Chapter 7. New history of Europe and America

1. By what criteria was the periodization of the history of the New Age?

Modern times open the most important historical epoch in the history of Western civilization, when in the course of the most complex socio-political processes its modern appearance was gradually formed.

The term "new history" appeared in social and political thought as early as the Renaissance, when, while comprehending the development of human civilization, humanist thinkers proposed a three-part division of history (ancient, medieval, and new). This concept is firmly entrenched in historical science. To date, new history is understood as the process of formation and establishment of bourgeois relations as the basis of Western civilization.

The new historical period has its own periodization, which reflects the changes taking place in society during this period of time.

Historians of different schools interpret the question of the periodization of modern history in different ways. In Russian historiography, its beginning is associated with the English Revolution, which broke out in the middle of the XNUMXth century. and became a vivid symptom of the crisis of feudal relations. This revolution became the starting point of a broader process - the modernization of English society, which created the basis for the industrial revolution. This process, in turn, created the economic foundation of the future industrial society. And the fact that England entered this path earlier than others ensured her unconditional and long-term leadership in world affairs, which continued until the XNUMXth century. England has become a kind of standard, which was equal to all other countries that were on the periphery of Western civilization.

Of course, modernization (the transition of society to a more developed state) is a long and complex process, during which, on the basis of industrialization, changes cover all aspects of society: the economy, politics, and spiritual life. Thanks to the completion of the industrial revolution, manual labor is mechanized, technological processes are becoming more complex, and the division of labor is deepening. In the political field, modernization is manifested in the democratization of state and public life. The power of kings and emperors is limited by constitutions and parliaments, and in a number of countries the republican state system wins. The principles of the rule of law and civil society are being strengthened, and individual rights are being expanded. In the field of culture, the process of modernization leads to the strengthening of the rational principles of life, the further secularization of consciousness. In the course of modernization, the birth and development of an industrial society takes place.

It should be emphasized that the process of destruction of traditional society was uneven. In England and France, the formation of an industrial society took place evolutionarily in Germany, Italy, the USA due to targeted reforms, in countries far from the center (Latin America, Spain), modernization processes spread very limitedly.

The English Revolution marked the beginning of modern European history. But in historiography no less debatable is the question of determining its upper limit. In Soviet times, the point of view prevailed, according to which the period of modern history ended in 1917, when a socialist revolution took place in Russia, which opened a new era in the development of mankind. Domestic historians proceeded from the theory of imperialism developed by V. I. Lenin, which substantiated the inevitability of the transition to a more perfect and just type of society - socialism.

But real life turned out to be more complex and diverse than it seemed at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. New factors appeared that had an exceptionally serious impact on the development of Western civilization. It turned out that bourgeois society has not exhausted in the twentieth century. reserves for further progress. On the other hand, the building of a socialist society also encountered many problems along the way.

Therefore, at the present stage, the upper limit of modern history ends at the turn of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. - the period when the entry of the leading Western countries into the phase of industrial society was basically completed.

2. What were the prerequisites, stages, results of the bourgeois revolution in England?

Of great importance for the victory of capitalism over the feudal system was the victory of the English bourgeois revolution in the middle of the XNUMXth century.

The coexistence of two socio-economic structures (feudal and emerging bourgeois) increased the conflict potential of English society. But most clearly this confrontation was seen on religious grounds. In England there were people who were not satisfied with the existing order of things. They sought to restructure society, to change the relationship between society and government.

England at that time was an absolute monarchy. Since 1625, it was headed by the representative of the Stuart dynasty, Charles I. His sole rule caused growing discontent in various sectors of society, primarily among the gentry (noble landowners), the merchant bourgeoisie, and the owners of manufactories. Almost all representatives of the emerging bourgeoisie were not satisfied with the financial policy of the royal government, the growing tax burden. Irritation was also caused by the way these funds were spent. For the most part, they went not to serve the real state interests of the country, but to cover the exorbitant expenses of the court. Irritated by the foreign policy of Charles I, seeking to improve relations with England's worst enemy - Catholic Spain.

The House of Commons of the English Parliament became the center of social discontent, and Puritanism (an English variety of Protestantism) became the ideological basis of the protest. The conflict between the royal dynasty and the English Parliament was the main cause of the revolution.

In 1928, Parliament presented its claims to the King in the "Petition of Right", which defended the traditional rights and freedoms of the British. The monarch at first accepted the conditions of parliament, but soon changed his policy: he dissolved parliament and ruled alone until 1640.

The establishment of the "solid" power of the king did not bring peace to the country. The king, by his policy, did not contribute to the reduction of the protest potential of society. The situation worsened during the war waged by England in Scotland. During this period, the requirements for convening parliament were updated.

On November 3, the new parliament met. It went down in history under the name of the Long Parliament, the convocation of which is considered to be the beginning of the revolution, since the deputies did not hide the fact that they would seek to limit the arbitrariness of the court.

These events split the country into two opposing camps: royalists - supporters of royal power - and supporters of parliament.

In the parliament itself, by 1641, there were disagreements that were most clearly manifested during the discussion of the program document - the "Great Remonstrance". Consisting of 204 articles, it contained a detailed list of the king's abuses and put forward a demand to establish the king's rule under the control of parliament. The king was outraged by the attack on his rights. In 1642 he declared war on parliament. The civil war broke out in the country.

At first, success in it accompanied the king. But by 1644, a turning point was outlined in the course of hostilities. This was due to the name of Oliver Cromwell, who led the parliamentary army. The outcome of the war was determined in the battle near the village of Naseby in June 1945. The King was forced to leave England. The civil war ended with the victory of Parliament.

A moderate grouping of Presbyterians, after a series of transformations in the country, strove for political stability. But the radical representatives of the Presbyterians - the Independents, who were supported by the revolutionary army, believed that the changes needed to be expanded, not limited only to satisfying the interests of large owners, but of all trade and financial strata. Even more radical demands were put forward by the Levellers (equalizers), whose recognized leader was J. Lilburn. Disputes between the various factions of Parliament intensified. The king took advantage of this. In February 1648, civil war broke out again in the country. It ended with the victory of Parliament. In 1649 the king was executed, and in May 1649 England became a republic.

In 1660, the restoration of the monarchy took place in England. But it was no longer an absolute monarchy, as before, but a constitutional one.

3. What were the essence and consequences of the industrial revolution in England?

As a result of the victory of the revolution of the seventeenth century. In England, the capitalist system in agriculture began to develop rapidly, and a revolution began in industrial production.

The ideas of a republican structure, people's rule, equality of all before the law have been developed in the country. The proclaimed political principles and the new economic order formed the basis of a new industrial civilization.

In the eighteenth century English agriculture successfully fed cities and industrial towns. Large landownership created the conditions for an increase in grain production, which led to a decrease in grain prices. The growth of the urban population supported the demand for agricultural products. The rise of agriculture influenced the development of industry.

The industrial revolution began in light industry. Here, replacing manual labor with machines required less capital investment and brought quick financial returns. The invention of the steam engine, another new technology, dramatically expanded production capabilities. The flow of improvements, the accumulation of huge funds required a different organization of production. Manufactory was replaced by a factory - large-scale machine production, designed to make a profit.

The industrial revolution had not only a technical, but also a social side. In the course of the transformations, two main classes of industrial society were formed: the industrial bourgeoisie and hired workers. These two new social groups had to find their place in the old social structure and develop rules for their relationship with each other. This process was not easy, stretched out for many decades, its dynamics determined the main parameters of the development of society.

The Industrial Revolution changed the face of England. Large industrial centers arose (Manchester, Birmingham, Sheffield). By the end of the XVIII century. Already a quarter of the population lived in cities. Transport infrastructure developed rapidly: a network of canals was built throughout the country, paved roads were built. The formation of the internal market, which was based on a solid industrial base, was completed. It was in the industrial sector that the main part of the national wealth was now created.

The way of life and working conditions that developed during the industrial revolution did not suit everyone in the country. Relations between the owners of industrial enterprises and the hired workers who worked there were rather complicated. During that period, the degree of exploitation of workers was high. This situation gave rise to spontaneous protest.

During the industrial revolution, the first mass movement of workers arose - the movement of machine destroyers. This movement gained its greatest scope in 1811-1813. Its participants called themselves Luddites, after the worker Ned Ludd, who, as it were, was the first to break his machine.

The Luddite movement expanded rapidly. The authorities saw it as a threat to the existing legal order. Already in 1769, Parliament passed a law on the death penalty for damage to cars.

The persecution of the Luddites did not solve the problems - the situation of the workers remained extremely difficult. Therefore, there was a desire to change it. The unwillingness of employers to meet the demands of the workers fueled the conflict that destabilized society. Convinced of the inefficiency of Luddism, the workers began to look for other ways to fight for their rights. This is how the idea of ​​creating trade unions (trade unions) was born, which gradually occupied their niche in the structure of society and turned into the main form of organization of workers.

The Industrial Revolution, which began in England, could not be kept within national boundaries. More and more countries were included in the sphere of the industrial revolution. In each of them he went at a different pace, had his own specifics. However, the end result was the same: the industrial revolution radically undermined the foundations of the feudal order, creating the foundation of a new "industrial" society in Europe.

In the eighteenth century in the New World, a modification of European civilization is also emerging. Thus, within the framework of a single Western civilization, various forms of bourgeois progress were formed.

4. What were the results of the struggle for the independence of the British colonies? How was the United States of America formed?

The first English settlements on the territory of the modern United States appeared at the beginning of the XNUMXth century.

By the middle of the eighteenth century. There were three types of colonies: New England, South and Mid-Atlantic. Politically, they had a lot in common. Most of the power belonged to the governor, appointed by the English king. Many had colonial assemblies, although their rights were limited.

The most developed in socio-economic terms were the colonies in New England. In the southern colonies, the labor of slaves brought from Africa was widely used. The mid-Atlantic colonies became the center of grain farming and trade. Thus, the financial resources of the colonies accumulated in New York and Philadelphia.

By the middle of the eighteenth century. a single internal market began to form in the colonies, trade relations developed. The settlers developed a single historical destiny, the common language was English. This changed the nature of the relationship between the colonies and the mother country. Britain tried to rigidly tie the colonies to itself. Until the middle of the eighteenth century. the parties managed to avoid conflict situations.

But the situation changed dramatically after the Seven Years' War, which most researchers regard as the starting point of the confrontation that led to the formation of the United States. During the war of the British against the French colonists, the British had to turn to the help of the inhabitants of their American colonies. Those willingly helped the British, believing that, by ousting the French, they would gain access to new lands. But the inhabitants of the English colonies were not allowed to enter the lands that had gone to England after the war. Moreover, England passed a number of laws restricting the rights of colonists. The latter launched a protest campaign against the oppression of rights. The British government also did not give up trying to maintain control over the development of its colonies. Then the idea of ​​a boycott of English goods arose among the colonists. In 1773, the people of Boston attacked English ships in port and threw bales of taxed tea overboard. This event became known as the Boston Tea Party. In response, measures were taken that outraged the colonists. In 1774, the 1st Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, in which representatives from all the colonies took part. But at this stage, the colonists did not yet seek to bring matters to a break with England. But in England, the attitude towards the initiatives of the colonists was different. In April 1775, armed clashes began between the British troops and detachments of colonists, ready to defend their rights with weapons in their hands. Thus began the War of Independence. The colonists entrusted the creation of a regular army to J. Washington, who had a reputation as a capable military leader.

The positions of the supporters of a break with England were strengthened. As a result, on July 4, 1776, the Congress, sitting in Philadelphia, adopted the Declaration of Separation from England. The declaration proclaimed the creation of an independent state - the United States of America (USA). Its author was T. Jefferson, one of the prominent figures in the American Revolution.

The Declaration of Independence proclaimed the principle of popular sovereignty as the basis of the state system, affirmed the rights of the people to revolt against the enslavers, to life, freedom, equality. July 4th is celebrated in the United States as Independence Day.

However, it was not enough to proclaim independence - it had to be won. The fate of the young state was decided on the battlefields. The colonists were opposed by the regular army of the British. In 1777, in the Battle of Saratoga, the Americans managed to break the resistance of the British. In 1781, the American army inflicted a decisive defeat on the British at the battle of Yorktown, which predetermined the outcome of the civil war. In 1783, a peace treaty was signed, according to which England recognized the formation of the United States and the expansion of their territories.

In 1787, in Philadelphia, a special meeting of state representatives drafted the US Constitution, which consolidated the republican system, headed by the president of the country. George Washington became the first head of the USA.

5. What was different about the colonial period in Latin America?

By the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. in the New World, several types of colonial possessions were formed. The Spaniards were the first to begin the development of South and Central America. By the middle of the seventeenth century they owned vast estates from California to Tierra del Fuego. Almost simultaneously with them, the Portuguese settled on the coast of modern Brazil. Then the British, French and Dutch joined the process of colonization. Thus, most of the Western European countries were involved in this complex process, which in the long run had a huge impact on the entire world history.

By the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. in the New World, several types of colonial possessions were formed. Latin America was dominated by the Spanish model of colonialism. Naturally, Spain, like any other metropolis, sought to transfer its rules and customs to overseas colonial possessions. In Spain, the "Royal Council of the Indies" was established, which exercised control over the entire administrative and economic life of the Spanish colonies. On the territory controlled by Spain, a system of viceroyalties was created, which were ruled by viceroys appointed by Madrid. They owned all the military and civil power in the entrusted territory.

In the Spanish colonies in America, there were several ways. The feudal system dominated, which was significantly supplemented by slave labor on plantations and mines. Elements of capitalist relations appeared in the cities.

The policy of the Spanish authorities in the field of agrarian relations was inconsistent. On the one hand, it kept the Indian community as an administrative and tax unit. On the other hand, another economic institution became widespread - the encomienda, that is, the estate provided to the Spanish noble settlers, who were transferred to the care of the community Indians. They had to work on this estate, and their owners had to take care of introducing the Indians to Christian values ​​​​and pay a poll tax for them to the treasury.

The Spanish colonists brutally exploited the Indians. Their numbers steadily declined, resulting in vast vacant lands that were expropriated by large landowners for their own benefit. This was how the active formation of a layer of large owners - landowners, who gradually began to occupy leading positions in colonial society, proceeded. Their interests often began to diverge from the course pursued by the royal government in the colonies.

It should be emphasized that the Spanish regime failed to develop a clear long-term strategy for the economic development of its colonies. His policy in this area was full of contradictions. For the Spanish elite, these territories were primarily a source of huge superprofits due to the export of precious metals from there. However, this work stimulated the colonists to create a certain infrastructure on the ground. But people connected to its functioning began to show dissatisfaction with the guardianship of the Spanish authorities. In this environment, separatist sentiments gradually arose, they turned into one of the sources of social tension in the colonies.

An important feature of the colonial society in Latin America was that in it social differences were intertwined with racial and ethnic ones. The Spanish colonists felt more privileged. Below them were the Creoles - the descendants of Spanish settlers born in the colonies. In this environment, those tendencies were born that led in the long term to the formation of a Latin American community.

The main part of the population of the Spanish colonies in America were mestizos (various variants of mixing whites, Indians and blacks). The lower rungs of the social hierarchy were Indians and Negroes. Despite severe social inequality, all these groups interacted with each other, formed a qualitatively new civilization - Latin American, which since the XNUMXth century. entered into a complex relationship with European civilization.

6. What was the impetus for the start of the French Revolution?

The initial impetus to the revolutionary events was given by the Seven Years' War, which demonstrated the weakening of the power of royal France. The country had to look for ways to more effectively manage, solve economic and financial problems. Attempts to at least partially solve these problems were made by the Minister of Finance of Louis XVIII, Jean Turgot, but he could not significantly change the feudal system that prevailed in the country.

Meanwhile, the situation continued to worsen. In the second half of the 80s. XVIII century the country was experiencing a commercial and industrial crisis caused by the influx of cheap British goods. For several years in a row there was a crop failure in the country. To avoid bankruptcy, the king decided to tax the privileged classes. But in order to give the proposed measures legitimacy, Louis XVI had to convene the Estates General, which had not met since 1614.

On May 5, 1789, the King opened the Estates General at the Palace of Versailles. He ordered new taxes to be approved. But representatives of the third estate did not want to play the role of extras, to approve the proposals of the king. On June 17, the deputies of the third estate declared themselves representatives of the whole nation - the National Assembly, the decisions of which even the king himself cannot change. Representatives of the first and second estates joined these deputies. They were also ready to do away with absolutism.

The indignant king ordered to close the meeting room. But the deputies of the third estate decided not to stop fighting until the Constitution for France was created.

After some confusion, the king launched a counteroffensive. The royal troops began to gather in Paris. A rumor began to spread around the city that government troops would be concentrated in the fortress-prison - the Bastille. All estates hated this symbol of royal arbitrariness.

On July 14, armed citizens besieged the Bastille and took it. After that, the political initiative passed into the hands of the National Assembly. On August 26, 1879, the deputies of the assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, in which the general principles for building a new society were proclaimed.

A new round of political struggle began, the center of which was the National Assembly. At first, moderate monarchist-constitutionalists dominated there. Their leaders were Marquis J. Lafayette and Count O. de Mirabeau. A small group of left deputies was headed by M. Robespierre, the future leader of the Jacobins.

By September 1791, the preparation of the first Constitution of France was completed. Executive power remained with the king and the ministers appointed by him. The highest legislative power was concentrated in the unicameral Legislative Assembly. The judicial system was based on the election of judges and the participation of jurors in the proceedings.

All this did not suit the king, plans for a coup were hatched in his circles. But, being in revolutionary Paris, there was little the king could do. Then he made an unsuccessful attempt to escape from Paris. This event accelerated the split of the revolutionary forces and strengthened the position of the opponents of the monarchy. In the Legislative Assembly, this opposition group represented the department of the Gironde in the predominant majority, so its members were dubbed the Girondins.

In the spring of 1792, the threat of foreign occupation loomed over France. The war began with Austria and Prussia. The Legislative Assembly adopted a decree proclaiming "The Fatherland is in danger!". Volunteers began to form battalions of the revolutionary army. Its radical elements demanded the king's arrest, accusing him of links with the anti-French coalition. They sought to establish a republican system in France. The implementation of these plans was facilitated by the uprising that broke out on August 10, 1792 in Paris. The king and his entourage were arrested. Power in the capital passed into the hands of the Commune.

Meanwhile, the situation on the fronts continued to deteriorate. But on September 20, the revolutionary army at the battle of Valmy managed to defeat the interventionists and go on the offensive. On September 21, 1792, the National Convention opened in Paris, and the next day France was proclaimed a republic.

7. What were the stages in the development of the revolutionary movement in France?

The revolution brought about a new balance of power in the National Convention. His left wing was made up of the Jacobins, led by M. Robespierre, J. J. Danton, L. Saint-Just. Their main opponents were the Girondins. Most of the deputies did not have a clear political orientation, for which he was called "bog". The left forces were in the minority, but the strategic initiative increasingly passed to them. At their insistence, the king was put on trial and sentenced to death. On January 21, 1793, he was executed.

Among the left forces, an even more radical group of the so-called rabid (J. Roux, J. Varlet) emerged, who demanded harsh repressive measures against all bourgeois circles in France. Such sentiments led to the consolidation of all opponents of the revolution. In 1793, the internal counter-revolution tried to take revenge. In the north-west of France, in the Vendée, an uprising of counter-revolutionary forces broke out.

The Jacobins tried to mobilize all their forces to fight the internal and external enemies of the republic. At their insistence, the Revolutionary Tribunal was created - a court with emergency powers. This act marked the beginning of the transition to a policy of revolutionary terror. In April 1793, the Committee of Public Salvation was created, to which all the powers to wage war and fight counter-revolution were gradually transferred.

At first, the tightening of the revolutionary regime helped the Jacobins in the fight against their opponents, including the Girondins. But the situation continued to be an emergency, and this prevented the Jacobins from realizing their socio-economic plans.

On June 2, 1793, a new popular uprising broke out in Paris, which led to the fall of the Girondins. Power in the country passed completely into the hands of the Jacobins. On June 24, a new constitution was adopted. The first place among the administrative structures of the state was taken by the Committee of Public Safety, headed by M. Robespierre.

But as the confidence in the irreversibility of the initiated revolutionary changes grew in society, the desire to clearly define what the new France would be like grew. If the struggle against internal and external enemies united the Jacobins, then the need for a more precise definition of social guidelines introduced seeds of discord into their camp. Within the Jacobins themselves, divisions quickly grew. Among the deputies of the Convention, a conspiracy against Robespierre matured. July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor on the revolutionary calendar) Robespierre was arrested and executed without trial. The Jacobin dictatorship fell. A new stage began in the history of France.

The Thermidorian coup did not mean the restoration of the monarchy. It symbolized the rejection of the most radical version of the reorganization of society and the transfer of power into the hands of more moderate elements. In autumn, another Constitution was prepared, which reformed the legislature. Now it belongs to the bicameral Legislative Assembly. The convention was abolished. The executive power was concentrated in the hands of the Directory, consisting of 5 people.

The fate of the Directory increasingly depended on success in the fight against the anti-French coalition. It was obvious that the restoration of the "old order" was possible only from outside; this automatically increased the role of the army in revolutionary France. In this milieu, the revolutionary General Napoleon Bonaparte began to enjoy increasing influence. Fame brought him brilliant victories in Italy.

On November 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire according to the revolutionary calendar), he was appointed commander of the troops of the capital district. The next day he dissolved the Legislative Assembly and abolished the Directory. Power passed to the three consuls, and in essence to Napoleon.

Thus ended the period of violent social upheavals that radically changed the face of France. During this time, the foundations of the feudal-absolutist system were destroyed to the ground, and conditions were created for the development of bourgeois relations. The revolutionary events in France were of enormous historical proportions; they opened a new chapter in the history of human civilization. These events destroyed the old order not only in France, but throughout Europe. Almost the entire nineteenth century passed under the banner of the revolutionary struggle in France.

8. How did Napoleon's wars go? What were the preconditions for the crisis and collapse of the Empire?

In 1793, revolutionary France was able to turn the tide of the war in its favor and remove the threat to its sovereignty. The opportunity opened up for the new France to move along a revolutionary path. But France did not stop at the tasks of implementing revolutionary changes within its own borders. She began to seek to export her valuables outside the country.

With the coming to power in France of the Directory, the role of external expansion intensified even more. Actually, the fate of the Directory largely depended on the success of the French army. The role of the army was strengthened even more after Napoleon came to power. The new head of France did not encroach on the main gains of the revolution. But he significantly expanded the powers of the executive branch. Gradually, all power was concentrated in the hands of Napoleon - the first consul, elected for 10 years. The other two consuls had an advisory vote. Legislative power essentially turned into an appendage of the executive. Its functions were reduced to the approval of legislative initiatives, which were introduced by the first consul and the government accountable to him.

At the time of Napoleon's coming to power, the internal situation of France was difficult. Realizing that the increase in taxes would not add to his popularity, Napoleon took the path of increasing indirect taxes, reducing taxes on capital. These measures stimulated the industrial development of the country, the process of introducing machine technology into production. It was at this time that the industrial revolution began in France.

Napoleon paid great attention to the development of foreign trade, seeing in it a source of spreading French influence and replenishing the treasury.

Napoleon had a plan to reorganize all relations in Europe. He began to lean towards the idea of ​​the unification of Europe and its construction on imperial principles.

France resumed another round of hostilities in 1805, when a third anti-French coalition was formed, which included England, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples.

Napoleon intended to strike the first blow against England. However, in the naval battle at Cape Trafalgar, the Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated by the British under the command of Admiral G. Nelson, and Napoleon had to part with his plans to occupy the British Isles.

Then he directed the main blow against Austria, seeking to strengthen his position in the center of Europe. Austria was conquered. In Germany, on the site of numerous states under the auspices of France, the Confederation of the Rhine was created. In 1806, Napoleon announced a blockade of England, but this move caused irritation throughout Europe, which enjoys cheap English goods.

The militaristic policy of Napoleon led to disproportions in the development of France. In this regard, Napoleon took a break in the war and went to the signing of the Tilsit peace. Meanwhile, anti-Napoleonic sentiments were growing in Europe itself, manifesting themselves most clearly in Germany and Spain. Europe did not take measures to transform it by force. In France itself, dissatisfaction with the expansionist policies of Napoleon grew. However, Napoleon himself stubbornly sought to establish complete control over the continent.

Russia began to appear to him as the main obstacle on this path. By 1812, the contradictions between the two great powers reached a critical level. On June 24, 1812, the French army began the war against Russia. The Patriotic War began in Russia. It ended with the complete defeat of Napoleon's army and its expulsion from the territory of Russia.

The defeat of Napoleon in Russia stimulated the growth of anti-French sentiment in Europe. March 31, 1814 Allied troops entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Fr. Elbe. True, he made an attempt to return to power, but on June 8, 1815, at Waterloo, he was finally defeated. The long period of almost uninterrupted wars that began as early as 1792 and engulfed all of Europe was over.

Such events did not pass without a trace for Europe. During these years, the roots of feudalism were cut in Western and Central Europe, and bourgeois relations began to actively develop.

9. How was the "Viennese system" created and how was the Holy Alliance formed?

After the defeat of Napoleon, the European states strove for a stable and lasting peace. However, guarantees were needed that would securely fix the new world order and make it possible to avoid new military clashes.

Among the leaders of European states, the idea of ​​convening an all-European congress has matured, where problems of post-war settlement in Europe could be discussed.

The congress opened at the end of 1814 in Vienna and lasted until July 1815. In the course of complex discussions, the congress participants managed to agree on general principles on which the future model of international relations could be built.

Firstly, it was decided to create a barrier around France, which could isolate her if the situation worsened. Secondly, it was decided that all members of the anti-French coalition should be compensated for their participation in the fight against Napoleon. Thirdly, the European states agreed to maintain the balance of power that had developed after the defeat of Napoleon.

On the basis of these general principles, concrete questions of post-war settlement were decided. So, France was deprived of all the conquered territories, and its borders returned to the borders of 1790. Austria regained Lombardy, received Venice. The Rhineland, Pomerania and Northern Saxony joined Prussia. England expanded its colonial empire. Russia received part of the Duchy of Warsaw, and its early acquisitions - Bessarabia and Finland - were also recognized. The territory of modern Belgium was included in the Netherlands. Schleswig and Holstein went to Denmark. The Papal States and the Kingdom of Neopolitan were restored. The possessions of the Sardinian kingdom expanded somewhat. The union of Sweden and Norway was sanctioned.

In addition to territorial issues, a number of economic and diplomatic issues were considered at the Congress of Vienna.

A special place at the Congress was occupied by the problem associated with the proposal of the Russian emperor to create the Holy Alliance - an organization of monarchical states to protect Europe from revolutionary ideas.

The model of international relations created in Vienna had both strengths and weaknesses. She proved to be quite stable and stable. The mechanism of international relations created in Vienna made it possible to develop solutions on the basis of which the settlement of disputed issues was achieved. But the organizers of the Vienna system took little account of the influence of the ideas of the French Revolution on European civilization. The principle of maintaining a balance of power in Europe increasingly came into conflict with the liberal idea, with the growth of national self-awareness. The Vienna system, having become stable, turned out to be static. But in any system, changes occur, new factors appear that undermine the foundations of the system.

In the colonies of the leading European powers, actions began that led to the undermining of the capabilities of the colonial empires. Revolutions broke out in European states. All this undermined the possibilities of the Vienna system, threatened to draw Europe into a new series of wars.

New problems were generated by the industrial revolution, the solution of which depended on the internal stability of European states, and, consequently, their ability to influence the international situation.

In the middle of the XIX century. another wave of revolutionary uprisings swept through Europe, giving rise to a whole series of new conflicts in the sphere of international relations. The issues of German unification and state building in Italy became more acute. This meant that the period of sustainable development of the Vienna system was coming to an end.

In 1853 another aggravation of the Eastern Question took place. Russia stepped up support for the Orthodox peoples that were part of the Ottoman Empire. Supported by England and France, the Turkish Sultan decided to go to war with Russia. Thus, in Europe there was a clash of three great powers.

The war, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1856, was an important milestone in the process of restructuring the Vienna system. The weakening of Russia upset the pan-European balance of power. This narrowed the possibilities of the Vienna system in maintaining stability on the continent.

10. What were the main stages of the post-war development of the leading Western European countries (20-50 years of the nineteenth century)?

After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, a contradictory situation developed in Europe. On the one hand, the political elites of European states sought stability and struggle against the ideas of revolutionary transformation of the world. But keeping the world in a static state was difficult. The further development of Western civilization was carried out not only in an evolutionary, but also a revolutionary version.

After the defeat of the Empire, the revolutionary struggle did not subside in France. Here, with the support of the great European powers, the Bourbons were returned to power, who began to actively return the pre-revolutionary order.

Secret societies began to emerge in the country, aiming to overthrow the Bourbons. The Restoration regime laid the foundation for the conflict, which began to determine the dynamics of the country's further development.

Protecting the interests of only the bourgeoisie led to the radicalization of other sections of the population, primarily workers, who demanded better working conditions. As a result, Louis-Philippe, who came to power on a wave of support from bourgeois forces, had to abdicate. February 25, 1848 France was proclaimed a republic. The regime established after the Revolution was called the Second Republic. But in 1851, Louis Napoleon (Napoleon I's nephew) carried out a coup d'état and was later proclaimed emperor.

The end of the Napoleonic wars dramatically increased the international status of England. The rapidly proceeding industrial revolution gave rise to crisis situations, led to the polarization of the social structure of England, an increase in the pauperization of the population, and the enrichment of only a part of society. This led to increased social tension. The situation was aggravated by the fact that there was also no consensus in the very ruling elite of society. The old elite was not going to give up its positions to the new, bourgeois one. But in England, even radical forces did not try to solve problems in a revolutionary way. Changes occurred due to the reform of the political system of the country. The confrontation of forces resulted in a party confrontation between the main competitors - the Tory and Whig parties. The Tories rejected projects to reform the country's political system. The Whigs criticized the actions of the Tories. The change in the course of the country was seen by the Whigs in the gradual pushing of the Tories from power by peaceful means. In 1830, the Whigs won the parliamentary elections. The government was headed by C. Gray, a supporter of the modernization of the political system. But this government did not solve the labor question. As a result, a mass movement unfolded in England - the Chartist movement, which defended the demands of ordinary Englishmen. The revolutions that broke out in 1848 in a number of continental European countries played into the hands of the radical circles of the Chartist movement. But there was no revolution in England. The government managed to pacify the radicals. In addition, a long economic recovery began in the country, which removed the acuteness of many social problems. The Chartist movement died out. The development of the country went along an evolutionary path.

The revolution in France made serious adjustments to the development of the German lands. In Germany, after the Napoleonic invasion, there was a rapid growth of national consciousness. This gave Prussia a historic chance to become a leader in the unification process of the German lands. But during the reign of Napoleon, Prussia failed to resolve these issues. Prussia suffered a defeat in the war with Napoleon. This event highlighted the need to modernize the conservative Prussia. First of all, military reform was carried out in the country. This increased the possibilities of Prussia in the struggle for leadership in the German lands. After the military reform, serfdom was abolished in the country. Later, a tax reform was carried out and the secularization of church lands was carried out. Much attention was paid to the construction of the central vertical of power, which was seen as a reliable means of increasing the efficiency of the system for managing unification processes. In 1848, the Constituent Assembly was convened, which was to develop and adopt the Constitution of Prussia. But the conservative forces managed to block the speeches of the most radical forces. As a result, the conservative-protective model of the country's development retained its right to exist.

11. How did the industrial revolution end? Development of capitalism

In the nineteenth century the industrial revolution, which began in England, stepped into France, Germany, and other European countries. Huge cities and factory chimneys have transformed the continent. The Industrial Revolution also developed rapidly in the United States.

Achievements of human civilization in the nineteenth century. began to be measured by success in the development of machine production. Technological progress has become one of the main values.

England remained the most developed country in the field of industrial production. It was here that a new branch of industry arose - mechanical engineering. A rapidly developing domestic market and foreign trade were served by a developed railway network. The industrial revolution also affected the agricultural sector of the country, in which progressive methods of agriculture and new technology began to be applied.

By the end of the century, the country was on wheels. Mass production of automobiles began. The telephone and telegraph became more accessible, facilitating communication processes. Technological progress made changes in military equipment. Firearms became widely used. At the turn of the nineteenth century. electricity began to enter the life of people.

The initial capitalist development was called the era of free competition. Entrepreneurs fought for favorable conditions for the production and sale of goods. This struggle was not limited and acted as the main stimulus for the development of the economy. Economic crises became the main regulator of the spontaneous market, after they were overcome, a new rise in production began.

But the use of highly developed technology, complex technology was possible only within the framework of large production structures that began to appear in the second half of the XNUMXth century. In order to avoid intense competition among themselves, large industrialists began to negotiate prices, the quantity of products produced, and even sales markets. Thus, various organizational forms of mergers of enterprises arose - cartels, syndicates, trusts, concerns.

In the event that an industrial or financial corporation concentrated in its hands dominance in any branch of the economy, it became a monopoly. But tens of thousands of independent medium and small enterprises continued to exist in society. But the monopolistic sector of the economy became dominant.

Free competition capitalism has been replaced by monopoly capitalism. On the one hand, it made it possible to introduce new technology and increase labor productivity, but, on the other hand, the dominance of monopolies posed a threat to the free market and limited the ability of other structures to also increase production.

The industrial revolution changed the social structure of Western European society. The number of bourgeoisie and hired industrial workers increased. By the beginning of the twentieth century. they became the main social groups of industrial society. As for the main classes of traditional society - landowning nobility and peasants, their numbers decreased. But these changes took place depending on the pace of modernization of a particular country.

Thus, in England, the classical landlord and peasant economy disappeared already in the XNUMXth century. The property of seigneurs on land in France was destroyed by the revolution. The US has never had the classes of a traditional society. The landlord economy was preserved in Austria, Italy, and the German states. But after the Napoleonic wars, reforms were carried out here as well, which contributed to the development of capitalist relations in agriculture.

Modernization processes destroyed class distinctions between people. Within the leading social groups there was a process of stratification. The bourgeoisie, the working class and the peasantry were heterogeneous.

With the development of industrial society, the old aristocracy lost its leading position. Many aristocratic families went bankrupt. Gradually, the aristocracy merged with the bourgeoisie, which led to the emergence of a new "upper class". In the nineteenth century, the leading economic and political positions passed to the bourgeoisie.

12. What were the ways of economic and political development of France in the second half of the nineteenth century?

On the anniversary of the coronation of Napoleon I on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor under the name of Napoleon III.

The political regime of the Second Empire was established in the country. The new emperor enjoyed the support of the peasants, a significant part of the bourgeoisie. But among Republicans, Napoleon III was unpopular.

Napoleon III wanted to strengthen his not very popular regime with the help of military victories. France, together with England, participated in the Crimean War, and colonial wars continued in Algeria. Together with England, French troops fought in China. Many military plans cost money. Despite the successes in the economic development of the country, revolutionary ferment was growing in it. Within the country, the liberal opposition intensified, demanding the establishment of a republic.

A government crisis developed in France - the Second Empire barely held power. In this situation, Napoleon III and his entourage decided that a victorious war with Prussia could save the situation. It was supposed to prevent the unification of Germany, which was seen as a threat to France's leadership in Europe. On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. But the Franco-Prussian war ended with the complete defeat of France. The surrender of the Sedan fortress was especially tragic. It was here, near Sedan, that Napoleon III found his Waterloo. The second empire ceased to exist.

After the military defeat, the Parisian deputies, meeting in the town hall, proclaimed a republic and formed the Provisional Government of National Defense. In January 1871, this government signed an armistice with Prussia and then held elections for a National Assembly that would approve the peace treaty. According to this treaty, France was obliged to transfer Alsace and more than a third of Lorraine to Germany, as well as pay 5 billion francs in indemnity. The National Assembly approved these conditions.

The war upset the economic development of the country. This led to the intensification of the revolutionary struggle. On March 18, 1871, the Parisians opposed the current government. On March 26, elections were held for the Paris Commune, a body of city self-government. Government officials and most of the wealthy strata of the capital left Paris and moved to Versailles. The Versailles government considered the Communards to be rebels, and from the beginning of April, armed clashes began between the fighters of the Commune and the Versailles troops. On May 21, the Versaillese managed to break into Paris. On May 28, the Communards ceased resistance.

After the suppression of the Paris Commune, political reaction raged in France. The political initiative passed into the hands of the monarchists. But among their supporters there was no unity regarding the prospects for the development of the country. This saved the republic. In 1875, the National Assembly had to adopt a constitution that established a republic in France. This is how the Third Republic arose, which lasted until the Second World War.

From the end of the 1870s. the country began a period of reforms. The French people achieved the adoption of a number of democratic laws. France became the first secular state among Western European countries. The possibilities of the monarchists were gradually reduced. Republican principles were strengthened in the life of French society. The labor movement was gaining momentum in the country, and the socialists began to play an ever greater role in it. In 1880 the Labor Party was formed. The socialists J. Guesde and P. Lafargue took a great part in its formation. In 1905, the United Workers' Party was created, the leader of which was an outstanding figure in the socialist movement, J. Jaurès.

The structuring of the socialist forces changed the overall picture of the political life of the country. Instead of an alternative - a republic or a monarchy - a different perspective loomed before French society.

But along with the leftist movement in the country there were forces of reaction that fomented chauvinism and revanchism. The ideas of revenge - the return of Alsace and Lorraine, which had gone to Germany after the Franco-Prussian War - pushed the ruling circles first to prepare, and then to participate in the First World War.

13. How was the British Empire created?

The time of greatness and prosperity of England is the Victorian era, the beginning of which dates back to the 40s. nineteenth century During these years, England becomes the leading industrial country in which the processes of modernization developed most successfully. It has achieved dominance in the world market.

In this era (named after the 64-year reign of Queen Victoria), the monarchy was able to maintain order and well-being for a large part of the country's population. During the reign of Victoria, England becomes an empire, the queen receives the title of empress. Victoria raised the prestige of the monarchy. But in the country the monarchical regime was limited by the Constitution, and parliament played an important role in the political life of the country.

It is believed that it was during this period that a "complete parliamentary regime" was formed in England, based on the responsibility of the Cabinet of Ministers to Parliament.

England's foreign policy was colonial in nature. By the middle of the nineteenth century. it became a huge colonial empire, the most important part of which was India, with a population of 300 million people. British troops fought wars of conquest in Iran and Afghanistan. Colonial conquests later spread to West Africa. During these years, England actively continued the colonization of Australia and the development of Canada. The colonies served as a source of raw materials and food for England; those for whom there was no work at home went there, and this made the political situation in England calmer.

Thanks to the huge super-profits generated in the vast colonial empire, a relatively high standard of living was maintained for the majority of the population in England itself. Therefore, for the political elite of the country, a matter of paramount importance was the further strengthening of the colonial empire. In the country's parliament, two leading political forces continued to coexist - the Tory and Whig parties. In the 1860s they became known as the Conservative and Liberal parties, respectively. There were no fundamental differences between them. Both parties supported the reformist path of the country's development, but each of them responded to this call of the times in its own way. Prominent politicians of that time were the leader of the Conservatives, B. Disraeli, and the leader of the Liberals, W. Gladstone.

In the 1870s liberals and conservatives carried out reforms of the electoral law, civil service, and education through parliament. Trade unions were legalized and became increasingly involved in the political struggle. Based on them in the early twentieth century. The Workers' (Labor) Party took shape. For the first time since the Chartist movement, the English working class created its own independent political organization, standing on the positions of reformism.

The activation of the labor movement exacerbated the problem of maintaining social stability in the country. It was not clear what line of development the new political force would support - the reform of society or its radical reorganization.

The solution of this fundamental problem was complicated by the aggravation of England's old disease - the Irish question. Representatives of the Irish national liberation movement defended at that time the idea of ​​home rule (self-government) for Ireland.

In 1886, the government of England decided to introduce a gormul to Ireland, but Parliament did not pass this law. This idea ran into fierce resistance from various political forces in England. Opponents of this idea were afraid that granting Ireland self-government would stimulate erosive processes in the entire body of the empire. The prospects for the continuation of the movement of English society along the evolutionary path became more and more problematic.

By the end of the nineteenth century. the costs of expanding the British colonial empire began to be felt. English capital preferred to invest in overseas possessions, where the percentage of profit was much higher than at home, and the return on capital investment was faster. This led to the fact that the British economy itself began to feel a lack of funds for further development and modernization. This circumstance prompted to think about the future of the empire.

The First World War distracted England from solving domestic political problems.

14. Ways to unify Germany?

By decision of the Congress of Vienna, instead of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, the German Confederation was created, which included 35 sovereign monarchies and 4 free cities. Its strongest members were Austria and Prussia, competing with each other for leadership in the Union, and in the future for leadership in a single German state.

The question of the unification of the country became the main thing in the life of the Germans. To resolve this issue in a revolutionary way in Germany in the first half of the nineteenth century. failed.

The question of the unification of Germany remained the main one in the second half of the nineteenth century. After the defeat of the revolution, the path of unification became real, in which the Prussian monarchy played a leading role. But the Austrian monarchy also defended this path. The rivalry led to military conflicts and even wars, from which Prussia emerged victorious.

In the 1860s new people come to the management of Prussia. After the death of Friedrich Wilhelm IV, his brother Wilhelm I becomes king in 1861.

He valued the greatness of Prussia above all else, and to maintain it he strove to have a strong army. The king believed that the unification of the country could only take place by force of arms. To solve this problem, the king needed a strong chancellor, who in 1862 became an experienced politician Otto von Bismarck.

The Franco-Prussian war, which ended with the defeat of France and the unification of Germany, became the strongest catalyst for the unification processes in Germany. A peace treaty with France had not yet been signed, but already on January 18, 1871, the German Empire was solemnly proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. The Prussian king Wilhelm became emperor (Kaiser) of the united country.

The new state included 22 monarchies that retained their autonomy, 3 free cities - Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck. Prussia was 2/3 of the German Empire.

In the spring of 1871, the first Imperial Reichstag adopted a constitution establishing Prussia's leadership role in the empire.

Period from 1871 to 1878 was a time of active arrangement of the life of the country in the new conditions. A unified management of the country's infrastructure was created, reforms were carried out to modernize its economy. After the defeat of France, the empire received Alsace and part of Lorraine - lands that made it possible to develop heavy industry. In addition, German entrepreneurs successfully used the experience of modernization in other countries, introduced advanced technology and the latest scientific achievements. The country, being surrounded by France and Russia, continued its course towards militarization. The German Empire was becoming a powerful industrial power. It rapidly increased its share in the emerging system of the world economy.

The country's party system played an important role in the consolidation of the new state. It was its constituent components that allowed the most diverse social forces to feel their involvement in political unification processes. Political forces actively helped the Chancellor cement the foundations of the new state. But the desire of Reich Chancellor Bismarck to unify the whole of Germany on the model and likeness of Prussia gave rise to a number of internal political conflicts.

As the pace of industrialization increased, so did the labor movement. Since the mid 1870s. the influence of workers' parties begins to grow rather quickly in it. In 1875, the disparate workers' parties merged into a single Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). The influence of this party, which set the goal of creating a "free people's state", grew. Bismarck, with varying success, fought against the opposition, at the same time he tried to implement social reforms that could prevent the radicalization of the left.

Bismarck's strategic plans were interrupted by the death of Emperor Wilhelm I. In 1890, Bismarck resigned.

The new politicians who replaced Bismarck are beginning to closely link the prospects for their country's progress with expansion, with the struggle for leadership not just on a European but on a global scale. The Pan-German League played an important role in promoting these ideas. His work was patronized by the emperor himself.

15. What happened in the USA in the XNUMXth century?

After the end of the War of Independence, the territory of the United States stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi, and by the middle of the nineteenth century. it expanded to the Pacific Ocean.

Unlike the European states, the Americans built a new society almost from scratch, boldly experimented, found ways to solve many complex socio-economic problems. In a country with heterogeneous regions - North, South and West, political parties arose, which became the main tool with which the main political forces tried to embody their ideas about the development of the country.

In the 90s. XVIII century in power was the Federalist Party, which expressed the interests of the trade and financial circles of the North of the country. The main ideologist of the federalists was A. Hamilton, who served as Minister of Finance in the administration of George Washington.

His government program provided for a set of measures to encourage the development of primarily industry and transport infrastructure. The one-sided orientation of policy towards the interests of commercial and financial circles could not but irritate the representatives of agrarian America. The leader of these circles, T. Jefferson, insisted that the government take measures that contribute to the achievement of the public good. A. Hamilton won this fight. This uncompromising policy stimulated the formation of the opposition.

In 1796 presidential elections were already held on a party basis. With great difficulty, the federalist candidate, J. Adams, managed to achieve victory. He, having received power, decided to limit the activity of the opposition. This led to tension in the political situation in the country. The election of 1800 was won by opposition leader T. Jefferson, who followed the path of strengthening consensus tendencies. But he gave preference to the solution of agrarian issues.

True, the evolution of the United States has not been smooth. In 1819, an economic crisis broke out in the country. The appearance of harmony in the relations of various social forces was broken. The question of the fate of the institution of slavery was on the agenda. The inter-party struggle has again become an integral attribute of US political life.

The country managed to move forward in an evolutionary way. The rapidly unfolding industrial revolution made it possible to find solutions to many controversial problems. In the political struggle, of course, it was not possible to do without crises. So, by the middle of the nineteenth century. The United States faced the problem of choosing the path of further development. There were two possibilities. The first was to fully concentrate on the program of internal improvements. There was another way - the way of expanding the territorial possessions of the United States at the expense of the lands that belonged to the economically weak Mexico. The capture of these lands during the war in 1846 increased the opportunities of the southerners. But here the abolitionist movement intensified. Southerners, in turn, sought to remove restrictions on the spread of slavery. Disputes took on a fierce character, threatening the stability of the country. In 1854 the conflict between the free and slave states reached such a pitch that the situation threatened to break out into civil war. It became impossible to get away from resolving the issue of the fate of slavery. The Republican Party, which was formed in 1854, became the center of attraction for all anti-slavery forces. In 1860, the Republicans nominated A. Lincoln as their presidential candidate. Southerners did not want to accept the election of an opponent of slavery to the presidency. 11 slave states rebelled - they left the Union and formed their own confederation in Richmond (Virginia). Thus began the Civil War (1861-1865). The bloody war ended with the victory of the northerners. This war cost the life of A. Lincoln. On April 14, 1865, he was assassinated by a supporter of slavery.

In February 1865, Congress passed a constitutional amendment permanently banning slavery in the United States. In addition, the Americans managed to maintain the integrity of the state. The war strengthened the possibilities of the bourgeoisie and opened the way for the further development of modernization processes.

16. What was the impetus for the wars of independence in Latin America?

At the beginning of the nineteenth century. in the Spanish colonies of America, a patriotic movement of Creoles arose, thinking about secession from Spain. Secret organizations were created in the colonies, and the leading documents of the French Revolution were illegally distributed.

The defeat of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain by the Napoleonic army created favorable conditions for the rise of the liberation movement in the Spanish colonies.

Initially, Venezuela became the center of the struggle for independence. It was there that the National Congress met, which in 1811 proclaimed the independence of the country. Among the members of the "Patriotic Society", which led the liberation movement, a young officer, S. Bolivar, stood out. The formation of the revolutionary army is associated with his name, he made a great contribution to the formation of the new state.

In 1812, the Spaniards and their supporters managed to defeat the rebels and push them to New Grenada. A rebellion also broke out in this colony, and a decision was made to create a Confederation, or the United Provinces of New Grenada. From this bridgehead, under the leadership of S. Bolivar, a new offensive began, which ended in 1813 with the restoration of the Venezuelan Republic. However, it was not possible to consolidate the success again. Most of the country again returned under the control of the mother country.

These harsh lessons prompted the leaders of the liberation movement to include in their programs such issues as the abolition of slavery and the allocation of land to the peasants. These provisions, at least in part, but reflected the aspirations of the bulk of the population of the colonies. This increased the influx of forces into the troops of S. Bolivar.

In 1816 a new phase of the armed struggle against the Spaniards began. Having defeated them in Venezuela, S. Bolivar moved to New Granada. In 1821, both of these territories were liberated from the Spaniards. Venezuela and New Granada united into a single state - Great Colombia.

Around the same time, an uprising broke out against Spanish domination in the southern part of Latin America, in the territory of modern Chile, Argentina, Uruguay and Peru. The base for the liberation movement in this part of Latin America was the province of Mendoza, where a revolutionary army was created under the leadership of José de San Martin. It was from there that he began his campaign, which led to the liberation of Chile. In 1821, his troops in Peru united with the troops of S. Bolivar. The Spaniards, however, did not lay down their arms, the struggle in this part of the continent continued until 1824.

The greatest bitterness was distinguished by the struggle for the independence of Mexico. In this country, the national liberation movement was intertwined with the social struggle of the peasants for land. But in 1821, Spanish rule was also put an end to in Mexico.

In an effort to strengthen the independence of the young Latin American states, S. Bolivar advocated their unification into a confederation. But this initiative did not receive local support. S. Bolívar's popularity was declining, and in 1830 he resigned. Only many years later his merits received universal recognition. His memory is preserved in the name of one of the South American republics - Bolivia.

The bourgeois revolution in Portugal in 1820 led to the rise of the independence movement in Brazil. The former colony declared independence and declared itself an empire.

In 1868, a mass uprising for independence began in Cuba. But the Cuban army had to fight for liberation from colonial dependence for many more years. Only in 1895 was the independence of Cuba proclaimed and the Cuban Republic established.

The national liberation movement in Latin America ended in victory. But some newly formed states turned out to be fragile and fell apart.

Political independence did away with the many restrictions that fettered the economic development of the colonies. More favorable conditions were created for capitalist development and entry into the world market. But in the new states, the features of a traditional society were preserved, which slowed down the process of progressive change. The Latin American states had to go through many more trials before they were able to take advantage of the opportunities provided by independence.

17. How did science develop?

XIX - early XX century. - a special time in the development of science. Great discoveries followed one after another.

The process of industrialization required the intensification of scientific work. At the same time, technological progress made it possible to create the instruments necessary for scientific research.

The main feature of the natural scientific discoveries of the nineteenth century. was that they radically changed the established ideas about the structure of matter, space, time, movement, about the development of living nature, about the place of man in nature, about the origin of life on Earth.

Among the great discoveries of the century is the discovery of electromagnetism, made by M. Faraday. This discovery led to the creation of an electric motor.

A real sensation was the discovery of D. K. Maxwell. He developed the electromagnetic theory of light, which generalized the results of experiments and theoretical constructions of many scientists in the field of electromagnetism, thermodynamics and light. Maxwell's theory was presented by him in 1873, and in 1883 the German engineer G. Hertz confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves. Based on these discoveries, the telegraph and radio were created.

The Dutch physicist H. A. Lorenz continued to develop the electromagnetic theory, he tried to explain it from the point of view of the atomic structure of matter. In 1891, the English scientist J. Stoney came to the conclusion that the atom is not indivisible, but consists of electrons. Thus, a new picture of the world was gradually formed, which exists today.

At the end of the nineteenth century. in Germany, the physicist V.K. Roentgen discovered invisible rays, which he called X-rays. The great discovery immediately received practical application in medicine - an X-ray machine was created on its basis. Roentgen was the first physicist to be awarded the Nobel Prize.

The phenomenon of radioactivity was studied by a whole group of scientists, including A. Becquerel, P. Curie and M. Sklodowska-Curie, E. Rutherford, N. Bohr. This group of scientists created the doctrine of the complex structure of the atom. The discovery of radioactivity opened the way to the world of microparticles.

A revolution in natural science was also made by Charles Darwin's teaching on evolution in living nature. L. Pasteur's research in the field of microbiology served as the basis for the doctrine of immunity. A great contribution to the development of medicine was made by J. Corvisart. R. Laennec, R. Koch.

The rapid development of industrialization changed the education system and its organization. The main thing in this case was the task of expanding the accessibility of education. In the nineteenth century reforms were carried out in the European states and the USA in school education. Primary education became compulsory, it acquired a secular character. The problems of creating secondary schools were not ignored. D. Dewey, who became the most famous American teacher and philosopher of the late XNUMXth century, had a great influence on the formation of the secondary school.

The new processes that took place under the influence of industrialization were comprehended at the philosophical level as well.

Liberal ideas enjoyed the greatest influence in the West. Liberalism, like most other ideological concepts, has its roots in the Enlightenment. In the nineteenth century Enlightenment ideas were further developed. The most prominent representatives of this doctrine in this period of time were D. Bentham, D. Mill, G. Spencer, who defended the priority of the rights of the individual. Liberals were consistent supporters of the idea of ​​social progress. History was viewed by them as a continuous progressive movement towards more perfect forms of social organization.

A radical reaction to the rapid development of bourgeois relations was the Marxist doctrine, which proceeded from the fact that capitalist relations lead to antagonistic contradictions that will inevitably lead to the elimination of capitalism and the establishment of socialism. Supporters of Marxism were champions of the revolutionary way of implementing the idea of ​​social progress.

Theorists of conservatism enjoyed a certain influence in Western countries. A prominent representative of this concept is E. Burke. Conservatives advocated the preservation of traditional values, without which society could degenerate.

18. What was the uniqueness of the development of the culture of the XNUMXth century?

The originality of the spiritual climate of the XNUMXth century. could not affect the development of artistic culture. At the beginning of the century, France set the pace for the development of art. With the coming to power of Napoleon, the leading artistic movement - classicism - was somewhat transformed. He became more conventional and cold. Neoclassicism of the new century is called Empire style, the style of the Empire. This style is monumental in the exterior, exquisitely luxurious in the interior, using ancient Roman architectural forms. During this period, structures were erected designed to inspire the idea of ​​the greatness of Napoleon's power (Vendôme Column, Arc de Triomphe on Place de l'Etoile, etc.). The Empire style is gaining popularity throughout Europe. During this period, the fate of Napoleon himself was also attractive. It served as proof that a person of a new era can achieve everything thanks, first of all, to his personal qualities. D. Byron and G. Heine thought about Napoleon, David and Gro painted him, Beethoven was going to dedicate his third symphony (Eroic) to him.

The defeats of Napoleon and the restoration of the Bourbons brought disappointment to the progressive intelligentsia of France in the possible reorganization of society, which the enlighteners of the eighteenth century passionately dreamed of. With the collapse of divine ideals, the foundations of classical art were also destroyed. Based on the awareness of the critical lessons taught by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, a new powerful trend is born in Western European countries - romanticism, which tries to look for the norms of beauty and justice outside the framework of eighteenth-century rationalism.

The Romantics absolutized the role of feeling, idolized the imagination, and sought to comprehend the secret of personality through penetration into its inner, spiritual world. The romantics denied the need for an objective reflection of reality; they tended to gravitate toward symbolism and convention. Romanticism manifested itself most clearly in European literature. The greatest representative of English romanticism, the poet D. G. Byron, became the “ruler of thoughts” of his time. A prominent representative of German romanticism was G. Heine. French romanticism was represented by R. Chateaubriand, J. de Staël, A. De Lamantine, V. Hugo, J. Sand and others. The work of the poet Charles Baudelaire was close to romanticism.

The great masters of the Romantic era were promoted by the fine arts. French artists T. Gericault, E. Delacroix worked in this genre. In England, the landscape painter D. Constable won the sympathy of the romantics.

Music played an important role in the European culture of romanticism. Famous works in the romantic spirit are written by R. Schumann, F. Schubert. In the second half of the nineteenth century. R. Wagner was a prominent representative of romanticism in music.

In the second half of the nineteenth century. realism is emerging in European culture as an independent artistic system. The desire for objectification, the disclosure of the essence of social contradictions makes realism the opposite of the romantic direction. The most significant achievements of realism were in prose.

Its representatives were A. M. Stendhal, O. Balzac, P. Merimee, G. Flaubert, E. Zola in France, C. Dickens, W. M. Thackeray in England.

Brilliant examples of realism were also given by the fine arts, represented primarily in the activities of French artists - T. Rousseau, J. F. Millet, G. Courbet.

In the last third of the nineteenth century. after the fall of the Paris Commune, the position of academicism, which demanded the inviolability of certain aesthetic forms, was strengthened in European culture. But this art finds sharp opposition among the European intelligentsia. The most radical reaction to it was Impressionism, which was then replaced by Post-Impressionism. Masters of the new direction have created new artistic techniques to convey a sense of light, to capture the variability of the beauty of the surrounding world. Famous impressionist artists were E. Manet, O. Renoir, E. Degas and others.

The discoveries of the Impressionists affected the development of musical art. K. Debussy acted as an innovator in this genre.

At the end of the nineteenth century. developed a new genre of culture - cinema, which in the twentieth century. will win the sympathy of the audience.

Authors: Anna Barysheva, Irina Tkachenko, Oksana Ovchinnikova

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Latest news of science and technology, new electronics:

The existence of an entropy rule for quantum entanglement has been proven 09.05.2024

Quantum mechanics continues to amaze us with its mysterious phenomena and unexpected discoveries. Recently, Bartosz Regula from the RIKEN Center for Quantum Computing and Ludovico Lamy from the University of Amsterdam presented a new discovery that concerns quantum entanglement and its relation to entropy. Quantum entanglement plays an important role in modern quantum information science and technology. However, the complexity of its structure makes understanding and managing it challenging. Regulus and Lamy's discovery shows that quantum entanglement follows an entropy rule similar to that for classical systems. This discovery opens new perspectives in the field of quantum information science and technology, deepening our understanding of quantum entanglement and its connection to thermodynamics. The results of the study indicate the possibility of reversibility of entanglement transformations, which could greatly simplify their use in various quantum technologies. Opening a new rule ... >>

Mini air conditioner Sony Reon Pocket 5 09.05.2024

Summer is a time for relaxation and travel, but often the heat can turn this time into an unbearable torment. Meet a new product from Sony - the Reon Pocket 5 mini-air conditioner, which promises to make summer more comfortable for its users. Sony has introduced a unique device - the Reon Pocket 5 mini-conditioner, which provides body cooling on hot days. With it, users can enjoy coolness anytime, anywhere by simply wearing it around their neck. This mini air conditioner is equipped with automatic adjustment of operating modes, as well as temperature and humidity sensors. Thanks to innovative technologies, Reon Pocket 5 adjusts its operation depending on the user's activity and environmental conditions. Users can easily adjust the temperature using a dedicated mobile app connected via Bluetooth. Additionally, specially designed T-shirts and shorts are available for convenience, to which a mini air conditioner can be attached. The device can oh ... >>

Energy from space for Starship 08.05.2024

Producing solar energy in space is becoming more feasible with the advent of new technologies and the development of space programs. The head of the startup Virtus Solis shared his vision of using SpaceX's Starship to create orbital power plants capable of powering the Earth. Startup Virtus Solis has unveiled an ambitious project to create orbital power plants using SpaceX's Starship. This idea could significantly change the field of solar energy production, making it more accessible and cheaper. The core of the startup's plan is to reduce the cost of launching satellites into space using Starship. This technological breakthrough is expected to make solar energy production in space more competitive with traditional energy sources. Virtual Solis plans to build large photovoltaic panels in orbit, using Starship to deliver the necessary equipment. However, one of the key challenges ... >>

Random news from the Archive Sony IMX323LQN image sensor 30.11.2015 Sony has announced the release of the IMX323LQN image sensor. It is designed for industrial applications and is characterized by increased sensitivity in the near infrared range. In terms of technical characteristics, the new sensor resembles the Sony IMX222LQJ model, but is significantly smaller in size. This is due to the use of WLCSP (Wafer Level Chip Size Package). In fact, the sensor was reduced by eight times (by volume). Its dimensions are 7,55 x 5,75 x 0,77 mm. The optical format of the new sensor is 1/2,9 inch (6,23 mm diagonally), the resolution is 2,19 megapixels. Recall that the IMX222LQJ sensor is characterized by an optical format of 1/2,8 inches and a resolution of 2,43 megapixels. The pixel size has not changed and is equal to 2,8 microns. The sensor has a built-in ADC that supports 10-bit and 12-bit modes. The maximum frame rate is 30 fps (in the previous model it is higher - 40 fps). The sensor is designed for video surveillance systems operating around the clock.

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