General history. States of the Ancient East (most important)

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General history. States of the Ancient East (most important)

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents (expand)

Primitive society (What were the periods in the history of human development? What were the lives and occupations of primitive people? What were the stages of the decomposition of the primitive communal system?)
States of the Ancient East (What were the states of the Near and Middle East (Ancient Egypt, the states of Mesopotamia, Assyria, Phenicia)? What were the main features of the ancient states of India and China?)
Ancient Greece (How did the Ancient Greek state arise and what were the periods of its formation? What was the Greek community of the polis like? What wars did Greece and Persia wage between themselves? What were the characteristic features of the large policies of Greece: Athens and Sparta? How did the Peloponnesian War unfold? What countries did Alexander conquer Macedonian? What were the main features of the Hellenistic era? What was the uniqueness of the culture of ancient Greece?)
Ancient Rome (What were the periods of formation and development of the ancient Roman state? What were the features of the emergence of the Ancient Roman state? How did the Roman Republic become the most developed state in the Mediterranean? How did Rome become the center of power? How was the Republic born in Rome? How did the Punic Wars take place? What were the main features of the Roman Empire ? How was the culture of Ancient Rome different?)
Middle Ages (How is the periodization of the history of the Middle Ages presented? What did the political map of Europe look like in the early Middle Ages (late 5th-mid 11th centuries)? How was the medieval Frankish state formed? How did Charlemagne’s conquests take place? What were the reasons for the collapse of Charlemagne’s empire? How did the Byzantine Empire arise ? What are the features of Byzantium in its heyday? What is unique about France in the 9th-11th centuries? What is the specificity of Italy in the 9th-11th centuries? What was Germany like in the 9th-11th centuries? What is the specificity of England in the 9th-11th centuries? What were education and culture in the early Middle Ages? What were the specifics of Europe in the early Middle Ages (mid-11th - late 15th centuries)? What was the essence of the crusades (goals, participants, results)? What were the socio-economic prerequisites for the emergence of cities? What were the characteristic features of Medieval urban craft? What were the economic foundations and forms of organization? How did the formation of centralized states take place in Western Europe? What was France like in the 11th-15th centuries? What is unique about the English system in the 11th-15th centuries? What are the features of feudal fragmentation in Germany in the 11th-15th centuries? What was Italy like in the 11th-15th centuries? How did the educational and scientific processes take place in Medieval universities? What were the specific features of Europe in the Late Middle Ages (XVI-XVII centuries)? How did capitalist relations arise in Western Europe? How did the Great Geographical Discoveries and colonial conquests of the late 15th - early 16th centuries take place? What did the Reformation lead to in Germany? What was the result of the Reformation in England? What are the specifics of the Reformation in France? What was the humanistic ideology of the Renaissance, its main features and social origins? What is the culture of the Renaissance in Italy (its most important achievements in the field of culture and art)? How did literature and art develop during the developed Middle Ages? What role did the Christian Church play in the Middle Ages? What is the essence of the ideological foundations of medieval Christianity?)
Features of the development of Eastern countries in the Middle Ages. Arabs in the VI-XI centuries (What was India like in the 6th-11th centuries? What were the specifics of China? What was the essence of medieval Japan? How did Islam arise, what were its main features? What was the Islamic state of the Middle Ages? What was unique about the Umayyad Caliphate? What were the specifics Abbasid Caliphate?)
New history of the countries of Europe and America (What were the criteria for the periodization of the history of modern times? What were the prerequisites, stages, results of the bourgeois revolution in England? What were the essence and consequences of the industrial revolution in England? What were the results of the struggle for the independence of the British colonies? How were the United States of America formed? What was different about the colonial period in Latin America? What was the impetus for the beginning of the Great French Revolution? What were the stages of development of the revolutionary movement in France? How did Napoleon's wars unfold? What were the prerequisites for the crisis and collapse of the Empire? How was the "Viennese system" created and how was the Holy Alliance formed? were the main stages of the post-war development of the leading Western European countries (20-50s of the XNUMXth century)? How did the industrial revolution end? Development of capitalism What were the paths of economic and political development of France in the second half of the XNUMXth century? How was the British Empire created? Paths to the unification of Germany? What happened in the United States in the XNUMXth century?What was the impetus for the wars of independence in Latin America? How did science develop? What was unique about the development of culture in the XNUMXth century?)
New history in the countries of the East and Asia. Colonies and dependent countries (What was the colonial expansion? What is the peculiarity of Japanese capitalism? Why did China remain a “closed” country for so long and how did it “open”? Why is India called the “pearl” of the British Empire?)
Recent history of European and American countries (How did the economic development of the leading countries of Europe and America take place at the end of the 1915th - beginning of the 1916th centuries? What events caused the First World War? How did the situation develop at the front and in the rear in 1918-1919? What were the results of the First World War? How the map of Europe changed after the First World War? The countries of Europe and the USA in the post-war period. What were the results of the First World War for the countries of Latin America? How did fascism arise in Italy? What was Roosevelt's new course? How did the revolution of 1950-1960 take place in Germany ? How did the Nazis come to power in Germany? How did international relations develop on the eve of World War II? What was the beginning of World War II? How did the turning point occur during World War II? How did World War II end? What were the results of World War II? What changes happened in Europe and the world after World War II? How did the Cold War begin? Why did Germany split? How did the post-war recovery of the world economy happen? What were the main trends in the development of Eastern European countries after World War II? How did the United States develop after World War II? What are the features of the development of Great Britain after the Second World War? What happened in France in the post-war period? Federal Republic of Germany in the post-war period. How was the climb? The theory of the "welfare state": essence, causes of the crisis? How did the US develop in the late 1950s and 1960s? How England developed in the late 1974s. and the 1975s? How did the struggle for the revival of the greatness of France take place? Economic crisis of 1970-1980 and its influence on the development of Western civilization What happened in the USA during the era of the Conservative Revolution? Neoconservatism and the politics of M. Thatcher. How did the UK become one of the leading countries? France after de Gaulle, ways of development? What is the socio-economic and political crisis in the countries of Eastern Europe in the 1980-1990s? What processes took place in Eastern Europe at the turn of the XNUMX-XNUMXs? What caused the unification of Germany? What integration processes took place in Europe in the second half of the twentieth century? Which Western countries at the end of the twentieth century. can we call them "leading"? How did the culture of Western countries develop in the first half of the twentieth century? How does the culture of Western countries develop in the second half of the twentieth century?)
Countries of the East and Asia in modern times (Consequences of the collapse of the colonial system. What are “third world countries”? What development paths do the liberated countries have? New industrial countries. Which Are the countries included? How is the situation in post-war China? India and Pakistan. What are the ways of development? Southwest Asia. Features of development. Least the developed countries. What lies ahead for them?)

Chapter 2. States of the Ancient East

1. What were the states of the Near and Middle East (Ancient Egypt, the states of Mesopotamia, Assyria, Phoenicia)?

The Near East and the Middle East include several geographical areas: the "fertile crescent" - the cradle of civilization - begins in the west, in the rich countries of the Levant, and then arches over the plains of Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer. To the north of it is the Anatolian Plateau, which merges in the east with the Iranian Highlands and even goes to the Indus.

In Babylon around 1900 B.C. uh. a new great power emerged. This young Amorite dynasty grew gradually as they watched their neighbors sap their strength in civil strife.

So the first Babylonian dynasty established dominance over Mesopotamia, which from now on became known as Babylonia. Diplomatic and administrative documents were drawn up in the language of the new Semitic elite - Akkadian. The laws were written in plain language; thus everyone could read and understand them.

The construction activities of the first Babylonian dynasty are poorly understood due to the fact that their traces are buried under the ruins of later eras.

С 1200 BC uh. Aramaic nomads, looking for land to settle, conquer Mesopotamia. Little Assyria - a state on the banks of the Tigris - gathers a powerful army to stop the invasion, and then, in turn, begins to conquer other people's territories. WITH 900 BC Assyrians, thirsty for victories, launch a series of attacks on neighboring peoples - Babylonians, Phoenicians, Arameans - and subdue them. The Assyrian Empire extended over the entire Middle East.

While the Assyrians fought to defend the borders of their state, one of the Aramaic dynasties calmly established itself on the Babylonian throne. To 612 BC uh. she became so strong that she was able to challenge the Assyrian army and emerge as a worthy heir to the glorious king Hammurabi.

About 2000 BC uh. in Babylonian texts, and in particular in predictions, the names of stars and constellations appear. In the same era, the tradition of healing was born. In ancient Mesopotamia there were two types of doctors: practices (asu) examined the sick and prescribed them medicines prepared from crushed and crushed plants, stones, animal or human entrails and mixed with vegetable oil, milk or beer; priest-casters (ashitu) they cast spells, performed magical rites, because it was believed that diseases were of supernatural origin and were the result of witchcraft of demonic forces or God's punishment.

В 539 BC uh. The East was united under the rule of the Persian power. Trade routes and dynastic alliances connected regions that were remote from each other and completely different in their way of life. Cuneiform gives some cultural unity to the various civilizations of the East.

The Phoenicians lived in port city-states and worked the land in areas remote from the coast. Being excellent merchants, the Phoenicians are already in 12th century BC uh. began to develop maritime trade, turning it into a source of prosperity and an instrument of expansion that continued throughout the Mediterranean until 1st century BC uh. They were famous for their fabrics dyed purple, which was obtained from the shells of needle mollusks. The Phoenicians also produced glass, which was made from sand from sea beaches, as well as products made from precious metals and ivory.

The first attempts to create an alphabet were made in 1800s BC uh. In Phoenician Byblos (Lebanese coast) in 1100s BC uh. scribes used an alphabet of 22 characters. The Phoenician language, like Arabic or Hebrew, belongs to the Semitic languages - when writing it, vowels were not taken into account. The Phoenician alphabet is the basis of most modern alphabets.

Egyptian historian Manetho, who lived in the 3rd century. BC uh., says that over the 3 thousand years of Egypt’s existence, 30 ruling dynasties changed there. The history of Egypt demonstrates an amazing continuity of development and at the same time the steady evolution of society. Egyptian of the era of Ramesses II (about 1250 BC) differed in ideas and way of life from his ancestor of the times King Cheops, who lived 1300 Clothing and jewelry most accurately reflect the changes that have occurred.

Pyramids were built with simple tools, but on a well-organized construction site. An endless stream of hundreds of porters pulling stones on draggers connected the port and the construction site for decades.

The year of the ancient Egyptians consisted of 360 days and was divided into 3 seasons: "akhet" (Nile flood) "peret" (winter) and "hemu" (summer).

On the banks of the Nile, the peasants grew wheat and barley, which were used to make bread and beer, as well as flax, which was necessary for the production of fabrics.

River navigation set the rhythm of all life: trade, transportation of troops, religious holidays, funeral pilgrimages. Sailors sailed on ships equipped with large sails and long oars.

To protect themselves from their raids, the Egyptians, who lived in the era middle kingdom, captured Nubia located in the south and built a line of defensive structures there.

By the end II millennium BC uh. Great powers emerged on the borders of Egypt.

В 18th and 17th centuries BC uh. Egypt was going through difficult times: its southern territories were divided between rival rulers; the northern ones were occupied by newcomers from the Middle East - the Hyksos.

В I millennium BC uh. Egypt lost its independence.

The scientific research of the Egyptians was to identify and write down reliable and tested "recipes" that could be used again, and not to discover general mathematical laws that explain the "tricks" found by empirical means. That is why the Egyptians were more inventors than scientists.

2. What were the main features of the ancient states of India and China?

Modern historians believe that India arose at the meeting of two civilizations: an urban trading civilization that developed in the Indus Valley, and a shepherd-nomadic, a distant relative of the Celtic, Greek and Roman civilizations, which spread from Persia to 15th century BC uh.

В 6th century BC uh. The era of large and rich cities of the Indus Valley ends, and the Vedic peoples, who settled on the banks of the Ganges, create a system of independent communities that exists to this day in India, where the land belongs to no one and where all religions are recognized. Each member of the community receives his share of the fruits of common labor and observes the customs of the caste to which he belongs from birth and from which he cannot leave. This peculiar historical process, when the village replaces the city, allows the rural community to absorb all its conquerors down to the present day, without falling apart itself. Thus, the leaders of the Aryan nomadic tribes, who came from the warrior class and were at the top of the social ladder, were replaced by representatives of the Brahmin religious castes, engaged in the performance of ritual rites. Warlike deities led by the god-king Indra, to whom the leaders made bloody sacrifices, gave way to the gods of Hinduism - Krishna, Rama and Shiva, who embodied the hope of personal liberation for every Hindu.

В 6th century BC uh., at the time of the Buddha, there were at least 16 states in the Ganges valley with unclear borders, ruled by short-lived dynasties.

About 1st century n. uh. India gains its modern appearance thanks to trade routes. The Long Road crosses India north from the Bay of Bengal to Afghanistan. Caravans transport goods from areas that, after the adoption of the caste system, are experiencing an unprecedented economic boom. By uniting into professional corporations, the castes of artisans and merchants enrich themselves. Having accepted Buddhism, since it preaches peace that is beneficial for doing business, they donate to the construction of cave temples and monasteries, taking care of the spread of this teaching. Indian art is entering its first period of flowering.

Since IV to VIII centuries. India has been enriched with countless architectural masterpieces. Did a lot to decorate cities Patna Gwalior genus Vardhana.

The religious renewal of India began from within. The teaching - monism - turned the whole of India upside down.

Shankara (philosopher) preached throughout the country and founded several universities.

The growth in the number of small kingdoms makes India prosperous, but makes it vulnerable to any invader.

The Indians were tireless travelers, bold traders, but by no means invaders. The Indians gave the world many miracles: Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, the temples of Angkor Wat in Cambodia, etc.

The modern name of the country - China, comes from the Mongol-speaking people of the Khitans, who captured and held at the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries. n. e. northern regions of the country. The Chinese themselves called their country Zhong Guo - "Middle State", or by the name of one of the ruling dynasties, according to another version, it came from the name of the powerful kingdom of Qin, an exemplary empire created by the ruler Qin Shi Huangdi.

The prehistoric period of China's development ends during the reign of the Shang Dynasty. In the Shan city-palaces - religious and military centers - there were markets, workshops of artisans: carriage workers, bronze casters, potters.

The ruler "Son of Heaven" was revered as a link connecting heaven, man and Earth. By his virtues, he ensured the natural order of things: he is credited with the spread of the calendar. Although the peasants lived under the protection of the cities, where they supplied products for sacrifices, they nevertheless constituted a separate community. Know, in addition to the administration of religious cults, indulged in war and hunting. During the festivities in honor of the ancestors and gods, a huge number of captives and wild animals were sacrificed.

Having passed the stage of forging metals, the Chinese were engaged in iron casting for 1600 years before this process became known in Europe. This discovery made it possible to establish serial production of tools for plowing the land, earthworks, building irrigation facilities and developing new plots of land.

Peasant work was divided into male and female. Men cultivated the fields, harvested, hunted and fished. Women bred a silkworm, weaved, drove alcohol from grain.

В 221 BC uh. The ruler of the kingdom of Qin put an end to the feuds of petty rulers, united all Chinese states, accepting the title of First Emperor. He replaced the feudal system with a centralized system of bureaucratic government.

For the construction of the Great Wall, a huge army of workers was assembled from among the poor, forced laborers, and convicts. The wall was kept in order until 7th century., when it lost its strategic importance.

Chinese calligraphy is as great an art as painting. Chinese writing conveys meaning, not sounds and words.

The basis of the administrative apparatus of the Empire was formed by educated officials, whose importance was increasingly strengthened as new institutions were established. Education, though lengthy and expensive, was open to any capable person, regardless of background.

В 1024 BC For the first time in human history, paper money was issued.

China possessed the highest quality goods and therefore aroused the envy of its neighbors, who enriched themselves by collecting tribute.

In the field of science and technology, China is far ahead of Europe.

Authors: Anna Barysheva, Irina Tkachenko, Oksana Ovchinnikova

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