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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Russian language and culture of speech. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. ELEMENTS AND LEVELS OF LANGUAGE In characterizing a language as a system, it is necessary to determine which elements it consists. In most languages of the world, the following units are distinguished: phoneme (sound), morpheme, word, phrase and sentence. Language units are heterogeneous in their structure: simple (phonemes) and complex (phrases, sentences). Moreover, more complex units always consist of simpler ones. The simplest unit of language is phoneme, an indivisible and in itself insignificant sound unit of a language that serves to distinguish between minimal meaningful units (morphemes and words). Minimum significant unit - morpheme (root, suffix, prefix, ending). Morphemes have some meaning, but they cannot yet be used independently. For example, there are four morphemes in the word Muscovite: moskv-, -ich-, -k-, -a. Has relative independence word - the next in terms of complexity and the most important unit of the language, which serves to name objects, processes, features or point to them. Words differ from morphemes in that they not only have any meaning, but are already capable of naming something, that is, a word is the minimum nominative (naming) unit of a language. Structurally, it consists of morphemes and is a "building material" for phrases and sentences. Phrase - a combination of two or more words, between which there is a semantic and grammatical connection. It consists of the main and dependent words: new book, put play (highlighted). The most complex and independent unit of language, with which you can not only name some object, but also tell something about it, is proposal - the main syntactic unit that contains a message about something, a question or a prompt. The most important formal feature of a sentence is its semantic design and completeness. Unlike a word - a nominative (nominal) unit - a sentence is a communicative unit. Modern ideas about the language system are associated primarily with the doctrine of its levels, their units and relationships. Language levels - these are subsystems (tiers) of the general language system, each of which has a set of its own units and rules for their functioning. Traditionally, the following main language levels: phonemic, morphemic, lexical, syntactic. Each of the levels of the language has its own, qualitatively different units that have different purposes, structure, compatibility and place in the language system: the phonemic level consists of phonemes, the morphemic one - morphemes, the lexical one - words, the syntactic one - phrases and sentences. 2. SECTIONS OF LINGUISTICS The structure of each level, the relationship of units among themselves are the subject of study sections of linguistics - phonetics, morphology, syntax of lexicology. Phonetics (from Greek phone - sound) - a section of linguistics that studies the sounds of a language, their acoustic and articulatory properties, the laws of their formation, the rules of functioning (for example, the rules for the compatibility of sounds, the distribution of vowels and consonants, etc.). The morphemic and syntactic levels of a language are studied by two linguistic disciplines - morphology and syntax. Morphology and syntax are combined, making up two relatively independent sections, into a more general linguistic science - grammar - a section of linguistics containing the doctrine of the forms of inflection, the structure of words, types of phrases and types of sentences. Morphology - a section of grammar that studies the morphemic composition of the language, types of morphemes, the nature of their interaction and functioning as part of units of higher levels. Syntax - a section of grammar that studies the patterns of constructing sentences and combining words in a phrase. It includes two main parts: the doctrine of the phrase and the doctrine of the sentence. Lexicology - This is a branch of linguistics that studies the word and the vocabulary of the language as a whole. Lexicology includes the following sections: • onomasiology - a science that studies the process of naming. Onomasiology answers the question of how naming, naming of objects and phenomena of the outside world takes place; • semasiology - a science that studies the meanings of words and phrases. Semasiology explores the semantic side of a linguistic unit, comparing it with other units of the same level. It shows how extralinguistic reality is displayed in the units of language (words); • phraseology - a science that studies the stable turns of speech of a language, the nature of phraseological units, their types, features of functioning in speech. It reveals the specifics of phraseological units, features of their meaning, relations with other units of the language. She develops principles for the selection and description of phraseological units, explores the processes of their formation; • onomastics (from the Greek onoma - name) - a science that studies proper names in the broad sense of the word: geographical names are studied by toponymy, names and surnames of people - anthroponymy; • etymology - a science that studies the origin of words, the process of forming the vocabulary of a language. Etymology explains when, in what language, according to what word-formation model the word arose, what was its original meaning, what historical changes it has undergone; • lexicography - a science dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. Develops a general typology of dictionaries, principles of selection of vocabulary, arrangement of words and dictionary entries. 3. LANGUAGE SIGNS Language - this is a system of signs of any physical nature, performing cognitive and communicative functions in the process of human activity. Languages are divided into natural (arise together with a person and develop naturally) and artificial (sign systems created by a person as auxiliary means for various communicative purposes in those areas where the use of natural language is difficult, impossible or ineffective). Sign- this is a material object (in the broad sense of the word), acting in the process of cognition and communication as a representative or substitute for some other object, phenomenon and used to transmit information. В semiotics (the science that studies sign systems) there are two types of signs: natural (signs-signs) and artificial (conditional). Natural signs (signs-signs) contain information about an object (phenomenon) due to a natural connection with them (smoke in the forest can inform about a fire), they are part of those objects or phenomena that people perceive and study (we see snow and imagine winter). Artificial (conventional) signs are intended for the formation, storage and transmission of information, for the representation and replacement of objects and phenomena, concepts and judgments; communicative (signs-informers). Signs-signals carry information by condition, agreement and have no natural connection with the objects (phenomena) about which they inform. Signal - this is a sound, visual or other conventional sign that conveys information. The signal itself does not contain information - information contains a sign situation (a bell in the apartment is a signal inviting you to open the door), i.e. the signal depends on the situation. Signs-symbols carry information about an object (phenomenon) based on the abstraction of some properties and signs from it (a coat of arms is an image of an object as a sign of belonging to a certain state, city). Content character clearly, it is free from situational conditioning. All signs of the sign: two-sidedness (the presence of a material form and content), opposition in the system, convention/motivation. As a rule, signs in the system opposed, which suggests the difference in their content (long and short beeps in the handset - "the line is free" and "the line is busy"). In order to acquire the ability to designate something, a sign must be opposed to another sign, for example zero (i.e., a significant absence of a materially expressed sign). Conditional the connection between the signifier and the signified is based on an agreement (conscious) (red light - "the way is closed"). Motivated (internally justified) connection is based on the similarity of the signifier with the signified (on the road sign of the turn). A linguistic sign, like any two-sided linguistic unit, has a form (signifier) and content (signified). Language signs are always conditional i.e., the connection between the signified and the signifier is arbitrary for them (but at the same time it is obligatory for all speakers of a given language). 4. LANGUAGE AND SPEECH. LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS Language and speech form a single phenomenon of human language. Language is a set of means of communication between people through the exchange of thoughts and the rules for using these means. Language finds its manifestation in speech. Speech - the use of existing linguistic means and rules in the very linguistic communication of people; the functioning of the language. Correlation of language and speech, features: 1) language is a means of communication; speech is the embodiment and realization of language, which through speech performs its communicative function; 2) the language is abstract, formal; speech is material, everything that is in the language is corrected in it, it consists of articulated sounds perceived by the ear; 3) the language is stable, static; speech is active and dynamic, it is characterized by high variability; 4) the language is the property of society, it reflects the "picture of the world" of the people speaking it; speech is individual, it reflects only the experience of an individual; 5) the language is characterized by a level organization, which introduces hierarchical relationships into the sequence of words; speech has a linear organization, representing a sequence of words connected in a stream; 6) the language is independent of the situation and the situation of communication - speech is contextually and situationally conditioned, in speech (especially poetic) units of the language can acquire situational meanings that they do not have in the language (“The golden grove dissuaded it with a cheerful birch tongue” (S. Yesenin). The concepts of "language" and "speech" are related as general and particular: the general (language) is expressed in the particular (speech), while the particular (speech) is a form of embodiment and implementation of the general (language). Language is closely connected with all human activity and performs various functions. Language Features - this is a manifestation of its essence, its purpose and action in society, its nature, i.e. its characteristics, without which the language cannot exist. Main functions: • communicative: language is the most important means of human communication (communication), i.e., the transfer of a message from one person to another for one purpose or another. Language exists to provide communication (communication). Communicating with each other, people convey their thoughts, feelings, influence each other; • cognitive: language is the most important means of obtaining new knowledge about reality. The cognitive function connects language with human mental activity. Other functions: • phatic (contact-setting) - the function of creating and maintaining contact between interlocutors; • emotive (emotionally expressive) - an expression of the subjective-psychological attitude of the author of the speech to its content (intonation, exclamation, interjections); • appellative - the function of an appeal, an inducement to one or another action (forms of the imperative mood, incentive sentences); • accumulative - the function of storing and transmitting knowledge about reality, culture, history of the people; • aesthetic and more 5. CULTURE OF SPEECH Under culture of speech is understood as such a choice and such an organization of language means that, in a certain situation of communication, while observing modern language norms and ethics of communication, can provide the greatest effect in achieving the set communicative tasks. The culture of speech includes three components: normative, communicative and ethical. The most important of them - normative aspect speech culture. Language norms are a historical phenomenon. Their appearance led to the formation in the bowels of the national language of a variety processed and fixed in writing - the literary language. National language - the common language of the whole nation, covering all spheres of speech activity of people. It is heterogeneous, since it contains all varieties of language: territorial and social dialects, vernacular, jargon, literary language. The highest form of the national language is literary - the language is standardized, serving the cultural needs of the people; the language of fiction, science, press, radio, theater, government agencies. The concept of "culture of speech" is closely connected with the concept of "literary language": one concept presupposes another. The culture of speech arises along with the formation and development of the literary language. Second in importance after normativity is communicative component speech culture. The language performs a number of communicative tasks, serving various areas of communication. Each of the spheres of communication, in accordance with its communicative tasks, imposes certain requirements on the language. The combination of knowledge of the language with the experience of verbal communication, the ability to construct speech in accordance with the requirements of life and perceive it, taking into account the author's intention and the circumstances of communication, provide set of communicative qualities speech: correctness (reflection of the relationship "speech - language"), consistency ("speech - thinking"), accuracy ("speech - reality"), conciseness ("speech - communication"), clarity ("speech - addressee"), richness (“speech is the language competence of the author”), expressiveness (“speech is aesthetics”), purity (“speech is morality”), relevance (“speech is the addressee”, “speech is the situation of communication”). Another aspect of the culture of speech - ethical. Every society has its own ethical standards of behavior. Ethics of communication, or speech etiquette, requires compliance with certain rules of linguistic behavior in certain situations. Ensuring the maximum effectiveness of communication is associated with all three distinguished components (normative, communicative, ethical) of speech culture. 6. LANGUAGE STANDARD Under norm understand the generally accepted use of linguistic means, a set of rules (regulations) that regulate the use of linguistic means in the speech of an individual. Thus, the means of the language - lexical, morphological, syntactic, orthoepic, etc. - are made up of the number of coexisting, formed or extracted from the passive language. Types of norms. imperative - does not allow variance in the expression of a language unit, regulating only one way of its expression. Violation of this norm is regarded as poor language skills (for example, errors in declension or conjugation. Dispositive the norm allows variance, regulating several ways of expressing a language unit (a cup of tea and a cup of tea). Variation in the use of the same language unit is often a reflection of the transitional stage from an outdated norm to a new one. Possible three degrees of ratio "norm - option": a) the norm is obligatory, and the variant (primarily colloquial) is prohibited; b) the norm is mandatory, and the option is acceptable, although undesirable; at) norm and variant are equal; further displacement of the old norm and even the birth of a new one is possible. In accordance with the main levels of the language and the areas of use of language tools, the following are distinguished types of norms: 1) orthoepic (pronunciation); 2) morphological, related to the rules of formation of grammatical forms of the word; 3) syntactic, related to the rules for the use of phrases and syntactic constructions; 4) lexical, associated with the rules of word usage, selection and use of the most appropriate lexical units. Features of the language norm: • sustainability and stability, ensuring the balance of the language system for a long time; • widespread and obligatory compliance with regulations; • literary tradition and authority of sources (but one should remember about the author's individuality, capable of violating the norms, which is justified); • cultural and aesthetic perception (assessment) of language and its facts; in the norm, all the best that has been created in the speech behavior of mankind is fixed; • dynamic character (variability), due to the development of the entire language system, which is realized in live speech; • the possibility of linguistic "pluralism" (coexistence of several options that are recognized as normative). Codification - a linguistically reliable description of the fixation of the norms of the literary language in specially designed sources (grammar books, dictionaries, reference books, manuals). 7. CONCEPT OF STYLE The language is multifunctional: it performs several functions that form the main varieties of the language. Using these styles, the language is able to express a complex scientific thought, formulate laws, turn into poetic stanzas, etc. The function of the language forms the style, determining one or another manner of presentation: accurate, objective, concrete-pictorial, informative-business. In accordance with this, each functional style chooses from the literary language those words and expressions, those forms and constructions that can best fulfill the internal task of this style. The modern Russian literary language is characterized by book functional styles: scientific, journalistic, official business, which are used primarily in written form of speech, and colloquial, used mainly in oral speech. The styles of the literary language are most often compared on the basis of an analysis of their lexical composition, since it is in the lexicon that their difference is most noticeable. The attachment of words to a certain style of speech is explained by the fact that the lexical meaning of many words, in addition to the subject-logical content, also has an emotional-stylistic coloring. For example, the words: mother, mother, mommy, mommy; father, dad, daddy, pa - they have the same meaning, but differ stylistically, therefore they are used in different styles: mother, father are mostly official business words, the rest of the words are colloquial everyday style. There are two groups of emotionally expressive vocabulary: words with a positive (excellent, beautiful) and negative (bad, nasty, ugly) assessment. Depending on the emotional-expressive assessment, the word is used in various styles of speech. Emotionally expressive vocabulary is most fully represented in colloquial and everyday speech, which is distinguished by liveliness and accuracy of presentation. Expressively colored words are also typical for journalistic style. However, in scientific and official business styles of speech, emotionally colored words are inappropriate. In colloquial speech, mostly colloquial vocabulary is used, which does not violate the generally accepted norms of literary speech (reading room, teacher, - instead of a reading room, teacher). Spoken words are opposed to book vocabulary. Usually, this or that functional style is characterized by certain specific features, which, in turn, are created both by a set of certain language units and by the specific speech system of this style. 8. SCIENTIFIC STYLE. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS The scientific style belongs to the book styles of the literary language, which are characterized by a number of general conditions of functioning and language features: preliminary consideration of the statement, monologue character, strict selection of language means, normalization of speech. The emergence and development of the scientific style is associated with the development of different areas of scientific knowledge, different spheres of human activity. The scientific style has a number of common features that manifest themselves regardless of the nature of the sciences themselves (natural, exact, humanitarian) and the genres of expression (monograph, scientific article, report, textbook, etc.), which allows us to talk about the specifics of the style as a whole. Style of scientific works determined by their content and goals scientific communication (as accurately and fully as possible to explain the facts of the reality around us, show cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena, identify patterns of historical development, etc.). scientific style characterized by a logical sequence of presentation, an ordered system of connections between parts of the statement, the desire of the authors for accuracy, conciseness, unambiguity of expression while maintaining the richness of the content. Often the scientific style is called "dry", devoid of elements of emotionality and imagery. However, often in scientific works, in particular polemical ones, emotionally expressive and figurative means of language are used, which (being an additional device) stand out noticeably against the background of a purely scientific presentation and give scientific prose additional persuasiveness. The main function of the scientific style - transfer of logical information and proof of its truth, and often - novelty and value. The function of evidence is manifested in the formal structure of the style. In some varieties of scientific style, such as mathematical, argumentation is often directly referred to as proof. secondary function - activation of the logical thinking of the reader (listener). AT scientific and educational In the scientific style, this function is of paramount importance. A task popular science substyle: to interest a non-specialist in scientific information. The main function of the scientific style determined its main distinguishing features. Depending on the "purity" of their manifestation, the scientific style is divided into three substyle: actually scientific, scientific and educational, popular science (close to artistic and journalistic styles). In the literature, substyles are often referred to as styles. In addition, the scientific style has varieties depending on the type of science (more precisely, the cycle of sciences). Thus, the physical-mathematical and socio-political varieties of the scientific style represent its opposite poles. 9. SCIENTIFIC VOCABULARY The most important component of vocabulary are terms, i.e., words (or phrases) denoting logically formulated concepts and thus carrying logical information of a large volume. The role of terminological vocabulary in the general lexical system of the language is steadily increasing. In developed languages, about 80% of the vocabulary is made up of scientific and technical terms. However, in each narrow branch of science and technology, the number of special terms does not exceed 10-15%, and in a narrow one - 150-200 units. They play a big role internationalisms, i.e., words that occur in a number of languages and have some degree of phonetic, grammatical, and semantic similarity. Some scientific texts are almost 50% composed of internationalisms. Examples of internationalisms (their English parallels are given in brackets): agitate (agitate), retrospectively (retrospect), speedometer (speed), dissect (prepare), phenomenon (phenomenon), prolong (prolong), expression (expression), etc. Another important component of the vocabulary of the proper scientific substyle is general scientific vocabulary. One of features the use of general scientific words is their multiple repetition in scientific text. So, in works on theoretical mechanics, physics, mathematics, the most common verbs are: to be, to have, to find, to receive, to denote, to determine, to be, to be called, etc. Another feature of the use of general scientific words is the use of only one meaning of a polysemantic word in a scientific text. So, the verb "cause", which has seven meanings in the national language, is used in only one meaning - "to excite, give rise to." At the same time, a number of words (and phrases) are used in scientific texts mainly in the "official" sense; they are characterized by "semantic devastation": type ("meaning ..."), given ("given examples"), in quantity, in form, by, is, consists, exists, etc. The scientific style is used and abstract vocabulary: factor, development, creativity, self-awareness, comprehension, movement, expression, duration, etc. Phraseology the scientific style is characterized by the presence of compound terms (solar plexus, right angle, intersection point, boiling point, voiced consonants, participle turnover), various kinds of clichés (consists of., consists in., represents., is used for. etc. ). 10. MORPHOLOGY OF THE SCIENTIFIC STYLE A distinctive feature of the scientific substyle - predominance of nouns. In a scientific text, on average, there are almost four times more nouns than verbs, since the main thing for this style is to designate, describe a phenomenon. The narration (verb) occupies an insignificant place here, therefore, the scientific style differs sharply from the artistic one in terms of the ratio of verbal and nominal vocabulary. The most common neuter nouns are words denoting abstract concepts (time, movement, condition, quantity, phenomenon, property). Features of use number forms nouns: specific nouns in singular. numbers are often used in a generalized sense. On the other hand, in the scientific style there are many abstract, as well as material nouns, which are usually not used in the plural form. numbers (costs, frequencies, temperatures, magnitudes, etc.). Verb use: the circle of personal forms of the verb is narrowed - the forms of the 2nd person singular are not used. and many others. numbers. Features of use temporary forms verbs are a clear indicator of scientific style. Forms of the past tense in the texts of the proper scientific substyle very often acquire an abstract meaning, synonymous with the present, timeless. The forms of the future tense also have a pronounced timeless character here. An example of the synonymy of the forms of the future and the present tense in the same text: "We will call the function F9 the negation of the disjunction. The function F10 is called the equivalence function." The free replacement of one verb tense by another indicates a significant weakening the category of time verb in scientific style. The weakening or even emptying of the meaning of the tense of the verb creates a prerequisite for the formation of verbal nouns - suffixal and non-suffixal: faceting, melting, magnetization, coding, dehydration, pouring, rewinding, heating, compressing, flying out, etc. In the field of morphology, the use of shorter variant forms of the masculine gender is also observed, which corresponds to the principle of economy of language means (instead of a key - keys (meaning "the tip of a lever in various kinds of mechanisms"). In scientific papers, the form of units is often number of nouns used in the plural: wolf - a predatory animal from the genus of dogs (a whole class of objects is called with an indication of their characteristic features). 11. SCIENTIFIC STYLE SYNTAX In the actual scientific sub-style dominates logical, bookish syntax. The phrase is distinguished by grammatical and semantic completeness and high logical and informative saturation. Complicated and complex constructions are typical, as they are the most adapted for the concentrated expression of the movement of thought, the author's argumentation, and the connection between phenomena. logical certainty achieved through subordinating conjunctions (often causal), gradation and summary words (firstly, therefore). Sentences are usually narrative. Interrogative sentences are used only when posing a problem, controversy. Word order also reflects the logical direction of the sentence. Among simple sentences, a construction with a large number of dependent, sequentially strung nouns in the genitive case is widespread. Constructions with participial and adverbial phrases are widely used, which are a means of highlighting thoughts in an informatively rich sentence. However, they also use simple sentences, devoid of book complexity. They stand out for their "commonness" against the backdrop of complicated book syntax, so they are often used for the most essential thought (argument, formulation, conclusion, etc.). Demand unambiguity of the statement makes it impossible to make synonymous substitutions, especially when it comes to terms, therefore, in the scientific field, repetitions are not uncommon, which are considered undesirable in artistic and journalistic speech (if they do not have a special function there). Difficult sentence in the actual scientific sub-style it should be logically clear, so there are few complicated constructions. Parts of complex sentences are stylistically homogeneous, they lack colloquial syntactic elements. prevails allied, more often submissive link between parts of a complex sentence. Associative complex sentences are used mainly in enumeration and classification. Especially widespread in the exact sciences are their own, "scientific" means of communication between sentences as part of a complex syntactic whole (let ... - then ...). The main form of manifestation of the scientific style is written speech. The oral form is secondary, as it is based on a pre-written text. Therefore, intonation, being closely related to the logical structure of the sentence, has a subordinate character; it does not have any emotional-expressive functions. The sentence from the point of view of the rhythmic-intonational structure is a stylistically neutral phrase with an accent at the end of the phrase. The conscious elimination of shades - semantic and emotional - for the unambiguous expression of logical information in the process of its deployment, implies a direct word order and their strict fixation in the sentence structure. 12. PUBLICISTIC STYLE The journalistic style is considered to be particularly complex and branched, characterized by numerous transitional (interstyle) influences. Its main substyles - political and propaganda (appeals, orders, proclamations), official political and ideological (party documents), actually publicistic - in the narrow sense of the word (pamphlets, essays, feuilletons, etc.), newspaper. In turn, each substyle is subdivided into varieties depending on genre and other features. Genre differences are very noticeable here. The intra-style stratification turns out to be very difficult. newspaper speech. Style differences in it are due to the predominance in a particular text of one of the main newspaper functions - informative or propagandistic. In addition, some specific newspaper genres (leading article, reportage, interview, information, etc.) differ in style from all others. Differences in style are also explained by the direction of the publishing body, the specialization of the newspaper, the subject matter of the content and the author's style of presentation. Publicism as a sphere of mass communication has other varieties: radio journalism, film journalism, television journalism. Each of them, in addition to the common features inherent in journalism, has its own linguistic and stylistic differences. There is also such a special area as oratory - a special journalistic substyle, which is a complex interaction of written-journalistic and oral-journalistic speech. Political and ideological style serves a wide range of public relations - socio-political, cultural, sports, etc. It is most fully used in newspapers and socio-political magazines, as well as on radio and television, in documentary films. Publicistic style performs two main Features - information и affecting - and is used to express versatile and comprehensive information. The information function is inseparable from the influence function. Publicism reflects life directly, its information is factographic and documentary. Typification and generalization are manifested not so much in the reproduction of the facts themselves, but in their interpretation and coverage. Genres journalistic style are speeches at meetings of a political nature, an editorial, a theoretical and political article, an ideological consultation, an international review, correspondence, a reportage, a feuilleton, a pamphlet, a moral and ethical article, an essay, sports reviews, etc. 13. NEWSPAPER UNDER-STYLE In newspaper genres, transitional, inter-style influences are very noticeable, for example, the impact of a fiction style on an essay, a feuilleton, a report. The newspaper, being a popularizer of knowledge in the field of technology, economics, etc., uses in a number of its materials a special kind of popular science or scientific journalistic style. The influence of the scientific style is also manifested in problematic articles, where an analytical-generalized presentation of the subject of speech is given. Despite the variety of newspaper materials (which is reflected in the style of speech), we can talk about general principles building newspaper speech, about the generality of its functions, structures и style coloring, therefore, about the newspaper bed as a whole. The concepts of "newspaper language" and "journalistic style" are often considered as identical or close. Not everything that is published on the pages of the newspaper belongs to the journalistic style. So, a poem or a story, wherever they are published, belongs to the artistic style, and a decree or order - to the official business, etc. Actually, such genres, How editorial, correspondence, reportage, feuilleton, international review, sports review, information. The stylistic unity of the newspaper is also evidenced by the fact that not every genre and not every verbal form fits into the language of the newspaper. The most important linguistic feature newspaper and journalistic substyle is the close interaction and interpenetration of expressive, emotionally influencing speech means and standard language means, widely used in this particular style. Expressiveness newspaper journalism is due to the propaganda function and differs from the expressiveness of the language of fiction. The orientation inherent in the newspaper to the mass, many-sided reader, the breadth and variety of topics, the openness of its ideological positions - all these features of the newspaper require the use of catchy, instantly perceived expressive means. Longing for standardization language means reflects the information function of the newspaper and, to an even greater extent, the conditions for its functioning. Such linguistic means are considered standard that are often reproduced in a certain speech situation or (more broadly) in a certain functional style (good tradition, bloody coup, to make political capital). (The standard is not only specific newspaper, but also all language means that are distinguished by stylistic and emotional neutrality.) 14. VOCABULARY OF PUBLICISTIC STYLE The liveliness of the language of the journalistic style is due mainly to the use colloquial words and expressions: horde (instead of "crowd"); light up (instead of "get carried away"), etc. Как typical newspaper turns of speech are perceived phrases: go to the forefront, beacons of production, etc .; they are not used or hardly used in colloquial, scientific and other styles of literary language. The socio-political vocabulary and phraseology are the most specific for journalistic style. It is with her that the very formation of a journalistic style is connected. Socio-political vocabulary (freedom, privatization, glasnost) is so organically included in the vocabulary of journalistic style that this category of words is entirely included in the journalistic vocabulary. The journalistic style is constantly enriched with new words and expressions (peaceful coexistence, chain reaction, detente), uses international political vocabulary (parliament, electorate, inauguration, speaker) and scientific terminology, which quickly goes beyond the scope of highly specialized use (Internet, printer, virtual world, stagnation, default). Are fixed unusual combinations, in which evaluative adjectives characterize social and political processes: velvet revolution, fragile truce. Are used speech standards, clichés: public sector employees, employment service, according to informed sources, welfare service. Unusual lexical compatibility - a combination of words that are incompatible in their semantics or in emotional and stylistic coloring: the preacher of the whip, the apostle of ignorance. From speech standards, entrenched in a journalistic style, it follows distinguish speech stamps - template turns of speech that have a clerical color and have arisen under the influence of an official business style: at this stage, at a given period of time, today, emphasized with all sharpness, etc. As a rule, they do not add anything new to the content of the statement , but only clog the proposal. Speech stamps include universal words that are used in a variety of, often too broad, indefinite meanings: question, event, series, specific, separate, etc. Speech stamps are also paired words (satellite words); the use of one of them necessarily entails the use of the other: the problem is unresolved, overdue, the event is carried out, etc. Becoming clichés, such combinations lose their expressive and evaluative sound, depriving speech of live colors. 15. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF PUBLICISTIC SPEECH Specificity of the morphological structure. Among the word-formation models, certain types are known for their productivity. abstract nouns with suffixes -ost, -stvo, -nie, -ie. Many of them are used when journalism performs information function: personality, cooperation, management, trust. Others, containing an emotional or social assessment, are associated with the function of influence: devotion, intransigence, brotherhood (these types are also productive in a scientific style). Often there are formations with Russian and Old Slavonic prefixes that name socio-political concepts: inter-party, inter-continental, universal, super-powerful, etc. Actively used international derivational suffixes (-a, -tion, -ra, -ist, -izm, -ant) and foreign consoles (anti-, hyper-, dis-, post-,): isolation, agents, racist, saboteur, anti-fascist, countermeasures, pro-Western, arch-reactionary, trans-European, etc. Usually these are words of a socio-political nature. Common formations with emotional expressive affixes such as -shina, -ichat ultra-: everyday life, put on airs, ultra-right, as well as words formed by addition: socio-political, socio-economic, etc. Compound words are often used: mutually beneficial, pan-European, ubiquitous, good neighborly, multilateral, etc. In order to save speech resources, abbreviations (GKChP, JSC, CIS) and abbreviations of words are used here: federal (federal), cash (cash), exclusive (exclusive ). Common substantiation of adjectives and participles, especially in the headlines: "Let's give our votes to the best, worthy", "The Right are preparing for attacks." Syntax. Journalistic works are distinguished by the correctness and clarity of the construction of sentences, their simplicity and clarity. Monologue speech is used (mainly in analytical genres), dialogue (for example, in an interview), direct speech. Journalists use various syntactic expression techniques: unusual word order (inversion), rhetorical questions, appeals, incentive and exclamatory sentences. In the journalistic style, all types of single-component sentences are presented - nominative, indefinitely and generalized personal, impersonal (we are told; the note says). An important style-forming function is performed by peculiar in syntactic design headlines, as well as beginnings of texts. They also perform an advertising function: it largely depends on the title and the beginning of the text whether the reader will pay attention to this publication. Different genres of journalism are characterized by a different ratio of bookish and colloquial features in syntax. In international reviews, for example, there are more book features than in the genre of "reflection", syntactic parallelism, anaphoric narration, creating a certain solemnity of speech, are possible. 16. CONVERSATIONAL STYLE Conversational style (colloquial speech) is used in a wide range of personal, i.e. informal, off-duty relationships. Function conversational style is a function of communication in its "original" form. Speech is generated by the needs of direct communication between two or more interlocutors and acts as a means of such communication; it is created in the process of speaking and depending on the response of the interlocutor - speech, facial expressions, etc. In conditions of easy communication, a person, to a much greater extent than in the presence of official relations, has the opportunity to show his personal qualities - temperament, emotionality, sympathy, which saturates his speech with emotional and stylistically colored (mostly stylistically reduced) words, expressions, morphological forms and syntactic structures. In colloquial speech, the function of communication can be supplemented message function or impact function. However, both the message and the impact are manifested in direct communication, and therefore occupy a subordinate position. The most common factors here are the personal, informal nature of the relationship between the participants in the communication; their direct participation in communication; development of speech in the process of speaking without prior preparation. Although these factors are closely related to each other, their role in the formation of the actual linguistic features of the conversational style is far from homogeneous: the last two factors - direct participation in communication and unpreparedness of communication - are closely related to the oral form of speech and are generated by it, and the first factor is personal, informal the nature of the relationship - also applies to written communication, for example, in personal correspondence. The language tool used during personal, everyday, informal relationships between speakers is characterized by additional shades - ease, a sharper evaluative moment, more emotionality compared to neutral or book equivalents, i.e. these language means are colloquial. The absence of normative guidelines for oral colloquial speech, the automatic reproduction of linguistic means in speech gives rise to the illusion that colloquial speech does not have a norm at all. However, the very fact of automatic reproduction in speech of ready-made constructions, phraseological turns, various kinds of clichés, i.e., standardized language means corresponding to certain standard speech situations, indicates an imaginary or, in any case, limited freedom of the speaker to build his speech as he pleases. Conversational speech is subject to strict laws, has its own rules and norms: the factors of book and written speech in general are perceived in colloquial speech as alien. Strict (albeit unconscious) adherence to ready-made standards is the norm of unprepared oral speech. 17. VOCABULARY Thematically, the vocabulary of the colloquial-everyday style is very diverse; stylistically, its circle is much narrower. The lexical tool that can most fully satisfy the needs of everyday communication is the richest and most branched layer of the vocabulary of the language - common, neutral words: in colloquial style, the proportion of neutral vocabulary is much higher than in scientific and official business. The ordinary nature of the conversational style causes stylistic restrictions. Words that have a tinge of solemnity (eat, erect, march) seem inappropriate and pretentious in colloquial speech, and if used, then only jokingly, ironically, due to which their increased stylistic coloring is reduced. Some of the bookish words that have a weak stylistic coloring do not bring dissonance into the ordinary nature of the colloquial and everyday style and find a very wide application in it: run, inconsolable, declarative, efface, irrevocable, etc. Many socio-political and general scientific terms, nomenclature names are very common in colloquial speech: revolution, socialism, dictatorship, analysis, synthesis, reaction, space. plays an important role in colloquial speech appraisal-emotional moment. One of the effective means of expressing an emotional assessment is colloquial and colloquial words, the reduced stylistic coloring of which often interacts with evaluative and emotional shades. Yes, sir (about a person who avoids work, shifts his work to others) - not only colloquial, but also pejorative, mocking; "poor fellow" - colloquial and sympathetic or ironic. In colloquial speech, there is a range of characteristic "semantic unities" ("actual meanings", "super-meanings"), which correspond to extensive classes of words: a characteristic of a person's labor activity, his participation in it, his attitude towards it; characteristics of intelligence, expediency of actions; characteristics of emotional states, relationships and relationships. For example, a characteristic of a person’s labor activity includes the words: root (for a cause), hard worker, hard worker; trouble-free; to bother, to sweat; parasite, freeloader; shove off, slink away. The colloquial and everyday style is rich in phraseological units: to the wrong address, to discover America, to carry nonsense, not so hot, no matter what, no matter what, it's a disaster. "Situation name "- a statement, the meaning of which is so specific, phraseological due to cohesion with the situation, which forms the most generalized "zones of meaning": potatoes (a trip to harvest potatoes); don't forget coffee (don't forget to turn off the coffee maker). There are also "doublet words" - variant names that are used in cases where a thing does not have a specific name in everyday life. For example, a "plunger", i.e., an item for cleaning sinks at home, in everyday life receives a whole series of names: pear, cleaner, punching, pumping, pumping. The peculiarity of such names is their optionality, instability. 18. MORPHOLOGY OF CONVERSATIONAL STYLE Correlative activity of morphological categories of words and individual word forms in colloquial style different, than in other functional styles. Verb forms such as Communion и gerund, in colloquial speech not used. The absence of gerunds can be compensated to some extent by the second predicate, expressing the "accompanying" feature: "And I'm sitting writing"; "I see: it is staggering." A well-known analogy (but not identity) with phrases like "Please get out the pliers that are on the shelf" (or "lying on the shelf") is the construction: "Please get the pliers ... they are on the shelf over there." In colloquial speech, the forms in - a (-ya), (-v) shi (s), reminiscent of gerunds, are common: "I lay all Monday without getting up"; "Further go without turning anywhere until the store itself." Such forms are considered adverbs of the adverbial form. Forms like "Is he a knowledgeable specialist?" are adjectives. Other than other styles is ratio of full and short adjectives. Short forms of most quality adjectives are not used, preference is given to short adjectives such as grateful, faithful, satisfied, necessary, for which full forms are not typical, as well as adjectives that have the meaning of inconsistencies in the measure of quality, for example "dress is short for you." The prevalence of non-significant words (pronouns, particles) is characteristic; significant words are used less frequently. With situational attachment of colloquial speech, pronouns with their generalized semantics are used instead of nouns and adjectives: "Be kind, get me that ... well ... that is on the top shelf ... on the left" (book); "And what is he like? - Yes, such ... you know ...". Often non-significant words are used not so much to express some shades of meaning, but for filling forced in colloquial speech pauses: "Well ... since you have come ... well ... be, well ... consider yourself a guest"; "Well... I don't know... do as you please." Among the case word forms of the noun, the most active is nominative form, which is explained by the peculiarities of colloquial syntax, i.e. the prevalence of constructions with a "nominative theme" ("Buy there ... well, kefir, cheese ... yes ... here's another ... sausage ... don't forget it", as well as the use of nouns in the nominative case with various kinds of additives , clarifications ("Well, you can't remember everyone ... Sveta ... I know her"). In colloquial speech, a certain group of real nouns is used in counting form in the meaning of "portion of this substance": two milk (two bags or bottles), two sour cream, two borscht, etc. Activated also feminine form when designating a profession, position: cashier (instead of the official "cashier"), librarian (instead of "librarian"). 19. SYNTAX OF CONVERSATIONAL STYLE The most peculiar feature of the colloquial style is its syntax, which reflects the unpreparedness of colloquial speech. In particular, in colloquial speech, structures are widespread that can perform the functions of the missing part of the statement - for example, the so-called main independent and subordinate independent. So, at the end of a conversation that touches on complex, conflicting issues, the solution of which turned out to be problematic, or even after a considerable time after such a conversation, a person says: "Oh, I don't know, I don't know." Due to the special intonation, this structure performs the function of the main and unsubstituted subordinate clause: "... then it will be (... what will come of it)". Sentences are used as "subordinate clauses" only in those cases when the content of the unreplaced main included in them finds expression in intonation and union or union word or is suggested by the very structure of the sentence: "what is it, what is not it" (instead of "it doesn't matter, what she is, what she is not). Conversational style is distinguished by a variety of types incomplete structures. The unsubstituted syntactic position of the verb-predicate in constructions like "he's home". Such a statement will be correctly understood in the situation of the context. A wide variety of categories of verbs can be unsubstituted - verbs of motion: "Where are you going? - Only to the store"; verbs of speech: "It's not very interesting - you're shorter"; with a meaning close to the meaning of "to study, to study": "She does gymnastics every morning. Regularly." Conversational speech is characterized by increased emotionality, which is achieved in various ways. An important role is played word order and intonation. So, in order to focus on that part of the message that is expressed by the adjective as a predicate, it is made the beginning of a sentence; it pulls the logical stress on itself and is separated from the unstressed noun by the bundle to be: there was a small river; mushrooms were great. Expressive constructions are also common, in which the informative center of the utterance strives for maximum formal independence from the rest of the utterance. characteristic of colloquial speech and addition design ("And your daughter, is she a historian?"); interrogative constructions with an additional phrasal boundary (such as "You did it on purpose, didn't you? You dragged a raw log"); non-union subordinating constructions ("Do you want a pie - did your grandmother bake it?"). In colloquial speech there is no strictly fixed arrangement of the components of the phrase, therefore the main means of actual articulation is not word order, but intonation and logical stress. This does not mean that here the word order does not play a role at all in the expression of the actual articulation. The active means of actual articulation are special highlight words and repetitions: "What about the teachers' council? Will it not be today?"; "For how many years now he has been resting in Gelendzhik every year ... in Gelendzhik." 20. FORMAL-BUSINESS STYLE Under business communication refers to the verbal interaction of partners in the business sphere, carried out in written or oral form within the framework of an official business style. It is generally accepted that the official business style is used only when compiling the texts of official documents. As for oral business speech, it is more free in the choice of language means, it is significantly influenced by the colloquial style, which in a number of publications is not quite accurately recognized as the main one for such speech communication. In this regard, colloquial phrases constantly flashing in the official statements of well-known businessmen, entrepreneurs, politicians are often perceived condescendingly, although, in essence, there is an elementary violation of the culture of speech. Regulatory requirements formal business style should be (and are) the basis of communication in the business sphere. Let's take a look at the main ones. 1. Moderate use of clericalism (notice, failure, above). You should not use obsolete words and phrases such as what (which), on the subject (for), attach to the case (in the case) in business speech. 2. Wide use of terms and professional words of the field of activity in which business communication takes place. In written speech, the distortion of the term or its replacement by synonymous forms is not allowed. If, in the opinion of the drafter of the document, the term may be incomprehensible to the addressee, but it is impossible to do without it in this text, its explanation should be given. 3. Use of stable language models and text formulas: in the order of rendering, in connection with the above, payment is guaranteed. 4. The exact use of the meaning of the word. Failure to comply with this rule leads to a dual understanding of the word or to illiteracy. 5. Moderate and correct use of foreign words. In most cases, it is better to use the Russian equivalent, denoting the same concept. 6. Proper use of grammatical categories, especially prepositions. The most common mistake is to use after the prepositions "thanks", "like", "contrary", "according to" the genitive, not the dative case of the noun. 7. The inadmissibility of superfluous words and tautologies (designations of the same subject, phenomena in other words). 8. Compliance of word abbreviations used in the texts of documents, as well as in other details, with the current rules of spelling and punctuation, with the requirements of state standards. 21. CULTURE OF BUSINESS LETTER Written speech is an independent holistic purposeful speech structure that provides communication through a written text. The written text in this case is the representative of the author as a participant in the communication. The texts of official documents should be subject to strict requirements - they must be clear, precise, logical and comply with the norms of official business style. Depending on the number of issues addressed in the document, the text may be simple or complex in content. AT simple text deals with one issue, difficult - several. Simple texts are more convenient in processing during the workflow and more obvious in execution. Complex texts (reports, reviews, reports, etc.), as a rule, are large, so it is advisable to reduce them to a simple version by dividing them into paragraphs, paragraphs and subparagraphs. Texts of a business letter should be as unified. In general terms, the unification of the text is the division of information into constant and variable and the development on this basis of stencil and standard texts. В stencil the constant information is already typed in the text, and spaces are left for the variable. When compiling such text, constant information should be placed before the variable. Typical text is a template on the basis of which the text of the new document is built. Such text can be presented as separate phrases or paragraphs. To facilitate the selection, it is recommended to compile a catalog of standard texts. Exist three main types internal text structures: subject-logical, "woven" and free figurative-associative. The subject-logical structure is the texts of scientific and educational, official and business, social and business, information and analytical; "wicker" - usually journalistic; free figurative-associative structures are characteristic of literary texts and require, as a rule, the presence of creative talent and skill. 22. CULTURE OF DIOLOGICAL SPEECH Dialogue - this is a process of mutual communication, during which the replica is replaced by a response phrase and there is a constant change of roles "listening - speaking". Exist two classes of dialogs: information and interpretation. Informational Dialogue is typical for situations where by the beginning of communication between partners there is a gap in knowledge. Interpretive dialogue - for situations where the knowledge of the partners is approximately equal, but receive a different interpretation. One of the main conditions for dialogue communication is the initial (at least small) gap in knowledge. This means that if the partners do not communicate new (more precisely, unknown) information related to the subject of the dialogue, but begin to exchange well-known truths, then the dialogue will not take place. Sufficient information content of the dialogue is also achieved due to language tools, emphasizing a new aspect in the perception of well-known information. However, excessive information content is just as harmful to verbal communication as the lack of information content: a message containing a complete description of the outside world contradicts normal communication, since it is almost impossible to extract meaningful information from it. That's why ability to deliver information - an indicator of speech culture. Low information content may be the result of the partner's unwillingness to enter into a dialogue. Another important condition for dialogue is need for communication. It occurs in a situation where the subject's knowledge about the subject of communication is insufficient. The presence in this situation of a partner who can actually or potentially be a source of as yet unknown information makes it possible for a dialogue to emerge. This also determines the next condition of the dialogue - determinism, i.e. observance of causal relationships: there must be reasons for the occurrence of any events; moreover, causes and effects must be related and not arbitrary. Breaking these bonds disrupts normal communication. The next condition for normal communication in general and dialogic communication in particular is the requirement shared memory. Participants in the dialogue should have at least a minimum common stock of information about the past. Another condition for dialogue as a specific language form of communication is at least small general language knowledge. Dialogue will not work if the partners speak different languages, if one of the partners saturates the speech with terminology, borrowed or other vocabulary that is not in the lexical stock of the other, and in a number of other cases of lack of common language knowledge. 23. TYPES OF DIALOGUES Outgoing from goals and objectives dialogue, the specific situation of communication and the roles of partners, the following main varieties dialogic communication: everyday conversation; • business conversation; • interview;• interview;• conversation. household conversation characterized by the following features: • unplanned; • the variety of topics discussed (personal, social, political, etc.) and the language means used; • frequent deviations from the topic, jumping from one topic to another; • as a rule, the absence of targets and the need to make any decision; • self-presentation of the personality; • colloquial speech style. business conversation is an act of direct mutual communication in the official business sphere, carried out through verbal (verbal) and non-verbal (facial expressions, gestures, demeanor) means. A business conversation has the following characteristics: • a differentiated approach to the subject of discussion, taking into account the communicative purpose and partners, and in the interests of a clear and convincing presentation of opinion; • quick response to the statements of partners, contributing to the achievement of the goal; • critical evaluation of opinions, proposals, as well as objections of partners; • an analytical approach to taking into account and assessing the subjective and objective factors of the problem in a complex; • a sense of self-importance and an increase in the competence of partners as a result of a critical analysis of other points of view on this issue; • a sense of ownership and responsibility in solving the problem raised in the conversation. Summary goal - reaching an agreement, coherence in the subjects of business communication, solving certain professional tasks. A business conversation is characterized by a conscious adjustment to the level of the interlocutor, taking into account his powers and responsibilities, life and professional experience, features of his thinking and speech. There are special communication methods, contributing to the perception of information: • asking questions about the conditions, causes of problems, possible consequences and conclusions in order to stimulate the thinking of partners; • verbatim or semantic repetition of important aspects of the material presented; • summing up general or individual results as a result of a collective discussion of the relevant problem, etc. Some factors interfere the normal course of the dialogue: tactless interruption of the interlocutor's speech; ignoring or ridiculing his arguments; juggling of facts, allegations, etc. 24. RECOMMENDATIONS ON THE CULTURE OF SPEAKING 1. Show respect, benevolence towards the interlocutor. It is forbidden to inflict any kind of damage, insult, insult, or express disdain on the interlocutor with your speech. Direct negative assessments of the personality of the communication partner should also be avoided (fool; bungler; stupid; stop smacking nonsense). 2. Be polite. Politeness should not be exaggerated, but proportionate to the given situation: it is necessary to take into account the age, gender, official position of the partner in communication, his social position and balance his own social positions with the corresponding indicators of the partner. It is recommended to soften your speech, remove excessive categoricalness. 3. Show modesty. The negotiator is required to be modest in self-assessments, not to impose his own opinions and assessments on the interlocutor (but to convince!), to be able to support the partner's point of view. 4. Emphasize attention to the partner. It is necessary to take into account the social role of the interlocutor, his personality, his knowledge of the topic, the subject of speech, the degree of his interest. Maintaining contact with the interlocutor using language etiquette forms: you are probably interested to know ...; you certainly know…; repeated appeals; non-verbal signs of attention (look at the interlocutor, be interested in his reaction). 5. The topic of communication should be clear, relevant and interesting. In the family and the institution, a variety of topics for verbal communication are selected in accordance with the principle of relevance or interest. 6. Take into account that threshold of semantic perception and concentration of attention the listener is limited. Research data show that oral statements are best perceived, which can last from 45 seconds to 1,5 minutes without a pause. Therefore, it is recommended to use short phrases and not exceed the average time of continuous speaking. It is also necessary to ensure that the listener is not tired, to give him a break and re-focus. 7. Consider non-verbal means communications. First of all, it is necessary to maintain the distance of communication accepted in a given national and social culture, to use gestures correctly. The listener should feel that the speaker is sending him benevolent facial and gestural signals, additionally awakening his attention and understanding. 25. SPEAKING SPECIFICATIONS К technical characteristics of speaking external signs of this process include: free speech, automatism, speed of speech (speaking), fluency, fluency, automatic jog, economy of speech action, flexibility, tension, dynamism, skills and abilities of oral speech. free speech (free speaking) is speech without difficulty, without painful searches for words, without delays and without speech errors, logically harmonious, coherent, coherent. The same native speaker (native or non-native) may speak fluently on some topics and have difficulty dealing with other topics. For example, schoolchildren or students, smartly talking about a football match or reading a detective story, often show stiffness in the exam, even if they generally know the material. Free speech can sometimes be severely distorted - for example, the speech of foreigners due to the diverse interference of their native language. A native Russian speaker often speaks freely, but incorrectly when he speaks in some kind of jargon. Starting a normalized speech, he immediately experiences difficulties, unable to quickly find the right words. Automatism of speech is a set of stable speech skills and abilities developed by long-term practice, speech operations and rational and involuntary actions. Speed (tempo) of speech is determined by the automatism of speaking, the degree of development of speech, language and speech competence, subject competence and other factors. The speed of speech will be high if all of the above is to a large extent characteristic of the subject of speech. With free speech, the rate of speech under normal circumstances does not exceed the norm; however, it should not be slow, except in special cases. The average speech rate of a native Russian speaker is 240-260 syllables per minute. Economy of speech action - this is the ability (due to automatism) to carry out speech operations, actions rationally, optimally in terms of time and effort. Flexibility of speech - this is the readiness and ability to successfully use speech skills and abilities not in one, but in many speech situations, including non-standard, new ones; use a variety of language and speech material for different situations. Unity of flexibility and dynamism of speech - one of the most important and most obvious external indicators of the culture of speech, which is manifested in the fact that a person can freely pronounce a coherent, at least three-minute monologue on various topics. The technical characteristics of speaking should also include diction (the degree of distinctness of the articulation of sounds and the clarity of the pronunciation of words, statements), loudness (intensity of the statement), pronunciation style (complete and incomplete). Full pronunciation style is a more thorough pronunciation of all sounds and a slower pace of speech (for announcers, speakers, lecturers, this style is mandatory). Incomplete pronunciation style is not very distinct or even careless pronunciation of speech sounds and words at an accelerated pace. 26. PURPOSE AND CONTENT OF A SPEECH The culture of monologue speech is most fully manifested in public speaking; it is in it that most of the stylistic devices are used, with the help of which clarity, clarity, harmony and other qualities are achieved, which are integral features of speech culture. When writing a speech, you must immediately determine its main target. Having formulated it, you need to constantly remember about it - this facilitates further work on the speech, since in this case the future speaker will select only those facts and data that contribute to the achievement of the goal. Speech content - this is the information entered into it: facts, arguments, reasoning, explanations, elements of a story about something, elements of a description. The number of constituent elements of the speech content should be sufficient to disclose the topic. It is also necessary to observe a certain quantitative ratio these elements. For example, facts must be present in the speech, otherwise it will become unfounded. But it is not recommended to overload speech with them - this weakens the attention of listeners and causes their irritation. You need to choose the most interesting, important and intelligible facts. The same can be said about the use of arguments (arguments) and other elements of the content of speech. Of fundamental importance is good presentation of the facts. You can use long-established verbal formulas for introducing or commenting on facts, or you can invent your own verbal formulas to give originality to the style of speech. Every speech must contain arguments i.e., methods of persuasion. Arguments to the point based on the true circumstances of the case, confirmed by facts and practice - for example, such and such a person did not commit such and such a crime, because he was at that time in another place (alibi). Arguments to a person often used by speakers. Such arguments are not directly related to the objective consideration of the case, the establishment of the truth, but are intended to influence the feelings of the listeners, and, consequently, their further actions, their attitude to what is happening. Arguments to the benefit encourage people to deviate from the essence of the matter in order to protect their interests, their benefits. Arguments - references to recognized authorities for many, they are very convincing and completely replace evidence. Having heard that a well-known economic scientist holds such and such an opinion, many listeners who do not understand the economic issue under consideration can support his point of view. Arguments - links to common sense designed for ordinary everyday experience and nothing more: You claim that A. beat B., but this cannot be, because A. is much weaker physically. 27. ABOUT THE STRUCTURE (CONSTRUCTION) OF ORatory SPEECH Every speech must contain three compositional parts: introduction, middle part (reasoning) and conclusion. In entry (attack) you need to try to attract the attention of the audience, win them over, prepare them for listening to the main part, the perception of the issue being raised. To do this, we can say that the topic of your speech is very important, that the case that will be considered is very unusual, that the audience will learn something out of the ordinary, that is, somehow intrigue audience. At the very beginning of the speech, one should say respect for the audience without showing self-confidence, swagger, arrogance (such qualities should not be inherent in a speaker at all). It is not necessary to start with colorful and too foldable phrases (they are more appropriate in the course of a speech): an overly confident beginning is perceived by the audience, as a rule, negatively. An equally important point is brevity introduction: it should last no more than a minute. В and part sets out the essence of the case - the information that you consider it necessary to report, its interpretation, your interpretation and assessment. Arguing about the subject of speech, pre-conceived arguments are given, evaluative emotional exclamations are used, etc. Here, too, certain rules should be followed: a message or reasoning should not be too long, boring, too detailed or chaotic. If you are going to use several arguments in a row, start with the weakest, increasing the power of persuasion, and end with the strongest - there is a not unreasonable opinion that the arguments arranged in this sequence are more effective. Arrange the facts in the same order. The third compositional part of speech should never be neglected - conclusion. In terms of volume, it can exceed the introduction, but should take no more than 1,5-2 minutes. In the conclusion, they usually emphasize the main idea of the speech or briefly repeat all the essential thoughts, considerations, observing the order of their more detailed consideration in the middle part. The last phrase of the speech should be energetic. D. Carnegie is right, condemning the common banal ending of a speech, consisting of the phrase: "Well, that seems to be all I wanted to say." The listener may get the impression that the speaker probably did not say everything, forgot something, missed something. It is better to end the speech more clearly: "That's all I wanted to say. Thank you for your attention." Better yet, end the speech with some paradoxical or intriguing statement, for example: "If I have not convinced you that I am right, life will convince you of it - and very soon!" Do not ignore the traditional phrase, which is a sign of good taste: "Thank you for your attention." 28. About figures of speech A characteristic feature of oratory is the frequent use figures of speech, i.e., unusual constructions of statements or the use of words in their figurative meanings, unusual combinations with each other, which the audience immediately pays attention to. The number of figures of speech approaches 200, but there are only a few dozen of them in oratory, and the more intensively they are used in speech, the greater the effect it produces. Anaphora - repetition of a word, phrase, rhythmic and speech constructions at the beginning of syntactic periods: "We have experience, we have sufficient funds, we have the necessary premises to do this business and be successful." Anaphora makes the phrase more expressive, contributes to a better assimilation of thought; widely used in advertisements. Graduation - the arrangement of words in the order of increase or decrease in their semantic and emotional meaning: "This is a living, active, impetuous person." In gradations, 3-4 words are most often used to avoid reducing the effect. Fewer words can create a feeling of insufficiency. Antithesis - comparison of words or phrases that are sharply different in meaning. Antitheses are often used in the most pathetic places of speech. Comparison is a famous and popular figure of speech. The task of the speaker is to provide his speech with unexpected, well-aimed comparisons. Allusion - correlation of what is being described or happening in reality with a stable concept or phrase of literary, historical, mythological origin. Most often, prominent people of the past are quoted - thinkers, writers, politicians, scientists. Paradox - an opinion, a judgment that sharply diverges from the generally accepted one, but upon closer examination, it is correct, at least under some conditions. Paradoxes greatly adorn oral speech: "I will tell the truth about you such that it is worse than any lie" (A. Griboyedov). The paradox must be accessible to listeners, so sometimes it needs to be explained. Antiphrasis - one of the types of irony: the use of a phrase in the opposite sense in a certain context and with a certain intonation: "I really need to deceive you!" Hyperbola - figurative exaggeration, for example: "Inflation can reach cosmic proportions." It is better to use your own, new hyperbolas. Litotes - underlined understatement; this stylistic figure is called an inverse hyperbole. Due to the discrepancy between the assessment and the real situation, the meaning seems to be strengthened: "Of course, they will not refuse to go abroad" (that is, they will go with pleasure). Paralipsis (preteritia) - feigned silence: the speaker emphasizes that he ignores some facts, circumstances, assessments, but at the same time lists them, for example: "I will not talk about violations of production discipline - violations of access control, systematic delays." Anticipation - formulating possible objections of listeners and answers to them. There is an impression of objectivity in the discussion of the problem. 29. MEMORY AND SPEECH The speaker must make a speech by heart, and not read it as a report - otherwise, he risks making a very unfavorable impression on the listeners (in this case, the word "orator" is even inappropriate). The text of a speech is easier to remember if it well structured, i.e., it is characterized by a harmonious structure, a logical connection of individual compositional parts and subparts, a clear and simple logic of their location. The most important provisions and formulations must be learned especially carefully so that the listeners do not have a doubt that the speaker himself is poorly aware of them. Just as carefully you need to learn solemn, pathetic phrases, so as not to get into a mess, stammering and remembering their continuation. If the speaker still forgot what to say next, you can’t show this to the audience, making a long pause - you need to continue the speech, replacing the forgotten fragments of the speech with others. There are the following speech rules: • speak loudly enough so that everyone present can clearly hear the speaker; • avoid monotony by alternately raising or lowering your voice; • do not speak too quickly (patter) or, conversely, too slowly - you should slow down or speed up the pace of speech, depending on its content, adhering mainly to the average pace; • do not take too loud breath; • make logical, justified pauses from time to time, especially after important information, giving listeners the opportunity to become more aware of it and emphasizing its significance; - do not constantly wipe your face with a handkerchief; - do not abuse gestures, using them mainly only in emotional places of speech; - do not demonstrate excessive facial expressions, as well as its complete absence; - do not spread your legs wide, do not constantly step from foot to foot, do not stand on one leg; the right leg should be slightly extended forward; - do not make various nervous movements with your hands; - do not constantly look at one point or at the ceiling, but evenly survey all your listeners; - do not walk around in front of the audience. 30. TYPICAL FAULTS OF ORATORIC SPEECH Poor vocabulary. Very often, the speaker gets by with a small number of words, and therefore constantly repeats many of them in his speech. This is depressing and indicates a poor education and low intellectual level of the speaker. Verbal monotony, banality of style suggest that the content of speech is also banal. The speech should contain synonyms, colorful phrases, comparisons, etc. Style inconsistency. It should be remembered that it is necessary to speak about objects of different spiritual and moral dignity using different styles, that is, one cannot speak about insignificant deeds with a high word, about important ones - with a low word, about sad ones - with a cheerful one. Compare: "My grandfather fought, reached Berlin. He has a lot of medals, even some kind of order." - "My grandfather went through the whole war, participated in the storming of Berlin. He received many awards. He also has an order." Words of too reduced sound ("cool" - in the meaning of "excellent"; "hochma", etc.) should not be used at all in oratory. In addition, one should not speak too pompously or sugary - this makes speech unnatural, distorted. Lengths. Too long intricate arguments, proofs, descriptions are subject to reduction, and complex sentences consisting of 4-5 or more simple sentences should be broken down into 2-3 sentences. Too short. The speaker, omitting some information, without finishing something, makes his speech not entirely clear to the audience. Outlining the key thoughts, reasoning, he must give explanations, emphasize the essence of his statements. You need to speak not so that you can be understood, but so that you cannot be misunderstood. Unclear speech may be due to the use of little-known foreign words, highly specialized terms, obsolete words. If they cannot be avoided, and the reaction of the audience indicates that they do not understand these words, you can briefly explain their meaning. Bad sound. It is necessary to avoid numerous sound fillers of pauses (or, as they are also called, parasitic words) such as uh-uh-…, m-m-m-m-…, like…, how is it?…, how is it ?.. etc. It is also necessary to take care that there are no dissonant combinations in speech. 31. TYPES OF SPEECH There are about 20 types of oratory. Let's consider the most common of them. Production speech pronounced in front of colleagues at production meetings, business meetings, presentations. This may be either a scheduled speech, or an impromptu speech in a debate, or a final speech by the moderator (chairman). The content of such a speech should correspond to the problem under discussion: the speaker sets out his position, sometimes analyzing and criticizing other points of view or, conversely, supporting them. Key features presentation speeches - elation of style, efficiency, advertising of one's enterprise, its capabilities, achievements, etc. Both cordial invitations to cooperation and solemn assurances and promises are appropriate here. Rally speech designed for a large number of people, including those unfamiliar to the speaker. An invocative, slogan style dominates, a demonstration of the emotions that the speaker seeks to convey to the public. Depending on the situation, the speaker can raise his tone to varying degrees, expressing dissatisfaction with his political opponents, refuting everything that he or the group he represents does not like. Its own program of action is presented in optimistic tones and is equipped with catchy appeals. A speech at a rally should not contain deep reasoning, scrupulous evidence: the assembled crowd will not listen to them and will not understand them. parliamentary speech usually sounds in the chambers of parliaments (for example, in the State Duma), as well as representative legislative bodies of a lower order. There are two varieties of such a speech: a speech such as a report and a speech - a speech in a debate. Features: putting forward some proposal of national, regional or city significance and a clearly expressed element of deliberation, i.e. defending one’s own or rejecting someone else’s position not in a rally manner, but in the style of a balanced consideration of the problem, objectivity of assessments of the real situation and prospects for public life. However, nevertheless, in political speeches of the parliamentary type, according to tradition, since the time of Demosthenes and Cicero, there are both passion and sharpness of style. Anniversary speech, table speech (speech) - these are social speeches that are delivered at an official meeting or during a feast on the occasion of an anniversary, significant date, significant event, big holiday, birthday, wedding, dissertation defense, etc. Panegyric, glorifying, laudatory words are characteristic of such speeches and expressions, flattering facts and assessments. Of course, it is desirable to use not banal, but original expressions, to recall or reveal little-known but important facts. Mournful speech it is usually pronounced at a funeral and contains a listing of the deceased's merits to society, the positive human qualities that were inherent in him. In such a speech, one cannot talk about vain, industrial affairs, worldly trifles, but it is appropriate to express high spiritual experiences, thoughts about the eternal. 32. CULTURE OF BEHAVIOR AND ETHICAL STANDARDS OF COMMUNICATION A kind of barometer of our communication is the concept communication culture, which is related to culture of behavior. Knowledge of the norms of behavior and following them, restraint and the ability to control one's actions, attention and respect for people - in a word, everything that is considered to be good manners in society belongs to the culture of human behavior and is regulated by etiquette. Etiquette (from French etiquette - label, label) is a set of rules of conduct relating to the external manifestation of attitude towards people (forms of address, behavior in public places, manners, clothes, etc.), the established order of behavior, adherence to moral, social norms . Behavior happens real (practical actions and deeds) and verbal (verbal). These two behaviors must match. One cannot be a polite or obliging person only in words. A cultured person is one whose knowledge of ethical principles and moral norms of society has turned into an inner conviction. He does this not because it is necessary, but because he cannot do otherwise. К cultural norms behaviors include: • politeness - benevolence in the process of relationships with other people; • correctness - the ability to behave within the framework of generally accepted decency in any situation; • tact - a sense of proportion, which must be observed in conversation, in personal and official relationships; the ability to "feel the boundary", beyond which words and actions can cause offense. Tact is an inner instinct that allows you to accurately feel the reaction of another person; • delicacy - the ability to identify and take into account the individual characteristics of people; • modesty - lack of posturing, the ability in all situations to maintain their individuality and not play an unusual role; • simplicity - by no means a rejection of generally accepted norms of etiquette, not familiarity, but communication in which people do not think about who is "higher" and who is "lower" on the social ladder; • obligatory - the ability to fulfill one's promises, which indicates not only honesty, but also the reliability of a person. Of course, the culture of speech behavior is formed in a person in complex with the above rules and regulations. It is no coincidence that in the list of norms of a culture of behavior, the first place is given to courtesy: politeness is the main postulate and condition of communication in society. 33. CULTURE OF SPEECH BEHAVIOR. SPEECH ETIQUETTE Speech etiquette - these are the norms of speech behavior adopted in a given society; these are nationally specific rules of speech behavior used when interlocutors come into contact and to maintain communication in the chosen key, according to the communication environment, the social characteristics of the communicants and the nature of their relationship. Speech etiquette verbally serves etiquette behavior and constitutes a system of stable communication formulas. The choice of one or another etiquette formula of communication depends on a number of parameters that characterize a given communicative situation and determine the appropriateness of such speech behavior. In this way, culture of speech means intersection of a number of related disciplines: • sociolinguistics - the question of the social roles of the participants in communication is considered; • stylistics - the constancy of the choice of certain speech formulas and the frequency of their use, depending on the sphere of communication; • psycholinguistics - problems of interpersonal interaction of communicants; • linguistics - study of units of language and speech. Complex linguistic social information is most embedded in the formulas of speech etiquette. Using these formulas, we perform relatively simple speech actions: welcome, address, thank, ask, apologize, congratulate, etc. However, there are more than 40 greeting expressions, many forms of farewell and other models for various situations. The choice of one form or another depends on specific communication situation moreover, all extralinguistic (or pragmatic, i.e., non-linguistic) factors are taken into account here: the addresser (the one who speaks or writes), the addressee (to whom the speech is addressed), the communication situation (where and when communication takes place), the communication channel (direct or indirect ), the form of communication (oral or written), the presence of other participants in communication (personal communication or public speaking), etc. Signs of the situation can be simplified as a diagram: "who - to whom - about what - where - when - why - why". For some formulas of speech etiquette, the circumstances where and when are important (for example, an announcement on the station radio begins with the words: "Dear passengers!"), For others, the place of their application: "To your health" (in response to gratitude for the food); for others - the time of their application: "Good night!"; "Good morning!" There are nationally specific communication formulas associated with ritualized stereotyped rules. Without taking into account any indicators in a communication situation, one can not only offend a person, but also distort the essence of speech etiquette - for example, by saying "Hello!" to an unfamiliar or middle-aged person. And vice versa, when communicating with friends or relatives, stylistically overstated expressions like "Let me thank you!" will be completely irrelevant. Each situation presupposes the presence of a number of synonymous expressions, the use of which takes into account the characteristics of the addressee and the environment of communication. 34. SITUATIONS OF SPEECH ETIQUETTE The features of each language are speech etiquette formulas - ways of expressing the most frequent and socially significant communicative intentions, characteristic for each specific situation, entrenched in speech practice and become typical, ritualized: greeting, farewell, apology, gratitude, request, congratulations, etc., both for oral and for written speech. Speech etiquette formulas differ stylistically: • stylistically neutral expressions are used most widely - both in everyday and in business communication (Good afternoon! .. Please! ..); • stylistically elevated etiquette formulas are typical for solemn, official occasions, they are also used by older people (Greetings! ..); • stylistically reduced Rough colloquial expressions are characteristic of easy communication of well-known people, often used by young people (Salute! .. Hai! .. Chao! ..). Treatment to a person implies a desire to call him to solve any issues. Moreover, depending on various factors (appeal to a familiar or unfamiliar addressee; the presence of an official and unofficial situation; oral or written form, etc.), the appeals will vary significantly (Sorry for the trouble! .. Baby! ..). Introduction - this is the establishment of relations between interlocutors for further communication for a more or less long time. Acquaintance may imply the presence or absence of an intermediary, while the speech formulas will differ significantly: Let me introduce myself! .. Let me introduce myself! .. My name is ... Let me introduce you! .. Greeting - this is a manifestation of respect for the interlocutor (familiar, and sometimes unfamiliar) at a meeting. Saying hello means confirming acquaintance, emphasizing a good attitude towards the addressee, wishing him good health. Depending on the situation of communication, the form of greeting is chosen: Good morning (afternoon, evening)! .. Hello (those)! .. Hello! .. Parting - a situation opposite to a greeting, completing communication, therefore, implying final remarks. The final phrases are extremely diverse, they indicate an agreement on the next meeting, a wish of health, kindness, success, gratitude, etc.: Goodbye!.. Good luck!.. See you tomorrow!.. See you!.. All the best!.. Good night !.. Bye!.. Come in!.. Have a nice ride!.. Don’t disappear!.. Don’t get sick!.. Take care of yourself!.. Good luck!.. Thank you for a wonderful evening!.. I don’t dare you anymore delay! .. and so on. Congratulations - this is a reaction to any life events (significant dates, successes, holidays, etc.). Congratulations are usually accompanied wish - a wish for the benefit of the addressee: future success, health, happiness, fulfillment of desires, etc. Thanks - this is a response to some action, a manifestation of attention, a wish, etc. Gratitude indicates respect, goodwill, attention to the addressee who provided the service. Lack of expression of gratitude is perceived as impoliteness, insult, disrespect, bad manners. 35. FORMS OF APPEALS: NAME OF THE ADDRESSER It is the right choice of language means at the beginning of communication and the constant maintenance of contact with a partner in the future, the ability to feel the distance, the atmosphere at the time of communication determine the success of the entire communication process. Thus, it is necessary to consider the components of the communicative situation, and, first of all, the factor addressee, its role and name in the process of communication. Universal names of the addressee. In stereotypical situations of everyday communication, a person goes beyond the narrow family-role or friendship circle, entering the area of social relations, where he becomes social personality, i.e., the subject of this society, and performs certain functions within the framework of the role assumed. As a result of social interaction of communicative-role subjects, a system of addressing methods is formed, which reflects social and stereotypical situations of communication in the universal names of the addressee (the use of which is prescribed by society as a whole): master, madam, comrade, comrades, citizen, colleagues, etc. Appeal to collective addressee it is possible if people are united in a group on some common basis (joint work, study, use of any services, etc.): Dear colleagues! .. Dear veterans! .. etc. These names are used as forms of polite address to the addressee and generally characterize him as a member of society, included in the system of social relations and endowed with certain rights and obligations: Citizens, purchase tickets ...; Dear colleagues! We invite you… In special, solemn situations, the word "dear(s)" is used in circulation: Dear freshman! Dear veterans!.. Such socially stereotypical names of the addressee are very convenient, as they make it possible to address a large number of people at the same time, while demonstrating respect. Appeal to individual addressee (to a specific person) includes the surname, name and patronymic, rank or position of the addressee in combination with the adjectives "respected", "dear". This is especially evident in the presence of official business relations, in written business texts. Dear + sir + position!; Dear + sir + surname! - a polite-formal form of address to a specific person. Dear + name, patronymic!; Dear + name, patronymic! - an appeal of a more personal nature, demonstrating to the addressee a greater degree of personal attention; suitable for special occasions, congratulations, invitations. You can not: Dear + sir + surname + first name, patronymic! People's deputies, honored workers of science and culture, high-ranking officials are addressed with the words "deeply respected", "highly respected". It should be remembered that appeal regulates social communication distance: addressing by name and patronymic in official communication and addressing by name in an informal setting are traditional for Russian speech culture. 36. TYPES OF NAMES OF THE ADDRESSER Social status names of the addressee provide indications of permanent social characteristics - age and gender (Young man, help me, please! .. Girls, wait for me! ..). However, such addresses are often considered incorrect and even offensive (for example, the address "girl", devoid of age or social attachment and used in relation to a woman working in the service sector). Some universal polite form of address is needed (the form "comrade" has ceased to be used, and a replacement has not been found). "Hello" or "Good afternoon (morning, evening)" will be appropriate and pleasant forms of address. If we are talking about attracting attention to make contact, then phrases are often used as an appeal: Please ... I can ask you ... Please ... etc. Name of the addressee by profession or rank often used in written speech (official documents). In oral speech, it serves as an additional means of emphasizing respect for the addressee or is an appeal accepted in this environment: Doctor, will you help me? .. Professor, I have a question ... The names of the profession, positions, academic or military rank retain the masculine form even in those cases (there are very few exceptions) when they refer to a woman: president; director; docent; Professor; major, since for a long time only men were the bearers of these professions and titles. To indicate gender in these cases, the semantic agreement of the predicate-verb in the past tense is often used: Therapist Smirnova has finished her appointment. Parallel names are easily formed if the given specialty (profession, occupation) is equally connected with female and male labor (salesperson - saleswoman; orderly - nurse), and also if these names refer to the field of sports, art, politics (dancer - dancer ; athlete - athlete; singer - singer; communist - communist). But at the same time, it must be borne in mind that very often paired female names have a colloquial stylistic coloring and, therefore, a narrowed scope of use. This is especially true of the names for - sha, - iha, which are characterized by a reduced, sometimes emphatically contemptuous connotation: librarian; doctor. For the official name of the occupation, professions of women (for example, in personal documents - a questionnaire, resume), masculine nouns are preferable: postgraduate student; laboratory assistant Emotional-evaluative name of the addressee expresses an emotional attitude towards him on the part of the speaker, who uses diminutive suffixes: Lenochka, Tatyanochka, etc., as well as lexemes containing an emotional-evaluative component: honey; Sun; golden; ramble, etc. However, you need to be aware of when, where and to what extent they are acceptable, otherwise you risk being misunderstood. 37. PRONOUNS. SELECTING THE FORM OF APPEAL According to E. Benveniste, "language without facial expression is unthinkable." The system of personal pronouns in Russian (I/we, you/you, he/she/it/they) is not only demonstrative, orientational-distant, but also communicative-role. Address forms are almost always used in combination with the addressee-personal pronouns you/you (or the corresponding addressee-personal verb form). The appeal to "you" in general expresses a greater degree of respect for the interlocutor than the appeal to "you". The choice of one or the other form is associated with a number of conditions. 1. You. Unfamiliar, unfamiliar addressee. You. A well-known addressee (friend, family member, etc.): a) in the transition to a good acquaintance, a transition from "you" - to "you" - communication is possible. Such a quick transition is more characteristic of young people or vernacular speakers; b) with a long acquaintance, relations may not become friendly, while there is no transition from "you" - to "you" - communication; c) in some cases, even with friendly relations, the appeal to "you" is retained as a sign of special respect (mainly among people of the middle and older generation). 2. Formality / Informality of the communication environment: a) an unfamiliar, unfamiliar addressee is referred to as "you" in both official and informal settings; b) with a well-known person (everyday communication on "you") in an official setting, switching to "you" is possible. 3. Addresser-addressee relationship restrained, "cold", friendly, "warm", polite, etc.: a) if during the established communication on "you" the addresser turned to the addressee on "you" (outside the official situation), this may mean a change in the relationship up to a quarrel; b) if an unfamiliar, unfamiliar addresser chooses "you" - communication, this may mean that he is either a carrier of vernacular, or deliberately demonstrates familiarity. Factors determining the choice of the alternative "you" - and "you" - forms of address: 1) the degree of acquaintance of the interlocutors (unfamiliar, unfamiliar, well-known addressee); 2) formality/informality of the communication environment; 3) the nature of the relationship between the communicants (restrained, emphatically polite, cold, friendly, etc.); 4) equality or inequality (by age, official position, role position of those communicating). 38. PRONOUNS "WE" AND 3RD PERSON The 1st person plural pronoun ("we") carries wide range pragmatic shades: • solemn "we", used by persons of royal rank; the ceremonial archaic "we" of the reigning persons (the famous "We, Nicholas II..."); • authorial and oratorical "we", obscuring the too sharp "I" and replacing it with something more general, vague; There are two ways to use the author's "we": a) "objectification" of the author's position in journalistic and artistic narratives (We visited some of those places); b) "modesty formula" the author, or the generally accepted standard of self-expression in scientific speech, which allows you to "shelter" yourself among other scientists, whose authority the author refers to; c) the lecturer uses "we" as dialogue tool, including listeners in the process of reasoning; • representative ritual "we": We're glad to welcome you…; We would like to introduce the products…; • "caring community" in colloquial speech, suggesting the presence of an expressive-positive, approving attitude of the speaker to the addressee. A classic example is "we", used by doctors to express mercy, sympathy for the patient: How do we feel? Shades of condescension, irony or familiarity, accompanying in some cases the appeal to the addressee with the help of "we", may become predominant and may vary from approving to ironic and even sharply negative. 3rd person pronouns (he, she, it, they). Official speech etiquette provides for the ability to use the pronoun "he". This pronoun, being a universal designation for persons and objects, also retains pointer value. It can thus become a means of depersonalization and familiarity, so special care should be taken when using it in official documents. This remark is true not only for service documents. Use of the 3rd person pronoun he she - a kind of reflection of the positions of the speaker, his removal from the active role in the speech act, from the position of the speaker, and the removal is so significant that in it the distinction between person and object in the speech act becomes indistinguishable. Moreover, such behavior of the speaker can be regarded as a demonstration of superiority and even as a deliberate creation of communicative discomfort for the person who perceives his speech. In addition, there may be an ambiguity in the interpretation of the statement: The professor asked the graduate student to read his report. There is also an indefinite personal use of forms of the 3rd person plural - phrases like "You are being told! .. Who are they talking to! .." Their use reduces the degree of politeness and, conversely, increases the degree of categoricalness and officiality: the speaker identifies himself with a group of those in power , those who have the right to indicate authoritative members of society. 39. VERB FORMS Verb Inclination a) Form imperative (imperative) is often used in etiquette formulas in a meaning that does not command anything to the addressee: Hello! .. Farewell! .. Sorry! .. - and in the meaning of an almost erased impulse: Let me thank you! without prompting, they form a structure denoting a real speech action at the moment of speech. Forms of the imperative mood in the literal sense encourage action in a situation of request, advice, proposal, invitation: Do it, please! .. b) Form subjunctive in stereotypical formulas of speech etiquette is interesting in that it does not translate the action into an unrealistic one. The verb with the particle "would" increases the degree of politeness, removing excessive categoricalness (cf. refusal: I would love to, but ...), is used in requests expressed in the form of a question (Could you pass the coupon?). Performative verbs (action-speech) denote actions that can be performed only with the help of speech. In these cases, it is necessary to say: I promise! .. Greetings! .. I advise you ... etc. Type of Verb serves as an indicator of the perfection / imperfection of the action. The imperfect form of the verb indicates that the action is in development (answers the question "What to do?"), And the perfect one indicates that the action has taken place (answers the question "What to do?"). The choice of the verb type determines the degree of categoricalness, politeness, and expressiveness of the motivating statement. Wed: Sit down, please! - imperfect species. Sit down! - perfect view. Features of the use of certain verbs. For example, perfective verbs such as procure, save, cheer up can correspond to imperfective verbs: procure - procure, accumulate - accumulate, acquaint - acquaint, cheer - cheer. The suffixes -yva-iva- are stylistically neutral and are more common in book and writing styles. Forms in which these suffixes are absent are often perceived as colloquial: accumulate, encourage, appropriate, etc. When forming verbs of an imperfect form with suffixes - yva-iva-, parallel forms are often formed with alternating root vowels - o-, - a-: conditionalоinfuse - conditionаinfuse, concentrateоread - focusаto chive, etc. In the presence of such options, it should be borne in mind that forms with -a- are more characteristic of the colloquial style. It is not allowed to form imperfective verbs with suffixes - yva-iva- from two-species verbs such as address, use (forms address, use - colloquial). You should also not use the form "organize", although it is present in the explanatory dictionaries of the Russian literary language (in modern use, the verb "organize" has the meaning of both the perfect and imperfect form). Choice of collateral associated with the selection of the subject / object of action. Active voice has the meaning "here - now - author - addressee" (Thank you! ..). Passive voice is used when the emphasis is on the fact of the action, and not on the indication of the subject: The work has not been done so far! 40. PARTICLES AND POLITENESS The term "particle" (from Latin particula) is used in a broad sense (all service words) and in a narrow sense: service words that serve in speech to express the relationship of all or part of the statement to reality, as well as the speaker to the reported. Consider the use of some particles from the standpoint of the category of politeness. modal particle -a is used to eliminate categoricalness, soften the command expressed by verbal forms, induce to action: let's go together; shut up for now! K.S. Aksakov pointed to three meanings particles -ka: • warning or warning about the consequences: think for yourself!; • a friendly address that has some purpose: let's sit here!; • friendly admonition: take care of yourself! But it should be remembered that, using the particle - ka, it is necessary consider social status participants in the speech act: 1) the speaker should not occupy a lower social position than his interlocutor (otherwise, the use of the particle - ka in the imperative construction is excluded); 2) the speaker must be well acquainted with his interlocutor (otherwise, an address containing a particle - ka can also be regarded as rudeness). modal particle - with (obsolete) introduced into speech a shade of reverence, subservience: Excuse me, sir. In modern speech, this particle is used in an ironic sense: Well, what happened to us there? modal particles wouldn't... wouldn't... wouldn't introduce into the question a shade of softening, non-categorical. Usually the particle does not ... whether it accompanies a request-question regarding the capabilities of the addressee: would you be so kind ...; could you... The most polite request formulas often contain a particle not: Would you mind?.. If it's not difficult for you...etc. modal particle here is ambiguous and can emphasize both positive and negative assessments: Here is a girl! .. Here they are, workers! .. 41. THE WORDS "PLEASE" AND "THANK YOU" IN RUSSIAN SPEECH ETIQUETTE. EUPHEMISM AND POLITENESS Use of words "you are welcome" и "thanks" in Russian speech etiquette plays a special role in the aspect of politeness. Dictionaries interpret the meaning of the word "please" (from "please", "thank you") as "mitigating" and note that it is used as a polite address or expression of a request, or for a polite expression of consent. The word "thank you", expressing gratitude, carries a special deep meaning: "God save you (you)," they said to a person for an action he had performed that benefited someone. The words "thank you" and "please" are a regular means of expressing the polite attitude of any speaker to any person, regardless of his social status. However, there are situations where polite forms are not accepted or even inappropriate - for example, if the order is given in conditions of time pressure (military operations or a surgical operation). Euphemism from inappropriate words, softened expression) - a word or expression that serves under certain conditions to replace such designations that seem undesirable to the speaker, not quite polite or too harsh. Euphemism as a way of indirect designation of an object correlates with the following speech techniques: a) double negative: not without intent; undisputed; b) foreign words and terms that are more suitable for "veiling" the essence of the phenomenon than the original vocabulary: price liberalization; devaluation of the national currency; at) deliberate understatement of the intensity of the properties of the subject of speech, actions, processes, etc.: it is difficult to call her a beauty; d) periphrastic names of objects and phenomena that offend taste or violate cultural stereotypes of communication (usually relating to physiological aspects, intimate relationships, etc.): capital punishment; passed away; civil marriage, etc. Euphemisms correspond to the principle of politeness and contribute to the creation of a favorable climate in communication between people. 42. POLITENESS IN NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATIONS Speech is always accompanied by facial expressions and gestures. This is a "silent language", depending on the cultural traditions of the people, social group, which should be considered as an integral part of communication. Many gestures are assigned to certain ritualized situations of communication: getting up, shaking hands, removing the headgear, bowing (when greeting, meeting, parting). Gestures, like the formulas of speech etiquette, are differentiated according to style: there are stylistically elevated gestures (bow, putting a hand to the heart, kissing a hand, etc.), neutral (handshake, nod-bow) and stylistically reduced gestures (a pat on the shoulder as a sign greetings, etc.). When expressing politeness in communication, an important role is played by взгляд : a gloomy, wary look causes distrust, repels and frightens the addressee; intent, unceremonious disturbing; ironic, arrogant - offends. The means of expressing politeness are also voice modulation, which can be even, quiet, warm in timbre or sharp, shrill, etc. It is interesting that silence sometimes it serves as a manifestation of a person’s upbringing and politeness (cf .: be silent - be silent). Handshakes and bows, winks and kisses - gestures and signs expressing different shades of relationships and accompanying various situations of communication. Smile - personal expression of politeness and interest. It is believed that Americans are characterized by a wide, "radiant" smile; the benevolent, friendly smile of a European may be less bright; Europeans consider Russians unsmiling people. However, with all the differences, a smile is one of the main expressions of the desire for contact, goodwill. The verbal and non-verbal components of the communicative situation must be coordinated with each other and comply with the rules of conduct established by the given society. 43. SOCIAL ASPECTS OF SPEECH CULTURE The speech of people, both monologue and dialogic, is largely determined and prescribed various socio-ethical rules, knowledge and observance of which is also included in the concept of "culture of speech". Style and social position. The style of speech, the choice of stylistic means to a large extent depends on the position of a person in society. The speech and behavior of a person with a high social status are due to the saying "The position obliges". Such a person has no right to use a low style, to speak illiterately, incoherently, chaotically, especially when communicating with people who occupy a lower social position. When talking with someone, one must take into account both one's social position and the social position of the interlocutor, not allowing either an underestimation of one's style, or its unjustified overestimation. Style and gender. Men and women have different ways of speaking and writing. If it is true that the style of speech reflects the mentality of a person, then the speeches of men and women always reflect differences in their psychology, as well as in the social rules of behavior prescribed for them. In colloquial speech, even in public speaking, the harsh expressions that a man allows himself can be perceived normally, while a woman speaker who uses such expressions risks being considered vulgar. Men, more than women, tend to be witty, use jokes, paradoxes, puns, even obscene expressions in speech. Women's speech is often sentimental. Style and age. It is important to observe the stylistic norms characteristic of a certain age and correlate your speech with the age of the interlocutor. There are expressions that are quite literary, stylistically weighty, but appropriate in the speech of people, mostly of older age: to drive beyond Mozhai; holy of holies. A conversation between people of the same age should be different from a conversation between interlocutors of different ages: in the latter case, everyone should choose expressions that befit his age and situation. Style and profession. People's speech differs not only thematically, but also stylistically. The speech of a scientist is always characterized by prudence, thoroughness, and accuracy of judgment. A military man is not as verbose as a scientist, but he is more categorical and does not exchange for trifles, details. The speech of teachers is often instructive, even when they are not talking to schoolchildren, but to their colleagues, neighbors. Over the years, doctors develop professional good-natured (or, conversely, rather cynical) humor. A professional accent is found in any speech situation: a military man, talking with scientists, will use jerky command expressions, etc. This can be called stylistic interference i.e., the inability to switch to another stylistic code to the required extent. 44. SPEECH CORRECTNESS. ACCENT Orthoepic correctness of speech - this is the observance of the norms of literary pronunciation and stress. Correct, literary pronunciation is important indicator of the general cultural level of a person. For oral presentation to be successful, it must be expressive, and expressiveness is achieved by clear and precise pronunciation, correct intonation. An important role is played by standard pronunciation and stress. Pronunciation errors distract listeners from the content of the speech, thereby making it difficult to communicate, reducing the degree of impact on the audience. Russian orthoepy includes regulations pronunciation of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, rules for the pronunciation of certain grammatical forms, features of the pronunciation of words of foreign origin. In modern Russian literary language no complete unification literary pronunciation, however, orthoepic norms as a whole represent a consistent system that develops and improves. Theater, radio broadcasting, television, cinema play a huge role in the formation of literary pronunciation - powerful means of spreading orthoepic norms and maintaining their unity. Emphasis - one of the means of sound organization of words and speech in general. The main means of sound design and distinction of words are the sounds of speech, and stress only complements them. However, this is a very important phonetic tool, since the word does not exist without stress. Incorrect stress, as a rule, destroys the word, deprives it of its meaning, for example [water] instead of [vada], [cow] instead of [karova], etc. The quality of the vowel sounds that make up the word also depends on the stress (for example, in the word "water" we pronounce the unstressed vowel O as [a]). From a phonetic point of view, stress is the selection by some phonetic method of one or another sound unit of speech from a number of other similar units within a unit of a higher level: a syllable in a word or a word in a phrase. Depending on which pronunciation unit is emphasized with the help of stress, there are verbal, syntagmatic и phrasal accents. The most important from the point of view of the orthoepic correctness of speech is verbal stress - the allocation of a syllable in a word. Since the stress carrier is the syllable-forming vowel, one usually speaks of stressed vowels. In Russian, the main means of highlighting a stressed vowel are duration и sound intensity, i.e. stressed vowels are longer and louder than unstressed vowels included in the word. 45. PROPERTIES OF WORD STRESS Word stress in Russian is free or different places, i.e., not assigned to any particular syllable. In some languages, the stress in a word always falls on a certain syllable: in Czech - on the first, in French - on the last, in Polish - on the penultimate, etc. In this case, they say about fixed, or related, accent. The predominant place of word stress in Russian is due to the tendency of stress to the center of the word and to the second half of the word. Another ability of Russian word stress is its movement in inflection (for example, in declension or conjugation). The stress is called motionless, if in inflection it does not change its place, and mobile, if during inflection it moves to other syllables. In Russian, words with fixed stress prevail. Word stress in Russian is characterized by a certain connection with morphemes (i.e., prefixes and suffixes) or (more broadly) with the morphological structure of words. Some suffixes and prefixes are always or in certain forms of words only under stress: for example, the suffix -ist always percussion (accordionist, tractorist). Suffixes -ik и -a always stand directly after the stress, for example: house, garden, river. Words formed with a suffix -tel, retain the stress of the generating word: write - writer; read - reader. The freedom and heterogeneity of word stress in the Russian language also apply to morphemes: the stress can fall on all the main morphological parts of the word - the root (live), prefix (live), suffix (live), ending (live), etc. Only connecting vowels do not have stress (airplane, steamer, sailor, etc. .). In russian language unaccented are only prepositions, particles and conjunctions, i.e. office words, which in speech are adjacent to the nearest stressed words: you know. Unstressed words form a phonetic unity with the stressed word, united by stress, i.e. phonetic word. Unstressed words adjacent to the previous stressed words are called enclitics (Need), and adjacent to the subsequent stressed words - proclitics (on the table). Prepositions, being usually unstressed (proclitics), can shift the stress from the main word to themselves. Then the significant word, devoid of stress, becomes a kind of enclitic with the preposition: on the shore, in two. 46. SIDE STICK. IMPACT RATES Sometimes a word contains a second, additional stress, which always precedes the main one and very often appears on the first syllable of the word. This accent is called collateral or secondary; it is typical mainly for compound words. There are three groups of words with collateral stress: • compound words, the second part of which is a separate word: savings, stengazeta, professional bill, city council; • some actually compound words, especially polysyllabic ones (in particular, book terms): photoreportage, perjury, densely populated, kartofelekopAlka; • words with prefixes after-, over-, archi-, anti-, super-, ultra-, trans-, counter-, pro-, de-, re-, post-, ex-: POSTWAR, SUPERNATURAL, ANTISOCIAL, ARCHIMLONG, ULTRAVIOLET, SUPERBOARD, TRANSOCEANIC, COUNTEROFFENSIVE, PRO-AMERICAN, DEMOBILIZATION, REPARIATION, POSTSCRIPTUM, POSTFACTUM, EX-CHAMPION. Accent norms in the modern Russian literary language they are difficult to assimilate due to the heterogeneity and mobility of stress. If words had some formal or semantic features indicating which syllable the stress should be on and how it should move from one syllable to another when the word forms change, the stress would be easier to learn. However, there are practically no such signs in words. The stress is learned along with the word, just as the meaning of a word is learned. It is necessary to remember, to translate into a speech habit not only the meaning of the word, but also the stress inherent in it. This individuality of word stress explains both the difficulties experienced by a foreigner learning Russian and the numerous orthoepic errors of people for whom Russian is their native language. You can master the norms of stress, correct mistakes using special reference books and dictionaries. Some help can also be provided by knowledge of the types of Russian stress, typical patterns of its location in words and their forms. 47. ACCENT VARIANTS Due to the heterogeneity and mobility of the Russian stress in the Russian language, there are words with the so-called double stress, or accent options. Options can be equal: barge - bargeA; tarpaulin - tarpaulin, however, most often the options allowed in the literary language are characterized as unequal, i.e. one of them is preferred: cottage cheese (main option) - cottage cheese (additional option). Short list equitable accentological options. apartments - sparkle - sparkle apartments barge - barge dropped - dropped bijouterie - loop - loop bijouterie delusional - delusional rust - rust rust - meatballs - meatballs rust Otherwise - otherwise Semantic variants - these are pairs of words in which the heterogeneity of stress is intended to distinguish the meaning of words: flour - flour; vina - vina; sharpness (blades) - sharpness (witty expression); to be afraid (to be afraid) - to be afraid (to run), etc. These pairs of words are called homographs, i.e., words that match in spelling but not in pronunciation. List words that differ in their meaning depending on the accent. busy (person) - busy (house); sharpened (pencil) - sharpened (prisoner); portable (radio receiver) - portable (value); transitional (score, bridge) - transitional (age); submerged (on the platform) - submerged (in water); approximate (to something) - approximate (close); draft (age) - draft (calling); developed (child, industry) - developed (mentally; activity developed by us) - developed (untwisted: developed hair); characteristic (person) - characteristic (act); linguistic (related to the verbal expression of thought) - linguistic (related to the organ in the oral cavity). Stylistic options - these are pairs of words that, depending on the place of stress, are used in different styles of speech: bite (common word) - bite (special); silk (common) - silk (poetic). Normative-chronological options - these are pairs of words in which heterogeneity is associated with the time period of the use of this word in speech: spare (modern) - spare (obsolete); Ukrainian (modern) - Ukrainian (obsolete); angle (modern) - angle Urs (obsolete). 48. STRESS IN NOUNS Many errors occur in the pronunciation of nouns during their declension, i.e., changing in cases and numbers. It is necessary to know whether the stress moves or does not move in a given word, and if it does, then on which syllable. There are different groups of nouns depending on the stability of the place of stress in them. Nouns with fixed stress based on (n). In the nouns listed below, the stress always falls on the stem, that is, it does not move to the ending when changing in numbers and cases. 
examples: leisure, drop, pocket, minus, landscape, song, honor, profit, profile, convocation, means, etc. In some words it is possible deviations from the general rule in the prepositional singular, if this form is used with a preposition "in" ("in") and has an ending - y (-y). In this case, the stress moves to this ending: in sight, in captivity, in hops. Nouns with a fixed accent on the ending (o). If masculine nouns in the nominative (or accusative) case of the singular do not have an ending (the so-called zero ending), then the stress is forced to move to the stem. The same happens in separate words in the form of the genitive plural. 
examples: garage, graph, heat, tourniquet, wand, border, hook, lichen, chunk, ski track, almond, walrus, regiment, belt, boundary, ruble, bench, foot, foot, circulation, iron, hill, crystal, spike, jester, yula, language, amber, etc. Nouns with moving stress. In Russian, there are groups of nouns with mobile stress, which moves from stem to ending and from ending to stem. 49. MOVABLE ACCENT IN NOUNS (TYPES 1-3) Distinguish five types moving stress in nouns. Type 1. The stress from the stem of the singular noun moves to the ending of the plural noun. 
examples: ball, board, shaft, fan, monogram, year, goal, director, doctor, circle, camp, district, order, sail, sable, build, soup, tone, poplar, bargaining, move, chorus, tea, closet, headquarters and others If any of the nouns of this type is used in a prepositional case with the ending - at, then the stress moves to this ending: on the ball, in the forest, on the shaft, in the circle, in the year, in the closet. Type 2. The stress from the stem of the singular noun and in the nominative (and also in the accusative, if the noun is inanimate) plural is moved to the ending in the oblique plural. 
The second type almost completely repeats the first, with the exception of the stress in the nominative plural. examples: statement, wolf, position, beast, stone, root, fortress, trifle, news, Hoop, guy, story, sermon, tablecloth, speed, shadow, church, quarter, gap, etc. Type 3. The stress from the end of the singular noun is moved to the stem of the plural noun. 
The third type of mobile stress is opposite to the second type. examples: widow, thunderstorm, snake, needle, hut, ring, moon, window, wasp, pig, family, sister, rock, owl, pine, glass, dragonfly, stanza, prison, bridle, etc. 50. MOVABLE ACCENT IN NOUNS (TYPES 4-5) Type 4. The stress from the ending of the singular noun moves to the stem of the noun in three plural cases - nominative, genitive and accusative. In the remaining cases of the plural noun (dative, instrumental and prepositional), the stress on the ending is preserved. 
This type of nouns is characterized by fluctuations in stress under the influence of the previous type. examples: flea, furrow, lip, gland, interA, stripe, earring, frying pan, settlement, string, trail. Fluctuations of stress in a noun in the accusative case of the singular and plural are acceptable. In dictionaries and grammars, both options are often recognized as correct: furrow and furrow; iron and iron; stripe and stripe; frying pan and frying pan; string and string. Variants are considered acceptable: waves - waves, furrows - furrows, glands - glands. Type 5. The stress in the singular noun from the ending moves to the stem of the noun in the accusative case. In the plural, the pattern of stress movement is unstable: in some words, the stress moves, as in the fourth type, in others it remains on the basis. 
examples: beard, harrow, head, mountain, soul, earth, winter, time, river, back, environment, wall, side, price, cheek. And in this group of nouns, fluctuations of stress are not uncommon: waters - waters, waters - waters, souls - souls, souls - souls, rivers - rivers, rivers - rivers, walls - walls. Some prepositions, as already mentioned, take on stress, and then the word following it (noun or numeral) is unstressed. Most often The following prepositions take over the stress. AT on the water, on the leg, on the arm, on the back, on the winter, on the soul, on the wall, on the head, on the side, on the shore, on the year, on the house, on the nose, on the corner, on the ear, on the day, on the night , two, three, six, ten, one hundred; FOR for water, for a leg, for hair, for a head, for a hand, for a back, for a winter, for a soul, for a nose, for a year, for a city, for an ear, for ears, for a night, for two, for three, for six , for ten, for a hundred; UNDER under the feet, under the arms, downhill, under the nose, in the evening; Software by sea, by field, by forest, by floor, by nose, by ear, by two, by three, by hundred, by two, by three; OF out of the forest, out of the house, out of the nose, out of sight; WITHOUT missing, useless, yearless; FROM hour by hour, year by year; BEFORE to the floor. 51. STRESS IN ADJECTIVES The least stable stress is in short forms of adjectives. In short form adjectives with suffixes - iv-, - liv-, - chiv-, - im-, - n-, - aln-, - eln-, - ist- the stress falls on the same syllable as in full form adjectives: beautiful - beautiful, beautiful, beautiful, beautiful; talkative - talkative, talkative, talkative, talkative; sustainable - sustainable, sustainable, sustainable, sustainable, etc. The list of adjectives, which in short form are characterized by the movement of stress, is not very large - as a rule, these are words with monosyllabic stems without suffixes (or with the simplest, ancient suffixes - k-, - n-, partially "absorbed" by the base). There is some pattern movement of stress in these adjectives, which, however, is not always maintained: in the short form of the feminine adjective, the stress falls on the ending, in other short forms - on the stem and usually coincides with the stress in the full form: fast - fast, fast, fast, fast; good - good, good, good, good; thick - thick, thick, thick, thick. Accent fluctuations are allowed in the following short adjectives, belonging to the middle gender or used in the plural: white - white mily - mily GREAT - GREAT SMALL - SMALL VISIBLE - VISIBLE NEW - NEW harmful - harmful HIGH - HIGH DEEP - DEEP GOOD - GOOD need - need full - full old - old wide - wide large - large In the Russian literary language, the following rule applies: if in the short form of the feminine, the stress falls on the ending, then in comparative form it appears on the suffix - her: long - longer, visible - more visible, needed - needed, etc. If, in the short form of the feminine, the stress is on the basis, then in a comparative degree it remains on the basis: beautiful - more beautiful, lazy - lazier, terrible - worse and etc. 52. STRESS IN VERBS. PAST TENSE FORMS First of all, it is necessary to say about the stress in frequently used verbs. call, turn on (and derivatives from them), the pronunciation standards of which are violated by many people. In these verbs, when conjugated, the stress always falls for personal ending: call - call, call, call, call them, call, call; turn on - turn on, turn on, turn on, turn on, turn on, turn on. Similar scheme stress is used in all derivative verbs with prefixes (call, ring, phone, etc.; turn off, turn off, connect, etc.). Very often, stress fluctuations are also observed in verbs with the suffix - irritate. When conjugating such verbs, the stress remains motionless, that is, it always falls into a vowel and: designing, designing, designing, etc. In some verbs that entered the Russian language in the XNUMXth century, the stress falls on the last vowel - а (reward, seal, etc.). When conjugating these verbs, the stress is always for personal endings: I reward, you reward, you reward, etc. The least stable stress norms in past tense verbs passive participles and personal forms of present and future tense verbs. The stress in past tense verbs is usually matches the stress in the infinitive: speak - spoke, spoke, spoke, spoke; do - did, did, did, did. If the infinitive ends in - sti, - whose, then the stress in all forms of the past tense falls at the end (with the exception of the masculine form, which has no ending): lead - led, led, led, led; oven - peck, pekla, peklo, pekli. However, if in such verbs there is a prefix you-, then in the forms of the past tense, the stress always moves to it: Bring out - brought out, brought out, brought out, brought out; Bake - baked, baked, baked, baked. There are about 280 verbs in Russian - non-derivative (without prefixes and suffixes), ancient, monosyllabic, ending in - it or - at, as well as derivatives formed on the basis of now existing independent foundations - nya- и - cha-, in which fluctuations of stress are especially often observed. The stress in these verbs moves according to the following scheme: to be - was, was, was, were. This group includes the following verbs and their derivatives: to take, to take, to twist, to lie, to drive, to rot, to give, to fight, to wait, to live, to call, to curse, to lie, to pour, to drink, to swim, to spin, to tear, to be known, to weave, to reach, to take in, to borrow, to hire, to start. In reflexive verbs (with particle - sya) the stress moves to the ending (unlike their corresponding irrevocable verbs): pour - poured, poured, poured, poured; pour - poured, poured, poured, poured. 53. PARTICIPLE FORMS The least stable is the stress in passive participles, especially in their short forms. There is the following rule: if in the full participle the stress falls on the suffix - enn-, then in the participle of the short form, the stress falls on this suffix in the masculine gender, and in other forms it moves to the ending: in love - in love, in love, in love, in love. Passive participles with suffixes - ann-, - yann, - ovann- have the stress on the syllable preceding these suffixes: tie - tied; break off - broken off. Such participles are formed from verbs whose infinitive ends with the suffix - and I- (tie, reprimand, mutilate, dispel, break off, etc.). Passive participles formed from verbs whose infinitive ends with a suffix - and-, are subject to the following rules: 1) if the stress in the personal forms of the simple future tense falls on the ending, then the stress in the full forms of the passive participle falls on the suffix - onn-/-enn-: complete, complete - completed; conquer, conquer - conquered; 2) if the stress in the personal forms of the simple future tense falls on the stem, then the stress in the participle precedes the suffix -enn-: you will see, they will see - seen; Deserve, deserve - deserved. In short participles formed from full participles that end in - abusive, - tattered, - called, the feminine form is stressed on the basis of: selected, selected, selected, selected, selected, selected, selected, selected, dismantled, collected, selected, removed, etc.; ripped, ripped, ripped, ripped, ripped, ripped, ripped, ripped, etc.; called, called, called, recalled, etc. If the stress in the personal forms of the simple future tense fluctuates, then the stress in the passive participles will also fluctuate: load - load; LOADED - LOADED. Passive participles with suffix - t- formed from infinitives with suffixes - well, - oh, - and. If suffixes - well- и - about- in the infinitive are under stress, then in participles the stress moves one syllable forward: weed - weeded; bend - bent. In verbs pour, drink the accent is mobile and unstable. It moves according to the following scheme, depending on the stress in the full form: pour - poured, poured, poured, poured, poured; - poured, poured, poured, poured, poured. In general, when changing short adjectives by gender, it is recommended to move the stress to the ending in the feminine singular. 54. PRONUNCIATION NORMS. PRONUNCIATION OF UNSTRESSED VOWERS The pronunciation norms of the Russian language are determined primarily by the following basic phonetic laws: 1) reduction of unstressed vowels, i.e. quantitative and qualitative changes in sounds as a result of weakening of articulation; 2) stunning voiced consonants at the end of words; 3) stunning voiced consonants facing deaf consonants at the junction of morphemes (assimilation); 4) loss of some sounds in combinations of consonants (diaeresis). In unstressed syllables vowels undergo reduction, i.e., qualitative and quantitative changes as a result of a weakening of articulation. A qualitative reduction is a change in the sound of a vowel with the loss of some signs of its timbre, for example, the pronunciation [v a da] instead of water. Quantitative reduction is a reduction in the duration and strength of an unstressed vowel. Vowels in the first prestressed syllable undergo reduction to a lesser extent than vowels in other unstressed syllables. We list the basic rules for pronunciation of unstressed vowels. 1. In the first pre-stressed syllable in place of letters а и о the sound [a] is pronounced. It differs from the shock [a] in shorter duration. In transcription, it is often denoted as [/\]. For example, in [/\] yes, to [/\] is a ditch. 2. In other unstressed syllables in place of letters а и о a short sound is pronounced, the middle one between [s] and [a], denoted in transcription by the sign [b]. For example, m [b] l [a] to about. 3. Unstressed at the beginning of a word а и о pronounced like [a], for example: [a] kno, [a] zot. 4. After hard sizzling ж и ш vowel а in the first pre-stressed syllable it is pronounced as [a]. For example: w [a] rgon, w [a] walk. However, before soft consonants, a sound is pronounced, the middle between [s] and [e]. For example, f [s / e] fly, losh [s / e] dey. 5. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed syllable in place of letters е и я a sound is pronounced, the middle between [i] and [e]. For example, in [i / e] sleep, h [i / e] sy. 6. In other unstressed syllables in place of letters е и я a very short "and" is pronounced - a figurative sound, which in transcription is indicated by the sign [b]. For example: in [b] lycan, n [b] wheelbarrow. 7. Because consonants c, w, w denote only solid sounds, after them in place of the letter "and" it is pronounced [s]: revolution [tsy], and in place of the letter "yu" - the sound [y]: parachute [shu], brochure [shu]. The exception is the words jury, Julien, Jules, in which a soft sound [zh '] and a sound [y] of a more forward formation are pronounced: [zh '] uri. 8. In words of foreign origin, not completely acquired by the Russian language, in place of the letter о in an unstressed position, the sound [o] is pronounced, i.e. there is no reduction: boa [boa], radio [radio]. 55. PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS The main laws of pronunciation of consonants are the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word and the likening of neighboring consonants to each other (full or partial). 1. In Russian speech, voiced consonants are obligatory stunned at the end of a word. Pronounced go [t] (year), lu [k] (meadow), etc. It should be noted that the sound г at the end of a word it always turns into a voiceless sound paired with it to: dream [k] (snow), poro [k] (threshold). The pronunciation in this case of the sound [x] is not literary and is typical for some dialects, for example: sleep [x], poro [x]. The exception is the word "god", which, according to literary norms, is pronounced with the sound [x] at the end: bo[x]. 2. In combinations of voiced and deaf consonants, the first of them is likened to the second, i.e., the first sound is deafened. For example: lo [sh] ka (spoon), pro [n] ka (cork). 3. In combinations of deaf and voiced consonants, the first of them in some cases is likened to the second, that is, the first sound is voiced. For example: [h] do (do), in [g] hall (station). Voicing does not occur before sonorous sounds l, m, n, r and sound a. Words are pronounced the way they are written. 4. In a number of cases, the so-called assimilative softening of consonants is observed: consonants in front of soft consonants are also pronounced softly. This applies primarily to combinations of dental consonants. For example: [z'd'] is, gvo [z'd'] and, ka[z'n'] b, ne[n's']ia [1]. In this case, there are two pronunciation options, for example: [z'l']it and [zl']it, after [s'l']e and after [sled']e. Double pronunciation is also observed in combinations with labial consonants. For example: [d'v'] er and [dv'] er, [z'v'] er and [zv'] er. Currently, there is a tendency to pronounce solid consonants in such cases. In nouns ending in - ism, the consonant [h] is pronounced firmly in all cases, including when softening the adjacent consonant. For example: with capital [zm '] e. The soft sound [k '] does not affect the pronunciation of the hard sound [s] in the word sausage: suck [sk '] and. 5. Combinations of consonants us и zsh pronounced as a long hard sound [w: ][2]. For example: ni[w:] th (lower), vy[w:] th (highest). 6. Combination squeeze и zw are pronounced as a long hard [f:]: ra [f:] at (unclench), [f:] fry (fry). 7. Combinations zw и LJ inside the root are pronounced as a long soft sound [zh ':]: in [zh ':] and (reins), dro [zh ':] and (yeast). At present, instead of a long soft [zh ':], a long hard sound [zh:] is increasingly used: after [zh':] e and after [zh:] e (later), dro [zh ':] and and dro [ f:] and (yeast). 8. Combination cc pronounced as a long soft sound [sh':], just like the sound transmitted in writing by the letter sch: [sh':]astier (happiness), [sh':]et (account). 9. Combination zch (at the junction of the root and the suffix) is pronounced as a long soft sound [w':]. For example: prik[w ':] ik (principal), obra [w ':] ik (sample). 10. Combinations PM и dh pronounced as a long sound [h':]. For example, report[h':]ik (speaker), le[h':]ik (pilot). 56. "E" OR "Yo" In some words, the vowel sound ['o] after a soft consonant, denoted by the letter ё, is sometimes erroneously replaced by a stressed vowel [e] (in pronunciation, the sound ['e] after soft or [e] after hard), and vice versa. This is due to the fact that in books, as a rule, the letter e is used instead of the letter ё. Here is a short list of such words. letter e being swindle care perplexed foreign letter yo maneuvers hopeless faded sturgeon solvent In some cases, the letters e or ё are used to distinguish words by meaning: the past year - bled out; screams like a catechumen - an order announced in the morning; piece of iron - piece of iron; the sky is the sky. Sometimes the options ['e] and ['o] are noted as equal: whitish - whitish, bile - bile, trellised - trellised. 57. PRONUNCIATION OF COMBINATIONS -CHN- AND -THAT- When pronouncing a combination of letters ч и н mistakes are often made. This is due to a change in the rules of the old Moscow pronunciation, according to which in many words this combination was pronounced as [shn]. According to the norms of the modern Russian literary language, the combination -ch- usually pronounced as [ch], especially in words of book origin (greedy, careless), as well as in words that appeared in the recent past (camouflage, landing, etc.). However, the traditional pronunciation [sn] is preserved in the following words: of course, on purpose, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse. In addition, the pronunciation [sn] instead of spelling "ch" is required in female patronymics ending in -ichna: Ilyinichna, Lukinichna, Nikitichna, Kuzminichna, etc. Some words with a combination -n- in accordance with modern norms of the literary language are pronounced in two ways - or as [shn], or how [h]: bakery, laundry, penny, decent, dairy, creamy, etc. In some cases, a different pronunciation of the combination -n- serves for semantic differentiation of words: [h] [sh] heart attack - heart friend; midnight serenade - night owl, midnight. According to old Moscow norms, the combination -t- pronounced like [PCS] in the word "what" and in words derived from it: "nothing", "something", etc. At present, this rule is preserved for all the indicated words, except for the word "something" - [th]. In all other words, spelling - th - is always pronounced as [th]: "mail", "dream", etc. 58. PRONUNCIATION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORDS The Russian language is characterized by a tendency towards the adaptability of the sound image of borrowed words to Russian phonetic laws. In accordance with this, some borrowed words with the letter е after the primordially hard consonant "Russified" and are pronounced with a soft consonant before e. For example: museum [z'e], academy [d'e]. However, a number of words retain a hard consonant before e. For example: business [ne], test [te]. Notes 1. The sign "'" denotes the softness of the consonant. 2. The sign ":" denotes the longitude of the consonant.
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Comments on the article: Zeynab I really liked the text. It would have been better if links were provided in the text itself. Thank you! [up]
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