National history. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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National history. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Table of contents

The history of the fatherland as a science. Subject, functions and principles of study
Methods and sources for studying the history of Russia Methods for studying history:
The problem of the ethnogenesis of the Eastern Slavs
Household way of life and military organization of the Eastern Slavs
Socio-political structure and religious beliefs of the Eastern Slavs
Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state. Foreign policy of Ancient Rus'
The main stages in the formation of ancient Russian statehood
The adoption of Christianity and the baptism of Russia. Culture of ancient Russia
The concept, causes and consequences of feudal fragmentation
Major feudal lands. Culture in a Period of Fragmentation
Political system and socio-economic development of the Novgorod land
Veche as the supreme governing body of Novgorod
The fight against external enemies in the XIII century. The role of Moscow in the unification of Russian lands
Forms of Russia's dependence on the Golden Horde
Administrative and economic structure of Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries
Russia by the middle of the XVI century. Accession of Ivan IV
Reforms of the elected council
Oprichnina
Foreign policy of Ivan IV
The period of troubled times: its causes, main events
Board of Boris Godunov. The results of troubled times
Polyethnicity of Russia. Trends in the development of Russian feudalism
The position of the peasantry in Russian society
Crafts and trade under feudalism. Social structure of Russian society
The development of Russian statehood in the XNUMXth century. The role of Zemsky Sobors
Church reform in Russia in the XNUMXth century
Popular uprisings in the XNUMXth century. Results of the development of Russian statehood in the XNUMXth century
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the XNUMXth century. Colonization of outlying lands
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the XVIII century
The results of Russia's foreign policy activity in the XVII-XVIII centuries
General characteristics of Peter's reforms. Economic transformations of Peter I
The main administrative reforms of Peter I
Reforms in the field of education. The results of the transformative activities of Peter I
The concept of the era of palace coups. The reign of Catherine I and Peter II
The reign of Anna Ioannovna
The period of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna. Socio-economic development of Russia in the era of palace coups
The concept of enlightened absolutism. The results of the reign of Catherine II
Domestic policy of Catherine II
Russian culture of the XNUMXth century
The reign of Paul I
Reign of Alexander I
The reign of Nicholas I
The results of the socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century
Liberal reforms 1860-1870
Peasant reform of 1861, the results of the transformative activities of the government of Alexander II
Decembrists. Constitution N.M. Muravyov
"Russian Truth" P.I. Pestel
Westernism and Slavophilism
Social movements of the second half of the XIX century. Conservatives and liberals
Revolutionary populism in the second half of the XNUMXth century
Foreign policy of Russia in the XIX century. Accession of new territories
Patriotic War of 1812 and foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1815
Crimean War 1853-1856
"Eastern question"
Russia's participation in military-political alliances. Results of Russian foreign policy in the XNUMXth century
Public education and science in the XNUMXth century
Literature and art of Russia in the XNUMXth century
The reign of Emperor Alexander III
The development of agriculture and industry in Russia after 1861
Socio-economic situation in Russia at the beginning of the XNUMXth century
Russian Revolution 1905-1907
Transformative activity of P.A. Stolypin
Political parties of Russia at the beginning of the XNUMXth century
State Duma of Russia of the 1st convocation
State Duma of Russia of the 2st convocation
The State Duma after the manifesto of June 3, 1907
Results of the activities of the State Duma (1906-1917)
Causes and results of the First World War
The course of the main events of the First World War
February Democratic Revolution
The policy of the provisional government in the first half of 1917
The policy of the provisional government in the second half of 1917
Seizure of power by the Bolsheviks in October 1917
The concept, causes and results of the civil war
The first stage of the civil war
Second phase of the civil war
Third stage of the civil war
Foreign military intervention
Transition from War Communism to New Economic Policy (NEP)
The essence of the new economic policy
Reasons for the curtailment of the NEP and its results
The essence of collectivization policy
Essence of industrialization policy
Results of collectivization and industrialization
Approval of the regime of personal power I.V. Stalin
Terror and mass repressions of the 30s
The main directions of the foreign policy of the USSR in 1920-1930
USSR in the system of international relations and the results of foreign policy in 1920-1930
Accession to the USSR of a number of territories in 1939-1940
Causes of the defeats of the Red Army in the initial period of the Second World War
First phase of the war (June 22, 1941 – mid-1942)
Second and third stages of the war (mid 1942 - late 1943 - May 9, 1945)
Participation of the countries of the anti-fascist coalition in the Second World War. Results of the Second World War
Socio-economic situation of the country in the first post-war years
Repressions 1946-1953 Science and culture in the first post-war years
The struggle for power after the death of i.v. Stalin. XX Congress of the CPSU
Socio-economic transformations of the mid-1950s - first half of the 1960s
Science and culture of the mid-1950s - the first half of the 1960s
The formation of the world socialist system after the Second World War. Consequences of the Cold War for the USSR
The main stages of the cold war
Attempts to carry out economic reforms in the second half of the 60s
Socio-economic situation in the country in 1965-1985
Science and culture in 1965-1985
The coming to power of M.S. Gorbachev. The beginning of "perestroika"
Socio-political struggle 1985-1991
The collapse of the USSR and the formation of the CIS
State-political development of the Russian Federation
The system of power in Russia after the adoption of the constitution of the Russian Federation
Socio-economic transformations in the 1990s
Chechen crisis
The nature of economic reforms at the present stage
Russia's foreign policy after 1991
Science and culture of modern Russia
Features of the development of the world community in the XX century
Trends in the development of society in the XX century. And his social transformation

1. HISTORY OF THE FATHERLAND AS A SCIENCE. SUBJECT, FUNCTIONS AND PRINCIPLES OF STUDY

Subject of study Patriotic history are patterns of political and socio-economic development of the Russian state and society as part of the global process of human history. The history of Russia examines socio-political processes, the activities of various political forces, the development of political systems and state structures.

The following functions of historical knowledge:

1) cognitive, intellectual development - proceeds from the knowledge of the historical process as a social branch of scientific knowledge, the identification of the main trends in the social development of history and, as a result, the theoretical generalization of historical facts;

2) practical-political - revealing the patterns of development of society, helps to develop a scientifically based political course. At the same time, knowledge of history contributes to the formation of an optimal policy option for leading the masses;

3) ideological - in the study of history, to a large extent determines the formation of a scientific worldview. This happens because history, relying on various sources, provides documented accurate data about the events of the past. People turn to the past in order to better understand modern life, the trends inherent in it. Thus, knowledge of history equips people with an understanding of the historical perspective.

4) educational - consists in the fact that knowledge of history actively forms the civic qualities of the individual, allows you to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the modern social system.

Principles of the scientific study of history:

1. The principle of objectivity obliges to consider historical reality regardless of the desires, aspirations, attitudes and predilections of the subject. First of all, it is necessary to study the objective patterns that determine the processes of socio-political development. To do this, one should rely on the facts in their true content, as well as consider each phenomenon in its versatility and inconsistency.

2. The principle of historicism states that any historical phenomenon should be studied from the point of view of where, when and why this phenomenon arose, how it was at the beginning, how it then developed, what path it went through, what assessments were given to it at one stage or another of development, what can be said about his prospects. The principle of historicism requires that any student of history should not become a judge in the evaluation of historical and political events.

3. Under principle of social approach understand the manifestation of certain social and class interests, the entire sum of social class relations. It should be emphasized that the principle of a social approach to history is especially necessary and essential in assessing the programs and real activities of political parties and movements, as well as their leaders and functionaries.

4. The principle of comprehensive study of history implies the need not only for the completeness and reliability of information, but also for taking into account all aspects and relationships that affect the political sphere of society.

2. METHODS AND SOURCES FOR STUDYING THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA Methods for studying history:

1) chronological - consists in the fact that the phenomena of history are studied strictly in temporal (chronological) order. It is used in compiling chronicles of events, biographies;

2) chronologically problematic - provides for the study of the history of Russia by periods, and within them - by problems. It is used in all general studies, including various courses of lectures on history;

3) problem-chronological - is used in the study of any one aspect of the activities of the state, society, political figure in its consistent development. This approach makes it possible to more fully trace the logic of the development of the problem, as well as to extract practical experience most effectively;

4) periodization - is based on the fact that both society as a whole and any of its constituent parts go through various stages of development, separated from each other by qualitative boundaries. The main thing in periodization is the establishment of clear criteria, their strict and consistent application in the study and research;

5) comparative historical - is based on the recognition of a certain recurrence of historical events in world history. Its essence is to compare them to establish both common patterns and differences;

6) retrospective - is based on the fact that past, present and future societies are closely interconnected. This makes it possible to recreate a picture of the past even in the absence of all sources relating to the time under study;

7) statistical - consists in the study of important aspects of the life and activities of the state, a quantitative analysis of many homogeneous facts, each of which individually is not of great importance, while in the aggregate they determine the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones;

8) sociological research used in contemporary studies. It makes it possible to study phenomena in the main political history. Among the techniques of this method are questionnaires, surveys, interviews, etc.

Sources for studying national history very significant and complex. The exact boundaries of the range of sources do not seem to exist due to the integrity and indivisibility of the historical process, the interconnectedness of people's activities at various stages of historical and political development. Approximate source classification: 1) archaeological sources; 2) annals and chronicles; 3) ethnographic sources; 4) archival documents; 5) documents of state bodies and public organizations of the Russian state; 6) documents of political parties and movements of Russia; 7) works of statesmen and public figures of Russia; 8) periodicals; 9) memoir literature; 10) museum documents; 11) photo, audio and film documents; 12) electronic media.

3. THE PROBLEM OF THE EASTERN SLAVES ETHNOGENESIS

Ethnogenesis - the whole process of existence and development of the ethnic system from the moment of its emergence to its disappearance.

A significant number of archaeological sites of the Stone Age have been discovered on the territory of Russia. According to scientists, the Slavs could belong to the Indo-European peoples, the formation of a linguistic community of which took place on the Iranian plateau and in Asia Minor in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth millennium BC. e. In addition, it is believed that the Slavs as a species formed on the territory of Eastern Europe in the XNUMXth-XNUMXnd millennium BC. e. They inhabited the forest areas between the Oder and the middle Dnieper, from the Baltic Sea to the Dniester. The main branches of their economy were agriculture and cattle breeding. The most famous monument of the Slavic proto-civilization is the Trypillian archaeological culture, covering the space from South-Eastern Transylvania to the Dnieper.

In the middle of the first millennium BC. e. iron began to spread among the Slavs. The gradual decomposition of the tribal system belongs to the same period. It was then that the everyday, religious and cultural features of the Slavic tribes clearly stood out in comparison with other Indo-European peoples, which allows us to conclude that the formation in the XNUMXst millennium BC. e. Slavic pracivilization. Around this time, a single Slavic community was divided into three branches: eastern (future Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian peoples), western (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, etc.) and southern (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.).

In the II century. n. e. the Germanic tribes of the Goths came to the northern Black Sea region from the lower reaches of the Vistula. Under their leadership, a military-tribal union was formed here, which also included part of the Slavic tribes. From the end of the XNUMXth century the tribes of Eastern Europe were involved in major migration processes - the so-called Great Migration of Peoples. The Turkic nomads, the Huns, who invaded from Asia, defeated the Goths, and the latter went to Central and Western Europe. During the V-VIII centuries. Slavs settled vast areas in Eastern, Central and South-Eastern Europe. By this period, the territory of settlement of the Eastern Slavs was determined by the following boundaries: in the north - the Volkhov River, in the south - the Dniester River, in the west - the Western Bug River, in the east - the Volga River. It was at this time that an original East Slavic civilization developed, characterized by a common economic structure, a socio-political structure in the form of military democracy, common features of behavior, rituals, etc.

Difficult natural and climatic conditions encouraged our ancestors to unite within the community, to conduct a collective economy. In social terms, these circumstances led to adherence to the norms of direct communal democracy, the predominance of collectivist values over personal ones, and low social mobility of members of society. The historical example of Byzantium with effective autocratic power, the construction of a society based on rigid vertical ties, and the total control of the state over all spheres of society has become, to a certain extent, a model for Russian statehood.

4. HOUSEHOLD WAY AND MILITARY ORGANIZATION OF THE EASTERN SLAVES

The main branch of the economy of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. Around the 150th century slash-and-burn agriculture was gradually replaced by arable farming with iron plowshares. In addition to cereals (rye, wheat, etc.) and garden crops (turnip, cabbage, etc.) industrial crops (flax, hemp) were also grown. Cattle breeding was closely connected with agriculture. The Slavs bred pigs, cows, sheep, goats. The craft separated from agriculture in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. Especially actively developed pottery, iron and non-ferrous metallurgy. Only from steel and iron, Slavic craftsmen produced over XNUMX types of various products. A prominent place in the economy of the Eastern Slavs was also occupied by crafts and trade. The main trade routes passed along the rivers Volkhov - Lovat - Dnieper ("from the Varangians to the Greeks"), Volga, Don, Oka. The Slavs exported mainly furs, weapons, wax, bread. Expensive fabrics, jewelry, spices were imported. The most important place among the sources of livelihood was occupied by military booty. Tributes, ransoms and ransoms, slaves for trade - these were the main goals of the Slavs' campaigns in neighboring and distant lands.

The Slavs lived in large huts - crates of 30-35 people. Several of these houses made up a settlement, and the number of buildings in it reached 200-250.

The basis of the military organization was an armed people. By decision of the veche and depending on the conditions, either the whole people, or a detachment of combatants led by the prince, went to war. For the maintenance of the squad and himself, the prince received the right to collect tribute from those whom he defended.

The Eastern Slavs often subjected their neighbors to devastating raids. So, from various sources we know that the Slavs in the VI century. in the amount of 3 thousand soldiers invaded the Byzantine Empire, in the 860th century. devastated the environs of Constantinople in the XNUMXth century. made a trip to the Crimea. Evidence has been preserved that around XNUMX, the Kyiv prince Askold forced the Byzantine emperor Michael to conclude a treaty of "Peace and Love". Byzantine written sources report that by the XNUMXth century. the Slavs began to use the correct battle formations on the battlefield, as well as siege machines. Their weapons were swords, bows with poisoned arrows, spears, shields, battle axes.

5. SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANIZATION AND RELIGIOUS BELIEFS OF THE EASTERN SLAVES

The socio-political structure of the Eastern Slavs It was a military democracy. It meant the power of elected military leaders (princes), while maintaining the power of the elders and the remnants of primitive collectivism. Verv (neighborhood community) was the main unit of society. All important issues in the life of the community were decided by a general council - a veche, to which the householders of the district converged, regardless of what tribes and clans they came from. To conduct common affairs at the veche, a council of elders was elected. As individual members of the community accumulated wealth, they began to play a more significant role in her life.

The corporation in which the ruling class of Russia was organized during this period continued to be a squad. Gradually, in the process of forming the structure of a single state, a centralized and branched administration apparatus is being formed. Representatives of the retinue nobility act as officials of the state administration. Under the princes, there is a council (thought), at which a meeting of the prince with the top of the squad takes place. The princes appoint posadniks from among the vigilantes - governors in cities; governor - leaders of military detachments; thousand - senior officials in society; tributaries - collectors of land taxes; swordsmen - court officials; mytnikov - collectors of trade duties tiuns - rulers of the princely patrimonial economy, etc.

Personally free rural population, obliged only by tribute, as well as ordinary townspeople, are referred to in the sources as people. For the personally dependent population of estates and non-free servants, the terms "servants" and "serfs" were used. Smerds were a group of semi-military, semi-peasant population, dependent on the prince. There is also a category of people who become dependent on the landowner for debts and are forced to work for the master until the debt is paid. They were called "purchases", and their rights were intermediate between free people and serfs.

Eastern Slavs were pagans, they worshiped the phenomena of nature and supported the cult of ancestors. The ancient Slavs had neither temples nor a special class of priests, but there were separate sorcerers, sorcerers who were revered as servants of the gods and interpreters of their will. The main gods of the Slavs were: Svarog - the god of the Slavic family; Perun - the god of thunder and war; Dazhdbog - the god of the sun; Stri-bog - the god of wind and rain; Whiter - the patron of cattle breeding; Mokosh - the goddess of the earth and fertility The Slavs had an annual cycle of agricultural holidays in honor of the sun and the change of seasons.

6. PREREQUISITES FOR THE FORMATION OF THE OLD RUSSIAN STATE. FOREIGN POLICY OF ANCIENT RUSSIA

Around the origin of the word "Rus" in historical science, there are still disputes. There is a widespread opinion about the introduction of this term to Eastern Europe by Scandinavian combatants (Varangians). However, there is a point of view according to which the origin of this word is southern, from the Ros River. In any case, in the IX century. it acts as a designation of an ethno-political entity that does not coincide territorially with any Slavic union of tribal principalities.

Two centers of Russia became the cities of Novgorod and Kyiv. In the territories that became part of Novgorod-Kievan Rus, as is known from chronicle sources, there were 12 Slavic unions (Polyany, Drevlyane, Vyatichi, Krivichi, etc.). The fact of presence in Russia in the IX-X centuries. Scandinavian warriors-Varangians and the chronicle story about the Varangian origin of the ancient Russian ruling dynasty (Rurikovich) gave rise to a long discussion between Normanists and anti-Normanists. The former defended the point of view about the creation of the Old Russian state by the Scandinavians, while the latter denied this. At present, domestic and foreign researchers do not doubt both the local roots of the East Slavic statehood, and the active participation in the process of folding Novgorod-Kievan Rus from Scandinavia. However, the basis for the creation of the state, of course, was the very internal development of the East Slavic world, its social, economic and military-political patterns. As in other European countries, the prerequisites for the creation of a state association of the Slavs were the existence of tribal unions, their management systems, the development of productive forces, the growth of property inequality, etc.

Foreign policy was closely connected with the formation and development of the socio-economic and military-political unity of Russia. The country was united by all kinds of economic and political obligations of those lands that constituted its territorial unity. It should also be taken into account that at that time not all state borders were established and legally fixed, since not all peoples in their development reached state forms. Another feature was the dependence of many neighboring peoples on Ancient Russia. And the territory of the state itself included over 20 non-Slavic tribes and tribal unions. Their relationship had a significant impact on foreign policy in general.

The most tangible successes in the international arena were achieved by Novgorod-Kievan Rus during the time of Vladimir and especially Yaroslav. One of the indicators of recognition by European states as equals was dynastic marriages that connected the Kyiv Grand Duke's house with many royal courts of Europe - French Hungarian, English, Danish, Byzantine, etc. These facts testify to the close ties between Russia and other states, to its great contribution to the development of European civilization.

7. THE MAIN STAGES OF THE FORMATION OF THE OLD RUSSIAN STATEHOOD

The process of formation and development of the Old Russian state covers the period from the second half of the 860th to the beginning of the XNUMXth century. A kind of starting point was the year XNUMX - the date of the siege by the Russian fleet of the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople. The diplomatic recognition of Novgorod-Rodsko-Kievan Rus by Byzantium took place.

The first stage includes the period from the middle of the 882th to the end of the 911th century. Under Prince Oleg (912-945), the following important state tasks were solved: the lands of a number of East Slavic tribes were annexed, the payment of tribute "polyudya" was introduced, which constituted one of the economic foundations of the state. It was at the expense of tribute and war booty that the state administration, the squad, the immediate environment of the prince and his court were kept. Oleg's successor, Prince Igor (945-964), had to suppress the separatist aspirations of a number of tribal unions for many years. Princess Olga (964-972) sought to strengthen the grand ducal power with the help of socio-economic innovations. She streamlined the amount of tribute collected, determined the places of its collection (graveyards), carried out some reforms in the system of administrative management. Under Olga's son, Grand Duke Svyatoslav (XNUMX-XNUMX), the state foundations were strengthened, the country's defense capability increased, and the management system improved. The glory of Russia in this period was brought by military victories in the fight against Byzantium, the defeat of the Khazar Khaganate.

It was during this period that Western European chronicles began to call Russia Gardarika (a country of cities), which, by European standards, were more than a hundred. The most famous centers of the state were, in addition to Novgorod and Kyiv, Ladoga, Pskov, Polotsk and others.

On the second stage (late X - first half of the XI centuries) Russia reached its peak in its development. During the 35 years of Vladimir's reign (980-1015), the process of territorial expansion continued. The state included the lands of the Vyatichi, Croats, Yotvingians, Tmutarakan, Cherven cities. Under Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise (1015-1054), the international position of the state was especially strengthened. It was during this period that the economic power of the country increased significantly.

Main trend third stage development of ancient Russian statehood is an attempt to prevent the impending collapse, as well as the desire to stabilize the situation within the state, to eliminate separatist tendencies. These attempts were carried out by Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh. Under him, a new legal code was created - the so-called Long Edition of the Russian Truth. This monument reflected the social changes that took place in Russia in the second half of the XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries. Long Pravda recorded the existence of boyar property, made changes to a number of pre-existing laws ("Ancient Truth", "Pravda Yaros-Lavichi", etc.). However, from the second half of the XII century. the process of fragmentation and collapse of the unified state intensified.

8. ACCEPTANCE OF CHRISTIANITY AND THE BAPTISM OF RUSSIA. CULTURE OF ANCIENT RUSSIA

One of the largest events that had a long-term significance for Russia was adoption of Christianity as the state religion. The main reason for the introduction of Christianity in its Byzantine version - Orthodoxy - was the need to form a state ideology, spiritual unification of the diverse peoples of Russia, and strengthen international relations on a solid basis. Under the new conditions, the pagan religion did not fully ensure the process of the formation of statehood, since, due to its inherent polytheism, it was not able to unite Russia, strengthen the authority of the grand duke's power. The process of adopting a new religion was long and controversial. It began with an attempt by Prince Vladimir to create a single pagan pantheon. The main thing was the baptism of the environment of the prince and Kyiv according to the Orthodox order in 988. The baptism of the people was most actively carried out in 988-998. Unlike the urban population, the peasants did not accept the new faith for a long time, and resistance was especially serious in the northern regions of the country (Novgorod and others).

Objectively, the introduction of Christianity contributed to the strengthening of the political unity of the ancient Russian lands, the final elimination of tribal isolation. Orthodoxy had a significant cultural impact on society: writing became more widespread, schools appeared, and systematic chronicle writing began.

The appearance in Russia after the adoption of Christianity of literature in the Slavic language, on the one hand.

and the formation of the state structure - on the other, contributed to the spread of literacy. A clear evidence of this is birch bark letters - letters on birch bark of various (mainly business) content. They were discovered during excavations in 9 ancient Russian cities (most in Novgorod, where natural conditions contributed to their better preservation).

In XI - early. XNUMXth century a large number of translated works of both religious and secular content are distributed in Russia. At the same time, the formation of original literature takes place, the earliest monument of which is the "Sermon on Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, written in Ser. XNUMXth century The most important place in ancient Russian literature is occupied by the chronicle genre. The first chronicle code, the text of which can be reconstructed, is the so-called Initial Code of the XNUMXth century. In the beginning. XNUMXth century An outstanding work of medieval literature, The Tale of Bygone Years, is being created in the Kiev Caves Monastery. The "Tale" unfolds a wide canvas of Russian history, which is considered as part of Slavic history, and later - as part of world history. The author (possibly monk Nestor) used a number of translated sources, as well as domestic chronicles and oral legends.

In the XI century. stone temple construction and church painting are developing. Outstanding architectural monuments of the Ser. XNUMXth century - Cathedrals of St. Sophia in Kyiv and Novgorod, Spassky Cathedral in Chernigov.

9. THE CONCEPT, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF FEUDAL Fragmentation

Under feudal fragmentation understand the form of organization of society, characterized by the economic strengthening of patrimonial possessions and the political decentralization of the state.

The period of feudal fragmentation in Russia covers the time from the second half of the 1125th century to the beginning. 1132th century This process began after the death of the Grand Duke Mstislav (XNUMX-XNUMX), when the principalities and lands of Russia began to withdraw from obedience to the central government. The new era that began was characterized by long bloody civil strife between princes and wars for the expansion of land holdings.

The most important reasons for fragmentation

1. The division of the single territory of the state between the heirs in the absence of a legally justified right of succession to the throne. Formally, the beginning of the "specific period" refers to the time of the will of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, according to which he planted his sons to rule the country in various Russian regions. The division of princely lands among the heirs, which became especially noticeable by the XNUMXth century, aggravated the fragmentation of the principalities-states.

2. The dominance of natural economy. The feudal economy at that time was mainly of a subsistence nature, it was closed. Economic ties with the center were weak, and the military and political power of the local government was steadily increasing, so the cities gradually turned primarily into craft and trade centers for the surrounding lands.

3. Strengthening the property of the feudal lords on the land. Many cities were feudal estates, fortresses of princes. In the cities, local apparatuses of power were created, their main task was to maintain the authority of the power of the local prince.

4. The weakening of the external threat - the Polovtsian raids, the intensity of which fell sharply as a result of the active hostilities of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav.

5. The decline in the prestige of Kyiv, due to the fact that he lost his former importance as the trading center of Russia. The crusaders laid new trade routes from Europe to the East through the Mediterranean. In addition, Kyiv was practically destroyed in 1240 during the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Consequences of feudal fragmentation. It is impossible to unequivocally judge the time of fragmentation as a period of decline. At this time, old cities grow, new ones appear (Moscow, Tver, Dmitrov, etc.). Local apparatuses of power are being formed, which help in administration, perform police functions, and collect funds for the independent policy of individual principalities. Local laws are formed on the basis of Russkaya Pravda. Thus, we can talk about the general rise of the Russian principalities in the XII - early. XNUMXth century On the other hand, the fall of the military potential of Russia led to the fact that the process of internal socio-economic and political development was interrupted by external intervention. It went in three streams: from the east - the Mongol-Tatar invasion, from the north-west - the Swedish-Danish-German aggression, from the south-west - the military attacks of the Poles and Hungarians.

10. THE LARGEST FEUDAL LAND. CULTURE DURING Fragmentation

Before other Russian lands, one that was never threatened by the Polovtsian danger stood apart - Novgorod. This territory had its own close trade and economic ties and political contacts with the countries of Western Europe, which, of course, increased its security. In 1136, the uprising of the Novgorodians against the Kyiv henchmen ended the separation of this land from the central government.

The Vladimir-Suzdal Principality becomes politically independent during the reign of the son of Vladimir Monomakh - Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1154-1157). The rather safe geographical position of the principality (far from the nomadic invasion area) ensured a massive influx of population. The main occupations of the inhabitants are agriculture and cattle breeding, salt mining; crafts flourished. Among the so-called "old" cities, the most famous are Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, among the "young" - Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Zvenigorod and others. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the land under Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174).

Galicia-Volyn principality in the XII-XIV centuries. was the largest in southern Russia and enjoyed significant influence in Western Europe. Located mainly in the mountains, it was a fairly safe place. The main occupations of its inhabitants were agriculture, cattle breeding, and hunting. Large trade routes, among which stood out the so-called "salt" from Galich to Kyiv, provided a large volume of trade. Among the princes of these lands, Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187) is the most famous.

Roman Mstislavovich (1170-1205), Daniil Romanovich (1261-1264). The largest cities were Galich, Lvov, Vladimir-on-Volyn. In the second floor. XNUMXth century the principality was captured by Lithuania (Volhynia) and Poland (Galych).

In addition to the above, the following fairly large lands of Ancient Russia of the specific period can be named: Chernigovskaya (left bank of the Dnieper and the upper reaches of the Oka), Smolenskaya (Upper Dnieper) Polotsk (upper reaches of the Western Dvina), Ryazan (middle course of the Oka).

For Russian culture in a period of fragmentation the formation of polycentrism is characteristic - the appearance of original cultural centers in different regions of Russia. The formation of local architectural, artistic and annalistic schools dates back to this time. So, in the period of the XII-XIII centuries. chronicles, in addition to Kyiv and Novgorod, began to be conducted in the centers of the feudal principalities - Chernigov, Vladimir, and other cities.

In the end of the XII century. was created one of the most outstanding works of world medieval literature - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". In addition, other works of literature of that time are known - "The Word of Daniel the Sharpener", "The Word of the Destruction of the Russian Land". During the period of fragmentation, stone construction and church painting continued to develop. In architecture, there is a combination of local traditions, forms borrowed from Byzantium and elements of the Western European Romanesque style. Of the surviving architectural monuments of this era, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, the Golden Gates in Vladimir, St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky can be especially distinguished.

11. POLITICAL STRUCTURE AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF NOVGOROD LAND

The period of existence of the independent Novgorod land - from 1136 to 1477. The form of government that developed in Novgorod during this time is unique in its own way and requires separate consideration in the course of Russian history.

The special place of the Novgorod Republic in Russian history is due to a number of circumstances. Firstly, Novgorod was one of the centers where Russian statehood began, and secondly, its close trade ties with the cities of the medieval Baltic, Sweden, Germany, and Flanders were of great importance. Novgorod was a link between the Russian lands and Western Europe, a center of economic and cultural exchange. Thirdly, Novgorod is the only Russian land almost unaffected by the Mongol-Tatar yoke. This contributed to the evolution of ancient Russian culture, including political and legal. And, finally, the main thing is the republican form of state that has developed in Novgorod. Novgorod enriched Russian history with developed, well thought out, stable institutions of republican government. With the feudal nature of power, the political system of Novgorod created an opportunity for the direct participation of the people in the affairs of government. Novgorod's successes in trade, construction, crafts are inseparable from its political system, based on the election of all officials, their accountability to the people's assembly - the vecha, the symbol of Novgorod's state identity and its basis.

The combination of a number of geographical factors led to the fact that the main occupations of the inhabitants of Novgorod were craft and trade, while agriculture existed at the level of craft. Flax, furs, wax, hemp, handicrafts were exported from the Novgorod land, and bread, cloth, and luxury goods were imported. Trade and money relations were highly developed in the Novgorod economy, artisans worked not to order, but to the market. The largest cities of the land were, in addition to Novgorod, Pskov, Torzhok, Ladoga and Izborsk, which, being subordinate to the center, had self-government bodies.

12. VECHE AS THE SUPREME GOVERNING BODY OF NOVGOROD

In Novgorod, the veche was fully developed. The functions of the veche were determined by the specific decisions of the veche itself and comprehensively covered the life of the Novgorod land. Here are the most important and frequently found sources powers of the council: conclusion and termination of the contract with the prince; election and dismissal of a posadnik (actually the head of government): a thousand (head of the militia), lord (head of the church and manager of the treasury); appointment of Novgorod governors, posadniks and governors in the provinces; control over the activities of the prince, posadnik, thousand, lord and other officials; legislation, an example of which is the Novgorod Judicial Charter; foreign relations, the solution of questions of war and peace, trade agreements with the West; disposal of the landed property of Novgorod in economic and legal terms, granting land; establishing trade rules and incentives; establishment of duties of the population, control over their serving; control over judicial terms and execution of decisions; in cases that worried the whole city, the direct trial of cases; provision of judicial benefits.

At the turn of the XI-XII centuries. in Novgorod, an elected local administration began to form - a self-government body opposed to princely power. This raised the veche order to a new level, fundamentally changed the attitude of the people's assembly to the affairs of administration and the court, for it elected, controlled and removed the most important officials who were daily engaged in this activity, and gradually turned the prince into an official.

Around Ser. XNUMXth century relations with the princes become stable, the veche loses its significance as a symbol of rallying the whole city against encroachments on its traditional liberties. The blunting of the sharpness of the anti-princely struggle, which united all citizens, could not but lead to increased conflicts in society. However, the aggravation of social conflicts did not undermine the veche foundations. Thanks to a well-thought-out system of boyar control, the veche turned out to be a flexible political form that ensured the real supremacy of higher social groups. The history of Novgorod knows many excesses of veche life, when the masses dealt with dignitaries objectionable to them and robbed boyar houses, but the economic and political foundations of boyar domination remained unshakable. This was facilitated by the split of the urban lower classes into groups, each of which was guided by its own boyars, the predominance of clashes of parties, ends and streets over class conflicts, as well as a number of customary legal measures that protected boyar supremacy, including customs associated with veche.

Both simple children and wealthy people have repeatedly used the democratic form of the veche to defend their interests. Although the real management of the state was concentrated in the hands of the posadniks, the thousand, the lords, the boyar council, all these bodies drew their powers from the veche decision, and the elected ones could be removed from power at any moment by the will of the veche. It contributed to the high development of material, spiritual and political culture.

13. FIGHT AGAINST EXTERNAL ENEMIES IN THE XIII C. THE ROLE OF MOSCOW IN THE UNITED RUSSIAN LANDS

For Russian lands of the XIII century. marked fight against external enemies. The southern lands opposed the Hungarian, Polish and Lithuanian conquerors, Northern Russia - the Lithuanians, Germans and Swedes. Among the most famous military actions of this period is the defeat of the German knights on Lake Peipsi by Prince Alexander Nevsky in the so-called Battle of the Ice in 1242. In addition, from 1237, the united Mongol forces launched an offensive against the Russian lands, which actually opposed them one by one. The invasion of Batu Khan in 1237-1240. led to dire consequences. Most of the ancient Russian lands and principalities were subordinated to the Mongol rulers, and after the final isolation in the last third of the XNUMXth century. Golden Horde - its khans. During k. XIII - early. XNUMXth century almost all the territories of the future Belarus and Ukraine were captured by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland, Hungary, the Principality of Moldavia, the Livonian Order. The state sovereignty of the local lines of the Rurikovich was eventually eliminated here.

The situation was somewhat different in the Ryazan principality, most of the Chernigov, Vladimir-Suzdal principalities, Novgorod-Pskov land. Within the boundaries of the Golden Horde, they received a special status of autonomous and semi-autonomous formations: the "Russian uluses" were not part of the main state territory of the Golden Horde, they did not complain to the direct control of the khan's relatives and persons from among the Horde nobility.

Already by the time of the Battle of Kulikovo (1380) it was decided the leading role of the Moscow principality in the unification of North-Eastern and North-Western Russia. With the transfer of the metropolia to Moscow in 1326, Moscow became the church capital of Russia. A major role in the rise of Moscow was played by Grand Duke Ivan Kalita (1325-1340), who, with the help of the Golden Horde, managed to crush rivals and turn the principality into the center of the future Muscovite kingdom. After overcoming a severe crisis within the Moscow principality itself in the second third of the 1480th century. and after the attempts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to act as an alternative center for the unification of Russian principalities and lands turned out to be exhausted, the leading role of Moscow was further strengthened. The formation of the Russian centralized state at the first stage pursued two main tasks: the territorial unification of Russia, the elimination of dependence and the acquisition of full state sovereignty. Both problems were solved in k. XV - early. XVI century: in 1540, after "standing on the Ugra River", the yoke of the Horde was thrown off, Yaroslavl was annexed. Rostov, Novgorod, Tver, Vyatka, Pskov, Ryazan. As a result of the wars with Lithuania in XV - early. 1550th century Putivl and Chernigov became part of the Russian state. Bryansk, Smolensk. The second stage ended with the reforms of the government of the Chosen Rada in XNUMX-XNUMX, as a result of which the image of the Russian centralized state was formed as an autocratic monarchy with estate representation.

14. FORMS OF DEPENDENCE OF RUSSIA ON THE GOLDEN HORDE

The economic dependence on the Horde of North-Eastern and North-Western Russia was expressed in the withdrawal of artisans to the Horde centers and cities, the payment of a very burdensome regular tribute ("Horde exit"), ruinous additional requisitions, as well as the existence of a special service organization of direct producers who must were to provide for all the needs of ambassadors, messengers, special representatives who came from the khan to Russia. Political dependence was manifested primarily in the fact that the decisive condition for the legitimacy of the power of any sovereign prince (great or appanage) was a khan's award (label). The heredity of the princely tables within the boundaries of the local Rurik dynasty was then an important, but still less significant factor in the legitimacy of the power of the monarchs. Russian princes were also obliged to participate with their troops in the campaigns of the rulers of the Golden Horde.

The forms of Horde control were historically changeable. The first, which existed for a relatively short time, was the institution of direct representatives of the khan ("Baskaki"). Then the method of indirect control was adopted. The most expressive example is the former Vladimir-Suzdal land. The Grand Duke's table in Vladimir was not hereditarily assigned by the khans to any one line of descendants of the Grand Duke Vsevolod the Big Nest. The prince who received a label on him was personally responsible to the khan for the proper payment of output by all the princes, their timely participation in the Horde military campaigns, their loyalty to the Saransk ruler, etc. As a reward, he received the right to manage and judge the population of the territories of the Vladimir table, the right to deliver output from all principalities and lands to the Horde, the princely table in Veliky Novgorod (they usually sent a close relative and their deputies there), the status of the "oldest" prince. For most of the XNUMXth century The Grand Duchy of Vladimir became the object of fierce rivalry between the Moscow, Tver, and then Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal princely dynasties, which made it easier for the khans to act as an arbiter.

The victory of the Moscow Rurikids (they united the territories of the Moscow and Vladimir Grand Duchies in their hands) caused the last change: from the end of the XNUMXth century. all the great and independent principalities of North-Eastern Russia began to communicate directly with the Horde both regarding the payment of tribute, and in order to receive khan's labels, and on other issues.

15. ADMINISTRATIVE AND ECONOMIC STRUCTURE OF RUSSIAN LANDS IN XIII-XV centuries

Actually, Northern Russia was a rather loose set of equal-status principalities, connected with each other in peacetime by contractual relations. In different principalities, the processes of feudal fragmentation proceeded with different intensity, but practically in each there was a system of vassal relations between the great ("oldest") prince and the heads of specific principalities. In addition, both the great and specific princes were overlords of secular vassals ("boyars of free servants", "boyars and boyars' children"), relations with which were regulated by a complex of those who were paid (for land holdings) and fed (for management and trial of the taxable population of some then an administrative unit) charters.

The right and duty of each vassal was to participate in administration and court - in accordance with the origin, previous services, merits, etc. The entire system of administrative and judicial bodies was based on a feeding system: the governor, with the help of an apparatus from his own lackeys-ministerials, collected the prescribed salary (money or feed) from the population subject to him. The prince's own possessions were managed with the help of palace "ways" that provided for the various needs of the sovereign, his family, his court and vassals (for horses, drink and food, furs, honey, wax, birds of prey, weapons, clothing, fish, etc. ).

Under each prince (great or appanage) there was a council (in historiography it was called the Boyar Duma), which included the most noble and closest persons to the sovereign. The council had advisory functions, and its members, as a rule, had the right of a higher court, the right of orders on behalf of the prince, and the right of a report. The prince himself, in domestic political terms, possessed all the fullness of supreme power (executive judicial, administrative, etc.), with the exception of the collection of tribute and requisitions in favor of the Horde. Gradually during the XIV-XV centuries. special institutions of central government began to take shape, growing on the basis of offices and departments associated with the princely economy: the princely (sovereign) palace and the princely (sovereign) treasury. As a rule, elected representatives of taxable rural and urban communities - elders, kissers, etc., took part in the court with the governors with the right to control. merchants). However, in general, in Northern Russia, representative bodies from different estates and estate groups were poorly developed, with the exception of the Novgorod feudal republic.

16. RUSSIA BY THE MIDDLE OF THE XVI CENTURY THE RISE OF IVAN IV

By the middle of the XVI century. the process of changing feudal ownership of land ended, consisting in the fact that princely land ownership moved closer to patrimonial. The old patrimonial land tenure expanded due to the newly annexed principalities; on the other hand, due to family divisions, the old feudal estates became smaller. The fund of patrimonial lands also decreased due to the growth of church land ownership. Such crushing and dispossession of part of the estates was contrary to state interests. The formation of a single state created opportunities for an active foreign policy, and it required an increase in the armed forces. Each warrior had to have land property. In this situation, land distributions were necessary.

The feudal lords, resettled to new places, "placed" there, began to be called landowners, and their possessions - estates. Initially, the estates differed little from the estates: they were inherited, and the estates also had to serve. It is important that the estate was forbidden to sell and donate. Over time, the landowners began to distribute the land of the black-eared peasants. The development of the estate system led to a sharp reduction in the beginning of the XNUMXth century. the number of black-tailed peasants in the center of Russia, to a greater nationalization of the personal life of the inhabitants of the country.

In 1533, Vasily III died, leaving three-year-old Ivan as his heir. The ruler of the state was his mother, Grand Duchess Elena Vasilievna (née Glinskaya). During this period, the struggle for power between the boyar groups of the Velsky, Shuisky, Glinsky did not stop. The era of boyar rule ended in 1547, when the seventeen-year-old grand duke was crowned sovereign of all Russia and became the first Russian tsar, Ivan IV Vasilyevich "the Terrible" (1547-1584). The process of sacralization of the bearer of supreme power was completed, which meant not just a purely external assimilation of the monarch to God, but the assignment of a special status to the king, by virtue of which he began to be perceived by his subjects as a supernatural being.

17. REFORMS OF THE CHOSEN PARTY

The beginning of the reforms is associated with the creation in 1549 of the Elected Rada - a circle of close associates of the tsar, who began to play the role of government under the young sovereign. Among the most important events of this government is the convening of the first in the history of Russia Zemsky Sobor in Moscow in February 1549. Throughout the XNUMXth century. Zemstvo sobors met quite regularly and were meetings under the tsar, who were assigned an advisory role.

Ivan IV was promulgated in June 1550. It determined the procedure for passing administrative, judicial and property cases in the structures of state power. The central state power was strengthened, the rights of governors were limited. Elected from the people (headmen, sots) were given the right to participate in the court. Sudebnik confirmed the right of St. George's Day, but increased the amount of money that the peasant tenant paid to the owner of the land.

Order reform (2nd half of the 50s of the 22th century). A system of executive power and state administration has been created, consisting of XNUMX orders. The reform resulted in an increase in the number of bureaucracy, covering with its influence all spheres of society.

Religious reform was held at the so-called "Stoglavy Cathedral" (a meeting of the highest hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church) in 1551. The decisions of the council, summarized in 100 chapters, included: the transfer to the king of the lands seized by the church from the nobles and peasants in his infancy, as well as given by the boyars to the monasteries for the remembrance of the soul;

the prohibition of the church to increase its land holdings without the permission of the king; the establishment of uniformity in religious rites, responsibility for their violation, the election of archimandrites and abbots.

Tax Reform consisted in the introduction in 1551 of a new unit of taxation - a large plow. Its size varied depending on the estate of the owner of the land. For service people, one unit of tax was taken on average from 800 quarters of land, for the church - 600 quarters, from black-shed peasants - 500 quarters.

Military reform. In the beginning. In 1550, a streltsy army was created, initially numbering 3 thousand people. Artillery was singled out as a separate branch of the armed forces and quickly began to grow in numbers, having 3 thousand guns in service by the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible. In July 1550 localism was abolished (occupation of military positions depending on the nobility of the family). Up to 600 quarters of land, the estate salaries for service to the nobles were increased. In 1556, the feeding system was liquidated, the boyars began to receive monetary salaries from the state for their service, which became the main source of livelihood. In the same year, the Code of Service was announced, equalizing the duties of military service between boyars and nobles.

Carrying out reforms, the government of the Chosen Rada tried to satisfy the interests of the service nobility at the expense of the aristocracy and the peasantry. As a result of the reforms carried out, there was a tendency to limit the autocracy by the new service noble aristocracy.

18. OPRICHNINA

Briefly, the meaning of the introduction of the oprichnina by Ivan IV and the essence of its main events can be defined as follows:

- the establishment of a despotic regime;

- Violence against all social strata;

- liquidation of private property, feudalism;

- hypertrophied centralization of state power.

The oprichnina reform of the Russian tsar consisted in the fact that two parallel political apparatuses of government arose in society, each of which was in charge of its own part of a single country. The experiment did not last long (1565-1572), but Russia felt its consequences until the middle of the next century. The part of Russia that fell under the control of Ivan the Terrible was called the oprichnina. The second part - the zemshchina - was to be controlled by the boyars. Accordingly, two state apparatuses arose - the oprichnina and the zemstvo. Formed as a specific principality, the oprichnina was in the personal possession of the tsar. The oprichnina included several large palace volosts and vast northern districts with large trading cities, which were supposed to supply the oprichnina court with everything necessary. The oprichnina army initially consisted of a thousand nobles, then their number was increased to 6 thousand. opened up broad prospects, since all its members were given increased land support.

It is important to emphasize that the division of administration of a single state was fraught with dangerous political conflicts, because the privileges of the security corps over time caused discontent among the zemstvo service people. Thus, the oprichnina reform narrowed the social base of tsarist power. This led to political terror as the only way to resolve the contradictions that had arisen. The guardsmen, for the purpose of personal enrichment, elevated bloody pogroms to the rank of state policy.

In 1572, the oprichnina was abolished, and the very mention of it was forbidden under pain of punishment with a whip. Ivan the Terrible's attempts to partially restore the oprichnina order in 1575-1578, appointing the service Tatar prince Simeon Bekbulatovich as the Grand Duke of All Russia, did not have a serious impact on the development of the state.

19. FOREIGN POLICY OF IVAN IV

The government of Ivan IV pursued a vigorous foreign policy, which consisted mainly of land seizure.

In 1552, a large Russian army, led by the tsar himself, moved to Kazan. After a bloody assault, the city was taken, and the Kazan kingdom was annexed to Russia.

In 1556 the Astrakhan kingdom was conquered. Thus, the entire Middle and Lower Volga region became part of the Muscovite state.

An important event in the reign of Ivan IV was the annexation of the Siberian kingdom to Russia as a result of campaigns of the Don Cossacks led by Yermak in 1582.

In 1558, the Livonian War (1558-1583) was launched by the tsar in order to break through to the Baltic Sea. The war was at first successful for Russia - Russian troops took Narva, Yuryev, about 20 Livonian cities. In 1561, the Livonian Order broke up and recognized itself as a vassal of the King of Lithuania and Poland, Sigismund II. Russia found itself in front of superior enemy forces.

However, Ivan IV decided to continue the fight, and in 1563 his troops took the ancient Russian city of Polotsk. For a long time after that, the Livonian War continued without decisive successes on both sides, but in 1579 the Polish king Stefan Batory, having gone on the offensive, took Polotsk back. In 1581, he invaded the Russian borders, took Velikie Luki and laid siege to Pskov. At the same time, Swedish troops captured Narva. Active hostilities were completed on this, and as a result of the war, two truces were concluded - Yam-Zapolsky with Poland in 1582 and Plyussky with Sweden in 1583. Under their terms, Russia lost its acquisitions in Livonia, Belarus, as well as part of the coast Gulf of Finland.

The defeat in the Livonian War was the result of the economic backwardness of Russia, which could not successfully withstand a long struggle with strong opponents.

20. PERIOD OF TROUBLES: ITS CAUSES, MAIN EVENTS

Under Time of Troubles understand the period from the death of Ivan the Terrible (1584) to 1613, when Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov reigned on the Russian throne. This period was marked by a deep socio-economic crisis that brought the Russian state to the brink of extinction.

The main causes of the Time of Troubles are: protracted wars of the second half of the XVI century. (Livonian, Swedish, military campaigns against Kazan, etc.); oprichnina, mass executions; boyar civil strife; dynastic crisis (death of Tsarevich Dmitry in 1591, termination of the Rurik dynasty after the death of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich in 1598); crop failure and famine 1601-1603.

The main events of the Time of Troubles. There are three components of the confrontation in the society of the Time of Troubles, which are closely intertwined: dynastic (the struggle for the Moscow throne between various applicants); social (the internecine struggle of classes and the intervention of foreign governments in this struggle); national (fight against foreign invaders).

With the advent of each new impostor, each new king or pretender to the throne, the socio-political situation became more complicated, and by 1612 the Time of Troubles reached its climax. In a short period since 1605, several governments have changed in Moscow (False Dmitry I, Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky, the "seven boyars" headed by F.I. Mstislavsky), and the "Tush camp" was formed, headed by False Dmitry II, who formed parallel management structures state. Society was shaken by peasant riots, and foreign conquerors ruled all over the country from Kaluga to Novgorod. It should be noted here that the split of the country began with the accession of Vasily Shuisky, who was not recognized by all of Russia, and in subsequent years the process of disintegration gained momentum. The situation was further complicated by the fact that part of the Russian territories was captured by the Commonwealth and Sweden and. thus, did not fall under the jurisdiction of any of the existing Russian governments. Of course, in this situation there could be no question of law and order in the state.

Russian society was tormented to the limit by the civil war, the majority of the population demanded stability and order. Under these conditions, the elite of the Second Militia, headed by Minin and Pozharsky, who began its formation in Nizhny Novgorod, became the collective leader of the society. Quickly enough, the leaders of the militia managed to unite a significant territory of the country, create an army, a government apparatus and begin to liberate Russia.

The people's war against foreign invaders ended in victory. Having cleared most of the country from them, the leaders of the Second Militia raised the question of transferring power to the hands of the monarch. At the Zemsky Sobor in 1613, Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613-1645) was proclaimed tsar. The candidacy of the young Romanov, a representative of one of the most powerful families among the nobility, related to the last tsar, as well as to many princely and boyar families, made it possible to reconcile various warring factions.

21. BORIS GODUNOV'S BOARD. RESULTS OF THE TIME OF TROUBLES

After the death of Fyodor Ivanovich at the Zemsky Sobor, he was elected tsar Boris Godunov (1598-1605) who was actually the head of state even under the feeble-minded Fyodor (1584-1598). Among the most important events carried out under the leadership of Godunov, the following stand out:

- abolition of tax benefits of the church and monasteries in 1584

- the establishment of the patriarchate in Russia in 1589;

- the prohibition of the transition of peasants on St. George's Day in 1593;

- Decree on lesson years (a five-year term for the investigation of fugitive peasants) in 1597;

- the conclusion of favorable peace treaties with Sweden and Poland.

After the official accession to the throne, Boris Godunov had to face great difficulties in governing the state. Due to crop failure in 1601-1603. in Moscow alone, 127 people died of starvation. Government measures to combat hunger - the distribution of bread and money - were not successful. Usury and grain speculation flourished, large landowners did not want to give out their grain reserves. To ease social tension, a temporary limited transfer of peasants from one landowner to another was allowed, but mass escapes of peasants and serfs, refusals to pay duties continued. The difficult economic situation inside the country led to the fall of Godunov's authority and the willingness of the masses to revolt in the hope of improving life. That is why during the Time of Troubles so many adventurers appear on the political scene, attracting various segments of the population under their banners. At this time, a number of major peasant uprisings took place (Cotton Kosolap in 1603, Ivan Bolotnikov in 1606, etc.), as well as attempts by neighboring countries to establish their power in the Russian state under the guise of self-proclaimed tsars (False Dmitry I, False Dmitry II).

Results of the Time of Troubles. At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. contradictions in the socio-economic and political development of the country led it to a comprehensive crisis, the onset of the Time of Troubles in the history of the Russian state. The ruling circles were unable to lead the country out of the crisis, to resist attempts to dismember Russia from outside. There was a real threat of the loss of statehood by the Russian people, the loss of their independence. Under these conditions, the best representatives of the Russian and other peoples of the country, the broad masses of the people, became the main force that organized the fight against foreign intervention.

The struggle for power at the top of society dealt a serious blow to the economy of the state, its international position and territorial integrity. So, following the results of the Stolbovsky peace treaty of 1617 with Sweden, Russia lost its only access to the Baltic Sea, and the Deulino truce with Poland in 1618 secured the Smolensk and Chernigov-Seversk lands for the Commonwealth. With the signing of these two unequal treaties, the Time of Troubles ended for Russia and foreign intervention. Having preserved national independence, the country ensured its further development.

22. POLY-ETHNICITY OF RUSSIA. TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN FEODALISM

Growing with new and new territories, the Russian state became multiethnic society, conglomeration of many peoples. It was replenished with a variety of ethnic groups: from Tatars and Kazakhs to Chechens and Armenians, from Poles and Latvians to Chukchi and Yakuts. It was a fusion of the Indo-European, Ural-Altaic, Mongolian, Turkic and other ethnic lines. At the same time, the old lands were not metropolises, and the new lands could not be called colonies. The peculiarity of Russia was that the old and new lands were a common living space with a single economic and political life, administrative division of office work, courts, and legislation. Within this single society, different types of societies, different sociocultural formations constantly intertwined and influenced each other. In one state, along with the bourgeois, there were patriarchal and tribal relations.

Russian feudalism was less European disposed to social progress, more despotic forms of monarchy were inherent in it. The medieval population of Russia, both the ruling class and the common people, was more dependent on the supreme power than in the West. The degree of exploitation of the peasantry was exceptionally high. There was a long, for several centuries, conservation of the personal serfdom of the peasants.

The Russian type of evolution of feudal landed property was also specific. The private ownership of land by the nobility has never been the predominant form of land ownership. The main trend was the system of "state feudalism", in which the supreme ownership of land remained with the state: and feudal land ownership was bestowed by the state and conditioned by service to the king. The peasants were the "holders" of the land, obliged to the state by taxes, dues and duties. In certain regions, in certain epochs, such "state" land could turn into the actual property of "state" peasants. The rural community stood as a strong barrier to the development of private ownership of land. Thus, a feature of Russian feudalism was the weak development of private land ownership and individual economic activity of the peasantry.

23. THE POSITION OF THE PEASANTS IN RUSSIAN SOCIETY

The main class of society was the peasantry, which was divided into two categories: privately owned and chernososhnoe. Privately owned peasants were the largest social group and accounted for about 90% of the draft population of the country. The lordly peasants worked for the benefit of the landowners on corvée (from two to four days a week), paid dues in kind and money. In addition to work and payments in favor of the landlords, they carried duties in favor of the treasury. The situation of privately owned peasants was aggravated by the fact that the owners, at their own discretion, carried out court and reprisals against them: they beat them with batogs and whips, tortured them with fire and on the rack, and put them in prison.

An important category of the rural population was made up of black-eared peasants who lived on state lands. They enjoyed the right to alienate land: sale, mortgage, inheritance. The black-mossed peasants did not have serfdom. On state lands, the administrative-fiscal and judicial-police functions were performed by the community with a secular gathering and elected officials: the headman and the sots. The secular authorities strictly monitored the timeliness of the payment of taxes by the peasants, repaired the court and reprisals. The community was bound by mutual responsibility, which made it difficult for the peasants to leave it. Black-eared peasants paid the highest tax in the country, so there were frequent cases of their mass exodus "from great payments."

It should be noted that wealthy people also appeared among the black-eared peasants. They often bought additional plots of land, gave money loans secured by land, and thereby enslaved other peasants, engaged in usury and commercial transactions. Prosperous farms contributed to the capitalist development of Russia.

The further strengthening of feudal-serf relations, the strengthening of the personal dependence of the peasantry on the feudal lords became the defining trend in the socio-economic development of Russia in the 1649th century. The Council Code of XNUMX legislated the system of serfdom. It assigned privately owned peasants to the landowners, boyars, monasteries, and increased their dependence on the state. According to the same code, the heredity of serfdom and the right of the landowner to dispose of the property of a serf were established. Granting broad rights to landowners, the government at the same time made them responsible for the performance of state duties by the peasants.

By establishing a state system of serfdom, the government sought to consolidate the privileges of the ruling class, to mobilize all sections of society to strengthen the state and boost its economy. For some time, serfdom could ensure the rise of the country's productive forces, while progress was achieved at the cost of the most cruel forms of exploitation of the masses.

24. CRAFTS AND TRADE UNDER FEODALISM. SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF RUSSIAN SOCIETY

The development of small-scale crafts and the growth of commodity specialization prepared the ground for the emergence of manufactories. If the Western European manufactory operated on the basis of civilian labor, then the Russian one - on the basis of the labor of serfs, since the labor market in Russia was practically absent. The state peasants, sent to work for the manufacture, had no interest in labor, and therefore there could be no increase in productivity. The presence of cheap serf labor gave entrepreneurs the opportunity to do without technical innovations for a long time. The first manufactories appeared in ferrous metallurgy, salt production, leather production, and at the end of the 30th century. there were about XNUMX of them.

Under these conditions, the development of trade acquired special significance. The strengthening of interregional ties led to the emergence of trade fairs of an all-Russian scale - Makarievskaya near Nizhny Novgorod, Svenskaya near Bryansk, Irbitskaya in the Urals. Moscow was the largest trading center, where all goods from the countries of Western Europe and the East flocked. Developing trade relations laid the foundation for the economic unification of the Russian market.

In the 226th century with the development of trade and commodity production, Russian cities grew quite quickly. In Russia, there were XNUMX cities (without Ukraine and Siberia), respectively, there was an increase in the number of urban population, mainly townspeople. By the middle of the century, the process of social stratification in cities accelerated. The boyars, nobles and clergy living in cities and white settlements did not bear duties and did not pay taxes. Wealthy merchants also enjoyed privileges. The entire burden of state requisitions fell on the shoulders of the working population of the black settlements.

The social structure of Russian society. According to the Council Code of 1649, the white settlements were liquidated, and their population began to pay tax. Posad people were attached to the community in the same way as a peasant was attached to a landowner. The government established tough measures against the release of townspeople from the tax - by decree of 1658, the death penalty was provided for unauthorized transfer from one township to another and even marriage outside the township. Thus, the state legislated the corporate structure of Russian society. Thus, medieval social institutions were conserved, which, in turn, hampered the development of capitalist relations in cities. The reforms of Peter I, despite their general modernist character, were also aimed at unifying the class structure of society, and aimed at creating an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state.

25. DEVELOPMENT OF THE RUSSIAN STATEHOOD IN THE XVII century. THE ROLE OF THE zemstvo sobors

In the XNUMXth century in Russia there was a process of centralization of state power, while the trends of the formation of absolutism clearly began to appear. If Russian tsarism at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. bore the features of a class-representative monarchy, then from the second half of the century the political system of the country evolved to autocracy. This was seen primarily in the strengthening of the sole power of the tsar, the restriction of the activities of class-representative institutions, the involvement of "outbred" people in state administration, the increase in the role of orders and the final victory of secular power over church power.

Features of the socio-economic and political development of Russia led to the establishment of despotic autocratic power based on the cruel exploitation of all sections of society. In a state of dependence on the state were not only serfs, but also the rest of society - the serving nobility, townspeople, merchants archers, painted by city and region.

In the second half of the XVII century. Russia has advanced along the path of the rule of law. The central government sought to ensure that everything in the country was done in accordance with the law. The relationship between power and society was defined in the Council Code of 1649 - the main code of laws of the autocratic monarchy. The Code consolidated the autocratic nature of state power. Measures of punishment were determined for all thoughts and actions that caused damage to both the "sovereign honor" and the royal court. The death penalty was established not only for treason and conspiracy against the sovereign, but even for violating his honor and peace.

The strengthening of the autocracy was also reflected in the title of the ruler of the country, which at the coronation of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1654 sounded like "Tsar, Sovereign, Grand Duke of All Great and Small Russia Autocrat".

Zemsky Sobor in Russia were of the same type that arose in the XIII-XIV centuries. estate-representative institutions of Western Europe (the English parliament, the French general states, etc.), but due to the strengthening of the autocracy, they played a generally less significant role than in the West.

Zemsky Sobors were especially active after the Time of Troubles, when the tsarist government needed the support of wide circles of the nobility and the top of the merchant class. Vital issues of foreign and domestic policy of the state were brought up for discussion by Zemsky Sobors. After continuous work in the period 1613-1622. there is a ten-year break in the convocation of Zemsky Sobors. Subsequently, they were convened periodically. The Zemsky Sobor of 1653, convened to discuss the issue of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, is considered the last full council. Subsequently, the government switched to the practice of holding meetings, where representatives of those estates in whose opinion it was interested were invited. The strengthened autocracy no longer needed the support of the class-representative body. The withering away of zemstvo sobors was one of the manifestations of the transition from a class-representative monarchy to absolutism.

26. CHURCH REFORM IN RUSSIA XVII century.

A serious obstacle to the transition to absolutism was created by the church, which claimed great power. Without a crushing blow to the claims of the church, the autocracy could not be strengthened. The struggle of the autocracy for the fullness of power was most clearly manifested in the case of Patriarch Nikon.

In 1653, Nikon, wishing to strengthen the fallen authority of the church, began to carry out a reform. Its essence was to unify the norms of church life and the Orthodox Church. Nikon ordered that bows to the ground be replaced with three fingers instead of two during worship, and that icons and books be brought into full conformity with Greek models. The correction of the rites of the liturgical books violated the established traditional Russian forms of church rites and caused dissatisfaction with part of the clergy and secular authorities. Archpriest Avvakum became the leader of Nikon's opponents.

The speeches of the zealots of the old faith found support in different strata of Russian society, which led to a movement called the "schism" The schismatics fiercely fought to preserve Russian Orthodoxy and antiquity unchanged. Many noble and wealthy boyars, church hierarchs, peasants and townspeople took their side. The schism covered significant masses of the country's population. By decrees of the king in 1666-1667. governors were instructed to search for schismatics and subject them to "royal executions". From that moment on, the open struggle of the state and the church with all supporters of the old faith begins. Avvakum and other leaders of the schism were burned in Pustozersk "for great blasphemy against the royal house" in 1682.

While Nikon enjoyed the support of the king, his dominant position in the church was quite strong. Things changed when the patriarch began to encroach on the prerogatives of secular power, placing himself above the autocrat. At the initiative of the king in 1666-1667. in Moscow, a Council of the Ecumenical Patriarchs was convened, which condemned Nikon and removed the patriarchal dignity from him. The Council recognized as Orthodox all Greek patriarchs and all Greek liturgical books. However, despite the massacre with Nikon, the church retained its internal independence, its land holdings and remained a significant political force.

27. POPULAR UPRISINGS IN THE XNUMXTH CENTURY RESULTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RUSSIAN STATEHOOD IN THE XVII CENTURY

Popular uprisings. XNUMXth century It is no coincidence that historians called it the "rebellious age". It was during this period that two large peasant uprisings, two streltsy uprisings, a number of urban uprisings and the Solovetsky revolt took place.

From urban unrest in the XVII century. the so-called "salt riot" (1648) and the "copper riot" (1662) in Moscow stand out, on the wave of which riots took place in Kozlov, Kursk, Ustyug and other cities.

The most large-scale and strong performance was the uprising of the Cossacks and peasants led by Stepan Razin. The movement originated in the villages of the Don Cossacks. The driving forces of the uprising were peasants, Cossacks, serfs, townspeople, archers. Along with the Russians, the peoples of the Volga region participated in the peasant war: Mordovians, Tatars, Chuvashs, etc. The demands of the rebels were reduced to improving the living conditions of the lower strata of society at the expense of "traitors to the good tsar" - boyars, governor, etc. After the rebels took Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan, the Razintsy suffered defeat near Simbirsk. In 1671, Razin was extradited to the government and executed in Moscow. All participants in the uprising were severely repressed.

Results of the development of Russian statehood. in Russia in the XNUMXth century. a special type of society, different from the pan-European type of society, was formed, which can be defined as autocratic-state-serfdom. In addition to autocracy and serfdom, its essential feature was the hypertrophied role of the state, in strict dependence on which were not only direct producers, but also representatives of the ruling class. During this period, two main trends appeared in the development of the country: the strengthening of the centralization of state power and the approval of foreign economic methods of coercion, expressed in the tightening of serfdom. Due to the special role of the state in the life of Russian society, everyone and everything was subordinate to the supreme bearer of power - the autocratic tsar.

28. THE MAIN DIRECTIONS OF THE FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE XVII century. COLONIZATION OF OUTSIDE LANDS

Russian foreign policy during the XNUMXth century. was aimed at solving three problems:

- achieving access to the Baltic Sea;

- ensuring the security of the southern borders from the raids of the Crimean khans;

- the return of the territories torn away during the Time of Troubles.

The first objective was not achieved. The war with Sweden (1656-1658) ended with the Treaty of Cardis (1661), which secured the Baltic coast for Russia's northern neighbor.

The second task became the main one in Russian foreign policy from the beginning of the 1670s. Heavy battles with the Crimea and Turkey ended with the signing of the Bakhchisaray truce (1681), recognizing Russia's right to the Kievan lands.

The third task was solved by Russia during the 1630-1660s. The initial failures in the Smolensk War (1632-1634) were replaced by the victories of Russian arms against the backdrop of popular uprisings in Belarus and Ukraine against the Polish feudal lords. The Zemsky Sobor in Moscow in 1653 decided to reunite Ukraine with Russia. In turn, the Pereyaslav Rada in 1654 unanimously spoke in favor of Ukraine joining Russia. The war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ended with the signing of the "Eternal Peace" of 1686, according to which the Smolensk region, Left-bank Ukraine and Kyiv were ceded to Russia. Belarus remained part of Poland Colonization of outlying lands. Ma throughout the XVII-XVIII centuries. the territory of Russia expanded not only due to wars with external enemies, but also due to the development by the Russians of the outskirts of the state and new lands. A certain role in the process of the outflow of people from the center was played by church reform - schismatics fled to uninhabited territories from tsarist persecution, creating their own settlements there. In addition, Cossacks and merchants continued to explore Siberia and the Far East. The most important in its results in the XVII-XVIII centuries. there were campaigns by Semyon Dezhnev, Yerofei Khabarov, expeditions by V.V. Atlasova, V.I. Bering and others. Their activities contributed to the compilation of the consolidated Atlas of the All-Russian Empire, the first volume of which was published in 1732.

29. MAIN DIRECTIONS OF THE FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE XVIII century.

Foreign policy of Russia in the XVIII century. developed in three main directions: Baltic, Black Sea-Caucasian, Polish.

The next stage of the struggle of the Russian state for access to the Baltic Sea began in 1700 with military operations against Sweden near Narva. Among the most significant events of the Northern War (1700-1721) should be noted the Battle of Poltava (1709). along which the coast of the Baltic Sea from Vyborg to Riga was assigned to Russia. Combat operations in this direction were also conducted in 1714-1720 and 1721-1741, when Sweden, wanting revenge, twice declared war on Russia. The result of these wars was the signing of the "Perpetual Peace" in Abo (1743) and the Versailles Treaty of 1788, which practically confirmed the terms of the Nystadt peace.

Throughout the 1711th century the Black Sea-Caucasian direction was one of the most important in Russia's foreign policy. During the reign of Peter I, the Prut (1722) and Persian (1723-1724) campaigns of the Russian army were undertaken. Their goal was to assert Russia's dominance in the Caspian and Transcaucasia. According to the Treaty of Constantinople in 1735, Turkey recognized the acquisition by Russia of part of the coast of the Caspian Sea, and Russia - the rights of Turkey to Western Transcaucasia. As a result of the war of 1739-1768. Belgrade peace was signed, according to which Russia received a narrow steppe strip from the Don to the Bug. In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia had to wage two more wars with Turkey for access to the Black Sea. Based on the results of hostilities in 1774-1783. Russia received the right to free passage of its ships through the Black Sea straits, a number of fortresses on the coast and monetary contributions. The result of Russia's foreign policy in the Black Sea direction in the XVIII century. was the annexation of the Crimea (1791) and the signing of the Treaty of Jassy in XNUMX, which secured Russia's possessions between the Southern Bug and the Dniester.

The core of the Polish problem was the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, which were under the rule of the Commonwealth. In 1768, Russia signed an agreement with Poland, according to which Poland accepted the patronage of the Russian Empire, and the latter guaranteed the preservation of the Polish state system. However, in 1772, Russia, together with Prussia and Austria, made the so-called "first partition" of the Commonwealth. Russia received part of Livonia and Eastern Belarus, while retaining the rest of Poland in its sphere of influence. The second division of the Polish state was completed in 1793 by decision of Russia and Prussia. Minsk became part of the Russian state. Volyn and Podolia.

In the autumn of 1794, Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov took Warsaw. Austria, Prussia and Russia carried out the third partition of Poland. Western Belarus, Western Volhynia went to Russia. Lithuania and Courland. The independent Polish state ceased to exist until 1918.

30. RESULTS OF FOREIGN POLICY ACTIVITIES OF RUSSIA IN THE XVII-XVIII centuries.

As a result of active foreign policy activity, the Russian Empire became an important subject of European and world politics, a direct participant in the formation of a system of new European relations. The increased influence of Russia on European events was manifested in the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, caused by the rivalry between England and France over the colonies, as well as by the clash of interests of a number of other states.

In the European theater of operations, two coalitions opposed.

The first included England, Prussia, Portugal and Hanover; the second was France, Austria, Russia, Spain, Saxony and Sweden.

Under the leadership of General P.S. Saltykov, the Russian army won a number of victories over the troops of the Prussian king Frederick II.

In 1761, Russian troops occupied the capital of Prussia, Berlin, and took the large fortress of Kolberg. Prussia was ready to make peace on any terms, but on the night of December 25, 1761, Elizaveta Petrovna died, and Peter III, who ascended the Russian throne, abruptly changed the policy of the state and returned all the occupied territories to Prussia. Catherine II soon terminated this agreement, but did not resume the war. Victory in the Seven Years' War, which cost Russia 30 million rubles. and 300 thousand lives, strengthened the international prestige and military-political positions of the country, brought glory to its army.

The brilliant victories of the Russian soldiers in many respects contributed to the formation of the national self-consciousness of the people, who naturally adopted in the XNUMXth century. imperial character and which has become an important component of the state ideology and mentality of Russian society.

31. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROVSK TRANSFORMATIONS. ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATIONS OF PETER I

The era of Peter the Great was one of the turning points in the history of Russia. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. grandiose transformations were carried out that covered all aspects of society and turned the country into the Russian Empire. Many structures of power and administration created under Peter I turned out to be very stable and, in general terms, survived until the XNUMXth century. At the same time, it should be noted that the transformations being carried out were prepared by the entire previous course of Russia's development.

A feature of Peter's reforms was their internal inconsistency. Carrying out reforms. Peter I set a progressive goal - to bring the country out of technical, economic and cultural backwardness. However, the transformations of society did not give scope for the development of bourgeois relations, but, on the contrary, mothballed the feudal-serf system, strengthened the autocratic power of the monarch.

Economic transformations of Peter I. The concept of mercantilism, encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. At the same time, the state contributed to the production of useful and necessary goods, while prohibiting "unnecessary" and "harmful" ones. For example, the needs of the war forced the development of metallurgy, and the state took active measures to increase the production of metals. During the period from 1700 to 1725, iron smelting increased almost sixfold, and new iron-working and copper-smelting plants sprang up in the Urals, St. Petersburg, and other regions of the state. Cloth, sailing, leather manufactories, sugar, cement, gunpowder factories were founded throughout the country. The protectionist policy of the state led to a doubling of exports over imports at the end of Peter's reign.

Played an important role in the field of domestic and foreign trade state monopoly for the procurement and sale of a number of important goods (salt, flax, fur, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. Considerable attention was paid to the development of waterways and the organization of large fairs.

In the time of Peter the Great, the reforms also covered the sphere of small-scale production. By decree of 1722, cities were introduced workshop device, which testified to the patronage of the authorities to the development of crafts.

Some innovations also took place in agriculture. Peasants were ordered to cultivate tobacco, grapes, fruit trees, breed new breeds of livestock, use scythes and rakes instead of a sickle.

The search for new sources of income led to a radical reform of the entire tax system and the introduction of the so-called "head tax". After the census of 1718-1724. all male souls were subject to a single tax, the amount of which varied depending on the social status of a person. By the end of Peter's reign, this article accounted for more than half of the state's income.

32. MAIN ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS OF PETER I

Preparations for the Northern War (1700-1721), the creation of new armed forces, the construction of the fleet - all this led to a sharp increase in the activity of government departments, an increase in the volume of their work. But already in the first years of the war, it became clear that the momentum of the mechanism of state administration, the main elements of which were orders and counties, did not keep pace with the growing speed of autocratic initiative. This was manifested in the lack of money, provisions, and various supplies for the army and navy. Peter hoped to radically solve this problem with the help of regional reform - creation of new administrative formations - provinces, uniting several counties. The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything necessary for which a direct connection was established between the provinces and the regiments of the army through a specially created institute of krieg commissars. 8 provinces were divided into 50 provinces, and the provinces were divided into districts (districts), headed by persons appointed from the local nobility. A four-link "order - province - province - county" was formed

In 1711 was created Senate - the supreme governing body of the country. It was the highest administrative body for judicial, financial, military and foreign affairs. Members of the Senate were appointed by the autocrat. To control and supervise the execution of state laws in 1722, the position of prosecutor general was introduced.

Instead of the outdated system of orders in 1717-1718. 12 were created boards, each of which was in charge of a particular industry or area of government and was subordinate to the Senate. Three boards were considered the main ones: Foreign, Military and Admiralty. The competence of the Komerz-, Manufaktura- and Berg-collegium included issues of trade and industry. Three collegiums (Chambers-, State- and Revision-) were in charge of finances. The College of Justice dealt with civil proceedings, and the Votchinnaya College dealt with noble land ownership. In 1720, the Chief Magistrate was created, who was in charge of the affairs of the townspeople. The boards received the right to issue decrees on issues within their competence.

In 1721, the patriarchate was liquidated and the Spiritual College was established - the Most Holy Government Synod led by the president. Since 1722, the Synod was supervised by the chief procurator, appointed by the autocrat from among high-ranking officials. In fact, the church reform led to the elimination of the independent role of the church and subordinated it to the state.

In 1722, a decree on succession to the throne was issued, according to which the emperor himself appointed a successor.

Consolidation of the nobility contributed Ranking table 1722, which introduced a new order of service for the nobles. The Tabel liquidated the former division of the ruling class into estates. The career ladder consisted of 14 steps, or ranks, from field marshal in the army and chancellor in the civil service (1st rank) to warrant officer and collegiate registrar (14th rank). The new system of extreme bureaucratization of the state qualitatively changed the service class, including people from other social groups in the nobility.

33. EDUCATIONAL REFORM. RESULTS OF THE TRANSFORMATIONAL ACTIVITIES OF PETER I

The transformations that engulfed the economic life of the country and social relations in it, as well as the state structure, could not be carried out without raising the general cultural level of the population. The bureaucracy demanded competent officials; the army and navy needed officers who had mastered military and naval affairs; in the construction of fortresses, canals and manufactories, people with technical knowledge were needed. All this caused the expansion of the network of educational institutions and the reorganization of the education system.

During the first period of transformation, a number of educational institutions of a highly specialized profile were opened (Navigation, Artillery, Engineering Schools. Medical School). At the second stage, the so-called "digital schools" were put into operation for the training of local officials and garrison schools for the education of soldiers' children. The "secularization" of the school, the predominance of the exact sciences among the taught disciplines is a characteristic feature of education in the time of Peter the Great.

Simultaneously with the reform of education, the publishing business received rapid development. A new civil font was introduced, the first Russian newspaper began to appear, textbooks appeared.

The promotion of scientific knowledge was carried out by the Kunstkamera, the first natural history museum in Russia, opened for public viewing in 1719.

Unlike the literature of the XNUMXth century, which was imbued with the strong influence of church ideology, the literature of the time of Peter the Great was freed from the shackles of religious consciousness. A purely secular plot, close to the needs of our time, permeates the literary works of that era.

Summing up the results of the transformative activities of Peter I, It should be emphasized that at this time, in fact, a revolution was taking place from above, which determined the course of Russian history for about a century and a half ahead. The Petrine era is a time of achievements in the political and economic spheres, military victories, strengthening of national self-consciousness, the victory of the secular principle in culture, the time of Russia's inclusion in the common European family of peoples. On the other hand, Peter's reforms are the development of a totalitarian state, the time of the growth of the bureaucratic system of universal control.

Note that the core of Russian life, the inner essence of Russian society has remained the same - feudal. Peter I took from the West and ruthlessly introduced in Russia only the external manifestations of European civilization. This is where the main paradox of Russian reformism lies. Trying with one hand to "pull up" Russia to the Western European level, with the other hand he laid the foundations for an even greater lag behind the country from the West in the future. Peter I set and solved tasks of a great political and national nature, but on a feudal basis and by serf-owning methods. The formation of absolutism ended with the appearance of a new title for the Russian monarch: from 1721 he began to be called emperor, and Russia turned into an empire.

34. THE CONCEPT OF THE AGE OF PALACE REVOLUTIONS. BOARD OF CATHERINE I AND PETER II

Peter I died on January 28, 1725 after a long illness, without having time to appoint an heir. The dispute over the successor was decided by the Guards regiments. Noble in their composition, they have since become the main instrument of the struggle for power between rival factions. The military strength of the guards, its corporate spirit was often used by political adventurers to seize power, as a result of which the XVIII century. became the "century of palace coups". The post-Petrine period was characterized by a fierce struggle of court aristocratic groups for power and the right to access the treasury.

In the period under review, the Russian state as a whole continued to follow the path laid by Peter I. Until the era of Catherine II, all emperors and empresses: Catherine I (1725-1727) Peter II (1727-1730), Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), Ivan VI, together with the regent Anna Leopoldovna (1740-1741), Elizabeth I (1741-1761), Peter III (1761-1762) - little engaged in public affairs. Therefore, during these reigns, a special authority existed to govern the state. It included the closest advisers to the monarch, in whose hands the real threads of governing the country converged. The names of these bodies changed: the Supreme Privy Council (under Catherine I), the Cabinet of Ministers (under Anna Ioannovna), the Conference at the Highest Court (during the time of Elizabeth), but the essence remained the same: in fact, these were the governments of Russia, to which all those created in the first half of the XNUMXth century institutions of power.

Representatives of the new nobility, who advanced under Peter I, enlisted the support of the guards regiments, enthroned his wife Catherine I. In practice, power was in the hands of Prince A.D. Menshikov. In 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was created - a new supreme body of power, which pushed the Senate into second place. After the death of Catherine I in 1727, according to her will, the grandson of Peter was proclaimed emperor I - Peter II and the functions of regent were transferred to the Supreme Privy Council (in fact, to Menshikov). The struggle for power around the throne ended with the fall of the former favorite of Peter I - in September 1727, Menshikov was arrested and exiled to the city of Berezov, where he soon died.

Having achieved the predominant influence in the Supreme Privy Council, the aristocratic group headed by Prince Dolgorukov tried to consolidate its influence on the young emperor by marriage. However, shortly before the wedding with Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukova in January 1730, Peter II caught a cold while hunting and died suddenly.

35. THE PERIOD OF ANNA Ioannovna's Reign

During the discussion of possible candidates for the throne, the choice fell on the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, daughter of the brother of Peter I - Ivan Alekseevich. Conditions were drawn up in deep secrecy - the conditions for Anna Ioannovna's accession to the throne of the Condition limited the autocracy, but not in the interests of the entire nobility, but in favor of its aristocratic elite, which sat in the Supreme Privy Council. According to the conditions, the right to conclude peace and declare war, the establishment of new taxes, promotion to ranks, command of the army, the choice of a successor to the sovereign, and many other issues passed into the hands of the Supreme Privy Council. Thus, Anna Ioannovna, who signed the terms after arriving in Moscow, turned into an uncomplaining puppet. However, plans for such a device of state power did not find support from either the nobles or the guards. Taking advantage of this, Anna Ioannovna proclaimed herself an autocratic empress, broke the conventions, abolished the Supreme Privy Council, and sent its most active members to Siberia.

In the reign of Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), the influence of foreigners reached unprecedented proportions. The tone was set by the favorite of the Empress, the Duke of Courland, Biron, who enjoyed her boundless confidence and occupied a dominant position at court. During the years of the Bironovshchina, mainly foreigners were nominated for profitable positions, which caused protests from the Russian nobility. Instead of the Supreme Privy Council, the Senate was restored, which a year later was pushed into the background by the Cabinet, composed by Anna Ioannovna. Shortly before her death, the childless empress appointed her successor - Ivan VI - the son of the daughter of his niece Anna Leopoldovna, and not the mother, but Biron was appointed regent of the child. In the context of general dissatisfaction with Biron, Field Marshal Munnich easily managed to carry out another palace coup, which in November 1740 deprived Biron of the rights of regent. His mother Anna Leopoldovna was proclaimed regent for the young Ivan VI.

Ivan VI was overthrown in 1741 by court groups and regiments of guards in favor of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth. Representatives of the Brunswick family were arrested, and the participants in the coup received generous rewards from the royal treasury.

Under Anna Ioannovna in 1736, the nobility achieved the replacement of indefinite service with 25 years, after serving which, the nobleman received the right to retire.

36. THE PERIOD OF ELIZABETH PETROVNA'S GOVERNMENT. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA DURING PALACE REVOLUTIONS

Domestic policy Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761) was generally distinguished by stability, pro-noble orientation, and a tendency to reform in the spirit of enlightened monarchs. In addition to reforming activities, Elizabeth went down in history because not a single person was executed during the 20 years of her reign.

Elizabeth canceled the law of Peter I on undergrowth, which provided for the compulsory service of the nobles from a young age, and from the lower ranks (soldier). Noble children began to be recorded in the appropriate regiments from birth.

Expanding the freedoms of the nobility, the government of Elizabeth at the same time actively contributed to the enslavement of the peasants. In 1742, a decree was issued forbidding landlord peasants to voluntarily sign up as soldiers. In 1760, Elizabeth granted landowners the right to exile delinquent serfs to Siberia, counting them as recruits.

Characteristic of this period were the rapid development of noble entrepreneurship, the awakening of landowners' interest in agrotechnical improvements. The most important consumer of marketable grain was distilling, which was carried out on a large scale by the landowners themselves.

At the suggestion of P.I. Shuvalova Elizaveta ordered in 1753 to establish the Noble Loan Bank, which gave loans to landowners on the security of land. From the middle of the XVIII century. nobles began to set up stud farms on their estates, engage in industrial fish farming and timber sales. A significant part of the manufactured products was purchased by the state for the needs of the army and navy. In trade policy, the government of Elizabeth Petrovna, on the initiative of P.I. Shuvalov, in December 1753, made an important decision in its consequences to abolish internal customs duties and all 17 petty fees that hampered the development of the all-Russian market.

Throughout the XVIII century. the intensive creation of manufactories continued and a constant increase in the volume of industrial production was observed. Metallurgical (iron foundry and copper smelting) production grew especially rapidly. Light industry developed rapidly.

Successes of Russian metallurgy and light industry in the middle of the XVIII century. were explained by their rapid extensive development, which had exhausted its possibilities by the beginning of the XNUMXth century. While Western Europe, and above all England, at the turn of the two centuries surged ahead on the wave of the industrial revolution, Russia, with its characteristic manufactory production and semi-serf organization of labor, began to noticeably lag behind.

The taxable population censuses (audits) carried out in Russia, as well as the introduction of the passport system, reduced the number of free people and limited the movement of the population from one region to another. Less than 5% of the population lived in cities. As a result, a situation was created in which the growth rate of industry significantly outpaced the pace of labor supply.

37. THE CONCEPT OF THE ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM. RESULTS OF THE BOARD OF CATHERINE II

The reign of Empress Catherine II in the history of Russia is usually characterized as an era of "enlightened absolutism". To understand its essence, let us dwell on the Russian features of absolutism. The main social support of the autocracy in Russia remained the nobility, which opposed the huge mass of the peasantry and the weak third estate. In carrying out its policy, the autocracy relied on the army and the bureaucracy.

In contrast to the openly pro-noble and pro-serf policy of the autocracy of the previous period, the policy of "enlightened absolutism" acquired new features and was carried out in new forms. A significant impact on the activities of Catherine II had a peasant war led by E.I. Pugachev (1773-1775), when only the efforts of the regular army removed from the front managed to cope with the popular uprising. The empress built her domestic policy on strengthening her power in every possible way, avoiding, as far as possible, excessive pressure, on the one hand, and large concessions to the lower classes, on the other. A characteristic feature of this policy was the transfer of a number of ideas of the leaders of the Western Enlightenment to Russian soil.

Summing up the reign of Catherine II, it should be noted that under her the "revolution from above" of Peter I continued. Her policy of "enlightened absolutism" was characteristic of many European states of that time. However, the image of the "wise man on the throne" and the benefactor of the whole nation did not prevent Catherine from strengthening the oppression of serfdom and extending it to the lands newly acquired by Russia. Objectively, at this time, the capitalist structure in industry begins to take shape, the sphere of commodity-money relations expands, civilian labor is more widely used, and manufactory production develops. The peculiarity of the economic development of Russia was that the emerging capitalist structure was included in the system of the feudal economy.

The activities of Catherine II had a significant impact on the development of Russian statehood, and it is not for nothing that she, along with Peter I, bears the title "Great".

38. INTERNAL POLICY OF CATHERINE II

The main idea of the policy of Catherine II was to turn Russia into a "legitimate monarchy". This was to be facilitated by the system of laws created by the autocrat, obligatory for all. At the same time, only autocracy could become the form of government for the multinational Russia spread over a vast territory. To achieve this goal, Catherine II outlined "five items" - the rules of government: 1. It is necessary to enlighten the nation, which should be ruled by the monarch. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flowering of the state and make it abundant 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspire respect for its neighbors.

For enlightenment of the nation The system of public education was created in the country. In addition to educational institutions for the upper strata of society, non-estate schools with a single methodology and curriculum were opened in the cities. In addition, much attention was paid to the publication of book products.

To implement second paragraph of her program, Catherine II convened the Legislative Commission with the involvement of deputies from the nobility, residents of cities, the Cossacks, state peasants, the peoples of Siberia and the Far East, as well as employees of state institutions. The "Instruction" of the Empress of the Legislative Commission contained a number of ideas of the French Enlightenment, including the abolition of the death penalty. In addition, in 1775, a regional (provincial) reform was carried out in Russia, which significantly changed the local government and consolidated the unitary structure of the state. It was one of the most important state acts of autocratic Russia, the main provisions of which were in effect until the beginning of the 1785th century. The most important step in restoring order in the state was the publication by Catherine of "Charter to the nobility" (XNUMX).

For performance third paragraph In her program, Catherine II provided in her "Instruction" measures to change the judicial system. The principles of the presumption of innocence, the right to defend the defendants, and a thorough investigation of criminal cases were proclaimed. In pursuance of the announced measures, new judicial institutions were created, separated from the executive branch. In addition, in each quarter and part of the city, a police station was established, headed by a chief who was subordinate to the city council of the deanery.

For economic recovery state in 1775 was allowed to start any enterprise without prior approval from the government. This measure led to the growth of a number of industries, especially light industry. Among the merits of the government of Catherine II - the growth of Russia's foreign trade, the development of banking, an increase in the number of fairs.

Following his desire to make the Russian state influential in the international arena Catherine II pursued an active foreign policy, solving not only a number of Russian, but also common Slavic tasks.

39. RUSSIAN CULTURE of the XNUMXth century

XNUMXth century occupies an important place in the history of Russian culture. The secular direction becomes decisive in its development.

A system of general and special education was created, the Academy of Sciences (1725), Moscow University (1755) was opened, periodicals and journalism appeared, and the scale of book printing changed.

The main trend in literature is classicism in the form of odes, tragedies, words of praise. This was most clearly manifested in the work of A.P. Sumarokov, who wrote comedies and tragedies that perform educational functions. In addition to him, the poet G.R. Derzhavin and the creator of the social comedy D.I. Fonvizin.

Domestic historical science was enriched in the XVIII century. works by M.V. Lomonosov, N.M. Karamzin, M.M. Shcherbatova, V.N. Tatishchev, each of whom put into circulation a large number of documentary materials and published extensive works on the history of the Russian state.

A characteristic feature of the painting of the XVIII century. - liberation from cult themes. The most striking new trends manifested themselves in the portrait work of D. Levitsky, V. Borovikovsky and F. Rokotov.

In sculpture, as in painting, the psychological portrait begins to predominate. The gallery of sculptural portraits from the times of Catherine II and Paul I was created by F.I. Shubin. Among the monumental sculpture, the Bronze Horseman by E.M. Falcone.

In the first half of the XVIII century. the dominant style in architecture was the baroque style, the most prominent representative of which was the Italian architect V.V. Rastrelli, who created the Winter Palace, Smolny Monastery, palaces in Peterhof. In the second half of the century, baroque was replaced by classicism, represented by the work of V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakova, I.E. Starov.

40. REIGN OF PAUL I

After the death of Catherine II, her son Paul I (1796-1801) came to the throne. The lifestyle of the heir, essentially deprived of legal power and locked up by his mother in Gatchina, left an imprint on the nature of the actions of the new emperor. On the one hand, he took many actions in defiance of his mother, wanting to prove his worth as a statesman; on the other hand, objectively, he continued its policy of strengthening the dictatorship of the nobility and combating "free-thinking". The ideal for Paul was a medieval knight - a service man, selflessly devoted to his homeland and his people. Focusing on this image, the emperor carried out his reforms. In less than five years of his reign, Paul I personally drafted and signed a large number of legislative acts - from international treaties of Russia to regulations for palace balls. The greatest influence on the further development of the state was exerted, in particular, by the Decree on the succession to the throne of 1797, which established the transfer of the royal throne through the male line and was in force until the overthrow of the monarchy. In the same year, a decree was issued recommending that peasant labor for a landowner be limited to three days, as well as a decree prohibiting the sale of householders and landless peasants. For state peasants, land allotment norms and local elected self-government were introduced. Despite the half-heartedness of the measures taken, these were the first official documents in many decades proclaiming some concessions to the peasant. The emphatically equal approach of Paul I to his subjects was expressed in the fact that peasant requests and complaints to the tsar were allowed.

However, the unpredictability of the emperor's actions, unwillingness to listen to anyone's advice, contradictory decisions in domestic and foreign policy led to general dissatisfaction with his actions. With the active support of the St. Petersburg military governor and the assistance of the English ambassador, conspirators from among the noble officers carried out the last palace coup in the history of the Russian Empire - on March 12, 1801, Paul I was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle and his son Alexander I ascended the throne.

41. BOARD OF ALEXANDER I

Alexander I (1801-1825), who ascended the throne, declared his commitment to the political course of Catherine II. He issued a number of decrees that restored the noble liberties canceled by Paul I. So. letters of commendation to the nobility and cities were confirmed, about 12 thousand disgraced persons were returned to service, and an amnesty was declared for all those who had fled abroad. In addition, the nobility and clergy were exempted from corporal punishment, freedom of movement and trade was introduced.

Since 1801, a number of legislative acts have been issued that alleviate the situation of the peasants. The most famous among them is the law of 1801, which allowed merchants, philistines and state peasants to acquire uninhabited lands, as well as the decree of 1803 on "free cultivators", which allowed landowners to release peasants into freedom with allotment of land for a ransom. In 1808, the landowners were forbidden to trade peasants at fairs, and in 1809 they were forbidden to exile them to hard labor. In 1816-1819. the landlord peasants of the Baltic provinces received personal freedom. In addition, the infamous system of military settlements that arose after 1816 under the leadership of A.A. Arakcheev, also pursued a noble goal - the peasants who lived in them were freed from serfdom.

However, the indecision and half-heartedness in carrying out reforms, caused by the resistance of the noble elite of society - the basis of the autocratic apparatus, led to the situation of the peasants during the years of the reign of Alexander I, by and large, did not change. Formally free from serfdom, the inhabitants of military settlements, being deprived of the right to trade and engage in crafts, were attached to the land more strongly than before. The decree of 1809 prohibiting the exile of peasants was actually canceled by the law of 1822, according to which the landowners could send their serfs to Siberia for "bad deeds".

Among the administrative reforms of Alexander I, the decisions on the creation and reform of ministries (1802, 1811), the establishment of the Senate as the highest judicial authority (1802) and the reform of the State Council (1810) stand out. Like a number of other transformations of Alexander's time, these legislative acts are associated with the name of M.M. Speransky, who, as a result of government actions, would give Russia a Constitution, elected institutions and courts, a code of laws, and other liberal freedoms.

Summing up the results of the reign of Alexander I, it should be noted that the most transformative were three events that were not of an all-Russian character. The emperor, having annexed Finland to Russia (1809), preserved its Constitution. In 1814, not without the influence of Alexander I, Louis XVIII turned France into a constitutional monarchy, where his power was limited by parliament. In 1815, Poland received a liberal constitution. And although the practical results of the reformist quest for supreme power that lasted for two decades turned out to be insignificant, it was during this period that the constitutional principles of the state system were formulated for the first time in Russian history, which were embodied in subsequent reforms.

42. THE REIGN OF NICHOLAS I

For Nicholas I, who ruled Russia for three decades (1825-1855), the ideal state system was the army, with its life clearly regulated by charters. Formed by him on December 6, 1826, a special committee was called upon to prepare projects for reforms in all parts of the state administration. "His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery" turned into an important government institution and was divided into several departments, among which the third stood out, which was a special corps of gendarmes headed by General Benckendorff. The second branch under the leadership of M.M. Speransky carried out a great codification work and in 1830 published 45 volumes of the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire.

The emperor paid constant attention to the issue of improving the life of the peasants. Several times, Nicholas I established secret committees for peasant affairs, which compiled a large number of projects to reform the serf system.

He expressed the essence of his views on serfdom in one of his speeches in the State Council, where he stated that "serfdom in its current position is evil ... but to touch it now would be evil ... even more disastrous."

The Law "On Indebted Peasants" of 1842 modernized the decree of 1803, giving the landowners the right to voluntarily conclude agreements with the peasants on the termination of personal serfdom.

In 1837-1838. to manage the state peasants, a special Ministry of State Property was established, headed by Count P.D. Kiselev. The manifesto of 1861, which abolished serfdom, was largely based on the experience of reforming the state village under his leadership.

43. RESULTS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY.

In the 5th century Russia became an autocratic state with a feudal-serf system of economy. If in terms of population, military power, Russia, of course, was one of the first powers in Europe, then the structure of its economy was archaic. Only XNUMX% of landlord farms used rational forms of management - monopoly crop rotation, machines, etc. Even the desire to increase cash income due to the growth in domestic and foreign trade in grain in the first quarter of the century pushed the landlords not to modernize their farms on the basis of advanced models, but to the strengthening of feudal forms of economy: an increase in corvée and dues. This was largely due to the position of the tsarist government. Denying funds to industrialists, it credited the spending of landlords on the security of estates and serfs. The money for these loans was taken from the budget, the main revenue item of which was taxes from the peasants, who made up the bulk of the country's population.

Yet Russia in the 1801th century acquired new features The trend of new ideas coming from the advanced countries of the West became more and more palpable. This influence was reflected in the fact that the Russian economy was becoming multifaceted, and social relations became more complex and contradictory compared to the 1818th century. A new class is growing - the bourgeoisie, which consists of tenants of land, owners of inns, mills, building contractors, manufactories, and merchants. There were signs of a weakening of the monopoly of the nobility on land - in XNUMX, free purchase and sale of uninhabited land was allowed. In XNUMX, the peasants were allowed to establish factories and plants.

Industrial development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. was hampered by the dominance of serf relations in the country. Entrepreneurial activity was limited to landlord ownership of land and peasants, and forced labor of serfs in industrial enterprises was unproductive. The poor condition of the roads also hampered the development of the economy. The first steamship "Elizaveta" appeared in Russia only in 1815, and the railway between St. Petersburg and Tsarskoe Selo - in 1837. By the reform of 1861, there were only 1500 miles of railways in Russia, which is 15 times less than in England .

But even in these conditions at the beginning of the XIX century. in Russia there was an increase in industry, and the number of a new class for the state - workers - was approaching 1 million people. In the growing trade, domestic turnover prevailed, while trade with the national outskirts of the empire expanded - Russian merchants mastered Kamchatka, Chukotka, the Kuril Islands, Sakhalin and Central Asia.

Summing up the socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XNUMXth century, it should be noted that it still remained an agrarian-feudal country, although the process of formation of the capitalist structure continued. Russia's most far-sighted politicians began to realize that the delay in economic development complicates the solution of domestic problems and leads to a weakening of the state's position in the international arena.

44. LIBERAL REFORM 1860-1870

Administrative the reform was launched on January 1, 1864 by the signing by Alexander II of the Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions. In accordance with it, the zemstvos were all-class elective institutions. Elections in them were held once every 3 years on the basis of a property qualification for three curias - landowning, urban and rural peasant societies. Meetings of vowels elected the executive body - the zemstvo council.

Zemstvos were not allowed to resolve national issues, as well as to contacts with other zemstvos. Decisions of assemblies of vowels and zemstvo councils could be canceled by the governor.

In 1870, the City Regulations were issued, introducing all-class local government in cities. Vowels of the city duma elected from their midst the mayor and members of the city council. The competence of self-government bodies in cities corresponded to the competence of zemstvo institutions in rural areas.

Judicial reform was started in 1864 and introduced a progressive order of justice. According to her, the Russian court was based on the principles of classlessness, equality of parties before the law, publicity, adversarial process, independence of judges. Two types of courts were introduced - peace and general.

Justices of the peace were elected by the county zemstvo assembly and approved by the senate (the highest court). The competence of the magistrates' courts included the consideration of criminal and civil cases, the damage in which amounted to no more than 500 rubles.

General courts considered serious civil and criminal cases with the participation of jurors chosen by lot from local inhabitants of all classes. At the top of the judiciary was the senate, which could overturn the decisions of the courts.

A new word in the judicial system of Russia was also the introduction of the institution of the bar, which consisted of persons in legal education - "sworn attorneys".

Home military reform was laid in 1857 by the abolition of military settlements. In 1874, a new Charter on military service was issued and universal military duty was introduced. A 6-year term of active service in the army was established; those who served were credited for 9 years in the reserve (in the fleet, respectively - 7 years and 3 years).

In accordance with the principles university reform In 1863, a new University Charter was issued, according to which professorial corporations received broad self-government. The council of each university elected all officials of the administration, as well as professors, to vacant positions.

Reform public education was an integral part of social change. According to the laws of 1864, the sphere of primary and secondary education was democratized. With the expansion of the network of educational institutions, it became possible for children of all classes and religions to get an education, albeit for a rather high fee.

Reform in the region Print was carried out in 1862 and 1865. The Provisional Rules of 1865 abolished the preliminary censorship of periodicals, leaving the administrative authorities the right to close the publication through the courts. During the years of the reform, the number of printing houses and the titles of literature published by them increased sharply.

45. PEASANT REFORM 1861 RESULTS OF THE TRANSFORMATIONAL ACTIVITIES OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ALEXANDER II

Peasant reform of 1861 significantly changed the political system of Russia and set the task of revising a large number of legislative acts that were outdated with its release.

And although, by abolishing serfdom, the autocracy was forced to go against the wishes of the nobility - its social support, the obvious impossibility of Russia to claim the role of a leading European power within the framework of the former system was clear to Emperor Alexander II. Supported by the liberal part of society, the emperor at the beginning of 1857 established a Secret Committee to prepare the reform. The nobles were asked to form provincial committees to discuss the conditions for the liberation of the peasants. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the Manifesto prepared by the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs and the Regulations on peasants who had come out of serfdom. These documents stated that serfdom was abolished, and the former serfs were granted the rights of "free rural inhabitants." The peasants for the land allotments allotted to them had to serve a labor service or pay money to the landowner, that is, they were in the position of the so-called "temporarily liable." Upon the conclusion of agreements ("statutory charters"), the dependence of the peasants on the landowner was finally eliminated, and the treasury paid the landowners (in interest-bearing papers) the cost of their land, which had gone under the peasant allotments. After that, the peasants had to pay off their debt to the state within 49 years with annual installments of "redemption payments". The redemption payments and all taxes were paid by the peasants jointly, "peace". Each peasant was "assigned" to his community and without the consent of the "world" could not leave it.

The reign of Alexander II was marked serious modernization successes and significant changes in the social structure of Russian society. With the abolition of serfdom, a natural need arose for transformations in all spheres of the life of the state, which were carried out with varying degrees of success in 1860-1870. There are a number of reasons why the reform activity of the government was replaced by a period of so-called "counter-reforms". Among them, the Polish uprising of 1863-1864 should be noted. which seriously alerted Alexander II and his entourage, making one wonder if the government had gone too far in its reformist activities. In addition, even significantly advanced reforms could not be further developed, since none of them affected the highest state power. Finally, the liberal reforms could not go into full force due to the absence in Russia of a layer of people absolutely interested in them. In society, a class of middle owners was still emerging, which was the driving force behind such reforms in Western countries.

46. DECABRISTS. CONSTITUTION N.M. MURAVIEV

N.M. Ants holds a strict division of power into legislative, executive and judicial. According to his draft Constitution, the highest legislative body in the federation formed on the territory of the Russian Empire is the bicameral People's Council, consisting of the Supreme Duma (upper house) and the House of People's Representatives (lower house). All deputies are elected for a six-year term, with every two years 7₃ deputies are re-elected. The people's council is given the right to initiate legislative initiative to declare war and conclude peace, to conclude treaties with foreign states, and to decide on bringing state officials to trial. Sessions of the chambers in the People's Council are open, the content of the debates must be published in special bulletins, with the exception of those issues that will be recognized as constituting state secrets. Deputies enjoy complete freedom of expression and work in parliament on a professional basis, receiving monetary remuneration.

The supreme executive power in the federation belongs to the emperor. Any bill approved by the People's Council must be approved by the emperor. In addition, the emperor has the right of suspensive veto. Although the emperor is the "supreme commander" of the land, sea and internal forces of the state, he cannot use them to suppress "disturbances" within the state without the sanction of the People's Council. He is also granted the right to negotiate with foreign powers, to conclude treaties "with the advice and consent of the Supreme Duma", to appoint ambassadors and consuls to other states, to receive ambassadors and other "plenipotentiaries" from "foreign governments", to appoint judges of "supreme courts" and officials with the consent of the Supreme Council. He is given the title "His Imperial Majesty", and upon accession to the throne, he must take an oath "in the middle of the People's Council."

Considering it expedient in the first versions of his Constitution to create a federation of powers in post-revolutionary Russia, Muravyov at the same time developed a system of their strong connection. Covering various aspects of state administration and public life, the People's Council acquired the right to "issue a civil, criminal, commercial and military code for Russia", declare martial law throughout the country, and also appoint a regent or proclaim the emperor's heir. All this testified that the powers were legally dependent on the central government, which contributed to the lasting unification of the entire federation.

An analysis of Muravyov's Constitution allows us to conclude that the constitutional monarchy proclaimed by it, in its basic principles, was close to the principles of a republic headed by a president. Apparently, the idea of a hereditary monarchy was defended by Muravyov more for tactical reasons of tradition, the habit of this form of government was very strong even among the most progressive part of society.

47. "RUSSKAYA PRAVDA" P.I. PESTEL

Criticism of the formal nature of democracy, which was then affirmed by the European constitutions, as well as heated debates of the Decembrists about the foundations of N. Muravyov's constitutional program, contributed to the formation of P.I. Pestel, his search for those ways that, in his opinion, could establish real democracy.

"Russkaya Pravda" - this most important monument of the ideology of the Decembrists, the most interesting document of that historical era, was in many ways the fruit of the collective creativity of the Decembrists. After the adoption of the main provisions at the Kiev Congress of the leaders of the Southern Society in 1823, Russkaya Pravda became, in fact, its policy document. It was also discussed more than once at meetings of the Northern Society.

Russkaya Pravda resolutely abolished autocratic rule and proclaimed a republic. At the same time, Pestel defended such a form of the republican system, in which the political advantages of the nobility and the bourgeoisie would be excluded. Therefore, he considered the introduction of equality of all citizens before the law, the elimination of all estates as one of the primary tasks. Pestel envisaged a democratic state system for Russia. Under this system, the supreme power was to belong to the unicameral People's Council. Pestel opposed the bicameral system, which made it possible to strengthen the significant influence of large owners from both the nobility and the bourgeois circles. According to his project, the People's Council is elected by two-stage elections in the amount of 500 people for a period of 5 years, while subsequently every year ¹/₅ part of its membership leaves, and new deputies are elected in their place. This parliament declares war, makes peace, discusses and passes all laws except constitutional ones. The latter should be made public and published in the press only after they have been approved by the people.

Executive power, according to Russkaya Pravda, was transferred to five persons elected by the People's Council for 5 years and constituting the State Duma. Every year the structure of the Duma was renewed: one member dropped out and a new one was elected to take his place. Each member of the State Duma in the last year of his stay in it became president. Pestel believed that the elections in which all Russian citizens over the age of 20 would participate, with the exception of those convicted by the court and in personal service, would be selected to participate in government of the state "the most worthy and enlightened people."

Any idea of a federation was resolutely rejected by the author, since he associated it with the times of fragmentation of the Russian state.

The uprisings of the Northern Society on December 14, 1825 and the Southern Society in December 1825 - January 1826 were defeated, and 5 leaders of the secret societies were executed. However, the moral and political legacy of the Decembrists had a significant impact on the course of social and political thought in Russia. The very fact of self-sacrifice by well-off people from the upper strata of society, the noble goals of the rebels set an example for their followers.

48. Westernism and Slavophilism

In the early 30s. 1832th century an ideological justification for the protective policy of the autocracy was developed - the theory of "official nationality", the author of which was the Minister of Public Education, Count S.S. Uvarov. In XNUMX, in a report to the tsar, he put forward the formula "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality", based on the fact that autocracy is a historically established form of Russian life; Orthodoxy is its moral basis, and nationality, i.e., the unity of the tsar and the people, protects Russia from social upheavals. According to this scheme, the Russian people exist as a whole only insofar as they remain faithful to the autocracy and submit to the paternal care of the Orthodox Church. Hence, any speeches against autocracy, criticism of the church were interpreted as actions directed against the fundamental interests of the people.

In 1830-1840. two major ideological currents were born - Westernism and Slavophilism.

Representatives of both currents were ardent patriots who sharply criticized Nicholas Russia and firmly believed in the future of their country. Slavophiles (Khomyakov, Aksakov, Samarin, etc.) did not recognize contemporary Europe, believing that the Western world had outlived itself. Of great value to Russia, in their opinion, was the Orthodox religion, as opposed to rationalist capitalism. In this regard, the Slavophiles paid special attention to the countryside, believing that the peasantry carries the foundations of high morality. In Russian industry, the peasant community corresponded.

according to the Slavophils, an artel. Their political ideal was a patriarchal monarchy based on the broad support of the people.

Westernizers but (Kavelin, Botkin, Annenkov and others) Russian originality was assessed as backwardness. They believed that for a long time Russia was, as it were, outside of historical development, and only Peter I accelerated the process of Russia's transition from backwardness to civilization. For Westerners, Peter's reforms are the beginning of Russia's movement into world history, and therefore Russia must borrow the experience of Western European countries that have passed the path to a constitutional state. The Westerners considered the "educated minority" to be the force capable of becoming the engine of progress.

With all the differences in assessing the prospects for the development of Russia, Westerners and Slavophiles were united by a negative attitude towards the revolution, they advocated a reformist way of solving Russia's main social problems. In this they differed from those that arose in the 50s. XNUMXth century radical, revolutionary direction of social thought. Many supporters of this trend (Herzen, Ogarev, Dobrolyubov, etc.) initially shared the main ideas of the Westerners, but over time they disagreed with them on a number of fundamental issues. While agreeing that Russia was following the Western path, the radicals were not inclined to idealize contemporary Europe. From their point of view, Russia in its development must not only catch up with the Western countries, but also take a step with them towards a new system - socialism.

49. PUBLIC MOVEMENTS OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY. CONSERVATIVES AND LIBERALS

The era of reforms in the 60s. XNUMXth century changed the course of social and political thought in Russia. With the abolition of serfdom, a fundamentally new society emerged in the country, based on the formal equality of people before the law. Issues of granting this society civil rights and freedoms, self-government and popular representation were on the agenda. Traditionally distinguished in historical science, three areas of social thought in the second half of the XIX century. (conservatives, liberals and revolutionaries) approached these issues in different ways.

Conservative direction usually associated with the policy pursued under the leadership of Alexander III and Nicholas II by the tsarist dignitaries Pobedonostsev, Tolstoy, Delyanov, and others. In general, the conservatives adhered to the well-known formula "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality", advocating support for collectivist principles in the peasant economy and pursuing a policy of Russification of the outlying empire lands.

The liberal direction social thought was also represented in the tsarist government (Loris-Melikov, Abaza, Milyutin). In addition, Russian liberalism was developed through the efforts of zemstvo figures Petrunkevich, Chicherin, Struve and others.

It is customary to count the beginning of Russian liberal ideology from the constitutional project of M.M. Speransky in 1809. Arising in Russian society at the turn of the 1861th-1874th centuries. liberal ideas outlined a program of reforms carried out by the government in 1864-XNUMX, which aimed at creating a rule of law state. Liberalism largely relied on the zemstvo institutions created in Russia after XNUMX. In the notes and projects of reforms, repeatedly submitted to the emperor on behalf of the zemstvos, there were often requests to develop a plan for liberal reforms, ensure the rights of the individual, freedom of speech, and convene an all-Russian zemstvo representative institution - the prototype of parliament. In many respects, similar plans were contained in the draft of the Minister of Internal Affairs of Russia Loris-Melikov, later called by a part of Russian society the "Loris-Melikov constitution." Its essence boiled down to justifying the formation of preparatory commissions to consider bills.

On the day of his death, the emperor handed over to the minister a draft government report on the convening of a general commission scheduled for January 1882. However, after the assassination of Alexander II, the position of the conservatives prevailed, inclining Alexander III to pursue a protective course, and Loris-Melikov left the government along with other liberal leaders.

In general, liberal thought in the second half of the XNUMXth century. counted on reforming the old system without shaking its foundations. However, by the end of the century, a new, powerful social movement appeared on the political scene in Russia - the liberal democrats, among whom Struve and Milyukov played a leading role. The new liberalism declared its own claims to the political and social reorganization of Russia, which assumed an all-powerful parliament, the supreme sovereignty of the people, broad freedoms and social reforms.

50. REVOLUTIONARY POPULARITY OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY

The publication of the Manifesto on the Emancipation of the Peasants in 1861 caused disappointment in radical circles. A number of figures declared that serfdom had not been abolished at all, and that the people had once again been deceived by the tsarist government. Supporters of radical views, united in the Great Russian, Land and Freedom and a number of similar societies, begin to disseminate revolutionary appeals and proclamations calling for a unification of forces to attack the autocracy. The movement, having no social support in society, was quickly suppressed by the government, and its leaders N.G. Chernyshevsky M.L. Mikhailov, D.I. Pisarev were subjected to various punishments.

Term "populism" appeared in Russian literature in the mid-60s. 70th century and implied the desire to study folk life, the desire to alleviate the hardships of peasant life. The doctrine of populism took shape by the beginning of the XNUMXs. XIX century., When the view prevailed in the movement that a social revolution in society can be carried out by the forces of the masses, led by an organization of professional revolutionaries. At the same time, three wings of the movement were identified - propaganda (with the ideologist P.L. Lavrov), rebellious (M.A. Bakunin) and conspiratorial (P.N. Tkachev).

The mass "going to the people" in 1874 was a spontaneous movement in which about two thousand "propagandists" took part. To propagate their ideals, the populists went to work in the villages, trying to spread socialist ideas among the peasants. The movement failed and after 1877 came to naught. Supporters of propaganda created in 1879 the organization "Black Repartition" headed by G.V. Plekhanov and P.B. Axelrod.

Followers of M.A. Bakunin considered any state power to be the source of all evils and opposed it to a federation of self-governing rural communities and productive associations. In their opinion, populist agitation should be directed towards revolt and, ultimately, world revolution.

Supporters of terror as a means to achieve their goals formed in 1879 the party "People's Will" This organization demanded the convening of a national constituent assembly to implement radical reforms. In order to force the government to comply with these demands, the executive committee of Narodnaya Volya organized a series of attempts on the life of the highest royal dignitaries, and in 1881 carried out the assassination of Emperor Alexander II. However, this did not cause the popular uprising supposed by the terrorists, and after the trial, almost all the organizers of the murders were hanged.

Since that time, revolutionary populism has gradually disappeared from the political stage, and the supporters of the so-called "theory of small deeds" (N.K. Mikhailovsky, V.V. Vorontsov and others) began to play a leading role in the movement, who advocated a peaceful path of gradual social transformations. . Parallel to this, social democratic ideas began to penetrate into Russia, which at the end of the XNUMXth century an insignificant part of the workers of large industrial cities.

51. FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE XIX century. ACCESSION OF NEW TERRITORIES

Foreign policy of Russia during the 1812th century. had a complex, far from unambiguous character, which was connected, among other things, with the changing situation within the country itself. It seems possible to single out several directions of the foreign policy of the state. First of all, this is Russia's participation at the beginning of the century in a series of anti-Napoleonic campaigns, among which the Patriotic War of 1853 occupies a central place. In addition, throughout the 1856th century. in the focus of all-European attention was the so-called "Eastern question", the direct participation in the solution of which was also taken by Russia. The colonization of outlying lands continued in the country - mainly in Transcaucasia and Central Asia. Russia's participation in the Crimean War of XNUMX-XNUMX deserves special attention. In order to fulfill its foreign policy tasks, the country was forced to move towards rapprochement and enter into a coalition with different states.

Throughout the XNUMXth century Vast territories in Transcaucasia, Central Asia and the Far East were annexed. This process took place both in a peaceful, colonial way, and military, with the help of the armed forces.

As a result of hostilities against Persia (Iran) in 1813, according to the Gulistan Peace Treaty, Dagestan, Georgia, Abkhazia, as well as a number of Caspian khanates, were ceded to Russia. The fighting in Transcaucasia was resumed by Persia in 1826 with an invasion of Karabakh. However, this time the Iranian army was defeated by Russian troops. As a result of the Turkmanchay Treaty of 1828, the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates went to Russia. The last acquisitions of Russia in the Transcaucasus date back to 1878, when, following the results of the Berlin Congress, Kare, Ardagan and Batum became part of the empire.

In 1846, the Kazakhs of the Senior Zhuz were accepted into Russian citizenship. Russian expansion was especially successful in 1860-1870. In 1864-1865. a number of large cities of Central Asia were taken, including Tashkent. On these lands, in 1867, the Turkestan Governor General was formed. After the agreements reached with England on the division of spheres of influence, Russia launched an offensive against the Khiva kingdom, and in 1876 Kokand became part of the Turkestan Governor-General. After prolonged hostilities in 1881, the Trans-Caspian region was formed with the center in Ashgabat.

in the Far East in the 1858th century. the process of colonization continued, which was complicated by the remoteness of the region from the central regions. Territorial problems with China were settled by the Aigun (1860) and Beijing (25) treaties, and at the end of the century, agreements were reached on the lease of the Liaodong Peninsula, which belonged to China, with the ports of Dalniy and Port Arthur for 1891 years. In XNUMX, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which was important from an economic and military point of view, began.

52. PATRIOTIC WAR OF 1812 AND FOREIGN CAMPAIGNS OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY 1813-1815

On the night of June 12, 1812, Napoleon's army crossed the Neman and invaded Russia. The Patriotic War of the Russian people against foreign invaders began.

Napoleon planned to conduct a quick campaign against the Russian troops, winning a pitched battle and forcing Alexander I to sign a peace treaty beneficial to France. The number of his troops far exceeded the Russian army.

After a rather serious battle of Smolensk, it was decided to give a general battle near the village of Borodino, 12 km from Mozhaisk. The Battle of Borodino was one of the largest in the 115th century. - about 640 thousand people took part in it with 135 guns from the Russian side and 587 thousand people with 45 guns from the French. Losses in this case amounted to more than 58 thousand people in the Russian army and approximately XNUMX thousand people in the Napoleonic troops. This battle did not become a turning point in the course of the war, but contributed to the overall victory of Russian weapons.

Shortly after the battle of Borodino, Napoleon entered Moscow, abandoned by the Russian troops, but he could not end the war there. The Russian army continued to conduct military operations against his troops, the partisan movement expanded, the French experienced serious difficulties with food. Under these conditions, Napoleon was denied the conclusion of a peace treaty, and on October 7, his army left Moscow.

The ensuing series of battles near Maloyaroslavets, Krasnoy and near the Berezina River completed the defeat of the French army, the remnants of which in December 1812 finally left the Russian Empire.

The performance of the Russian army outside the borders of their state created a new military-political situation in Europe, and during 1813 Prussia, Austria, England and Sweden turned their weapons against Napoleon.

In early May 1813, Napoleon launched an offensive against the Allied forces, winning two victories at Lützen and Bautzen in Saxony. Napoleon put up a 550-strong army against the allies (Russia, Prussia and Austria) and in August won a victory near Dresden. Of decisive importance during the campaign of 1813 was the largest battle near Leipzig on October 7, nicknamed the "battle of the peoples" and culminating in the victory of the allied Russian-Prussian-Austrian troops. After this battle, the territory of the German states was liberated from the French army. In March 1814, the Allies entered the capital of France. On May 18, 1814, a peace treaty was concluded in Paris between Russia, Austria, Prussia and England with France, according to which the latter was returned to the borders of 1793. The Battle of Waterloo June 6, 1815

The result of the Patriotic War of 1812 and foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1815. was not only the salvation of Russia from foreign invasion, but also the liberation from the Napoleonic yoke of the European peoples. By decision of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Duchy of Warsaw ceded to Russia, Bessarabia and Finland were assigned to it.

53. CRIMEAN WAR 1853-1856

The reason for the Crimean War was the outbreak that arose in the early 50s. 1853th century the dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic churches about the "Palestinian shrines" located on the territory of the Ottoman Empire, Nicholas I sought to use the conflict for a decisive attack on Turkey. However, Russia had to wage war with more than one weakened empire. In XNUMX, a secret treaty was concluded between England and France directed against Russia. Austria feared the strengthening of Russia's influence in the Balkans and was ready to support any anti-Russian action. Thus, the Crimean War began in an atmosphere of political and diplomatic isolation of Russia.

In November 1853, the squadron of Admiral P.S. Nakhimova attacked the Ottoman fleet, which had taken refuge in the Sinop Bay. In this battle, almost all enemy ships were burned and coastal fortifications were destroyed. The brilliant victory of the Russian fleet at Sinop was the reason for the direct intervention of England in the military conflict between Russia and Turkey. At the beginning of March 1854, England and France presented an ultimatum to Russia on the cleansing of the Danube principalities and, having received no answer, declared war on her. The fate of the war was decided in the Crimea, although hostilities were also taking place in a number of other places.

In early September 1854, Allied troops landed on the Crimean peninsula near Evpatoria. The first battle took place on the river. Alma, lost by the Russians. In October 1854, the heroic defense of Sevastopol began, which lasted 11 months. The Russian troops were led by Vice Admiral V.A. Kornilov, and after his death - P.S. Nakhimov, who at the end of June during the shelling of the city was mortally wounded. The position of the defenders of the city turned out to be hopeless, so it was decided to leave the fortress.

The fall of Sevastopol predetermined the outcome of the war. Peace negotiations began in September 1855, and on March 18, 1856, the Treaty of Paris and several conventions were signed between Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France, Austria, Prussia and Sardinia. Russia lost the southern part of Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube. The most difficult condition for Russia in the Treaty of Paris was the proclamation of the principle of "neutralization" of the Black Sea, which was declared a demilitarized zone of Russia and the Ottoman Empire, it was forbidden to have a navy on the Black Sea, as well as military fortresses and arsenals on the shores. The Black Sea straits were declared closed to military ships of all countries for the time of peace. Consequently, in the event of war, the Black Sea coast of Russia turned out to be defenseless. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War undermined its prestige in the international arena and further deepened the crisis of the country's feudal-serf system.

54. "EASTERN QUESTION"

The term "Eastern Question" is understood as a group of contradictions in the history of international relations. XVIII - early XX century., In the center of which were the peoples who inhabited the Ottoman Empire. The solution of the "eastern question" as one of the main foreign policy tasks of Russia took shape during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774.

Throughout the 1799th century Russia, together with the leading European powers, took an active part in settling the "Eastern Question". in addition, she actively patronized the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. However, the predominant influence of Russia in Turkey, which was especially noticeable after the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty of 1833, was gradually lost due to the opposition of Western countries. The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War also played a negative role. The main task of Russia's policy in the "Eastern Question" after 1856 was to change the extremely unfavorable conditions of the Peace of Paris.

The fulfillment of these tasks is connected with the success in the diplomatic field of Minister of Foreign Affairs AM Gorchakov. In 1870, he sent the so-called "circulars" to Russian representatives abroad, according to which Russia renounced the restrictive articles of the Paris Treaty. In 1871, at a conference in London, a declaration was signed confirming the sovereign rights of Russia in the Black Sea.

The solution of the "Eastern question" on the battlefields in the XIX century. connected primarily with the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. Having failed to obtain concessions from the Ottoman Empire through diplomatic means, Russian troops began military operations in order to protect the Slavic peoples of the Balkans. In the battles for the Shipka Pass, Plevna, Sofia, military leaders I.V. Gurko, M.D. Skobelev, F.F. Radetsky. In January 1878, the Russian army reached San Stefano, a suburb of Constantinople, where a peace treaty was signed. According to the agreement, Turkey recognized the independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania, undertook to create an autonomous Great Bulgaria, and transferred part of its territories to Russia. However, the provisions of the San Stefano Treaty were cut at the negotiating table in Berlin, where leading European countries took advantage of Russia's military successes to their advantage. Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, England occupied the island of Cyprus, and Turkish indemnity payments were significantly reduced. In addition, at the Berlin Congress of 1878, the autonomy of Bulgaria was limited, and Macedonia and Thrace were left under the rule of the Ottoman Empire.

Russia's position in resolving the "Eastern Question" was extremely important for the peoples of the Balkans. It was through her efforts both at the negotiating table and on the battlefields that a number of countries (Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania) gained independence. Russian-Turkish wars of the XIX century. had a strong influence on the formation of the idea of the religious and national identity of Russia.

55. PARTICIPATION OF RUSSIA IN MILITARY-POLITICAL UNIONS. RESULTS OF THE FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE XIX CENTURY

To fulfill its foreign policy goals, Russia during the XIX century. interacted and entered into various coalitions with all leading European countries. Under these conditions, the role of diplomatic workers increased, who at the negotiating table could achieve more than the army on the battlefields. Among the leading Russian diplomats of the XIX century. - A.F. Orlov, A.M. Gorchakov. N.N. Muravyov-Amursky.

In 1815, at the initiative of Alexander I, the Holy Alliance was concluded between Russia, Austria and Prussia, which was soon joined by almost all the leading European powers. The basis of this association was the recognition of the principle of the inviolability of existing monarchies and the struggle against the revolutionary movement. The military forces of the Holy Alliance suppressed the uprisings in Spain, Italy and Hungary.

Events Ser. XNUMXth century and especially the Crimean War clearly showed that Russia does not have permanent and loyal allies among the leading powers of the world. Only maneuvering on the diplomatic front, it was possible to defend their national-state interests.

The longest time was the participation of Russia in the Union of the Three Emperors. In 1873-1874. Austria joined the military defense convention between Russia and Germany. The Union partly contributed to the success of Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, but actually lost its power already in 1885-1886, during the so-called "Bulgarian" crisis.

Russia's further participation in political unions was due to the economic interests of the state, which was trying to attract foreign capital for the development of domestic industry. Financial injections from Germany, France and England contributed to the construction of new industries, but made the country somewhat dependent on the interests of foreign states.

A characteristic feature of Russia's foreign policy in the XIX century. is that during this period the country was repeatedly drawn into armed conflicts, which were conducted under the influence and in the interests of the leading European powers. Many wars in the XNUMXth century were caused by the expansionist policy of countries that entered the industrial stage of development. The entire course of foreign policy testifies to the gradual process of excluding Russia from the mechanisms of influence on the state of affairs in Europe.

On the other hand, during the nineteenth century Russia expanded its influence in the Caucasus and Central Asia; the religious-national idea of the country's identity and its missionary role as a defender of weaker peoples was formed and put into practice. Russia during the 1867th century annexed lands in Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Far East, as well as the Grand Duchy of Finland and Bessarabia; at the same time, Alaska was sold to the United States (XNUMX) due to the impossibility of its colonization due to lack of funds.

56. PUBLIC EDUCATION AND SCIENCE IN THE XIX century.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Emperor Alexander I took a number of measures to develop the system public education. All of Russia was divided into 6 educational districts, a plan for the development of secondary and higher education was introduced. All educational institutions were divided into 4 levels: parochial one-class schools; county two-class schools; provincial four-year gymnasiums; universities The latter were granted wide autonomy with the right to choose the rector, deans, professors.

Further development of the public education system took place during the reign of Alexander II. According to the laws of 1864, the network of educational institutions was expanded, and thus it became possible for children of all classes and religions to receive an education, albeit at a rather high cost. In 1858, women's gymnasiums appeared, and in 1860-1870. - Higher women's courses with a university curriculum.

These measures contributed to the general increase in the level of literacy of the population. If at the beginning of the century only 1% of landlord peasants were literate, then in 1897 the average literacy rate was 21,1%. By the end of the XIX century. In Russia there were 63 higher educational institutions, about 600 gymnasiums, more than 500 public libraries.

The development of Russian science in the XIX century. was associated with the names of both outstanding scientists and talented self-taught. Among the latter, one should single out the father and son of the Cherepanovs, who created a steam-powered railway in the Urals (1834).

Centers of scientific thought in Russia in the XIX century. became the Academy of Sciences, universities, as well as numerous newly created scientific societies (the Society of History, the Archaeographic Commission, the Russian Geographical Society, etc.). A significant contribution to the development of the exact sciences was made by N.I. Lobachevsky, P.L. Chebyshev, SV. Kovalevskaya (mathematics) B.S. Jacobi, P.N. Yablochkov (physics). In the second half of the XIX century. inventions of A.S. Popova (radio), A.F. Mozhaisky (aircraft), K.E. Tsiolkovsky (the founder of space exploration). Domestic medicine has achieved significant success: N.I. Pirogov for the first time began to operate using ether anesthesia; SP. Botkin founded a number of new scientific directions. Thanks to the outstanding geographers P.P. Semenov Tyan-Shansky and N.M. Przhevalsky made descriptions of Central and Central Asia, Siberia, and the Far East. N.N. Miklouho-Maclay made a significant contribution to the study of the peoples of Southeast Asia, Australia and the Pacific Islands.

Historical and philosophical sciences have put forward a number of brilliant scientists: SM. Solovieva, V.O. Klyuchevsky, BC Solovyov, K.N. Leontiev and others.

57. RUSSIAN LITERATURE AND ART IN THE XIX CENTURY

By the XNUMXth century refers to the formation of the Russian literary language, the founder of which is A.S. Pushkin.

Created throughout the XNUMXth century Russian poets and writers N.V. Gogol, M.Yu. Lermontov, A.P. Chekhov. L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky made a significant contribution to the treasury of world literature.

To the monuments of architecture of the XIX century. include the Kazan and St. Isaac's Cathedrals, the building of the General Staff in St. Petersburg, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow.

Monumental sculpture is represented by monuments to Pushkin, Minin and Pozharsky in Moscow, M.I. Kutuzov and M.B. Barclay de Tolly in Petersburg.

Outstanding Russian architects and sculptors A.N. Voronikhin, K.I. Rossi, K.A. Tone, P.K. Klodt. MM. Antokolsky made a significant contribution to world art.

In painting, along with the artists of the academic school (K.P. Bryullov, A.A. Ivanov), new names appear. In 1870, on the initiative of I.N. Kramskoy, G.G. Myasoedova, N.N. Ge and V.G. Perov in St. Petersburg, the Association of Wanderers was organized, which aimed to bring art closer to the people, to attract the Russian outback to the cultural life of the capitals.

The formation of the Russian national music school is associated with the name of M.I. Glinka, the author of romances and symphonic works, as well as the operas A Life for the Tsar, Ruslan and Lyudmila.

The main theaters of the country in the XIX century. were Small and Alexandria. However, with the abolition of the monopoly of state theaters (1882), many troupes appeared that toured throughout Russia.

Among the most prominent figures of theatrical art of the late XIX century. actors P.M. Sadovsky, M.N. Yermolova, directors V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, K.S. Stanislavsky.

58. REIGN OF EMPEROR ALEXANDER III

Emperor Alexander III (1881-1894) in the official literature of the late 1880th - early 1890th centuries. called the Peacekeeper. In Soviet historiography, the period of his reign was called the era of "counter-reforms". In any case, an interesting and controversial period of the formation of an industrial society in Russia (XNUMX-XNUMX) fell on the period of the government of Alexander III.

The essence of the policy of the new emperor was reflected in the manifesto of April 29, 1881, in which, along with promises to continue the great reforms of the previous ruler, the inviolability of the principles of unlimited autocracy was declared. In response to this manifesto, three liberal ministers resigned, and the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod, K.P., began to play a prominent role in the court. Pobedonostsev.

In 1881, the Regulations on Measures for the Preservation of State Security and Public Peace were approved, according to which any locality could be declared in a state of emergency. The head of the province received the right to prohibit meetings, to close press organs and educational institutions, to arrest and exile people without trial.

In 1882, the Provisional Rules on the Press were adopted, according to which the meeting of four ministers received the right to close any publications.

In the 80s. 1884th century the liberal reforms of public education were partially revised - the new university charter of 1887 destroyed university autonomy, and the circular "on cook's children" of XNUMX forbade the entry of children from the lower classes into the gymnasium.

In 1889, the Regulations on zemstvo district chiefs were issued, who combined judicial and administrative power over the peasants in their hands. In addition, the role of the noble element in zemstvo institutions was strengthened, and according to the City Regulations of 1892, the number of city voters decreased by 3-4 times.

At the same time, it should be noted that under Alexander III, the practice of calling on "knowledgeable people" from zemstvo circles to discuss government events was partially preserved. Significant measures were taken to strengthen the financial condition of the country, build railways, and alleviate the situation of the peasants. It was during the reign of Alexander III that the beginning of labor legislation on labor protection was laid. Basically, the provisions of the judicial system, one of the most progressive and democratic in the world, were preserved. And, finally, without being involved in any military conflict, the country got the opportunity for peaceful development.

The government of Alexander III took a number of measures to Russify the outskirts of the empire, including the unification of administration and office work in the Baltic States, the Caucasus and Central Asia. In addition, a restrictive policy was pursued with regard to Jews - the "Pale of Settlement" was reduced, a percentage rate was introduced for admission to educational institutions, and Jews were evicted from cities. In carrying out this policy, the government of Alexander III, and later Nicholas II, relied on nationalist and great-power slogans, supporting the chauvinistic moods of a part of the population.

59. DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY OF RUSSIA AFTER 1861

The Russian type of evolution of feudal landed property was specific. The private ownership of land by the nobility has never been the predominant form of land ownership. The main trend was the system of "state feudalism", in which the supreme ownership of land remained with the state, and feudal land ownership was bestowed by the state and conditioned by the service of the king. The peasants were the "holders" of the land, obliged to the state by taxes, dues and duties. In some regions, in certain eras, such "state land" could turn into the actual property of "state peasants." These features of feudal landownership, as well as the rural community in Russia, did not contribute to any firm position of the institution of private ownership of land. Thus, a feature of the Russian type of feudalism was the traditionally weak development of private land ownership and individual economic activity of the peasantry.

After the abolition of serfdom in Russia, the development of capitalism in agriculture intensified. World experience has demonstrated two main variants of this process. The first is the path of slow adaptation of feudal structures to the capitalist mode of production, the so-called "Prussian", and the second is the creation of farms, free enterprise, the so-called "American". In Russia, both options took place with the predominance of the Prussian path due to the large share of landownership. As capitalism develops in the countryside, there is an increase in the number of prosperous peasants and an increase in the productivity of their farms.

The liberation of the peasants from serfdom led to the rapid development of industry and a rapid increase in the number of workers. Thanks to state regulation, large-scale industry receives favorable conditions for development. Throughout the post-reform period, railway construction has been actively developing, and foreign capital has been attracted to the country. All this led to an increase in industrial production by seven times in 1880-1890. And although per capita production has remained low, Russia is becoming a world leader in terms of industrial growth.

In Russia, there was no long incubation period for the development of machine production and a long period for the formation of the mechanism of capitalist exchange. The industrial revolution was ensured to a large extent by the import of foreign technology. Russian "initial accumulation" did not produce a free employee. It was basically a "otkhodnik" who had not yet broken with agriculture and "his" master. The peasant reform of 1861 moved forward the formation of a wage labor market, but the final completion of this process by the end of the XNUMXth century. it didn't happen. The country continued to be agro-industrial with a huge predominance of the agricultural population.

60. SOCIO-ECONOMIC POSITION OF RUSSIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY

Features of the socio-economic evolution of the country after the bourgeois reforms of the 1860-70s. led to the fact that a new economic system in Russia was created in conditions that limited the development of free competition, in a historically short time. Capitalism did not have time to rebuild agriculture, the main economic branch of Russia, in a bourgeois fashion. The process of industrialization was contradictory, since capitalist methods of management did not touch the public sector of the economy - one of the largest in the world. The management of defense factories according to the old principles created a certain imbalance in the country's economic development.

At the end of the XIX century. Russia remained predominantly an agrarian country, but capitalist development was gaining momentum. By the end of the 80s. XNUMXth century in Russia, the industrial revolution was completed and an industrial and technical base was formed. The state began to pursue a policy of foreign economic protectionism. The export of agricultural products increased, purchases of imported equipment increased, the construction of railways proceeded intensively, and shipping developed. The stable growth of cargo turnover testified to the level of economic and industrial development of the country. This direction of the economic policy of the state was formed largely as a result of the activities of the Union of Yugoslavia. Witte, who considered the industrial development of the country not only as a purely technical factor, but primarily as an important economic tool for stabilizing the social situation in the country.

Industrialization required significant capital investments from the budget. One of the directions of the policy pursued by Witte to replenish state revenues was the introduction of a wine monopoly, which became the main revenue item of the budget. In addition, taxes were increased, primarily indirect. The introduced gold standard, i.e., the free exchange of the ruble for gold, made it possible to attract foreign capital to the Russian economy. Customs tariffs shielded domestic industry from foreign competition; while the government encouraged and subsidized both public and private enterprises.

To the beginning 1900th century Russia has developed a system of large-scale capitalist production. Together with the developed countries of the West, its economy entered the stage of monopoly capitalism, although Russia continued to lag behind in terms of the pace and volume of output. During the industrial crisis of 1903-XNUMX. there was a rapid growth of monopolies. At this time, oil trusts, the largest syndicates in the metallurgical and coal industries, in transport engineering and the metalworking industry, were formed. Powerful banking monopolies are being formed, the leading role among which was played by the Russian-Asian and St. Petersburg International Commercial Banks. There is an active process of merging of industrial and banking monopolies; monopolistic organizations become one of the foundations of the country's economic life.

61. RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 1905-1907

The beginning of the first Russian revolution dates back to January 9, 1905 - Bloody Sunday, when a peaceful procession with a petition to Nicholas II was shot by the tsarist troops in St. Petersburg. Mass political strikes and demonstrations took place throughout the country during 1905-1907, while a number of performances were of an all-Russian scale, and one of them escalated into an armed conflict (December 1905).

Mass demonstrations of soldiers and sailors also took place (on the cruiser "Memory of Azov", the battleship "Potemkin", in the cities of Sveaborg and Kronstadt)

It was a period when freedom of speech, assembly, unions, and the press were acquired on a whim.

The revolution really had a nationwide character and became a serious shock for tsarism, which was forced to make significant political and socio-economic concessions. In this regard, first of all, it should be noted the Manifesto of October 17, 1905, which became an important constitutional document proclaiming "the unshakable foundations of civil freedom"

The end of the revolution was put on June 3, 1907, when the emperor dissolved the State Duma and independently determined a new procedure for elections.

The most important political result of the revolution of 1905-1907. consisted in the fact that from now on the emperor officially began to share the supreme power with the legislative bodies - the State Duma and the State Council. In the social sphere, it was possible to reduce the working day to 9-10 hours.

raising wages, introducing collective agreements for workers and entrepreneurs. A direct consequence of the revolution for the peasants was the decision to abolish redemption payments, which reduced their taxation. Started by the government of P.A. Stolypin, the agrarian reform opened up scope for bourgeois entrepreneurship in the countryside.

62. P.A. STOLYPIN

Activity P.A. Stolypin as Chairman of the Council of Ministers began in the new political conditions for Russia, created by the revolution of 1905. For the first time in its history, the autocracy was forced to coexist with a representative State Duma, which, moreover, turned out to be very radical. Thus, the peasant deputies of the first convocation introduced an agrarian bill for discussion in the Duma, which was based on the unacceptable demand for the Russian autocracy to confiscate landowners' lands and nationalize all land.

The beginning of the agrarian reform was given by a decree of November 9, 1906. Its main provision was the destruction of the community, for which a stake was placed on the development of personal land ownership in the village by giving the peasants the right to leave the community and create farms or cuts. At the same time, the landowner's ownership of land was preserved intact, which caused sharp opposition from the peasants and their deputies in the Duma.

Another measure proposed by Stolypin was supposed to destroy the community: the resettlement of the peasants. This action pursued a twofold goal. On the one hand, it was necessary to form a land fund, primarily in the central regions of Russia. where lack of land made it difficult to create farms and cuts; provided the opportunity to develop new territories. On the other hand, a political goal was also pursued, namely the détente of social tension in the center of the country.

Summing up the results of the transformations in the agrarian sector, it should be noted that in the period from 1905 to 1916, about 30% of households in the provinces where the reform was carried out left the community. Thus, it was not possible to create a stable layer of peasant proprietors. The resettlement policy of the state was not entirely successful either. A large number of people were forced to return back for various reasons, including the lack of funds for arranging a household, the negative attitude of the indigenous people towards the settlers, and the lack of flexibility of the bureaucracy. The problems of lack of land and landlessness, agrarian overpopulation were not solved; thus, the basis of social tension in the countryside was preserved.

Agrarian reform P.A. Stolypin was the last of a series of attempts to modernize Russia before the revolutions of 1917. The nature of the ongoing reforms aimed at preserving the landlord system increasingly contradicted not only the interests of the peasantry, but also the Russian capitalist class, which already had economic power and began to take shape in political parties. Bourgeois circles are becoming more and more aware of the need for political power to ensure better conditions for the development of entrepreneurship. In these circles, the conviction is growing that the autocratic regime, with its feudal foundation, cannot provide optimal conditions for economic evolution. This is one of the initial moments of the growing opposition of the Russian bourgeois parties and their participation in the February Revolution of 1917.

63. POLITICAL PARTIES OF RUSSIA IN THE EARLY XX century.

Organizational design of most political parties and movements in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. occurred after the publication of the tsar's manifesto on October 1905, XNUMX, which proclaimed freedom of assembly and association, although many of them illegally or semi-legally existed before that time. All all-Russian political forces could be classified as follows: parties landowner-government camps, parties bourgeois-liberal directions; revolutionary democratic party.

In November 1905, the main monarchical party - the Union of the Russian people, the most prominent figures of which were Dubrovin, Purishkevich, Markov. It should be noted such organizations as the Union of Russian People, the Russian Monarchist Party, which were called the Black Hundreds. Their programs were based on the principles of the inviolability of autocracy, the privileged position of the Orthodox Church, great-power chauvinism and anti-Semitism.

By the end of 1905, a number of parties arose in Russia bourgeois-liberal directions: Constitutional Democrats (cadets), "Union of October 17" (Octobrists). The Trade and Industrial Party, etc. The main role in the liberal camp was played by the all-Russian parties of the Cadets and Octobrists, whose predecessors were the Union of Liberation and the Union of Zemstvo-Constitutionalists.

The Cadet Party took organizational shape at its founding congress in October 1905, declaring its desire to express the interests of the entire people. The leader and ideologist of the party was Professor Milyukov. The Cadets considered the main method of their work to be the legal struggle for political freedoms and reforms through the State Duma; their political ideal was a parliamentary republic. They proclaimed the idea of separation of powers. They did not recognize the right of the peoples of the Russian Empire to self-determination and social revolution.

In November 1905, the organizational formation of the "Union of October 17" began. The social basis of the party was made up of the big commercial, industrial and financial bourgeoisie, as well as part of the liberal intelligentsia. The chairmen of the central committee of the party were at first D.N. Shipov, and later A.I. Guchkov. Octobrist M.V. Rodzianko was chairman III and IV State Dumas. The Octobrists rejected the ideas of revolution and were in favor of gradual change.

Among revolutionary democratic parties, the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party and the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) should be noted.

The maximum program of the RSDLP defined the ultimate goal of Russian Social Democracy as the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat for the socialist reorganization of society. The disengagement among the Social Democrats on a number of issues subsequently led to the split of the RSDLP into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, whose leaders were Lenin and Martov.

The Socialist-Revolutionary Party took organizational shape in 1901. The former populists became its basis. They proclaimed as their goals the destruction of the autocracy, the creation of a democratic republic, the transfer of land to the peasants according to equalizing norms. Their leaders at the beginning of the century were Chernov, Breshko-Breshkovskaya, Gershuni.

64. STATE DUMA OF RUSSIA OF THE 1ST CONVOCATION

The law of August 6, 1905 defined the legal status of the so-called "Bulygin" (named after the author of the project, the Minister of the Interior Bulygin) Duma, which in no way limited the autocracy. It was about a deliberative assembly of representatives completely dependent on the tsar, deprived of any legislative rights. The regulation on elections contained a lot of restrictions that prevented wide circles of society from taking part in the elections of this authority.

The rise of the revolution in October 1905 swept away the "Bulygin" Duma. The Manifesto of October 17, 1905, which proclaimed the principle: "No law can accept force without the approval of the State Duma," played a major role in the emergence of the first State Duma.

A reform was carried out that changed the legal status of the Duma, which from now on was allowed to participate in the legislative process. In addition, the Council of State was turned into the second, in fact, the upper house of parliament. Formally, the law provided for the equality of the rights of the State Council and the State Duma: in particular, both chambers had the right to initiate legislation. The bill adopted by the Duma was subject to approval by the State Council and, if adopted, was submitted for approval to the emperor.

В State Duma of the 1st convocation it was planned to elect 524 people. The deputies signed a solemn promise in which they pledged to remain faithful to the "Sovereign Emperor, Autocrat of All Russia." After that, the election of the chairman took place, which was the lawyer Muromtsev.

The first big step towards reforms was the adoption by the Duma on May 5, 1906 of an address to the monarch, in which the main demands of the liberals were put forward: the introduction of general elections, the abolition of all restrictions on the legislative activity of the Duma, the personal responsibility of ministers, the reform of the State Council, guarantees of civil freedoms, the development of an agrarian reform, the revision of taxation, the introduction of universal and free education, the satisfaction of the requirements of national minorities, etc.

Having received a refusal to its demands, the Duma passed by an overwhelming majority a vote of "complete no confidence" in the government and demanded its "immediate resignation." The government boycotted the Duma, submitting for its consideration only laws of secondary importance. The Duma adopted a draft agrarian law, according to which the peasants could receive the land they rented for "fair compensation". The government considered that this issue, being too important for the country, was not within the competence of the Duma, and on July 9 it dissolved it. In the evening of the same day, the deputies gathered in Vyborg and drew up a manifesto. In fact, he called for mass civil resistance - refusal to pay taxes and military service "up to the convening of a new people's representation." The "Vyborg Appeal" did not receive a sufficient response in the country and had only one result: its drafters were subjected to legal persecution and lost the opportunity to run for the next Duma.

65. STATE DUMA OF RUSSIA OF THE 2ST CONVOCATION

Despite interference and pressure on voters by the authorities during the election campaign, second Duma turned out to be even more radical than the first. It included more than 100 socialist deputies, about 100 Trudoviks, 100 Cadets and 80 deputies from national minorities; There were only 16 Octobrists and 33 monarchists. As a result, candidates from government parties formed a very small faction in the Duma, while the overwhelming majority turned out to be in opposition.

Taught by bitter experience, the Duma decided to act within the bounds of legality, avoiding unnecessary conflicts. The commissions began drafting numerous bills. After an initial period of calm from March to April 1907, disputes flared up over two issues: agrarian policy and the adoption of emergency measures against the revolutionaries. In addition, some deputies raised the issue of changing the provision on elections to the State Duma, demanding the introduction of universal suffrage.

The government, in turn, demanded the condemnation of revolutionary terrorism, but most of the deputies refused to do so. The conservative press sharply attacked the Duma, calling it a "hotbed of riots and disobedience", "a haven for Jewish obscurantism and terrorism." Without waiting for its decision, on June 1, Nicholas II himself announced the dissolution of the Duma and scheduled the convocation of the next Duma for November 55, 16. The manifesto announcing the dissolution of the Duma also announced fundamental changes in the electoral law.

"First calm, then reforms," - such was the leitmotif of the policy of the government of P.A. Stolypin after the revolution of 1905-1907. The manifesto of June 3, 1907 served as the basis for the creation of the so-called "Third of June system", which existed in Russia until August 1915 - the time of the formation of the "Progressive Bloc".

66. THE STATE DUMA AFTER THE MANIFESTO JUNE 3, 1907

The main element of the June 17rd political system was the Third State Duma, which was convened under the new electoral law. He made it possible (for which he was calculated) to form two majorities in the Duma: the Right-Octobrist and the Octobrist-Cadet. The outcome of the votes in the Third Duma depended on the Union of October XNUMX, whose votes determined the Right-Octobrist or liberal majority.

Ill Duma (1907-1912) intensive and effective legislative work was carried out. Laws on the budget, self-government, labor legislation, public education and a number of others were adopted. Ill The Duma contributed to the formation of the necessary conditions for a noticeable economic upsurge of the country in the prewar years. However, she was unable to muffle the revolutionary opposition movement, which gained momentum especially after the election of the new Duma, in 1915-1917.

In the IV State Duma The leading role was played by the Octobrists and the Cadets.

During the election campaign for the Fourth Duma, the Cadets put forward three slogans: the democratization of the electoral law; radical reform of the State Council; formation of a responsible Duma ministry.

In the very first days of the Fourth Duma, the Cadet faction introduced bills on universal suffrage, freedom of conscience, assembly, unions, the press, inviolability of the person, and civil equality.

By the summer of 1914 the political crisis in the country reached its highest point. The First World War, which began in July 1914, only temporarily prevented its revolutionary denouement. The attitude of the liberal parties to the war predetermined their tactical course, which was expressed primarily in the rejection (until the summer of 1915) of any opposition to the autocratic government. The Octobrists, Progressives and Cadets called for the oblivion of party differences and unity of action for all sections of society. At the meeting of the Duma on June 25, 1914, all factions of the bourgeois parties took a solemn oath of full and unconditional support for the tsarist government.

The strengthening of the economic power of the Russian bourgeoisie during the First World War, its political consolidation led to a further aggravation of relations with the autocratic regime, which under extreme conditions showed a complete inability to cope with the difficulties caused by the war. In 1915, the crisis of power began to take on an inevitable character. The tsarist government ceased not only to control, but also to understand the development of events.

The Provisional Government that came to power did not allow the resumption of the session of the Fourth State Duma in April 1917, considering it too closely connected with the old order and fearing the protests of the Soviets and their supporters. In October 1917, under pressure from the socialists, the Provisional Government dissolved the State Duma of the 4th convocation. In December 1917, the Council of People's Commissars abolished the office of the State Duma and the office of the Provisional Committee of the Duma.

67. RESULTS OF ACTIVITIES STATE DUMA (1906-1917)

Determining the place of the State Duma of the 1st-4th convocations (1906-1917) in the updated system of government bodies, it should be noted that the Duma, which was not controlled by the emperor, limited his power in legislative and financial matters. However, despite all the efforts of the liberals, the Duma did not become the Russian parliament of the Western European model, because it was unable to fulfill its most important functions: making changes to the legal system of the state in accordance with the mood of public opinion, public control over the government, reducing public discontent through elections (from for a highly arbitrary electoral system).

It is important, however, to understand the reasons for the limited rights of the Duma. In addition to the unwillingness of the autocracy to share its power with anyone else, there was also another side of the problem - the inability of the elected representatives of the people to use this power. The demands of the liberals to give the country a full-fledged Duma, that is, to establish parliamentary democracy with universal, equal, direct and secret suffrage, did not correspond to the level of development of the state. The overwhelming majority of the population in Russia was the peasantry. Basically adhering to patriarchal traditions, it perceived the power of the tsar as given by God, and the peasant deputies most often acted as petitioners, walkers, and not people's representatives capable of making their own decisions. Newly emerged political parties were weak, there was no experience of political struggle; there was an obvious unwillingness of the majority of deputies elected from the people to engage in lawmaking. Therefore, at that stage in the development of society, the State Duma, convened on the principle of universal, equal, direct and secret suffrage, would not be able to carry out its activities. However, over time the situation has changed. The State Duma, especially during the World War, which by that time had already accumulated experience in political struggle and had an example of predecessors (albeit unsuccessful), could well claim the role of a full-fledged parliament. However, the unwillingness of tsarism to reach an agreement with the Duma, to rely on it in its policy, the desire to return to absolutism led to the fact that the ensuing revolution swept both tsarism itself and the State Duma from the political scene.

68. CAUSES AND RESULTS FIRST WORLD WAR

At the beginning of the XX century. in the international arena, contradictions between various states escalated, which ultimately led to the unleashing of a world war in 1914. The main rivals were the leading European states - England and Germany, which led two opposing military-political blocs - the Entente and the Triple Alliance.

Can highlight two groups of causes of world war. The first of them is interstate and interregional conflicts. The essence of the German foreign policy program was plans to reshape the world in favor of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Germany and Turkey. Entente plans were already drawn up during the course of the war. The allies agreed to annex Constantinople, the Bosporus and the Dardanelles to Russia in exchange for an agreement on the division between England and France of Turkish possessions in the Arab East. The absence of a pan-European security system and the split of Europe into two hostile camps objectively contributed to the unleashing of a world war.

The second group of reasons was of a subjective nature and was expressed in the victory of the "war parties" in the ruling circles of a number of Western powers (Germany, Great Britain, Austria-Hungary and France). By 1914, most politicians were inclined to believe that it was necessary to find out by force who had hegemony in Europe.

Objectively, entry into the world war did not correspond to the national-state interests of Russia. The capture of Constantinople and the straits did not appear as a specific goal of Russian policy; autocracy was most interested in maintaining the status quo in the world.

The Brest Peace was only a step towards the end of the First World War, which formally ended on November 11, 1918 with the Armistice of Compiègne. According to its terms, Germany was to leave all the territories it had captured in the West and withdraw its troops across the Rhine River. From Eastern Europe, she had to leave as the Entente troops arrived there. All prisoners of war and military property were to be transferred to the Allies.

The Paris Conference of 1919, with the participation of 27 countries, summed up the results of the First World War. On June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed, which became the main document of the post-war settlement. Germany, according to the treaty, lost part of its territory, as well as all the colonies. The introduction of universal military duty was prohibited in the country.

For the victorious powers, Russia was first and foremost a traitor who had made a separate peace with the enemy. The ongoing civil war in Russia gave a formal reason not to invite its representatives either to Paris or to the subsequent conference in Washington (1921-1922). Russia did not sign any peace treaty.

The First World War lasted over 4 years. In terms of the number of people who died as a result of hostilities, this war was 39 times greater than the Napoleonic wars; the casualties of all the countries participating in the battles amounted to 9,5 million killed and 20 million wounded. Russia lost 1,8 million people in the First World War killed and died from wounds.

69. MAIN EVENTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The World War covered a significant part of the Earth and was fought in Europe, Asia and Africa. The main theaters of operations were Western European (French) and Eastern European (Russian).

Due to the fact that the plans of the warring parties were constantly changing, and the strategic initiative passed from hand to hand, the First World War was usually divided into campaigns: 1914, 1915, 1916, 1917 and 1918. The largest operation of the Russian army in 1914 was the Galician, in as a result of which the Austro-Hungarian armies suffered a major defeat and, until the end of the war, lost the ability to conduct offensive operations without the support of Germany. Strategically, 1914 was a failure for the countries of the Triple Alliance: the war became protracted, and time worked against Germany, which was fighting on two fronts.

The main strategic task of the 1915 campaign was considered by the Russian command to be the withdrawal of Austria-Hungary from the war. However, this task was not completed; moreover, the Russian army began to retreat. The war acquired a positional, trench character.

In the 1916 campaign, the offensive operation of the Russian southwestern front under the command of General A.A. was of particular importance. Brusilov. Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia and Bukovina were defeated, losing about 1,5 million people killed and wounded. In the same year, the largest naval battle in history took place - the Jutland naval battle between the British and German fleets. The battle did not result in a decisive victory for either side and did not actually change the balance of forces at sea. On the whole, in 1916, the war was a clear turning point in favor of the Entente, although it was obvious that the final victory would require a large concentration of forces.

Campaigns 1917-1918 took place in conditions of a significant growth of the revolutionary movement in all the warring countries. However, in general, the Entente, having a significant superiority in material and human resources, was in a better position compared to the Central Powers. The US entry into the war on the side of the Entente in 1917 further changed the balance of power in favor of the Allies. Thus, the defeat of the Triple Alliance in the war was inevitable and was only a matter of time.

As a result of a stubborn political struggle for power in Russia in October 1917, the Bolshevik Party won. By issuing the Decree on Peace, they hoped to ensure calm on the external borders of the country. Russia's allies ignored this decree. However, the Tripartite Alliance, interested in the liquidation of the eastern front, went to peace negotiations, and on March 3, 1918, a peace treaty between Russia and Germany was signed in Brest-Litovsk.

70. FEBRUARY DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION

The beginning of 1917 was marked by an upsurge in the strike and strike movement in the country, interruptions in the work of railway transport, and difficulties in providing large cities with food; there was a national crisis brewing. The ease with which in one week power throughout the country passed from the royal house to the Provisional Government and the Soviets of Deputies testifies to the complete absence of socio-political support for the autocracy by February 1917. Not only the working people and the bourgeoisie united against the power of Nicholas II, but and part of the higher nobility, who did not see any more prospects for the imperial house of the Romanovs.

The uprising in Petrograd began spontaneously, on International Women's Day on February 23, according to the old style, when about 130 thousand people took to the streets. Over the next few days, soldiers from a number of regiments stationed in the capital joined the speakers, which predetermined the overall success of the revolution. On February 28, a general political strike also broke out in Moscow, and by the end of the day on March 1, the whole city was in the hands of the insurgents. Similarly, in all the cities of Russia, power was taken from the tsarist government almost exclusively by peaceful means.

Nicholas II, having received information about a sharp change in the situation in the capital from the chief of staff of the General Headquarters, General Alekseev, agreed at first to the creation of a "responsible ministry", and soon, after receiving telegrams from all commanding fronts, to abdicate in favor of his son Alexei. But this step could no longer stop the collapse of the autocracy. On the night of March 3, 1917, Nicholas II signed a new abdication manifesto, this time in favor of his brother Mikhail, and handed it over to Guchkov and Shulgin, representatives of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma. The final termination of the rule in Russia of the royal house of the Romanovs was fixed by the manifesto of Mikhail Alexandrovich, who assigned the question of the future structure of the state to the Constituent Assembly, convened on the basis of general, direct, equal and secret elections.

At that time, a system of dual power had actually taken shape in Petrograd. Formally, power belonged to the Provisional Government created on March 2, the term of office of which was limited to the period before the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. At the same time, real power was in the hands of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which relied on the military strength of the detachments subordinate to it. Under these conditions, these two bodies were forced to coexist and coordinate their actions. The period of dual power lasted until July 4, 1917, when the Provisional Government suppressed the actions of workers and soldiers directed against it, supported by many deputies of the Soviets.

On the ground, in the spring of 1917, power passed to the commissars of the Provisional Government (they became the chairmen of zemstvo councils), on the one hand, and to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers', and Peasants' Deputies that were formed throughout the country, on the other.

71. POLICY OF TEMPORARY GOVERNMENTS IN THE FIRST HALF OF 1917

The main provisions of the proclaimed socio-economic policy of the Provisional Government suited the majority of society. Despite this, the Provisional Government was unable to become a consolidating force and ensure the peaceful development of the country. In its actions, it was initially limited by the very temporary (before the Constituent Assembly) nature of power and the impossibility in connection with this on a legal basis to solve the most acute problems facing society. In 1917, an extremely difficult economic situation developed in the country, aggravated by the ongoing war and the beginning of devastation in industry. The effectiveness of the policy of the Provisional Government was reduced by its coalition composition, which often tried to reconcile opposing points of view to the detriment of the cause, as well as the lack of strong local support and the weakness of real power. In Russia, by the middle of 1917, a cumbersome system of state administration had developed.

As a result of the reform of local self-government, the network of zemstvos was extended throughout Russia, but the real power often belonged not to them, but to the Soviets of Deputies, whose number increased in a short period from about 600 to 1000. The Soviets did not want to take supreme power into their own hands and exerted government powerful pressure "from the left." Often their decisions ran counter to the policy of the Provisional Government - for example. On March 1, 1917, the so-called "Order No. 1" was adopted, proclaiming the election in the army, the transfer of many functions from officers to soldiers' committees, etc. This order played a huge role in the decay of the old army and did not at all correspond to the state interests of Russia. In addition to this order, an important role in the development of events was played by the agreement signed by the Petrograd Soviet with the manufacturers on the introduction of an eight-hour working day and the adoption of the manifesto "To the peoples of the whole world", declaring the rejection of annexations and indemnities in the war. Such populist decisions in most cases met the aspirations of a part of the population, but could not suit the whole society, which led to a further escalation of tension.

The first crisis in the work of the Provisional Government occurred precisely in connection with the question of the continuation of the war. On April 18, Foreign Minister Milyukov sent a note to Russia's allies confirming the country's commitment to fight to the bitter end. This position of the government did not suit the soldiers, who did not want to go to the front, and under pressure from numerous demonstrators, Guchkov and Milyukov resigned. In May 1917, a new Provisional Government was formed with the participation of six socialists and ten liberals.

However, the desired lull in the country was not achieved. As early as June, demonstrations in a number of cities were held under the slogans "Down with the capitalist ministers!", "Down with the war!", "All power to the Soviets!"

72. POLICY OF THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT IN THE SECOND HALF OF 1917

The demonstrations on July 4 in Petrograd led to an armed confrontation in the streets, and this time there were more victims than during the overthrow of the monarchy - about 700 people. The supporters of the government gained the upper hand, one of the organizers of the speech - the Bolshevik Party - temporarily lost its influence among the masses. Their authority was hit not only by the defeat of the uprising, but also by the published documents about their receipt of money from Germany.

After the events of July 4, the composition of the Provisional Government was changed - it was headed by A.F. Kerensky, and L.G. received the post of Commander-in-Chief. Kornilov. The third government since March 1917 tried to stop the slide into chaos and civil war by convening a State Conference in Moscow on August 12-15. Despite the emerging rapprochement of positions on a number of issues, in the main it was not possible to eliminate the differences between the socialist parties and the liberals - their approaches to solving all-Russian problems differed too much.

Another political crisis erupted at the end of August, when General L.G. Kornilov tried with the help of the army to establish a dictatorship and to carry out a series of emergency measures. An important role in the defeat of his troops was played by the socialist parties and, in particular, the Bolsheviks, from that moment on they began to gain popularity again. Their simple and radical slogans met the hopes of the majority of the population, which no longer believed the promises of the Provisional Government.

In the current situation, a number of leaders of the Bolsheviks, headed by V.I. Lenin proclaimed the slogan of an armed uprising in order to seize power. Relying on the detachments of the Red Guard (created in the spring of 1917 and numbering about 100 thousand people) and the organized Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, on October 25, 1917, almost without bloodshed, the rebels captured the Winter Palace and arrested the ministers of the Provisional Government. And although after October 25 the Provisional Government nominally continued to exist, its real influence on the development of the situation was lost.

There are a number of objective and subjective reasons for the fall of the Provisional Government. First of all, it is necessary to name the general deterioration of the economic situation in the country, the fall in discipline and labor productivity caused by the collapse of power structures. The social demands of the masses objectively could not be met in a short time, and the attempt to act legitimately, waiting for the convocation of the Constituent Assembly, did not lead to success. The commitment of the Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries to compromise did not suit the extreme political forces, both right and left, and could not serve as a way to solve problems. It must be admitted, finally, that with all the desire to get out of the current situation, the Provisional Government did not have real effective levers of control and influence on the situation in the country. All this led to the fact that at a critical moment he did not have worthy defenders.

73. CAPTURE OF POWER BY THE BOLSHEVIK IN OCTOBER 1917

The Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which met on the evening of October 25, after a heated discussion, adopted a decree prepared by the Bolsheviks, proposing to immediately begin negotiations on a just democratic peace._:as well as the Socialist-Revolutionary agrarian program - the Decree on Land, which provided for its transfer to the disposal of the peasant councils until the decision on this issue by the Constituent Assembly. According to the adopted document, private ownership of land was abolished, and the land itself was subject to an egalitarian division. At the congress, another Provisional (before the convocation of the Constituent Assembly) was formed, this time a purely Bolshevik government, called the Council of People's Commissars (SNK), headed by V.I. Lenin. In addition, the transfer of local power to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies was proclaimed.

The position of the Bolsheviks at that moment was very unstable. Both in Petrograd and Moscow there were armed forces (both bourgeois and socialist) ready to resist the Bolsheviks. Even in the party itself there was no unity on the issue of forming a government - many were ready to form a socialist coalition with the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. All this led to the crisis of the first Soviet government of Russia a few days after its formation - in protest, a number of people's commissars and senior officials resigned. Only in December 1917 the crisis was overcome and the second composition of the Council of People's Commissars was formed - with the participation of representatives of the Left Socialist-Revolutionary Party.

The reasons that the Bolsheviks in the difficult conditions of the winter of 1917-1918. were able to hold on to power, which no other political force could achieve, was that, having a powerful political organization, they were able to widely deploy populist agitation, playing on the general discontent and disappointment of the masses. This party managed to break through to power on the crest of the revolutionary elements and stay there, using the social hatred of the majority of the population towards the former masters of life.

74. CONCEPT, CAUSES AND RESULTS OF THE CIVIL WAR

Civil war - this is the most acute form of resolving social contradictions within the country; the confrontation of various communities and groups for the realization of their fundamental interests, which is caused by attempts to seize or maintain power by illegitimate means.

The October coup of 1917 was, in fact, an illegal seizure of power that led to violence in the country. At the same time, the Bolsheviks in October 1917 declared their desire to bring the country to the convocation of the Constituent Assembly, which was supposed to legitimately adopt the basic laws of the new Russian state. Having dispersed the Constituent Assembly in January 1918, the Bolshevik government interrupted the legitimate course of the transfer of power from the tsarist regime to this popularly elected body and further spun the flywheel of civil war in society. By the way, the Bolsheviks themselves never denied their adherence to the slogan of turning the imperialist war into a civil war, and their leader V.I. Lenin, in one of his public speeches, explicitly stated that the civil war became a fact on October 25, 1917. Specific historical events confirming this point of view are the following:

1) in Petrograd, a public Committee for the Salvation of the Motherland and the Revolution was formed and armed resistance to the Council of People's Commissars was organized as a response to the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks;

2) On November 8, 1917, the Central Committee of the Kadet Party declared war on the Bolsheviks;

3) the Bolshevik authorities declared the supporters of the Kadet Party "enemies of the people";

4) a number of regions adopted a resolution on non-recognition of the new government;

5) a number of national suburbs declared independence from Moscow;

6) armed detachments began to form on the Don in order to continue the fight against Germany and overthrow the power of the Bolsheviks.

The main result of the Civil War lies in the fact that as a result, all Russian society as a whole lost. Having failed to find a peaceful solution to the problems facing the country, it was even more unable to find it in an armed confrontation. The civil war claimed the lives of 9 million people, which is four times more than the losses of Russia in the First World War. Nearly 2 million people were forced to emigrate. Many wealthy and educated people left the country, thereby slowing down its cultural and technological development. Industrial production was reduced to 12% of the pre-war level. None of the warring parties in the end achieved the stated goals. The Bolsheviks formally won, but were forced to abandon most of the Marxist program, adopting the death penalty, the militarization of labor and the removal of the Soviets from real power. Finally, the territorial losses of the state amounted to 800 thousand square meters. km with a population of 30-32 million people. Thus, Russian society has gained stability, paying a very high price for it.

75. FIRST STAGE OF THE CIVIL WAR

The period of the Civil War in Russia is divided into three stages.

The main events of the first stage of the Civil War in Russia (October 1917 - summer 1918) were the dispersal of the Constituent Assembly by the Bolsheviks on January 5-6, 1918, the signing of the Brest Peace Treaty on March 3, 1918 and the introduction of a food dictatorship in May - June 1918.

For the first time in Russia, general free elections based on one of the most advanced electoral laws in the world brought victory to the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. The Bolsheviks, who by January 5, 1918 controlled the main mechanisms of power, tried to force the Constituent Assembly to adopt the Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People drawn up by Lenin and to support all the decrees of the Soviet government. Failing to achieve what they wanted, they did not allow the continuation of the work of the Assembly on January 6 and actually dispersed it. This fact not only exacerbated the political confrontation in society, but also placed a slogan in the hands of opponents of the Bolshevik regime. The forceful suppression of demonstrations in defense of the Constituent Assembly in Petrograd was, in fact, the first armed repression of the Soviet government. The dispersal of the Constituent Assembly was recorded in the decisions of the Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which actually created the prototype of a new state - a system of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies under the control of the Bolshevik Party.

By concluding a separate treaty, the Bolsheviks sought to gain time, hoping for an early start of a revolutionary war in Europe. Taking advantage of this, the German government, facing a military catastrophe, was able to make peace, which meant victory for it in the war against Russia. According to the Brest Treaty, Poland, the Baltic States, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and a number of other territories departed from Russia. The total losses amounted to 40% of the industrial potential of the country; in addition, Russia pledged to demobilize the army and navy and pay a huge (6 billion marks) indemnity.

The Bolsheviks went for a tightening of the grain monopoly and the introduction of a food dictatorship. Now the peasants were obliged to hand over all surplus grain at fixed prices, for which a special food army was created in the cities, and a class struggle was unleashed in the countryside.

In this way, events of the first stage of the war led to the formation of a base of opponents of Soviet power. This included supporters of the Constituent Assembly, and patriotic citizens who did not want to give Russian lands to the enemy, and part of the persecuted peasants. About ¹/₃ cadre officers of the Russian army, most of the Cossacks, representatives of the bourgeois parties oriented towards the Western path of development. The political program of the white movement was extremely controversial, but at the first stage of the Civil War it included the elimination of the power of the Bolsheviks, the restoration of a united Russia, and the convening of a nationwide people's assembly on the basis of universal suffrage.

76. SECOND STAGE OF THE CIVIL WAR

The period of the Civil War in Russia is divided into three stages.

The second stage (summer 1918 - March 1920) - the decisive period of the civil war - an organized armed conflict involving large military formations.

Among the events of the spring and summer of 1918, the murder of the German ambassador Mirbach on July 6 by the Left SRs should be especially noted. The organizers of this crime hoped to break the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and change the policy of the Soviet state towards the countryside. The suppression of the Left SR rebellion and the establishment of the one-party dictatorship of the Bolsheviks finally formalized the split in society and led to the beginning of the second stage of the Civil War, characterized by the conduct of fierce hostilities almost throughout the entire territory of the former Russian Empire.

By the middle of 1918, the Socialist-Revolutionary Party had become the leading and consolidating anti-Bolshevik force, while the Volga region, the Urals and Siberia were the main base of their activity. Since May 1918, predominantly Socialist-Revolutionary governments have been created in these territories under the slogan "All power to the Constituent Assembly." At the end of September, a Social Revolutionary-Cadet Directory was formed in Ufa, proclaiming itself the all-Russian authority.

However, as the Civil War unfolded, political forces polarized and part of the white officers left the socialist parties. So, the Directory was overthrown by Admiral A.V. Kolchak, who proclaimed himself the supreme ruler of Russia. In a number of regions of the country, military dictatorships by A.I. Denikin, N.N. Yudenich, P.N. Wrangel and others. Representatives of the anti-Bolshevik camp could not reach an agreement on key issues of domestic policy - agrarian, workers, national. The white movement throughout the Civil War remained heterogeneous, unable to develop clear and popular political slogans.

In this regard, the Bolsheviks had a clear advantage, having managed to rally the masses by ideological means and mobilize them to fight the enemy. In addition, occupying the central regions of Russia, they were able to use their powerful economic potential and maneuverability with the help of an extensive network of railways. Thanks to the state apparatus they created, they were able to better organize their troops: thus, despite desertion, the size of the Red Army grew from 0,3 million people in the spring of 1918 to 5,5 million people at the end of 1920, while the total number of all white armies in 1919 did not exceed 400 thousand people. All these circumstances led to the victories of the Red Army in the second stage of the Civil War.

77. THE THIRD STAGE OF THE CIVIL WAR

The period of the Civil War in Russia is divided into three stages.

For third stage of the Russian Civil War (March 1920 - the end of 1922) the attenuation of the struggle of the Bolsheviks with the white movement is characteristic, simultaneously with the growth in the country of pockets of resistance to the Soviet government on the part of the peasants. This is the period of the peasant war against the Bolshevik regime. Foreign powers gradually reduce interference in domestic Russian affairs, and then improve economic and political relations with Soviet Russia.

The need to create a huge army and the maximum mobilization of all the resources of the state required the centralization of power and the establishment of control over all spheres of society. The policy pursued under these conditions war communism represented not only a special economic model, but also its own ideological regime, a specific type of social consciousness. War communism that had developed by the beginning of 1919 was an attempt to transition to a communist society with the help of emergency measures and was partly generated by a utopian belief in world revolution. During the period of its implementation, industry was almost completely nationalized, the development of a food dictatorship led to the introduction of surplus appropriation. In connection with the course towards the elimination of commodity-money relations, equalizing consumption norms were introduced, utility bills were canceled with the naturalization of wages. At the same time, universal labor service is being introduced in the country and labor armies are being created, militarization of all spheres of society is taking place.

The implementation of such a policy cultivated emergency measures and mass repression. From February 1918, the death penalty was introduced, in the same year concentration camps were created. Politics across the country red terror, providing for the taking hostage and the destruction of persons on a class basis.

By 1920, the main threat to the power of the Bolsheviks began to pose those sections of the population that initially supported the Soviet regime. Major peasant uprisings took place in most of the territories of Soviet Russia. In February 1920, the garrison of Kronstadt rebelled - the same sailors who in many ways brought the Bolsheviks to power.

Despite the mass nature of this so-called "green" movement, it could not win for a number of reasons, since it did not put forward a serious political program, and the actions of the rebels were usually limited to a certain territory and were largely partisan in nature. The "greens" did not have a single leader, as a result of which their military forces were weak. However, the very presence of large centers of resistance within the country led the Bolsheviks to the need to curtail the policy of war communism. In March 1921, under the influence of the Kronstadt uprising and strikes in Petrograd, the XNUMXth Congress of the RCP(b) announced the replacement of the surplus appraisal with half the tax in kind and laid the foundation for the New Economic Policy (NEP).

78. FOREIGN MILITARY INTERVENTION

When studying the problem of the Civil War, it should be noted that in the Russian events of 1917-1922. the armed forces of both the Central Bloc and the Entente countries were involved. At the same time, it must be taken into account that each state pursued its own goals, supporting certain political forces within Russia in a certain period of time. Thus, even before the February Revolution of 1917, the German government made a bet on the Bolshevik Party, rightly counting with their help to destroy the eastern front. Later, in 1918, it turned a blind eye to the violation by Soviet Russia of the conditions of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in terms of the ban on new armed formations, seeking to prevent the Entente from recreating the Russian-German front. The Entente, in turn, sought to weaken Germany in every possible way and for this was ready to support any military force in Russia capable of resisting the Red Army. For example, France and England supported Kaledin's Don Cossacks, Alekseev's Volunteer Army, the Ukrainian Rada, the Czechoslovak Corps, the nationalists in Transcaucasia, and a number of other formations. And although in general the Entente countries were afraid of exporting the revolution to Europe from Russia, they were not particularly concerned about its internal political problems and were ready to allocate funds to any association to "support the resistance to the Germans." However, while financing certain political forces in Russia, the Allies in no way wanted an excessive strengthening of the White Army, as they were afraid to end up with a strong Russian state.

Speaking about the troops of foreign countries directly sent to Russia, it should be noted that the corps of interventionists was not numerous - on May 1, 1919, it numbered approximately 200 thousand people. The interventionists were mainly concentrated in ports far from those centers where the fate of the country was decided. The Red Army did not conduct combat operations against them. The exception was the German army, which carried out expansion into the territory of Russia in February - March 1918 in violation of the Brest Treaty. In general, despite the insignificant participation of the armed forces of foreign states in the Civil War, it should be noted that the intervention made the outcome of the struggle uncertain, dragged out the war, and increased the victims of the peoples of Russia.

79. TRANSITION FROM THE POLICY OF WAR COMMUNISM TO THE NEW ECONOMIC POLICY (NEP)

In the spring of 1921, the Bolshevik leadership faced a real threat of losing power. The civil war, the economic policy of the Bolsheviks in the previous period aggravated the most difficult situation in the country. As a result of seven years of war, Russia has lost more than a quarter of its national wealth. The industry suffered especially large damage - the volume of gross output decreased seven times. In 1920, the volume of railway transportation amounted to 20% of the pre-war level. The situation in agriculture was also difficult. The sown areas decreased by 1913% compared to 25, and the gross output by 30%.

Prodrazverstka exhausted the peasantry. The forcible seizure of agricultural products from him during the war years provoked a political crisis after it ended. In addition, after the defeat of the Whites, the threat of the return of large landowners disappeared. Peasant uprisings broke out across the country - by the spring of 1921, the number of their participants was approaching 200 thousand people.

The enormous hardships of the inhabitants of the cities led to the fact that by the autumn of 1920, discontent among the workers began to intensify, resulting in a wave of strikes and demonstrations. The situation was complicated by the beginning of the demobilization of the Red Army.

In the context of a nationwide crisis, the Bolshevik Party and its leaders found themselves in a situation of political and ideological choice: either a change in policy or a loss of power. The situation was aggravated by the decline of the revolutionary movement in the West, which deprived the Bolsheviks of outside support, leaving them face to face with internal problems. The threat of loss of power forced the country's leadership to take the path of change.

80. ESSENCE NEW ECONOMIC POLICY

The problem of relations with the peasantry was a central political issue in an agrarian country like Russia. The beginning of an economic policy that takes into account the interests of the multi-million masses of the peasantry was initiated by the decision of the Tenth Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks to replace the surplus appropriation tax with a tax in March 1920.

The tax in kind was initially established at the level of 20% of the net product of peasant labor, that is, it was half the surplus appropriation. Peasants got the opportunity to dispose of surplus products (mainly non-monetary exchange through cooperatives). However, the disruption of product exchange due to the lack of the proper amount of industrial goods and the famine that began in the summer of 1921 forced the restrictions to be lifted and freedom of trade to be introduced throughout the country.

The measures taken contributed to the fact that by 1923 the level of sown areas of 1913 was almost reached. In 1925, the gross grain harvest exceeded the level of 20 by 1913%.

Free trade required putting things in order in the financial system of the state. Already in 1921, a number of steps were taken to improve finances. Individuals and organizations were able to keep any amount of money in savings banks and use deposits without restrictions. In 1922, the issue of a new monetary unit was launched - chervonets, which had a gold content and exchange rate in gold: one chervonets was equal to 10 pre-revolutionary gold rubles, or 7,74 g of gold.

Steps were taken to attract foreign capital to the country. Concessions arose, that is, the lease of Russian state-owned enterprises by foreigners. And although in general the number of such enterprises was small, in some industries their share was significant.

To form a market, it was necessary to revive the industry by increasing output. For these purposes, the denationalization of small and partially medium-sized enterprises was carried out. The introduction of market relations also affected the form of state industry management. Instead of central offices, trusts were created - associations of homogeneous or interconnected enterprises that gained financial and economic independence. The state apparatus, which had swollen during the years of war communism, was sharply reduced. A wide network of commodity exchanges, fairs, and trading enterprises arose in the country. Cash wages in industry were restored, leveling was eliminated, and restrictions on wage growth were lifted.

Although in general, by the end of the 20s. the Soviet economy reaches the pre-war level, the effectiveness of the NEP model was lower than the pre-revolutionary one. Last but not least, this was due to the high degree of nationalization of production. New growth could be achieved only through the reconstruction of industry, and this required huge investments.

The successes of the NEP in the first half of the 20s. created certain conditions for improving the material situation of the people. Thus, by 1926, the wages of workers averaged about 94% of the pre-war level.

81. REASONS FOR THE COLUMNING OF THE NEP AND ITS RESULTS

In the second half of the 20s. the development of the NEP economy began to be controversial, and sometimes even a crisis. Faced with a lack of financial resources for the development of industry, the Bolshevik leadership took the path of ever greater centralization in the distribution of resources, ousting private capital from trade with the help of a tax press, and raising rents.

Unemployment was a serious problem: if in 1923 160 thousand people were registered at the labor exchanges, then in April 1927 there were about 1,5 million unemployed people.

No less controversial was the development of agriculture. Restrictions in the development of large-scale commodity peasant farming led to an aggravation of the confrontation between the authorities and the prosperous peasantry.

The New Economic Policy did not become a policy "in earnest and for the long haul" primarily because the leaders of the state failed to combine the course of market reforms with a socialist orientation. The new economic realities increasingly contradicted communist doctrine. During these years there were no changes in the political system, terror did not disappear. The administrative-command style of the party apparatus of the CPSU(b) made the NEP a supporter of centralization, which was in conflict with its principles.

There was another reason for the rejection of the NEP: the mood of the leading cadres and a large part of society, which regarded it as a "temporary retreat", a "tactical maneuver".

In the second half of the 20s. recovery reserves in the industry were exhausted, the country was faced with the need for huge capital investments. However, it was not possible to attract private capital, as it was prohibited by law. The accelerated development of industry depended on the peasantry, who had to be forced to give up everything they produced. Therefore, re-emerged in 1927-1928. the grain procurement crisis, which led to the introduction of the rationing system, was resolved by emergency measures of the era of war communism: through the forcible seizure of grain and arrests.

The transition to repressive measures was due not least to political reasons - the growing threat to the communist Soviet power from the strengthened prosperous peasantry. Insurmountable contradictions between the economy and the political system, based on the omnipotence of administrative-command methods, led to the end of the NEP and the transition to mass collectivization of the peasantry.

82. THE ESSENCE OF COLLECTIVIZATION POLICY

The essence of the work carried out in the USSR in the late 20s and early 30s. collectivization policy consisted in the fact that the party-state apparatus sought to unite the entire peasant population of the country (in most cases against its will) into collective (collective farms) or Soviet (state farms) farms in order to provide cities with cheap agricultural products, and industry with material resources and free labor force. This policy was formalized in the documents of the beginning of 1930, when the decision of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks and the Council of People's Commissars "On the pace of collectivization ..." determined the terms for uniting peasants in collective farms in all regions of the country. The government of the USSR granted local authorities the right to apply in areas of complete collectivization "all necessary measures to combat the kulaks, up to and including the complete confiscation of kulaks' property and their eviction from individual districts and territories." In February 1930, a secret instruction "On measures for the eviction and dispossession of kulaks, the confiscation of their property" was adopted. The number of those evicted was determined in advance, that is, in a planned way, at 3-5% of all peasants, depending on the region. The means of production, livestock, household and residential buildings, and all other property, including household utensils, were confiscated from the evicted peasants. The confiscated was transferred to the fund of the formed collective farms and state farms.

The negative attitude of the peasants towards collectivization was manifested in the fact that after the appearance in the press of the article by I.V. Stalin's "Dizziness from success" began their mass exit from the collective farms. In a short time, the share of collective farms in the country fell from 55 to 24%. However, the continued policy of dispossession contributed to the fact that by 1933, up to 70% of all peasant farms were united in collective farms.

As a result of the forced collectivization of agriculture and the "liquidation of the kulaks as a class," the age-old way of life of the peasantry was broken. The lack of material incentives to work led to the fact that the created collective farms eked out a miserable existence, and in the fertile regions of the country in 1932-1933. famine broke out.

83. THE ESSENCE OF INDUSTRIALIZATION POLICY

The "commanding heights" of the economy, which were in the hands of the state, were to form the foundations of the socialist structure of society. The state enterprises of heavy industry, which remained untouched during the NEP period, could not function without a plan and leadership from above. The government had to look after them, determine the price of their products and force them to lower their production costs. As a result, the practice of planning the most important branches of industry was introduced. Following this, in connection with the supposed victory of the socialist sector over the private sector, the idea of a general economic plan for all branches of the national economy arose. When drawing up the first five-year plans, emphasis was placed on the development of heavy industry, the "super-industrialization" of the state.

The key issue in the development of industry was the need to create a domestic military-industrial complex (MIC). To prepare the army for war (and no one doubted that it would soon begin), it was necessary that all military production work on domestic raw materials. All armaments and supplies for the army had to be prepared inside the USSR, since it was impossible to count on any material and technical assistance from other countries.

From the late 20s, when industrialization began, large-scale construction of new and reconstruction of old military factories began in the country, and management of the military-industrial complex being created was improved. An important moment in the centralization of military-industrial production was 1932, when the Supreme Economic Council was abolished and the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry was created on its basis.

The sharp increase in the number of "personnel" defense factories and their provision with the latest equipment, the purchase of which cost huge amounts of foreign currency, made it possible to equip the growing Red Army with everything necessary.

The country's leadership went to lower the standard of living of the population, pumping out funds from the collective farm village, the widespread use of cheap labor of special settlers and prisoners, limiting financial resources in the social sphere. Not only people directly involved in this production, but also the entire surrounding population, were mobilized for systematic subbotniks and Sundays. To manage those sectors of the national economy in which the prisoners worked, the Main Directorate of Camps (GULAG) was created. It occupied a monopoly position in the gold mining industry, the production of silver, platinum and diamonds, and was also a major producer of agricultural products.

Thus, as a result of the implementation of the industrialization policy, a powerful industry was created in the country and, on its basis, a military industry. The "backbone" of the defense of the USSR was the Urals, where the flagships of the domestic industry were built - Uralmash, Uralvagon, Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant, etc. The creation of large factories made it possible to deploy defense production here, inaccessible to enemy air strikes.

84. RESULTS OF COLLECTIVIZATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION

Late 20s - early 30s. - one of the most difficult periods in the history of the country. The model of socio-economic development chosen after the NEP, oriented towards the rapid construction of socialism, gave rise to a deep crisis in society. Undermined by forced collectivization, agriculture was in a critical state, which led to a sharp reduction in its production and famine in a number of regions of the country. In industry, labor productivity dropped sharply, and all planned plans for industrialization were frustrated. With the financial situation in disarray, the huge budget deficit was covered by higher prices for consumer goods and the expansion of the commercial trade network. Part of the created collective farms disintegrated, and in the spring of 1932, in connection with the decrease in the norms of the card supply of bread, anti-government protests of workers and employees in the cities began. Food riots swept across the country.

Under these conditions, the Bolsheviks could only retain power with the help of mass repressions. The failures of the first five-year plan were explained by the presence of enemies among workers and employees, and in order to "expose" them in the early 30s. show trials were organized, such as the "Shakhty" case, the case of the "industrial party", the case of the "Academy of Sciences", etc. As a result of these repressions, a serious blow was dealt to the engineering and technical corps, which lost many hundreds of leading specialists and managers. Academic science suffered greatly, which was reorganized and deprived of independence, completely falling under the control of the party nomenklatura. All attempts at an organized rebuff to the current policy were suppressed with the help of military force.

85. STATEMENT OF THE REGIME OF PERSONAL POWER I.V. STALIN

Established in the USSR in 1920-1950. the system is usually called authoritarian, i.e. dictatorial, the regime of personal power of I.V. Stalin.

One of the reasons for the establishment of such a dictatorship should be recognized as the presence in society of patriarchal, autocratic foundations. The centuries-old tradition of autocracy served as fertile ground for the establishment of authoritarianism. An important role was also played by the so-called "Russian radicalism", which absorbed both the traditions of the Narodniks and revolutionary Marxism. Another reason for the establishment of a one-man dictatorship in the country is the liquidation of all political parties, except for the ruling one, and the transformation of the one-party system into the power of the party-Soviet nomenklatura.

With state production dominating in the country, the nomenclature becomes, in fact, a class of owners, since it monopolizes society and distributes national wealth. The second, subordinate, class consists of the vast majority of the population, which is exploited by the state. Belonging to the nomenklatura class guarantees a person life's benefits in the form of special services from the state (high salaries, food rations, etc.). Being loyal to the state, the nomenklatura can retain all his privileges; the slightest disobedience is punishable by expulsion from among the hired workers elected to the class. The latter is completely subordinate to the ruling circles, politically and economically alienated from the instruments and means of production, the results of his labor.

The ruling elite managed to achieve the stable existence of such a system with the help of a number of political, economic and military measures. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to note the establishment of a single ideology in society.

It should also be noted the struggle of the Bolshevik Party with religion. During the years of its rule, the Communist Party did everything to destroy the church and eradicate religious ideology from the consciousness of the people. Orthodoxy was replaced by class consciousness, communist ideology.

In addition to measures of ideological influence, a decisive role in the organization of the Soviet system was also played by the establishment by the top of the nomenklatura of universal control over the life of society through the introduction of a state monopoly on information and public organizations of citizens. In the 30s. party-state structures responsible for the collection and dissemination of information are being strengthened.

With the introduction of general censorship, the state established control over the media. After the liquidation of the free press, the created communist press began to play the role of a mouthpiece for the policy pursued by the state, was completely subordinate to the party committees of various levels.

One of the main goals of universal state control was the formation of a new personality - the Soviet man of a socialist society. For this, illiteracy was eliminated, the number of cultural institutions increased. Everything that serves the interests of the revolution and the construction of a socialist society, including violence and terror, was considered moral.

86. TERROR AND MASS REPRESSIONS OF THE 30s

In the early 30s. completed the process of creating a totalitarian machine of violence. Under the conditions of the monopoly of state property and the alienation of the worker from the means of production, with an acute shortage of capital, the possibility of material incentives for labor was extremely limited. All this led to a drop in the living standards of the population, contributed to the growth of tension in society and dissatisfaction with the ruling circles. Not only powerful political and ideological pressure, but also a particularly emerging repressive apparatus, a system of violence against a person, was called upon to raise such a society to the implementation of the proclaimed socialist goals and at the same time secure the power of the nomenklatura.

The beginning of mass terror in relation to all segments of the population falls on December 1934, when SM was killed. Kirov. The goal of mass repressions was the remaining political opponents of Stalin's power and the nomenklatura elite close to him. A major role in the development of terror was played by the decree of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR of December 1, 1934, which introduced amendments to the Criminal Code for the investigation of cases "on terrorist organizations and terrorist acts." It was determined that the investigation of these cases should be completed within 10 days; the indictment must be served on the accused one day before the case is heard in court; the case is heard without the participation of the parties; cassation appeal and petitions for pardon are not allowed; a sentence of capital punishment is carried out immediately.

Since that time, literally every day, all Soviet newspapers and radio stations reported on the struggle of the NKVD with "enemies of the people", on the course of political trials, on the imposition of death sentences, etc., whipping up hysteria in society.

The February-March Plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in 1937 and Stalin's report at it were not only a broad program, but also a methodology for repression against internal and external enemies. After the plenum, a special letter from the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks authorized the use of measures of physical coercion, i.e., torture, in the practice of the NKVD.

Mass repressions of the 30s. are characterized by the fact that they were carried out in relation to all segments of the population and throughout the country. Under the pretext of fighting enemies, Stalin's regime cracked down on all statesmen who could lay claim to supreme power. Representatives of the so-called "exploiting classes" were practically exterminated. The command staff of the Red Army was crushed. The policy of the final liquidation of the old educated class in Russia was also continued, the cadres of the scientific, technical and creative intelligentsia were repressed. In the 30s. began the mass deportation of a number of peoples to use them in forced labor.

The true meaning of the terror organized in the country was that the ruling elite set itself the goal of suppressing the slightest resistance to their actions and instilling fear in society before any attempts to do anything in the future against the existing order.

87. MAIN DIRECTIONS OF FOREIGN POLICY OF THE USSR IN 1920-1930

During the 1920-1930s. The Soviet Union in its foreign policy tried to achieve a number of tasks.

First task was a breakthrough of the diplomatic and economic blockade of the country. In the 20s. On the whole, the Soviet government succeeded in solving this problem. A number of peace treaties with border countries were concluded already in 1920-1921, and after the Genoa Conference of 1922, the gradual improvement of relations between the USSR and the countries of the Western world began. Germany was the first among the leading European powers to restore diplomatic relations with the USSR. In April 1922, an agreement was concluded between these states in Rapallo, which determined the friendly nature of relations between them for the next decade. Both sides were interested in close political, economic and military cooperation - both Germany, humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles, and Soviet Russia, which needed scientific and technical assistance. The final breakthrough of the diplomatic blockade occurred in the mid-20s, when the USSR established diplomatic relations with England over the course of several years. France, Italy and a number of other leading countries of the world. In 1934, the USSR was admitted to the League of Nations and began to play a significant role in creating a system of collective security in Europe.

As regards the implementation second task - the search for reliable and long-term partner states, its implementation was significantly complicated by the mentioned dual nature of the Soviet Union.

During the 20s-30s. only the Mongolian People's Republic was a friendly state to the USSR. In addition, our country provided military assistance to the Spanish Republican government in the civil war and to China in the war with Japan. Depending on specific foreign policy circumstances, the USSR cooperated in different years with Germany, England, France and a number of other states.

Third task - the promotion of the "world revolution" to the territory of other countries - the Soviet state began to carry out as early as 1919, when the Comintern, an international communist organization, was created in Moscow for these purposes. The Comintern organized uprisings in Germany and Bulgaria (1923). However, the failures of military actions, as well as the extremely negative international reaction to them, forced the leadership of the USSR to somewhat distance themselves from direct participation in revolutionary activities in other countries. Nevertheless, throughout all the years of its existence, the Soviet state continued to exercise control over the actions of the extreme left forces and their support throughout the world.

Thus, during the 20's - early 30's. The USSR managed to overcome diplomatic isolation. At the same time, the leading states of the world, for the reasons stated above, considered the existence of the USSR as a potential threat to their security. In the foreign policy of the Soviet country, a revolution was made from the idea of a world revolution to the concept of building socialism in conditions of a capitalist encirclement and the need for cooperation with foreign states in this connection.

88. USSR IN THE SYSTEM OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND THE RESULTS OF FOREIGN POLICY IN 1920-1930

By the mid 30s. The balance of power in Europe has changed dramatically. The Versailles system, created as a result of the First World War, actually ceased to exist, since with the coming to power of A. Hitler in Germany (1933), this country headed for militarization and expansion.

The main direction of Soviet foreign policy in the mid-30s. attempts to create a system of collective security in Europe to counteract German aggression should be recognized. Having established diplomatic relations with most European countries, the USSR also concluded mutual assistance treaties (France, Czechoslovakia) or non-aggression pacts (Finland, Poland, Italy) with a number of them. The turning point in the foreign policy of the USSR was the Munich Agreement of 1938, according to which England and France agreed to the rejection of the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia in favor of Germany, despite the fact that the USSR was ready to enter the war on the side of Czechoslovakia. Obviously, such a position of the allies called into question the prospects of the Anglo-French-Soviet coalition.

In this situation, the Soviet Union and Germany were mutually interested in a temporary alliance. On August 24, 1939, a non-aggression pact was signed between the two countries, and a secret additional protocol to it divided spheres of influence in Eastern Europe between them. Thus, in less than two years, the USSR and Germany actually divided the states of this region among themselves and removed the barrier separating them from neutral countries by the summer of 1941. One of the results of Soviet foreign policy during this period, there was a breakthrough in the economic and political blockade of the country through the conclusion of a number of agreements with the leading states of the world. The USSR became a full member of the system of international relations and pursued a pragmatic foreign policy, largely abandoning the old system of stereotypes. In the period from August 1939 to June 1941, Germany acted as a de facto ally of the USSR, which concluded with the USSR not only a trade and economic agreement, but also a secret military and political agreement on the division of spheres of influence in Europe. Thus, the Soviet Union, obviously, lost a lot in the eyes of the world community, but managed to increase its territory by 500 thousand square meters. km and increase the population of the country by 23 million people at the expense of lands with developed infrastructure. By June 1941, Soviet power had been established on the territory of almost the entire former Russian Empire, and a socio-economic, material and technical basis had been created for waging a nationwide war. The imminent, inevitable start of this war was also obvious - the desire of both the USSR and Germany to extend their model of development to all the countries surrounding them inevitably led to the emergence of fundamental contradictions between them, made the clash of these two forces inevitable.

89. ACCESSION OF SOME TERRITORIES TO THE USSR IN 1939-1940

In full accordance with the aforementioned secret protocol, Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939 from the west, and the USSR on September 17 from the east. By the end of the month, the redistribution of Poland was completed, and the territories of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus were ceded to the USSR.

If the war with Poland ended for the USSR quickly and with few losses, then the so-called "winter war" with Finland in 1939-1940. revealed the serious shortcomings of the Red Army and showed the inefficiency of its command. Starting on November 29, 1939, it continued until March 12, 1940 and cost the USSR about 75 thousand people killed and more than 200 thousand wounded and frostbite. Despite the fact that the Soviet troops outnumbered the Finnish by five times in the number of divisions, six times in the number of guns and 30 times in the number of aircraft, the USSR could not capture Finland and was forced to sign a peace treaty. According to the agreement, the Karelian Isthmus and a number of other territories went to the Soviet Union, and the distance from Leningrad to the new state border increased from 32 to 150 km. For the attack on Finland, the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations.

The division of spheres of influence between Germany and the USSR in the Baltic took place in 1939-1940. In the autumn of 1939, the Soviet Union entered the territory of Estonia. Latvia and Lithuania had its troops, and in the summer of 1940 actually annexed these states, bringing communist governments to power.

By the summer of 1940, the Soviet Union also occupied part of the territory of Romania. After the presentation of the ultimatum, the USSR sent troops into Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina and, in accordance with the secret Soviet-German protocol, regained these territories, which were part of Russia until 1918.

At this time, Germany, having untied its hands with an agreement with the USSR, conducted a number of successful military operations. Between September 1939 and December 1940, she managed to capture most of the territories of continental Europe, rapidly defeating Poland (in 36 days), Greece and Yugoslavia (in 18 days), France (in 44 days), as well as a number of others countries. As a result, Germany became the dominant military power on the continent; its next obvious step seemed to be a blow to the USSR.

90. REASONS FOR THE DEFEAT OF THE RED ARMY IN THE INITIAL PERIOD OF WWII

By June 22, 1941, the Red Army was one of the largest in the world in terms of the number of personnel and the amount of equipment in it. In almost all military indicators, the Soviet Union achieved parity or surpassed Germany and its allies (Hungary, Romania, Italy and Finland). The country, enduring great hardships, was preparing for war - defense spending in the period 1939-1941. tripled; in the eastern regions, the construction of backup enterprises was launched; in 1940, the transition to an eight-hour working day and a seven-day working week was carried out, laws were adopted on criminal liability for being late for work and prohibiting the transfer to another place of work, that is, residents of the city and villagers who were actually attached to their enterprise and to their collective farm switched to military operation.

There are a number causes of defeat Red Army in the initial period of the Second World War.

1. Prisoners of the USSR in 1939-1941. trade agreements with Germany were a loss for the Soviet Union. Instead of the expected loan of 200 million marks, the USSR actually invested 220 million marks in the German economy by supplying the future enemy with strategic materials - grain, oil, copper, nickel, etc., which the German army turned against the Red Army.

2. Germany and its allies surpassed the USSR in human resources - the conquered peoples of Europe with a total of 400 million people worked for them. while the entire population of the USSR was 197 million people.

3. The command of the Wehrmacht was better prepared for the war. As a result of mass repressions in the USSR, most of the regular commanders were physically destroyed - from the level of a regiment to the level of a marshal of the Soviet Union. By the summer of 1941, about 75% of the command staff of the army had been in their positions for less than a year, about 85% were under 35 years old. Such losses could not be replenished in a short time.

4. Gross mistakes of the leadership of the USSR in assessing the international situation led to the fact that the Red Army was not put on alert even when the imminent German attack could no longer be hidden. Stalin and his entourage believed to the last that Germany would not wage war on two fronts, ignoring the reports of diplomats and intelligence officers.

5. In accordance with the doctrine of the Red Army's readiness to "defend its own land on foreign soil," the necessary measures were not taken to prepare the country's infrastructure for long-term defensive operations. The enemy in a short period of time captured huge material and technical resources concentrated in the border districts and used them against the USSR.

6. A disdainful attitude towards the enemy and confidence in the indestructible might of the Red Army played an extremely negative role at the initial stage of the war. Thus, the Soviet military leadership did not properly analyze the reasons for the success of the Wehrmacht on the fronts of Europe, and ideological workers convinced Soviet citizens of the weakness and limitations of the German troops, the low morale of their rear.

91. FIRST STAGE OF THE WAR (JUNE 22, 1941 - MID-1942)

For 5 months, German troops captured an area of 1,5 million square meters. km, on which in June 1941 75 million people lived. In fact, the entire pre-war Red Army was defeated. The enemy blocked Leningrad and came close to Moscow. Under these conditions, the leadership of the USSR tried to negotiate peace with Germany, but in the hope of a close victory, Hitler refused to negotiate.

The State Defense Committee (GKO) was organized, which concentrated all power in the country in its hands. For the strategic leadership of the armed struggle, the Headquarters of the Supreme High Command (VGK) was created. Both of these bodies were headed by Stalin, thus effectively and legally concentrating in his hands all the party, state and military power of the country.

Huge work was done to evacuate production to the eastern regions of the USSR. More than 2600 industrial enterprises with engineering and technical personnel were transported, which made it possible to organize production for the front in new places in a short time.

In July 1941, the institution of military commissars was introduced - representatives of the CPSU (b) in the army and navy, who were responsible for the morale of the troops and had command authority. In addition, mass repressions continued against all categories of the country's population - during 1941, the command of the Western, Northwestern and Southern Fronts, a number of major military leaders and leading weapon designers who were already in prison, were shot. The state fought the "internal enemy" with cruel, essentially criminal methods - the order of the Supreme Command Headquarters No. 270 in August 1941 declared all captured Red Army soldiers "traitors to the Motherland", and the September directives of the People's Commissariat of Defense authorized the creation of barrage detachments and recognized those taken hostage by the Nazis civilians "accomplices of the enemy." Of particular note is the fate of Soviet prisoners of war. The USSR did not sign the Geneva Convention of 1929 and did not allocate funds to the International Red Cross for their maintenance. Families of prisoners of war were arrested, deprived of state benefits and assistance, which, under the conditions of a universal rationing system, meant starvation. All this had an extremely negative effect on the psychological state of soldiers and officers, and made it possible to form formations from prisoners of war that turned their weapons against the Soviet regime.

Of great importance for the outcome of the war was the successful organization of the armed struggle against the Wehrmacht in the rear of the German troops. The organizational formalization of the partisan movement began in July 1941 with the adoption of the corresponding resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks.

The measures taken to restructure the entire state system for a wartime regime and the transfer of reinforcements from the Far East at a decisive moment allowed the Soviet troops to stop the advance of the Wehrmacht and, during the battle of Moscow (winter 1941-1942), finally bury the hopes of the Nazi command for a quick end to the war.

92. SECOND AND THIRD STAGES OF THE WAR (MID 1942 - END 1943 -MAY 9, 1945)

Having managed to defeat the German army for the first time during the Battle of Moscow, the Soviet command hoped to build on this success during the summer campaign of 1942. However, overestimation of their own forces and underestimation of the enemy led to the fact that offensive operations in the Crimea and near Kharkov ended in a brutal defeat of the Soviet troops. The Wehrmacht launched a counteroffensive on the southern wing, hoping to seize the Caucasus, the Kuban and the Lower Volga region, which would draw Turkey and Japan into the war against the USSR. The largest battle during the second stage of the Great Patriotic War was the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942-1943, the victory in which made a radical change in the course of hostilities.

Success in the Battle of Stalingrad cost the USSR dearly. Back in July 1942, order No. 227, known as "Not a step back", was issued to strengthen discipline in the troops, which corresponded to its content. This order provided for the creation of penal battalions and the use of barrage detachments, which led to new casualties among soldiers and officers.

The success of the Red Army, which defeated a large grouping of fascist troops near Stalingrad in November 1942 - February 1943, developed into a general offensive along the entire front from Leningrad to the Caucasus. During the Battle of Kursk (July 1943), the Wehrmacht lost 30 divisions, and the victory in the battle for the Dnieper completed a radical turning point in the war. By December 1943, about ²/₃ Soviet land previously occupied by the enemy.

The final period of the Great Patriotic War characterized by the final expulsion of the invaders from the territory of the USSR and the liberation of European countries from the Nazi regime. Although by the beginning of 1944 the material and human resources of Germany were depleted, the enemy had a land army of 5 million people. To defeat the fascist coalition, a number of offensive operations were undertaken, which made it possible by April 1944 to reach the state border and cross into the territory of Romania. In June - August 1944, the Red Army carried out one of the largest operations of the Second World War - the Belarusian one, inflicting irreparable losses on the Wehrmacht. By the end of 1944, the Soviet state was completely liberated from the invaders, the fighting was transferred to the territory of European countries.

The decisive attack on Berlin unfolded in April 1945. Despite huge losses, the Soviet troops managed to capture the city - on May 2, the German capital fell, and on May 8, the Act of Germany's unconditional surrender was signed in Karlshorst. The day of the liberation of Prague - May 9 - became the Day of the Victory of the Soviet people over fascism.

93. PARTICIPATION OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE ANTI-FASCIST COALITION IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR. WWII RESULTS

Already in the first days of the attack by Germany and its allies on the USSR, the governments of Britain and the United States declared their intention to support our country. The basis of the coalition was formed during 1941, when the USSR signed a number of treaties with Britain and the USA and established contacts with the emigre governments of a number of fascist countries. The entry of Japan into the war in December 1941 accelerated the formation of the anti-fascist camp, and by the fall of 1942 it already included 34 states with a population of 1,5 billion people. At the same time, the Soviet Union, which bore the main hardships of the war, made a decisive contribution to the defeat of Germany and its allies.

At the same time, the importance of economic assistance from the Western countries, the allies of the Soviet Union, should be noted. Lend-lease aid made up a significant part of the Soviet military production of aircraft, tanks, and guns. The USSR received 400 thousand cars and a large number of other goods: oil, fabrics, food, etc. - for a total of 11 billion US dollars.

Among the most important military operations of the allies of the USSR, one should note the landing in France and thereby the opening in June 1944 of a second front against Germany in Europe. During the period 1944-1945. Anglo-American troops, with the support of the French resistance movement, liberated France, occupied the southern lands of Germany, entered Austria, and took a number of Czechoslovak cities.

An important component of the victory was the diplomatic efforts of the allies in the anti-fascist coalition. The first conference of the "Big Three" with the participation of the leaders of the USSR, Great Britain and the USA was held in Tehran in December 1943 and determined the timing of the opening of a second front in Europe. At the Crimean Conference in February 1945, the problems of completing the defeat of Germany were agreed upon and questions of a post-war settlement were discussed.

In accordance with its allied obligations, the USSR entered the war with Japan on August 8, 1945 and defeated its ground forces. Japan signed the Unconditional Surrender Act, marking the end of World War II.

The main result of the combat operations of the USSR on the fronts of World War II was the defeat of the bloc of fascist states, the liberation of 11 states of Europe and two countries of Asia from occupation. The Soviet Union became the second most powerful world power, established a communist system of government in a number of countries in Eastern Europe and Asia, thus forming the socialist camp of its allies.

The consequences of the war for the population of the USSR were extremely difficult. The war claimed about 27 million human lives. 30% of the country's national wealth was destroyed. During the war, a number of categories of the population were subjected to repression. From the end of 1944, repressions resumed in the army and navy.

Only the fortitude of the spirit of the Soviet people, their readiness to repulse the aggressor, saved the peoples of the USSR from enslavement. History has included numerous examples of the heroism of citizens at the front and in the rear.

94. SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION IN THE COUNTRY IN THE FIRST POST-WAR YEARS

During the war years, the economy of the Soviet Union suffered huge material damage, estimated at about 3 trillion rubles, or 30% of the national wealth. About 27 million people died, the number of disabled people increased significantly. The restoration of industry and agriculture required huge financial resources that the state did not possess. Not accepting US aid for political reasons, the Soviet government was forced to rely only on internal reserves, which led to a decrease in the standard of living of the population, primarily in the countryside.

The country faced an extremely difficult task. The most affected during the hostilities were the territories under occupation. Industry and agriculture in these areas were destroyed by more than half. In addition, 1946 turned out to be a poor harvest, as a result of which agricultural production decreased by about 60% compared to the pre-war level. Industrial production in 1946 was 77% of the 1940 level.

In June 1945, the country began the transition to peacetime - a law was passed on the partial demobilization of the armed forces. In three years, the army was reduced from 11,4 to 2,9 million people. In addition to 8,5 million military personnel, former prisoners of war also poured into the national economy, as well as Soviet citizens driven away to work in the countries of the Nazi coalition during the occupation - a total of about 5,2 million people. In September 1945, the state of emergency was lifted in the country and the eight-hour working day was formally restored.

The process of restoring the national economy took about 5 years. Gross indicators of industrial production reached the pre-war level in 1948-1949, the most important branches of agriculture - in 1950. By 1950, railway transport was basically restored. These rates were achieved due to the following factors. First, in the process of conversion, i.e., the transfer of the economy to peaceful production, the military-industrial complex of the country was preserved. Civil engineering has been established on its basis. Secondly, due to the equipment captured and received according to reparations, the technical re-equipment of many industries was carried out. Thirdly, the labor of imprisoned Soviet citizens and prisoners of war from the countries of the former Nazi coalition was widely used. And, finally, as already noted, the restoration of the national economy was achieved largely due to the ruin of the inhabitants of the collective farm village.

The standard of living of Soviet citizens after the crisis of the first post-war years began to gradually increase In cities, after the abolition of the rationing system (December 1947), prices for a number of food and industrial goods decreased several times, and incomes of the population grew. In the countryside, improvements were less noticeable, but even there, payments for workdays were gradually increased, and taxes on household plots were reduced.

95. REPRESSIONS 1946-1953 SCIENCE AND CULTURE IN THE FIRST POST-WAR YEARS

After the end of the war, many Soviet citizens counted on changes in the socio-political life of society. They stopped blindly trusting the ideological dogmas of Stalinist socialism. Hence the numerous rumors about the dissolution of collective farms, the permission of private production, etc., which actively circulated among the population in the first post-war years. Hence the growth of social activity of society, especially among young people.

However, it was pointless to count on the democratization of society under conditions of rigid authoritarian power. The authorities responded with repressions aimed primarily at the intelligentsia and youth. The starting point for a new series of political processes was the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On the magazines Zvezda and Leningrad" (August 1946). In the same year, several trials were held against "anti-Soviet" youth groups in Moscow, Chelyabinsk, Voronezh, and others. The most famous of the fabricated political cases of the period 1946-1953. - "Leningrad", "Mingrelian" and "case of poisoning doctors".

In addition to the political opposition, the Soviet government also had opponents with weapons in their hands. First of all, these are members of partisan detachments in Western Ukraine and the Baltic states, who fought against the new government until the mid-50s. In addition, in the first post-war years, trials were held against members of the Russian Liberation Army, General A.A. Vlasov, as well as over Nazi war criminals and accomplices of the invaders. In addition to real traitors, thousands of innocent citizens were convicted, including former prisoners of war, prisoners of concentration camps. Actions continued to evict people to remote areas of the country on a national basis.

Despite the difficult economic situation in the post-war period, the Soviet government paid considerable attention to development of science and education. In 1946-1950. spending on education increased 1,5 times, and on science - 2,5 times. At the same time, the emphasis was on those branches of science that worked for the needs of the military-industrial complex. In this area, design bureaus (“sharashki”) continued to function, in which imprisoned specialists worked; opens a number of research institutes. Together with the active work of foreign intelligence, this allowed the USSR to destroy the US monopoly on the possession of nuclear weapons by 1949.

At the same time, a difficult situation is developing in branches of science that are not directly related to the military industry. The heaviest blow falls on cybernetics and genetics, which were actually banned. The humanities, literature and art have been seriously affected by ideological diktat and pressure from the authorities. A decisive role in this was played by the campaign to combat "cosmopolitanism" launched after 1946. Under the slogan of opposition to the "reactionary policy of the West", individual cultural figures (D. Shostakovich, A. Akhmatova, M. Zoshchenko, etc.), and entire creative teams (magazines Zvezda, Leningrad, etc.)

96. STRUGGLE FOR POWER AFTER THE DEATH OF I.V. STALIN. XX CONGRESS OF THE CPSU

Long-term leader of the USSR, dictator with unlimited powers, head of the Communist Party and the Soviet government I.V. Stalin died on March 5, 1953. A struggle for power developed among his former entourage, and at first the leaders were able to reach an agreement on the so-called "collective leadership." G.M. was elected Chairman of the Council of Ministers. Malenkov, Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR - K.E. Voroshilov, the Secretariat of the Central Committee of the CPSU was headed by N.S. Khrushchev. In addition to them, L.P. had great power in the country. Beria (Minister of Internal Affairs and State Security), N.A. Bulganin (Minister of Defense) V.M. Molotov and L.M. Kaganovich (First Deputy Chairmen of the Council of Ministers)

Such a system could not last long. Despite assurances of the "solidity" of the leadership, L.P. soon became the first victim of behind-the-scenes intrigues and secret negotiations. Beria, who was arrested in June 1953 at a meeting of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU with the support of the army and was soon shot by the verdict of the Supreme Court. The elimination of Beria contributed to the strengthening of the position of N.Kh. Khrushchev, who was able to promote his supporter I.A. to the post of chairman of the KGB. Serov. Having received a majority of votes in the leadership of the Communist Party, in January 1955 he initiated the decision to remove G.M. Malenkov. Finally N.S. Khrushchev established himself as the only leader of the country after the dismissal in June 1957 of the members of the so-called "anti-party group" - V.M. Molotov, G.M. Malenkov and L.M. Kaganovich.

XX Congress of the CPSU, held in February 1956, or rather, a report on it by N.S. Khrushchev "On the cult of personality and its consequences", was a watershed turning point in the history of the country. The reason for this lies in the fact that under the influence of the decisions of the congress in the USSR, the processes of emancipation of public consciousness, a departure from previous stereotypes, and the restructuring of life in a new way began.

The essence of N.S. Khrushchev was that he highlighted the negative aspects of the life of Soviet society, criticized many of the actions of the former leader. For people who have lived for decades under the rule of I.V. Stalin and who absolutely trusted his every word, such criticism from the lips of the head of the country came as a shock. It is no coincidence that after the XNUMXth Congress the period of the so-called "thaw" begins - the time of the flourishing of the creative thought of society, discussions about the further ways of the country's development, and the formation of spiritual opposition to the authorities.

However, the exposure of the "cult of personality" (this term was first used by GM Malenkov in 1953) did not and could not lead to a radical reorganization of the Soviet system. Minor changes in the system that had been formed in previous years were not of a fundamental nature and did not affect the foundations of the state - the omnipotence of party bodies and their total control over the life of society.

97. SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE MIDDLE 1950s - THE FIRST HALF OF THE 1960s

Among the measures to partially liberalize the life of society, taken by the country's leadership in the mid-50s - the first half of the 60s, it is necessary to single out, first of all, the process of rehabilitation of victims of political repressions, which began already in April 1953, shortly after Stalin's death. Millions of innocent citizens were able to return home from camps and places of exile, and the national autonomy of many previously exiled peoples was restored.

Another characteristic feature of this time was the introduction of elements of self-government in various structures of society, the transfer of some legislative and judicial functions from the center to the localities, and the provision on the mandatory discussion of candidates for elected positions.

In the economic sphere, one of the most significant reforms was an attempt to move from the sectoral to the territorial principle of industrial management. In May 1957, Councils of the National Economy (Sovnarkhozes) were formed, replacing some of the ministries. Thus, while maintaining a single planned policy in the development of the national economy, the management of industry from the center was partially transferred to the Union republics.

At the first stage, the reform gave a significant impetus to the development of the economy - the growth rate of national income increased, significant funds were saved by reducing the bureaucracy. However, due to the limited measures taken, the defining trend was the restoration of the former system of government.

The period of the mid 50's - the first half of the 60's. was marked by a noticeable rise in the economy of the USSR. Due to the ongoing reforms, as well as on the wave of labor enthusiasm, new industries emerged, and existing ones developed rapidly. By the mid 50s. dates back to the beginning of the scientific and technological revolution in the USSR, which made it possible to master many important areas of the national economy. During the years of the seven-year plan (1959-1965), the fixed assets of industry and the capacity of power plants were doubled, and about 5,5 large enterprises were built. And it is no coincidence that in April 1961 it was the USSR that was able to carry out the first space flight in the history of mankind.

At the same time, the growth in the production of light industry and agriculture was insignificant. This was primarily due to insufficient funding and rude administrative dictates on the part of the governing bodies.

During the "thaw" the standard of living of Soviet citizens, especially city dwellers, rose to a certain extent. A number of laws and resolutions were adopted to raise wages, shorten the working day, and introduce pensions for collective farmers. There was a breakthrough in housing construction - due to the reduction in cost and mass production, only in the years of the seven-year plan, the country's housing stock increased by 40%.

98. SCIENCE AND CULTURE IN THE MIDDLE 1950s - THE FIRST HALF OF THE 1960s

After a difficult period for science and culture in these areas since the mid-50s. rise begins "Thaw" has a beneficial effect on the development of the creative forces of society.

During this period, there is a significant revival in the field of literature and painting, cinema and music. There was a breakthrough in physical and mathematical research, new scientific centers were created - Novosibirsk Akademgorodok, Dubna near Moscow, etc.

The talent of such figures of science and art as M. Keldysh (mathematics), L. Landau, A. Sakharov, I. Tamm (physics), E. Yevtushenko, A. Voznesensky (literature), M. Khutsiev, E. Ryazanov (cinema), etc.

There was a growing interest in acquiring knowledge - since 1958, a universal eight-year education was introduced in the USSR, the number of educational institutions and the number of their graduates, especially engineering specialties, increased significantly.

At the same time, Soviet citizens still did not have the right to freely express their thoughts in the media, which were under the control of the party apparatus. The nomenclature could not allow freethinking and continued to direct creative processes by directive methods.

Only the penalties have changed - now, instead of prison, the perpetrators in most cases were subjected to "only" public persecution, expulsion from creative unions, and expulsion from the country.

However, such pressure from above could no longer stop the liberated energy. By the beginning of the 60s. include both the first mass protests (for example, the shot demonstration of workers in Novocherkassk, 1962), and the emergence of a dissident movement in the USSR (E. Ginzburg, B. Galanskov, V. Bukovsky, and others). Critical speeches suppressed by the authorities did not disappear, but only went underground, changed their form.

99. WORLD EDUCATION SOCIALIST SYSTEM AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR. CONSEQUENCES OF THE "COLD WAR" FOR THE USSR

After the end of World War II, the balance of power between the leading powers changed fundamentally. The United States significantly strengthened its positions, while all European countries emerged from the war with an undermined economy. In Western Europe, occupied by US and British troops, states began to form according to the model of Western democracies, while in Eastern Europe, occupied by Soviet troops, the model of "Stalinist socialism" was taking shape. Thus, after the collapse of the anti-Hitler coalition, all of Europe was divided into two opposing groupings of states, in which the USA and the USSR played the main role. These alliances received political formalization in 1949 with the formation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and in 1955 - the Warsaw Pact Organization.

Shortly after the end of the Second World War, they entered the socialist system as Eastern European (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, etc.). and Asian countries (China in 1949, North Korea in 1953, etc.). The USSR pursued a policy of supporting pro-communist regimes in the countries of the Third World, counting on the encirclement of the developed capitalist states by a ring of socialist republics. In turn, the United States declared a "crusade" against the spread of communist ideas. Thus, the confrontation between the two superpowers - the USSR and the USA - acquired a global character.

But this confrontation between the superpowers was not beneficial to them. Instead of social programs, money was spent on the arms race, to support the allies, and for propaganda purposes. So. The Soviet Union provided significant economic benefits to the countries of the socialist camp by conducting an unequal exchange in their favor and selling energy carriers at prices below world prices. Huge sums went to support various communist movements around the world. Having achieved strategic parity with the United States in the second half of the 70s. The USSR thus undermined its own economy, since the excess production of military products was carried out at the expense of savings on the production of consumer goods. Thus, the development of military programs to the detriment of social ones and the resulting drop in the living standards of people were one of the reasons for the collapse of the USSR and the entire socialist camp.

100. THE MAIN STAGES OF THE "COLD WAR"

The term "cold war" is understood as the confrontation between the leading world systems - the capitalist, led by the United States and the socialist, led by the USSR, which began after World War II and ended with the collapse of the Warsaw Pact in 1991. This confrontation repeatedly resulted in armed conflicts in various parts of the world and could lead to the start of the third world war. The term "détente" (which was first used in G. M. Malenkov's speech in August 1953) means the easing of world tension and the desire to establish a lasting peace between the conflicting parties. Throughout the Cold War era, such attempts have been made repeatedly, with varying degrees of success.

During the first stage of the Cold War, tension along the East-West line was constantly growing, reaching its climax during the fighting in Korea (1950-1953). At this time, the opponents were actively developing plans to destroy each other with the help of weapons of mass destruction, and then entered into an armed conflict in Asia. The United States supported South Korea, while the USSR and China supported North Korea. Some easing of tension that came after the armistice in Korea and the death of I.V. Stalin, made it possible to resolve a number of acute international issues, including the formation of an independent Austrian Republic (1955), as well as to hold several interstate conferences on issues of arms reduction. The so-called "Karibek" or "missile" crisis of 1962, when the USSR and the USA were closer than ever to the start of a nuclear war, served as a powerful accelerator of the détente process. Over the next few years, both sides took a series of measures to disarm and ban nuclear tests on land, sea and air.

After some deterioration in the international situation associated with the US war in Vietnam (1964-1973), the process of detente began to gain momentum again. In 1972, the US and the USSR signed a strategic arms limitation treaty (SALT-1). a number of other documents. In 1973-1976. The two countries exchanged visits of their leaders and carried out the Soyuz-Apollo joint space program. The peak of detente was the holding of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and the signing in Helsinki in 1975 of the Final Act, which legitimized the post-war situation in Europe and the world.

The main reason for the next round of international tension was the introduction of Soviet troops into Afghanistan (1979). The period of constructive relations was replaced by a time of mutual accusations and the introduction of various restrictions on trade, scientific and cultural exchange between countries. Only with the coming to power in the USSR M.S. Gorbachev (1985), contacts were again established between the leading powers, a number of agreements on the reduction of armaments were signed. With the disintegration of the socialist camp and its military force - the Warsaw Pact Organization - in 1991, the "cold war" was put to an end.

101. ATTEMPTS ECONOMIC REFORM IN THE SECOND HALF 60s.

In October 1964, a change of political leader took place in the Soviet Union - N.S. Khrushchev was removed from the post of First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. The reasons for this were both the dissatisfaction of the ruling elite with the uncontrollability and unpredictability of the leader, and the growing socio-economic difficulties in the country, in particular, food shortages in cities. With all the shortcomings and mistakes of Khrushchev, it is worth crediting him with the fact that the country has moved away from the previous authoritarian model of development during the years of his rule. Even the change of leader itself was peaceful in nature - the only time in the history of the Soviet Union that the leader of the ruling party was dismissed through a democratic voting procedure.

Economic reforms in the mid-60s. traditionally associated with the name of A.N. Kosygin - Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. At that time, a number of measures were taken to improve the living standards of the villagers - a minimum wage was guaranteed for collective farmers, purchase prices for agricultural products were increased, etc. An important stage in the development of the country was to be an economic reform, which was the largest attempt to restructure the economy of the USSR throughout the post-war period.

The "Kosygin" reform carried out since 1965 was based on the ideas of economic calculation and self-sufficiency. The most significant changes were made in the management of industry and construction. The number of indicators planned from above was reduced, and the main assessment of activity, instead of gross output, was the sale of what was produced. The heads of enterprises received greater independence in decision-making, they were given the opportunity to deduct part of the profits of production for the socio-cultural sphere, material incentives for workers. Without going beyond the existing system, the reform assumed its modernization, including by increasing the social activity of workers.

The first steps of the reform were quite successful. The impetus given to it led to the fact that many of the main indicators of the eighth five-year plan (1966-1970) were successfully implemented. Thus, the national income grew by 41%, and industrial production increased by 50%. At the same time, it soon became obvious that, if the political system remained inviolable, the reform was doomed to failure.

When obtaining independence, enterprises were interested in increasing the sales of their products at maximum prices. In the absence of market competition, this could lead to a socio-economic crisis in the country. In addition, the administrative apparatus rightly assessed the reform as an attack on its power, since under the new conditions it was deprived of the right to monopoly distribute the product produced. The actual sabotage on the part of the bureaucracy, as well as the inconsistency and half-heartedness of the reform, became the reason for its curtailment in the early 70s. The rights of enterprises were significantly limited, and all indicators of output again began to descend from above.

102. SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION IN THE COUNTRY IN 1965-1985

The period from 1965 to 1985 was the most stable for the entire existence of the Soviet Union. By this time, the achievement of the highest level of development of the economy of the socialist type. The absence of social upheavals, on the one hand, and the conservation of the main elements of the Soviet bureaucratic system, on the other hand, determined the nature of the era, which was later called "stagnant".

Demographic data confirm a certain rise in living standards in the USSR during the period under review. Thus, the average life expectancy rose to 70 years, the population of the country increased rapidly (from 240 million in 1970 to 280 million people in 1985). At the same time, the number of citizens increased from 136 to 180 million people. The per capita consumption of foodstuffs has also increased; for the first time, most people have the opportunity to purchase cars, household appliances for personal use, and join housing cooperatives.

At the same time, there were also crisis, negative moments. The acquisition of most types of goods and services was difficult due to their shortage. Quality items, especially imported ones, could not be purchased on open sale, this was done either by signing up in a queue, or through acquaintances, "by pull". One of the reasons for this situation is the huge share of military articles in the state budget of the country (up to 70%). A large part of the economy was the military-industrial complex, which required enormous expenditures. Agriculture was in a constant crisis, despite all the measures taken to support the collective farms. With a vast area of arable land, the Soviet Union was forced to buy grain abroad. The lack of interest in the results of one's work, equalizing wages at enterprises led to the stagnation of production and a reduction in growth rates. The development of the economy was extensive, the Soviet Union remained at the industrial level of development. The USSR more and more lagged behind the Western countries, which entered a new, post-industrial era and focused on energy-saving technologies, high-tech industries, and an increase in the role of the educational sphere. It is also important to note that ensuring an acceptable standard of living for the population was achieved through the sale of the natural resources of the state, primarily raw materials. The favorable external economic situation - the rise in oil and gas prices on world markets - allowed the Soviet system, with all the shortcomings of the planned socialist economy, to exist without major cataclysms until the second half of the 80s.

103. SCIENCE AND CULTURE IN 1965-1985

Crisis phenomena in the economy had a negative impact on the scientific and creative potential of the country. Despite the growth in quantitative indicators (the number of scientists from 1970 to 1985 increased from 928 thousand to 1,5 million people), education did not meet the requirements of scientific and technological progress. The USSR began to lose its positions in applied sciences, to lag behind the advanced countries in the development of the latest information technologies. Of almost all sectors of the national economy of the country, only two corresponded to world standards - military and space, but even there the loss of our positions was noticeable.

Ideological dictatorship, general control over the life of society did not allow people of creative professions to work freely. With the tightening of censorship and the persecution of the intelligentsia, the number of emigrants increased significantly. Hundreds of thousands of educated people, the "brains" of society, partly voluntarily, partly forcibly left the country. Among them are the future Nobel Prize winners A. Solzhenitsyn and I. Brodsky, writers S. Dovlatov, V. Voinovich, directors Yu. Lyubimov, A. Tarkovsky, etc. The struggle between the state and the strengthened dissident movement - human rights activists (A. Sakharov, P. Grigorenko, I. Gabai and others) were sent to camps, placed in mental hospitals, "squeezed" out of the country. In art, the method of "socialist realism" dominated, which did not allow a critical attitude to the surrounding reality.

Despite this, the period of "stagnation" was marked by both significant scientific discoveries and great creative successes of the masters of culture. Among the outstanding figures of that era were scientists J. Alferov, B. Paton, teachers V. Shatalov, Sh. Amonashvili, writers V. Aksenov, V. Astafiev, F. Iskander, musicians D. Tukhmanov, M. Rostropovich. The heyday was experienced by Soviet cinema, the paintings of the brothers N. and A. Mikhalkov, L. Gaidai, A. German and other directors were very popular. The so-called "author's" song became widespread, the bards V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Yu. Vizbor and others became popularly known.

In society, especially among the intelligentsia, critical sentiments were strong, which could no longer be banned. Spiritual opposition to the authorities was expressed both in open protest rallies by dissidents and in the creation of a whole layer of underground literature - "samizdat". The impossibility of the existence of a conservative party-bureaucratic system became more and more obvious, and the need for serious changes was brewing.

104. COMING TO POWER M.S. GORBACHEV. THE BEGINNING OF "PERESTROIKA"

The growing crisis in the economy, including a sharp drop in the growth rate of national income, against the backdrop of the rapid development of Western countries, clearly set the state leadership the task of changing the existing order. The first attempts to get out of this situation were made after the death of L.I. Brezhnev (1982) by Yu.V. Andropov. The former head of the KGB of the USSR tried to achieve an increase in labor productivity and the strengthening of discipline by the method of "tightening the screws". and Yu.V. Andropov and who replaced him in 1984 K.U. Chernenko were firm supporters of the established political system. However, already at that time it was obvious that it was impossible to solve the problem of bringing the country out of the impasse only by redecorating the Soviet system.

Elected in March 1985 as the new General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU M.S. Gorbachev also did not immediately go for cardinal changes. At the first stage of "perestroika" (1985-1988), the main slogans of the country's development were the acceleration of production rates, the transparency of decisions made and the fight against the consumption of alcoholic beverages. At the same time, the state administration system remained unchanged - under the formal power of the Soviets of People's Deputies, all issues of the country's development were decided by the party apparatus of the CPSU Central Committee. Therefore, attempts to carry out reforms in the traditional Soviet way failed - an unshakable huge bureaucratic apparatus (18 million people) hampered positive undertakings. Thus, despite the adoption of progressive legislative acts on state-owned enterprises and cooperation in 1987-1988, the nomenklatura continued to manage production and did not allow equal rights for various forms of ownership. In addition, an ill-conceived increase in wages unbalanced the national economy and led to a crisis in the financial system. The situation was aggravated by two emergency incidents: the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (1986) and the earthquake in Armenia (1988). All these factors have led to an increase in social tension in society. It became obvious that all attempts by M.S. Gorbachev and his entourage to build "humane, democratic socialism" within the existing system were doomed to failure.

105. SOCIO-POLITICAL STRUGGLE 1985-1991

The second stage of "perestroika" (1989-1991) was marked by growing socio-political tension in society. The central government was less and less able to control the processes taking place throughout the entire space of the USSR, which quickly went beyond the framework proclaimed by M.S. Gorbachev "socialist renewal". During this period, there is a rapid strengthening of the role of leaders at the regional and republican levels, a "parade of sovereignties" and the disintegration of a single union state into 15 independent countries.

The first serious step taken by the leadership of the USSR to change the very system of state power was the introduction of amendments to the Constitution of the country. The Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, elected on an alternative basis, became the supreme body of legislative power. The elections held in the spring of 1989 showed the presence in society of a heterogeneous opposition to the communist party. At the same time, the general demands of both democrats and nationalists were the rejection of the leading role of the CPSU, the further democratization of society, and an increase in the standard of living of the people.

In the union republics (especially the Baltic ones), demands for secession from the USSR sounded louder and louder. Part of the republican communist parties withdrew from the CPSU, organizing independent parties of the social democratic type. By 1990, a split also occurred within the CPSU - several ideological currents were formed from liberals to Stalinists. It became obvious that in the context of the democratization of public life and the introduction of elements of the market, the Communist Party ceased to have a monopoly on power.

In this situation, social movements and political parties that emerged began to play an important role in the life of the country. The "popular fronts" in the union republics became the most important form of political movement. Created at first to support "socialist renewal", they rather quickly took a course towards achieving sovereignty and the proclamation of independent states. Among the all-union scale associations that declared themselves in 1989-1990, one should single out the Interregional Deputy Group, which advocated market reforms and the creation of a democratic state. Its leaders (A.D. Sakharov, Yu.N. Afanasiev, G.Kh. Popov and others) gained national fame for their speeches at the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR (1989-1990). Of particular note is the role of B.N. Yeltsin at that time. He first loudly announced himself as a supporter of serious socio-economic reforms back in October 1987, when he was the First Secretary of the city committee of the CPSU. Criticizing the conservative forces in the Communist Party, he later became one of the leaders of the "Democratic Platform" in the CPSU and the Interregional Deputy Group.

106. COLLAPSE OF THE USSR AND FORMATION OF THE CIS

In the context of the weakening of the state machine, interethnic conflicts that had been smoldering until that time broke out. The first of these was the dispute over the ownership of Nagorno-Karabakh (1988), which resulted in an armed confrontation between Armenia and Azerbaijan. In 1989-1991 there were bloody skirmishes in Central Asia (Fergana, Osh region, Dushanbe, etc.). Intensive military operations with the use of artillery and aviation were carried out in South Ossetia, later in Abkhazia. In addition, in many parts of the Soviet Union, various associations of citizens began to form, often with the support of the center, protesting against the desire of the union republics to secede from the USSR.

The intensity of the political struggle in society was accompanied by a deterioration in the social situation of citizens. Without a program of fundamental reforms, the government of the USSR was unable to stabilize the economy. The general shortage of goods, the decline in the standard of living of the population led to the start of a broad strike movement throughout the country. Attempts in the summer of 1990 to implement the "500 Days" program, designed for a phased transition to the market, failed due to the resistance of the conservative part of the bureaucracy.

Thus, there was a serious socio-political crisis of the union state. As early as March 1990, the national republics, one after the other, began to adopt declarations of state sovereignty. The desire to gain independence led to the boycott of the referendum on the preservation of the united Union of the USSR (March 1991) in the Baltic States, Moldova, Georgia. The decisive contribution to the collapse of the Soviet Union was made by the attempt of the conservative elite of the state apparatus to seize power in the country by removing the legally elected in 1990 President of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev. The State Committee for the State of Emergency (GKChP), headed by Vice President G.I. On August 19, 1991, Yanayev announced a ban on opposition parties and the introduction of control over the media, sent troops to a number of cities. Thus, the negotiation process between the republics and the center was disrupted, the existing chance to sign a new union treaty was missed. The suppression of the GKChP coup by the efforts of the Russian leadership headed by B.N. Yeltsin radically changed the situation in the country. The activities of the CPSU were terminated, power finally passed to the leaders of the national elites. Following the Baltic republics, Moldova, Georgia, and Ukraine announced their withdrawal from the USSR. By December 1991, only Russia and Kazakhstan formally remained in the USSR.

The legal consolidation of the collapse of the USSR was the signing in Belovezhskaya Pushcha in December 1991 of an agreement between Russia, Ukraine and Belarus on the termination of the activities of all structures of the Soviet Union. It also announced the formation of the CIS as an interstate association of three countries. In 1991, 8 more states of the former USSR joined the CIS, and in 1993 - Georgia. Thus, 15 independent states were formed in the post-Soviet space, 12 of which (except for the Baltic countries) continued to cooperate with each other within the framework of the CIS.

107. STATE-POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

The formation of Russian statehood after the collapse of the USSR proceeded in difficult conditions. The economic crisis gave rise to a mass of dissatisfied citizens who were ready to support the populist slogans of the opponents of the course of market reforms. In 1991-1993 in opposition to the president and the government were communist organizations (the Socialist Party of Workers, the Union of Communists, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, etc.), the Liberal Democratic and Agrarian Parties of Russia. The opposition had a majority in the representative bodies of power - at the Congress of People's Deputies, in the Supreme Soviet. At the VII Congress of People's Deputies of Russia in December 1992, the conflict became open; both sides were forced to resort to the mediation of the Constitutional Court and sign an agreement to stabilize the constitutional order of the Russian Federation. "However, the agreement reached was temporary. Already in the spring of 1993, relations between the legislative and executive branches of power escalated again. laws and tried to remove BN Yeltsin from power by voting at the IX Congress of People's Deputies in March 1993. The all-Russian referendum held in April, which supported the course of market reforms pursued by the government, nevertheless could not put an end to the confrontation.

On September 21, 1993, a new page in the modern political history of Russia was opened. On this day B.N. Yeltsin signed Decree No. 1400 "On a phased constitutional reform in the Russian Federation", according to which the activities of the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet were suspended, and elections to a new bicameral parliament, the Federal Assembly, were announced.

In response to this decree, the urgently convened X Congress of People's Deputies of Russia voted for the removal of B.N. Yeltsin from the presidency and the appointment of A.V. Rutskoi, who formed a parallel government. Attempts by the Constitutional Court to prevent dual power in the country were unsuccessful. From the beginning of October, the opposition forces began hostilities - on October 3, they captured the Moscow mayor's office, a group of militants went to storm the television center in Ostankino. On the night of October 3-4, a state of emergency was declared in Moscow, the government brought units of the Russian army into the capital. On October 4, the armed uprising of the opposition was suppressed, and its leaders (A.V. Rutskoi, R.I. Khasbulatov, A.A. Makashov and others) were arrested. During the clashes in Moscow, about 150 people were killed.

108. RUSSIAN POWER SYSTEM AFTER THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

On December 12, 1993, a nationwide vote was held on the draft of the new Constitution of Russia, developed under the leadership of the president. After the adoption of this document in a referendum, Russia became a de facto presidential republic, in which the head of state has all the powers of executive power. The Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, consisting of the lower (State Duma) and upper (Federation Council) houses, is endowed with exclusively legislative powers. The Constitution secured the right of private property, guaranteed the rights and freedoms of Russian citizens. Simultaneously with the referendum, elections to the V State Duma of the Russian Federation were held (if we count from the moment this institution of power appeared in 1906)

The system of power that took shape after 1993 has largely survived to this day, despite the acuteness of the political struggle in society. According to the Constitution, the elections of the President of the Russian Federation were held in 1996 (B.N. Yeltsin won) and in 2000 (V.V. Putin was elected the new head of state). Elections to the VI State Duma were held in December 1995, and to the VII - in December 1999. At the same time, the sphere of national-state relations still remains a complex problem, not fully regulated by constitutional acts. With the formation of new power structures, it became necessary to delineate powers between federal bodies and constituent entities of the Russian Federation. In February 1994, the first document on the delimitation of powers was an agreement between the central government and Tatarstan, after which other subjects of a single state began to draw up similar documents. Serious additions to the existing system of national-state relations were made in 2000 with the formation of seven federal districts. According to the new laws, regional power structures report directly to the presidential representative in the federal district, and the Federation Council is staffed with parliamentarians working on a permanent basis. It seems that the ultimate goal of the policy pursued by the country's leadership is to create a new vertical of power capable of ensuring the full implementation of the will of the president.

109. SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATIONS in the 1990s

The Russian government began to carry out cardinal economic transformations in January 1992. At the same time, price liberalization, the privatization of state property, the conversion of the military-industrial complex, and the demonopolization of production became the priorities of the reform. In the agricultural sector, a course was taken for the corporatization of collective farms and the development of farming.

By the spring of 1992, the trade deficit in Russia had been largely eliminated. However, along with this, the purchasing power of citizens fell - the growth of wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. The decline in production in 1992-1993. amounted to almost 25%, the number of unemployed reached 5,7 million people. The difficult situation of the industry was exacerbated by the rupture of economic ties with allied enterprises in the CIS and Baltic states.

In the spring of 1992, the implementation of the privatization program began, with the goal of forming a class of owners in Russia. Each citizen of the country received a voucher - a security to be exchanged for shares of industrial and commercial enterprises. On July 1, 1994, the government decided to move on to the second stage of the program - monetary privatization. Since then, the majority of small and medium-sized state-owned enterprises have passed into private hands, but the main task of privatization has not been completed to the end. The government failed to create a large middle class - businessmen and private entrepreneurs make up less than 10% of the population today. At the same time, due to the permission to privatize the housing stock in the country, the real estate market was formed and is functioning quite effectively.

Thus, the socio-economic transformations carried out by the Russian authorities after 1992 were of a contradictory nature. On the one hand, market structures have provided a wide range of goods and services to the population, and the process of structural restructuring of the economy has gained momentum. On the other hand, the reforms divided society into rich and poor, and the income gap between them widened for a long time. Many millions of former Soviet citizens were unable to fit into the new market relations, being too committed to the traditions of collectivism and equalization. At the same time, the socially active part of society, which was formed largely due to reforms over the past decade, wants to continue the transformations, seeing them as a guarantee of their well-being. It is obvious that the low-income segments of the population need support from the state, while private business needs to mitigate the tax burden. While fulfilling these tasks, the Russian government faced serious difficulties, which largely caused the economic upheavals of August 1998. Under the influence of the collapse of government bonds and the ruble exchange rate, socio-economic changes were adjusted, more attention began to be paid to targeted assistance to those in need, and tax legislation reform began. .

110. CHECHEN CRISIS

In the autumn of 1991, the Chechen Republic separated from the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Republic, headed by General Dzhokhar Dudayev since September 1991. Elected to the presidency, in October he signed a decree declaring the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria an independent state. In response to this, the President of the Russian Federation B.N. Yeltsin issued a decree on the introduction of a state of emergency in Chechnya, which, however, was not approved by the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR. Over the next two years, the Chechen Republic was not actually controlled by the central government, and its leadership defiantly avoided settling relations with the Kremlin. The situation was aggravated by the fact that a large amount of military equipment and ammunition of the Soviet army fell into the hands of the armed formations created by D. Dudayev.

In the summer of 1994, the armed confrontation in Chechnya itself reached its apogee. During the hostilities, the so-called "volunteers" from the Russian Armed Forces also came out on the side of the opposition forces to Dudayev. The final use of force to solve the Chechen problem was adopted by the Center in December 1994, when a group of federal troops was introduced into the republic. However, conducted in 1994-1996. military operations did not bring decisive success to the Russian Armed Forces. Relying on financial assistance from both Russian and foreign sources, Chechen armed groups led by D. Dudayev, Z. Yandarbiev, A. Maskhadov and field commanders carried out both military operations in Chechnya and terrorist actions in the Caucasus region (hostage-taking in Budennovsk and Kizlyar). Under these conditions, in August 3, the Khasavyurt peace agreements were signed, providing for the withdrawal of federal troops from Chechnya and the holding of free presidential elections there, as well as postponing the issue of the sovereignty of the republic until 1996. At the end of 2002, the figures of losses during the Chechen war were announced. crisis - up to 1996 thousand people killed and wounded.

In January 1997, A. Maskhadov was elected the new president of the Chechen Republic, who continued the line on the separation of Chechnya from Russia and the formation of an Islamic state on its territory. At the same time, the majority of the republic's population continued to experience serious social difficulties - unemployment reached 90%, industry was almost completely destroyed, and agriculture was impoverished.

In the autumn of 1999, a number of new terrorist acts were organized aimed at destabilizing the situation in Russia (the explosion of residential buildings in Moscow and Volgodonsk). In response to the actions of the militants, the federal government announced the start of a counter-terrorist operation and gradually took control of almost the entire territory of the Chechen Republic. In June 2000 Mufti A. Kadyrov was appointed head of the provisional administration of Chechnya. He and his supporters have done a lot to establish peace, but the ongoing terrorist attacks indicate that it will take a lot of time to restore law and order in the republic.

111. THE NATURE OF ECONOMIC REFORM AT THE PRESENT STAGE

The implementation of socio-economic reforms in Russia is ultimately aimed at raising the standard of living of the population, granting democratic freedoms to society, and ensuring the security of citizens. To achieve these goals, it is necessary to establish effective management of all parts of the state apparatus, create a legal framework for the development of private production, and strengthen the system of law enforcement agencies.

Despite the severity of the political struggle in society, the state authorities managed to maintain the general course of reforms aimed at restructuring the economy and adapting it to market conditions. This made it possible to largely form the psychology of entrepreneurship and private initiative in the country. Despite the spasmodic development of production, in general, the dynamics of recent years shows its progressive rise, primarily in the basic sectors of the economy. Thus, during 2002, the monthly growth rates in agriculture, construction, retail trade were 102-106% compared to the previous year, and in various industries - 104-108%. A survey of managers of basic industrial enterprises in the summer of 2002 showed that about 82% of them assessed the current economic situation as "good" or "satisfactory." After a serious drop in the standard of living of the population in the first half of the 1990s. the situation is gradually changing for the better - for example, the growth of real money incomes of Russians in 2002 amounted to about 7%.

On the other hand, many enterprises lack their own financial resources, and inflation expectations remain high. Delays in the payment of wages to public sector employees lead to serious social consequences. Unemployment is still high in a number of regions.

On the whole, subject to the continuation of structural reforms and a favorable external economic situation for Russia, one can expect that positive trends in the social sphere will continue and the standard of living of the population will increase.

112. FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA AFTER 1991

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation acted as its legal successor and took the place of a permanent member of the UN Security Council.

During 1992-1993. Russia was faced with the problem of dividing up all the property remaining in the post-Soviet space, primarily military. An agreement was signed on the transfer by Ukraine of its nuclear potential to Russia, which completed the process of eliminating weapons of mass destruction in Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine. Great difficulties also accompanied the conclusion of Russian-Ukrainian agreements on the division of the Black Sea Fleet.

After 1991, political and socio-economic ties between the former republics of the USSR acquired an interstate character, primarily within the framework of the CIS. Despite the large number of documents signed in this area, today the CIS does not play a decisive role in the situation in these countries. The fact is that most of the intergovernmental decisions adopted are advisory in nature and are often not implemented. Under these conditions, Russia's bilateral ties with individual states of the Commonwealth - in particular, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan - play an important role. In March 1996, an agreement was signed between these states on deepening integration in the economic and humanitarian fields, and in April 1996, the formation of a single union state of Russia and Belarus was announced.

The United States and its allies are no longer considered potential adversaries - the 1992 declaration of the end of the Cold War reinforced this position. On the other hand, the price paid for the West's support of market reforms was the reduction of Russia's role in the settlement of international conflicts, its withdrawal from many traditional zones of the state's foreign policy interests. The main reason for this state of affairs was the difficult social situation in society and the dependence of the state on creditor countries.

Relations with Asian countries (China, South Korea, India) are being strengthened, cooperation with Vietnam, North Korea, and Mongolia is being resumed. In addition, diplomatic relations have been established and maintained with new partners - South Africa, the countries of the Persian Gulf.

In addition, an important direction of Russia's foreign policy at the present stage is its cooperation with various international organizations. Russia continues to play an important role in the UN (participation in peacekeeping operations in the Balkans, East Timor, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, etc.). In addition, the period since 1992 has been marked by Russia's active participation in the activities of a number of other economic, political and military communities. In 1992, the Russian Federation became a member of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, which provided some financial assistance to the state during the transition period. Since the same year, Russia has been participating in the meetings of the "Big Seven" of the most developed countries of the world.

113. SCIENCE AND CULTURE MODERN RUSSIA

Occurred in the country since the mid-80s. the changes significantly influenced the development of science and culture. The most important achievement of the reforms was the acquired freedom of speech, that is, the right to receive and disseminate information. This led to the formation of a large number of media independent of the state, competing with each other for an audience. Under such conditions, it is impossible to dictate to the population the will of only one political force, which creates the basis for the development of society on civilized, democratic principles.

The negative consequences of socio-economic reforms affected the development of fundamental science in the first place - budgetary funding for this area was cut. The conversion process was also not painless, especially for science focused on the military industry. On the other hand, the development of information technologies and related industries has received a certain impetus. At the present stage, medicine, geology, genetics and a number of other sciences are successfully developing, which are primarily of applied importance and give a quick economic return on the implementation of research results in life.

The fall of the Iron Curtain also changed the cultural life of society. Citizens of Russia discovered Western culture for themselves, were able to get acquainted with previously forbidden works of art, and got the opportunity to freely move abroad. At the same time, especially at the turn of the 80s and 90s, there was an outflow of a significant part of the creative intelligentsia to the West in search of better material conditions. The abolition of the state order for works of art forced cultural figures to look for their place in the system of market relations, which far from all succeeded.

After decades of persecution, the state radically changed its policy towards the church. Currently, there are attempts to elevate Orthodoxy to the rank of a state religion, along with a statement of the important role of Islam, Buddhism, and other confessions traditional for Russia. From the end of the 80s. the process of returning their property to the churches and restoring religious buildings began, which was especially active in the mid-90s. According to sociological research, in recent years the number of people who consider themselves believers has increased dramatically in modern Russia. for example, they account for about 65% of the population.

Thus, we can say that under the influence of socio-political reforms, by now the spheres of science and culture have been largely rebuilt and adapted to the mechanisms of a market economy.

114. FEATURES OF DEVELOPMENT THE WORLD COMMUNITY IN THE XX century.

The main feature of the development of human civilization in the XX century. was that for the first time in its existence, it was drawn into global, global wars and conflicts. The significance of this factor is not only in the fact that the most developed countries of the world suffered huge material and human losses, but also in the fact that as a result of wars the very picture of the world, the balance of forces on the planet, changed. Thus, after the First World War, the United States of America sharply strengthened its position, while Germany and its allies were greatly weakened by the Versailles system. After World War II, a global confrontation along the East-West line was clearly identified: the Soviet Union, at the head of the socialist camp, opposed the United States and all capitalist countries. The "cold war" that broke out between them almost led to the start of the third world war - the planet was especially close to this during the Caribbean crisis of 1962. Only the realization that there can be no winners in this conflict, since a nuclear war will lead to the destruction of everything humanity, was able to prevent conflict. After the end of the Cold War, at the end of the XNUMXth century, only one superpower remained in the world - the United States, which has enormous material and technical resources and dictates the line of conduct for a large number of countries that depend on it economically and politically.

Another characteristic feature of the 2th century was the transition of the developed countries of the world from the industrial to the post-industrial era. With the onset of the scientific and technological revolution, labor productivity rises sharply in all branches of the national economy. Since the second half of the XX century. the number of employed in the industry is sharply reduced, people are moving to work in the service sector. So, today in the United States, only 13% of the working population is directly employed in agriculture, 85% produce manufactured goods, while the remaining 70% are employed in the service sector. In this regard, the so-called "intellectualization" of labor is increasing. In the advanced countries of the world, up to 14% of employees are associated with the provision of various information processes, and therefore it is necessary to train personnel to work with new technologies. Thus, higher education becomes the basis for many professions. This leads to an increase in the number of people employed in teaching activities, as well as an increase in the average duration of education up to 16-XNUMX years.

The emergence of new information technologies in our lives has also changed the picture of the world. The planet, as it were, is becoming smaller in size, because thanks to radio, television, and a computer, a person gets access to any information of interest to him. We are talking, therefore, about the globalization of social processes, the general acceleration of the pace of life.

115. TENDENCIES OF DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIETY OF THE XX century. AND HIS SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION

Throughout the 1945th century opposing social tendencies struggled in the world - democratic and authoritarian, internationalism and nationalism, integration and separatism. Historical experience shows that there are no universal recipes for solving the tasks facing a particular country at a particular moment - only on the basis of the national and cultural characteristics of a given state can the existing problems be resolved. So, after the Second World War, Germany and Japan, the USSR and China came out of the socio-economic crisis common to these countries in different ways. Yugoslavia and Poland. The experience of Germany shows that the market reforms of 1956-XNUMX. together with large foreign investments in a democratic society contributed to the rapid development of the country. At the same time, such states as Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, have moved to a prosperous market economy under authoritarian regimes. The reason for this is that the presence of wide marginal strata in these countries created fertile ground for the spread of populist, leveling ideas. So only the introduction of a ban on the activities of communist and similar radical parties contributed to the emergence of a class of owners, raising the standard of living of the entire population.

30th century showed similar examples of a different approach to solving state issues and in relation to other social trends. Germany and the USSR in the 90s. were very similar in terms of the type of government - autocracy, but at the same time, Germany's policy was based on nationalist ideas, and the Soviet Union - on internationalism. In the early XNUMXs. the countries of Western Europe sought to unite and integrate, while the federations of the USSR, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia collapsed. All this once again emphasizes the uniqueness of the historical process, the existence of its own path of development for each state.

XNUMXth century re-discovered the phenomenon of the "middle class". It is the "middle class" that today is a guarantee of the successful progressive development of the state. To replace the sharply manifested at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. The confrontation between the rich and the poor has led to the division of society into three categories - the ruling elite, the marginalized and the "middle class". The majority of the population is interested in stability for the development of their business and therefore does not support radical ideas of restructuring the existing social system.

At the end of the XX century. there is a gap in development between the advanced countries and the so-called "third world" - many states of Africa, Asia, Latin America. It is among the destitute inhabitants of the "third world" that various radical organizations find their supporters. From here comes the threat to the whole world - terrorism knows no borders. If the current trends are not overcome, they can lead to dangerous consequences for all mankind - new armed conflicts and social upheavals involving millions of people.

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Random news from the Archive

Anti-clot magnet 28.04.2015

Usually, to remove a blood clot, the tPA protein, a tissue plasminogen activator, is injected into the blood vessel. This substance is normally present in the blood, contributing to the destruction of fibrin fibers. Thus, its addition increases the rate of resorption of blood clots.

However, the dose introduced into the vessel is quickly distributed throughout the circulatory system, and only a small part of the thrombus reaches it. It would seem that you need to increase the dose, but if you overdo it, bleeding may occur.

A safe alternative is offered by researchers from the Houston Methodist Research Institute, led by Dr. Paolo Desuzzi. They were able to pack the tPA protein, together with magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, into a shell of another blood protein, albumin. This package provides a triple advantage.

Firstly, it is easy to concentrate magnetic particles exactly at the site of thrombus formation.

Secondly, they can be heated by an alternating field - it has been noticed that tPA works most actively at temperatures above 40°C, and, of course, it would be better to create such a temperature only in a small area of the body.

And thirdly, the albumin shell masks the contents from the immune system, and a margin of time is obtained for which the drug will have time to get to the blood clot.

As a result, in experimental mice, the rate of resorption of blood clots increased a hundred times, and when heated - a thousand times compared with the introduction of a "naked" plasminogen activator. Since iron oxide is already approved for use as a contrast agent in CT scans, and tPA with albumin is already present in the blood, the researchers hope to move quickly to human trials of the new drug. The doctors are looking forward to it.

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