on only one of the superpowers - the USA or the USSR) actively advocated for peace, disarmament and international security, for the restructuring of international economic relations.

The desire to ensure their interests in the system of interstate relations led to the formation of various economic and political regional organizations in the third world. Thus, in Latin America, the Latin American economic system was formed, uniting 26 states. There are also other regional organizations of an economic nature.

In Africa, regional organizations have been less developed, to a certain extent due to the considerable number of bilateral conflicts on this continent. The largest organization is the Organization of African Unity, which was established in 1963. Its goals are the development of political and economic cooperation between African countries and the strengthening of influence on the world stage, the coordination of activities in the field of foreign policy, economy, defense and culture.

3. What are the development paths of the newly-free countries?

The problem of choosing development paths after the Second World War, and especially after the completion of the collapse of colonial empires and decolonization, has become a common problem for all countries of Asia and Africa.

The choice turned out to be small: a socialist orientation or a Eurocapitalist path. In any case, cultural and civilizational features and traditions were decisive.

Many liberated countries, although politically opposed to the European metropolitan countries, borrowed the ideas of European civilization and embarked on the path of "catching up" development. The leaders of these countries were not going to restore pre-colonial orders and traditional society. They wanted to create a modern, advanced nation-state, the components of which would be highly developed industry, universal suffrage, literacy of the population and its access to modern medicine. Hence was the understanding of the main task of the moment - overcoming backwardness, modernization.

A number of countries (China, Vietnam, North Korea, and others) embarked on the socialist path of development. Already by the mid-1970s, for example, signs of an impending crisis began to be felt in China. He had to take a different path - the path of market reforms and the weakening of state regulation of the economy and other spheres of life. Vietnam by this time had only managed to unite.

By the beginning of the 1990s. the problem of building socialism was generally removed from the agenda as an orientation model of development. The collapse of the USSR and the entire socialist system led to the impossibility of a socialist choice on the part of any other countries. But the idea of ​​a socialist orientation turned out to be more tenacious. It has become widespread in a number of African countries and some Arab countries. But the implementation of nationalization, cooperation, the establishment of a one-party political system eventually turned into economic ruin, bureaucratization, corruption and the establishment of authoritarian-dictatorial regimes, which led to a series of military coups. Most of the countries that have chosen a socialist orientation have also had to begin the transition to market-private relations and multi-party systems with a strong role for the public sector and regulation, i.e., to make the transition to modernization.

Whatever path the liberated states took, they all faced the need to overcome the traditional way of life and economy, which actually became the reason for the colonization of these countries by more developed states.

The attempt of the newly-free countries to undermine the established international division of labor and world economic ties was unsuccessful. This turned out to be an impossible task. Carrying out import-substituting industrialization (the policy of reducing imports of cars from Western countries, the production of their own equipment) required funds. The liberated countries did not have enough internal sources. I had to turn to Western creditors. This led to an increase in the debt of third world countries. By the end of 1988, it had reached an astronomical figure - more than a trillion dollars. The critical situation, the threat of losing independence once again forced us to reconsider economic policy.

The problem of overcoming backwardness was aggravated by the increase in population growth rates that began after the war, mainly due to an increase in the birth rate in developing countries.

The population explosion caused agrarian overpopulation. The influx of people to cities increased, which also could not rationally master the mass of the unemployed population. Unemployment, in turn, contributed to the maintenance of low wages, which slowed down technological progress. Along with social problems, developing countries began to experience economic difficulties. This also led to socio-political instability. The liberated countries were like a seething cauldron. Revolutions and coups d'etat, civil wars and interstate conflicts - all this has become a characteristic feature of the development of the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

4. Newly industrialized countries. What countries are included?

The growth of external debt predetermined the direction of the search for a new economic policy for developing countries. Instead of import-substituting industrialization, it was decided to develop export opportunities in every possible way, since the growth of exports gave hope for an easing of the debt burden. The import of foreign capital began to be encouraged. And to attract it, it was necessary to carry out market reforms: to stabilize monetary circulation, for which it was necessary to reduce government spending, privatize the public sector, introduce free prices, etc.

First, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea embarked on this path of development, then Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines joined them.

Using foreign capital and technology, and abundant local labor resources, they managed to create a developed manufacturing industry, working mainly for export and successfully competing in the markets of Western countries. Having created the potential for accelerated development, these countries are achieving consistently high economic growth rates.

For this group of countries, Japan is an example of successful development.

Many of the processes that took place in Japan after the Second World War turned out to be good for her. After the American occupation in Japan, economic and political reforms were carried out that changed Japanese society and its political system. The rights of the emperor were limited by the new constitution, parliamentary democracy with a multi-party system was established in the country, which had not happened before.

The reforms played a big role in the revival of the country and the "Japanese miracle". In just a few decades, Japan has turned from an agrarian country into an industrial superpower. Already by the 1980s. the volume of industrial production in Japan exceeded the level of 1950 by 24 times. The average annual growth rate of production in the 1960s-1970s. accounted for 14,6%, while in the entire capitalist world 5,5%.

Japan is now actively developing the science and technology of tomorrow, the country has a developed infrastructure, education system, health care and social insurance.

Behind these achievements is hard and sometimes exhausting disciplined work. The success of this country is also connected with the state policy, which helps business, the development of science, education, and defends Japan's position in the international arena.

Among the "newly industrialized countries" South Korea has passed a difficult path to progress. In many ways, the tragic events on the Korean Peninsula were the result of the strategic position of the country, which competed with Russia, Japan, the United States, and China. In 1910, Korea became a colony of Japan. After the war, in 1945, North Korea was liberated by the USSR, in South Korea, the surrender of Japanese troops was accepted by the United States. The line of demarcation of the zones of influence of the two powers passed along the 38th parallel. The Soviet-American rivalry ended with the split of the country. In 1948, the Republic of Korea was formed in the south of the peninsula, and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the north. The problem of reunification of the country has not been resolved to this day. Relations between the two Korean states were complicated, armed clashes between them became commonplace. In 1950, a civil war began between them, which ended in 1953. It ended in vain, the unification of the country did not happen.

Significant changes have taken place in South Korea since the overthrow of the dictatorial regime of Syngman Rhee. But subsequent regimes, although they were dictatorial, began to modernize the country. Japan has become a model of national and economic development. Much aid to the country came from the United States. Along with capital, new equipment and technologies poured into South Korea. The country has taken a course on the purchase of patents and licenses. In the country, much attention was paid to control over the targeted spending of funds. The advantage of South Korean business was cheap labor. The problem of improving the material situation of the majority of the population in the country remains tense. This also affects the processes of democratization of public life. But the country is trying to solve these problems.

5. How is the situation in post-war China?

In October 1949, the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) was proclaimed in Beijing.

The coming to power of the Chinese Communists marked the beginning of a grandiose transformation of Chinese society.

The first most significant transformation was the agrarian reform. During it, 47 million hectares of land were redistributed among peasants and the layer of landowners was eliminated. Immediately after the reform, agricultural cooperation began; it ended in 1956.

Foreign property was confiscated, as was the property of pro-Kuomintang representatives. So industry and trade were in the hands of the state. There was a transition from a market economy to a planned one. At the same time, industrialization began in the country. The USSR provided great assistance in its implementation.

Politically, China has become a unitary state with limited autonomy for the national outskirts. While maintaining a number of political parties, power belonged to the Communist Party led by Mao Zedong.

In China, there were no crisis situations typical of Eastern European countries. On the contrary, China increased the pace of development and sought to acquire the status of a superpower. At the initiative of Mao Zedong, in 1958 the CCP approved a new political course - "three banners". Its constituent parts were the "Great Leap Forward", the "People's Commune" and the "General Line". It was proposed to accelerate development at the expense of not large, but small industry. The central planning of the economy was canceled, the initiative was transferred to the localities. To solve this problem, "people's communes" were created. They included an average of 30 thousand people, an egalitarian method of distribution was carried out. It was believed that the concentration of energy of hundreds of millions of Chinese and their unpaid labor would bring China closer to communism. To approach this state, China was even ready for a nuclear missile war. This somewhat cooled China's relations with the USSR.

The course of the "three banners" failed. The abolition of material incentives to work led to a drop in production, especially products. Famine broke out in several parts of China. Instead of a breakthrough, the country received an economic crisis. Opposition to the course of Mao Zedong began to form in the country. This forced Mao Zedong to start an open struggle with his opponents. He staked on the youth, whom in 1965 he called for revolutionary violence in order to create a new communist society in a society freed from the remnants of the old. Young supporters of Mao Zedong - the Red Guards - smashed the official institutions of the country - party committees, ministries, universities. All this was called the "great proletarian cultural revolution". It has created unimaginable chaos and mass violence. Subsequently, Mao Zedong tried to restore the controllability of the country, but his course became more and more obsolete. The denouement came after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976.

The positions of the so-called pragmatists have strengthened in the party, insisting on abandoning the historical leap ahead and on concentrating efforts on practical work to bring China into the ranks of the advanced countries. Deng Xiaoping became the leader of the "pragmatists". A new phase has begun in the history of China.

A powerful industry began to develop in the country. The legislation on foreign investments was liberalized. In agriculture, cooperatives were restored. China has switched to market forms of interaction. The country's economic growth rates are high. All these reforms have changed China.

Against the backdrop of the upheavals of the "cultural revolution", relations between China and the USSR deteriorated. China began to present territorial claims to the USSR. In 1969, border conflicts arose. The confrontation with the USSR improved China's relations with Western countries. The streak of recognition of China by these countries has begun. After "perestroika" in the USSR, Russian-Chinese relations normalized.

The events on Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 1989 became a turning point in China's development. But democratization did not begin in China; on the contrary, the political regime became tougher. But this did not lead to the curtailment of economic reforms.

6. India and Pakistan. What are the development paths?

The Indian Independence Act provided for the creation of two dominions, the Indian Union and Pakistan. The former British colony was divided along religious lines. The disengagement took place in the conditions of acute Indo-Muslim enmity and bloody clashes.

In 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted a new constitution, which came into force in 1950. The constitution proclaimed the Republic of India. The general parliamentary elections for the state legislatures brought victory to the Indian National Congress. Since that time, this party has led governments almost without change. The first government was headed by D. Nehru, then his daughter - I. Gandhi, then her son - R. Gandhi. After his assassination, N. Rao became the head of the government.

The first major reform of the new government was the solution of the agrarian issue. The land was given to the peasants. Supported the development of cooperation, the introduction of advanced agrotechnical methods of farming. India itself began to cope with food difficulties, although a significant part of its population is still on the verge of a half-starved existence.

India is developing along a Euro-capitalist path. A mixed economy with a strong public sector is based on competitive market relations and attraction of foreign capital.

In political development, India relies on the experience of the British parliamentary-democratic system. The principle of separation of powers, in line with European standards, is respected. There is a multi-party system in India.

However, India has many specific problems. The most acute is national-religious strife (Indo-Muslim clashes, the Sikh movement for political autonomy, Tamil separatist movements in the south, etc.). The problem of castes remains practically unchanged.

The demographic problem (high birth rate) remains a difficult problem in the country.

Pakistan was part of India. The complete Islamization of this region of the country has led to significant structural changes.

For a number of years, the Muslim League exercised political power in the region. Only in 1955 did the Constituent Assembly approve the constitution. Pakistan was declared an Islamic Republic. Unlike India, Pakistan has a presidential form of government. The government is headed by the prime minister. Both houses of parliament have limited powers. After the military coup in 1958, this tendency to limit representative bodies intensified.

In 1962 a new constitution was introduced. In 1977, the elected government of Z. Bhutto was overthrown and the military dictatorship of General Zia-ul-Haq was re-established. It was replaced by the government of B. Bhutto (daughter of Z. Bhutto). For a Muslim country, her coming to power was not traditional. Soon this government was overthrown. In 1993, B. Bhutto again headed the government.

Pakistan, like India, has taken the Eurocapitalist path, although the problem of democratization in the country is difficult to solve. In the 1970s-1980s. In Pakistan, reforms were carried out in the agricultural sector. In industry, the foundations of the state sector were created, private enterprise and foreign investment were supported.

In the course of the reforms, sharp contradictions were revealed between the eastern (Bangladesh) and western parts of the republic. This led to the eventual separation of Bangladesh from West Pakistan. Bangladesh became an independent republic.

However, the Republic of Bangladesh has not been able to overcome its economic backwardness. An attempt to solve these problems by relying on the development of the public sector and the centralization of economic management did not lead to the desired goals. In the 1980s a change of course followed, the privatization of the public sector was carried out, and the development of private enterprise was promoted. But for now, Bangladesh remains a poor country.

In the foreign policy of the Republic of Pakistan and Bangladesh, they follow different courses. Pakistan is the object of attention of the USA, Russia, China, Great Britain. After the collapse of the SEATO and CENTO military blocs, Pakistan became a member of the non-aligned movement.

7. Southwest Asia. Development features

The decolonization of Southwest Asia took the form of Britain's and France's renunciation of the mandates for Jordan, Iraq, Palestine, Syria and Lebanon during and after World War II. Somewhat later, independence was granted to the principalities of the Persian Gulf, which were under the protectorate of Great Britain. Only Aden (South Yemen) gained independence as a result of armed uprisings.

But the rivalry of the great powers here continued during the years of the Cold War. Arab-Israeli relations were especially tense in the region. The USSR staked on the Arab countries. The United States supported Israel, but at the same time took into account the strategic importance of the Arab states of the Persian Gulf - the world's main oil exporters.

During this conflict, Israel finally asserted its right to exist. This is how one of the most extraordinary phenomena in world history appeared. The people, which had long since lost their statehood, recreated it again. Despite the fact that Israel continues to have conflicting relations with the Arab world, it has emerged as a stable democratic state. A developed industry and intensive agriculture have been created in Israel. A developed economy, as well as considerable assistance from the United States and Jewish communities, allowed Israel to receive and equip hundreds of thousands of repatriates, most of whom have recently been Jews of the former USSR.

Having drawn closer to the USSR, many Arab countries tried at different times to carry out the "construction of socialism." But in most countries, a course was taken for modernization while maintaining the leading role of market relations and developing economic ties with the West. At the same time, the public sector was seen as an important tool for such modernization. Turkey advanced the furthest in this regard, having begun the transition to modernization as early as the 1930s.

In a peculiar form, the Arab monarchies of the Persian Gulf (Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia) carried out modernization, which became major oil exporters since the 1970s. dramatically increased their income. Over time, these countries created their own financial institutions. Countries began to manage their own capital. In these countries, modern infrastructure, transport, communications, capacities of the oil and gas processing industry have been created, agriculture has been modernized. But traditional relations are strong in these countries. Life here is regulated by the norms of medieval Islamic law. Absolute monarchies are preserved here, not limited by any representative bodies. This combination of modernity and tradition is made possible primarily by maintaining the overall high standard of living of the local population, as well as the widespread use of foreign rather than local labor in industry and services.

Iran, occupied in 1941 by Great Britain and the USSR, was in a state of instability for a long time. Only by the 50s. 1960th century Shah of the country Mohammed Reza Pahlavi managed to stabilize the situation in the country. In the XNUMXs he began the process of modernizing the country. These reforms broke the traditional way of life in the country. This caused social tension.

The Muslim clergy became the voice of discontent. It, headed by Ayatollah R. Khomeini (the highest cleric), opposed the reforms. R. Khomeini initially had a negative attitude towards the processes of modernization, believing that they contradict Islam. In 1963 he called for the overthrow of the Shah. He was exiled to neighboring Iraq, and then settled in Paris.

In 1979, the shah was overthrown, and the Islamic revolution won in the country. The Islamic State was headed by R. Khomeini. In the countries of the East, the trend towards the construction of secular states has already become stronger. The revolution in Iran began to move away from this principle. In Iran, the norms of Islamic law were restored. Non-religious and national parties were banned. The desire to revive ancient Islamic traditions has been called Islamic fundamentalism. Its appearance testifies to the complexity of the modernization process in Eastern countries.

8. Least developed countries. What lies ahead for them?

The most economically backward region of the world is represented by the states of Tropical Africa.

By the time these countries gained independence, most of the population was concentrated in the traditional sector. The modern sector was small and in most cases almost unrelated to the traditional one. Modernization in these countries has led to the fact that the rate of destruction of the traditional sector significantly outstripped the rate of creation of the modern one. The resulting "surplus" population found no use for itself. This extremely strained the social situation in the region. These problems were exacerbated by a sharply increased population growth rate.

The new ruling elite of African countries sought first of all to put an end to the most egregious signs of backwardness. These were unsanitary conditions, lack of access of the population to modern medicine. Enormous funds were allocated for this. Assistance from international organizations was sent there as well. These measures led to a sharp reduction in mortality. The birth rate has increased. This created the conditions for an unprecedented rate of population growth, in which Africa ranks first in the world.

The national question remains a problem in this region. African countries are characterized by ethnic diversity. Independence in Africa was gained not by nations, but by colonial territories. The borders of many African states, established by the colonial powers, are artificial. As a result, some large peoples (for example, the Fulani) are separated by state borders. In such conditions, with economic insolvency, it can be very difficult to keep civil peace. Therefore, many African states are characterized by interethnic, interethnic conflicts. Often they pose a threat to the integrity of these states. So, in 1967, the Iwo people in Eastern Nigeria announced their separation and the creation of an independent state. The territorial integrity of Nigeria was then managed to be preserved. Ethnic violence continues in Sudan, Liberia.

The complex ethnic composition of African states gives rise to another feature of political life - tribalism. Tribalism means adherence to ethnic isolation, in this case all socio-economic relations are refracted through ethnic ones.

All this left its mark on the political development of the countries of Tropical Africa. The absence of civil peace led to the failure of the first post-independence attempts to create democratic states. Soon, authoritarian regimes were established in these countries, relying primarily on the army. The political struggle in Africa for a long time took the form of periodic military coups and counter-coups. Political instability, of course, complicates the solution of economic problems.

In many countries, modernization was carried out in the form of "building socialism" (in Ghana, Guinea, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Congo). The struggle for economic independence in these countries often took the form of abandoning the production of traditional "colonial" goods. As a result, countries lost a reliable source of foreign currency. Over time, the relative prosperity of those countries that have maintained or increased their export potential has been revealed. These are exporters of oil (Nigeria, Gabon), copper (Zaire, Zambia), tea and coffee (Kenya), etc.

In the 1980s Sub-Saharan Africa faced new challenges. Their external debt grew at a high rate. Urgent measures were needed to save the economy. All forces were directed to the cultivation of export potential. With the assistance of international financial organizations, the restructuring of the economy began.

Countries had to abandon the systematic management of the economy and the strengthening of the public sector. The establishment of market relations began. These measures led to some economic recovery.

In order to prevent interstate conflicts, African countries agreed to adhere to the principle of respect for appropriate borders, which was included in the Charter of the Organization of African Unity (OAU).

List of used literature

1. Alekseev V. S., Trifonova N. O. History of the Middle Ages.

2. Becker KF History of the ancient world. M.: Olma-Press, 2001.

3. Wheeler R. Yu. History of the ancient world. M.: Respublika, 1999.

4. World History: A Textbook for High Schools / Ed. G. B. Polyak, A. N. Markova. M., 1997.

5. Glaukov I. D. The ancient world. Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 1998.

6. Evdokimova A. A. Early modern history. The era of the Reformation. Rostov-on-Don, 2004.

7. History of the ancient world / Ed. O. F. D'KONOVA Moscow: Nauka, 1989.

8. The history of modern times in Europe and America: 1945-1990: Textbook / Ed. E. F. Yaskova. M., 1993.

9. History of the Middle Ages: Textbook: In 2 volumes / Ed. S. D. Skazkina. M., 1977.

10. Culturology: Textbook / Ed. A. A. Radugina. M., 2000.

11. Latyshev VV Essays on Greek Philosophers / Ed. E. V. Nikityuk. St. Petersburg: Aliteya, 1997.

12. Manykin A. N. Modern and recent history of the countries of Western Europe and America. M., 2004.

13. World in the twentieth century: Textbook for 10-11 cells. educational institutions. M., 1997.

14. Yastrebitskaya A. L. Medieval culture and the city in the new historical science: Textbook. M., 1995.

Authors: Anna Barysheva, Irina Tkachenko, Oksana Ovchinnikova

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Summer is a time for relaxation and travel, but often the heat can turn this time into an unbearable torment. Meet a new product from Sony - the Reon Pocket 5 mini-air conditioner, which promises to make summer more comfortable for its users. Sony has introduced a unique device - the Reon Pocket 5 mini-conditioner, which provides body cooling on hot days. With it, users can enjoy coolness anytime, anywhere by simply wearing it around their neck. This mini air conditioner is equipped with automatic adjustment of operating modes, as well as temperature and humidity sensors. Thanks to innovative technologies, Reon Pocket 5 adjusts its operation depending on the user's activity and environmental conditions. Users can easily adjust the temperature using a dedicated mobile app connected via Bluetooth. Additionally, specially designed T-shirts and shorts are available for convenience, to which a mini air conditioner can be attached. The device can oh ... >>

Energy from space for Starship 08.05.2024

Producing solar energy in space is becoming more feasible with the advent of new technologies and the development of space programs. The head of the startup Virtus Solis shared his vision of using SpaceX's Starship to create orbital power plants capable of powering the Earth. Startup Virtus Solis has unveiled an ambitious project to create orbital power plants using SpaceX's Starship. This idea could significantly change the field of solar energy production, making it more accessible and cheaper. The core of the startup's plan is to reduce the cost of launching satellites into space using Starship. This technological breakthrough is expected to make solar energy production in space more competitive with traditional energy sources. Virtual Solis plans to build large photovoltaic panels in orbit, using Starship to deliver the necessary equipment. However, one of the key challenges ... >>

Random news from the Archive Motherboards based on the H81 chipset from Gigabyte 01.09.2013 Gigabyte has offered users motherboards based on the H81 chipset for Haswell processors. Recall that earlier boards based on the Z87 chipset for enthusiasts were announced, and now on the H81, aimed at entry-level users. The most interesting thing is that there is support for 4K resolution via HDMI or DisplayPort, the On / Off Charge function has been added, which allows you to charge your smartphone or tablet even during sleep mode or the computer is turned off (software shutdown). The boards implement the unique GIGABYTE UEFI DualBIOS technology, which consists in the fact that the board contains two microcircuits with recorded copies of the BIOS. This helps protect the BIOS microcode from damage. The causes of damage can be viruses, failed PC components, overclocking errors and voltage drops at the time of updating the BIOS. The LAN and USB ports are equipped with enhanced ESD protection. Each port is paired with a special protective filter that can withstand severe ESD, protecting the system from power surges and during thunderstorms, according to Gigabyte. The company says that the new products use only solid capacitors and Low RDS (on) field-effect transistors with reduced channel resistance, capable of operating at high temperatures for more than 50 hours. The H81 line consists of eight motherboards, four of which you can already purchase in online stores (GA-H81-D3, GA-H81M-S2PV, GA-H81M-S2PH, GA-H81M-DS2).

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