Logistics. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Logistics. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. CONCEPT OF LOGISTICS

Logistics - the science of organizing joint activities of all functional divisions of an enterprise for the passage of commodity flows from raw material suppliers through a manufacturing enterprise to end consumers.

Logistics studies not only commodity, but also related flows - informational and financial.

Main questionsthat logistics deals with are:

1) managing the supply of the enterprise with raw materials and consumables (this includes solving such problems as choosing a supplier, calculating the optimal volume, structure and rhythm of delivery, evaluating the performance of the supplier);

2) planning, control, management of transportation and warehousing (at this stage, the tasks of choosing a carrier, the form of ownership of storage facilities, organizing the acceptance of goods and checking their quality are solved);

3) internal processing of raw materials, materials and semi-finished products;

4) bringing finished products to the consumer in accordance with the interests and requirements of the latter (maintaining the necessary assortment list of goods, timely processing of customer orders, searching for new forms and methods of marketing, analysis of trading activities);

5) transfer, storage and processing of relevant information.

Science coordinates such functional areas of the enterprise as supply, production and marketing.

Object of study of logistics - this is what can be individually described and considered by a logistics specialist, for example: material flows, flow processes, the process of fulfilling customer orders, the process of moving products along the supply chain, or any combination of them.

Subject of research logistics - this is the activity of logistics for management, planning, organization, control, regulation, accounting for the process of promoting products and services.

Purpose of logistics - creation of opportunities for improving the activities of employees of the enterprise's divisions, aimed at reducing the level of total costs and maximizing profits. The goal of logistics is considered achieved if the right product of the right quality is delivered at the right cost to the right consumer in the right quantity at the right time to the right place.

The purpose of logistics is achieved by excluding operations of an organizational and functional nature that do not create added value for the consumer. In other words, everything that does not benefit the consumer and, accordingly, the income of the enterprise is redundant.

Each company develops logistics concept - a system of views on improving the efficiency of the enterprise systems. It is based on the long-term goals of the enterprise and ensures the coordination of actions of all departments. Employees of the functional divisions of the enterprise should take an active part in the development of the concept. This not only increases the degree of their motivation to work in concert, but also, through the introduction of new ideas, can improve the content of the concept itself.

2. PERFORMANCE INDICATORS OF THE LOGISTIC APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT OF THE ENTERPRISE

The purpose of the logistics company is to increase revenue and minimize costs. In order to control ongoing processes, identify shortcomings and respond in a timely manner in order to reduce the negative effect, it is necessary to constantly answer the following questions:

1) evaluate the extent to which profit maximization was ensured;

2) in cases of unprofitable activity, identify the reasons for such management and determine ways out of the current situation;

3) to consider incomes on the basis of their comparison with expenses;

4) study trends in income changes;

5) to identify what part of the income is used to reimburse the costs of sales, taxes and profit generation;

6) calculate the deviation of the amount of net profit compared to the amount of profit from sales and determine the reasons for these deviations;

7) identify reserves to increase profits and increase profitability, determine how and when to use these reserves;

8) study the directions of use of profits and assess whether financing is provided at the expense of own funds.

Stages of income and financial results analysis:

1) assessment of the total profit from sales for the reporting period and in dynamics;

2) factor analysis of profit from sales;

3) study of profitability indicators and factors that influenced their change;

4) determination of measures to overcome unprofitability. The following indicators are most often calculated:

1) net profit - characterizes the final financial result of the economic activity of the enterprise.

Net profit \uXNUMXd total revenue from sales of goods + non-operating income - the amount of payment for the goods - distribution costs - non-operating expenses - taxes

Factor analysis involves the study of the main indicators that affect profit;

2) the indicator of product sales per ruble of cost is a general indicator that characterizes the assessment of the effectiveness of the use of both production resources and the costs of production and sale of products.

This indicator reflects the influence of all factors on production efficiency, primarily the factors of labor productivity growth, capital productivity, reduction of material intensity and, ultimately, cost. It expresses the relationship between effect and cost;

3) return on sales - is the ratio of sold products (works, services) to its cost.

Return on sales = (profit from goods, works, services sold/cost of goods, works, services sold + administrative and selling expenses) x 100

In world practice, when characterizing the financial condition of an enterprise, they calculate the profitability ratio of products sold (Cr. p.)

Cr. n. = net profit from the sale of goods, works and services / sale of goods, works and services less taxes from sales

Profitability ratio shows how much a company can get net profit per ruble of sold products.

3. GOODS AS AN OBJECT OF LOGISTICS ACTIVITY

Goods, as you know, have properties that make them useful to humans. The usefulness of a thing is determined by its use-value. Each product of labor has many properties, but its use value is formed only by those that determine the utility of the product of labor.

Use value of a commodity shows how it satisfies the specific needs of a person due to its properties.

By their nature, consumer properties are physical, chemical, biological, etc. Consumer properties of goods can be divided into three classes:

1) properties that satisfy material needs;

2) properties that satisfy non-material needs;

3) properties that ensure the satisfaction of the need in time.

The use-value of commodities is revealed in their consumption. In the conditions of market relations, a prerequisite for a correct assessment of the use value of a product is knowledge of its market. The potential use value of a product is realized in the process of satisfying physical, social needs, as well as material and non-material needs. A product in logistics can be considered as a specific product, extended and generalized. A specific product is a basic physical entity that has precise characteristics and is offered under a given description or model code.

Advanced product - not only the image, but also the service (buying a car, for example, is linked to warranty service, the possibility of a return, etc.)

Generalized Product - a product in which consumer properties are expressed in the resulting socio-economic effect. The product must be brought to the level of commercialization. This means mastering the design production of goods, achieving their design cost, completing the necessary tests and obtaining the relevant documents, and creating warranty service stations. Goods are divided into consumer and industrial purposes. The nature of the use of goods of each of these groups is different, their purchase is caused by a variety of needs and is determined by different motives.

Consumer goods are divided into three groups:

1) durable goods - refrigerators, cars, furniture, clothes, etc.;

2) non-durable goods - food products, detergents, i.e. those that are used either immediately or a limited number of times;

3) Services These are actions that bring people a useful result. Services are considered an object of sale, but they cannot be packaged, stored or transported.

Industrial goods are divided into the following categories:

1) main equipment;

2) auxiliary equipment;

3) components and assemblies;

4) basic materials;

5) auxiliary materials and raw materials.

In logistics, the entire movement of goods from the manufacturer to the final buyer is studied: the mechanism for making a decision on the purchase, the organization of the purchase, transportation, warehousing and marketing.

4. BASIC CONCEPTS OF LOGISTICS SYSTEMS

Logistic system - an ordered set (set) of elements that are in certain relationships with each other, forming a certain integrity and performing certain logistics functions.

Properties of the logistics system:

1) integrity and articulation - the logistics system is a set of elements interacting with each other;

2) complexity - a large number of elements, the complex nature of the interaction between individual elements, the complexity of functions, a complex management system, due to the impact on the logistics system of a significant number of factors of the internal and external environment;

3) mobility - the variability of the parameters of the elements of the logistics system under the influence of the external environment, as well as decisions made by participants in the supply chain;

4) uniqueness, unpredictability and uncertainty of behavior in specific conditions and under the influence of the external environment;

5) adaptability - the ability of the logistics system to change its structure and choose behaviors in accordance with new goals and under the influence of the external environment.

Element of the logistics system - a functionally isolated object that performs a local target function.

Logistic function - an enlarged group of operations that are homogeneous in terms of their purpose and aimed at realizing the goals of the logistics system.

Logistics channel - a partially ordered set of enterprises and organizations that carry out the transfer of material flow from the manufacturer to consumers.

Logistics chain - an ordered set of elements of the logistics system (a set of enterprises and organizations that carry out operations to bring the flow from one system to another), integrated by the material (information or financial) flow in order to analyze or synthesize logistics procedures.

Logistics network - a set of elements of the logistics system, interconnected in terms of material and accompanying information and financial flows. Logistical tasks are not solved in isolation, but in a complex. This takes into account the diversity of influencing factors of the internal and external environment - technical, technological, economic, legal and organizational.

The main method of studying logistics systems is the system method. Any object in this approach is considered as a complex of interconnected subsystems, a set consisting of regularly structured and organized elements, each of which performs its own separate function, but all together they are focused on achieving one common goal. A systematic approach is the systematization and integration of objects or knowledge about them by establishing significant links between them.

One of the main tasks of system research in logistics is to identify and analyze the laws and relationships common to various functional areas of logistics activities. Interdisciplinary nature of laws, concepts and research methods

5. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE ANALYSIS OF LOGISTICS SYSTEMS

Analysis of logistics systems - this is a procedure for developing, justifying and making decisions in the process of researching and forming the logistics systems of enterprises.

The need for the analysis of logistics systems arises in the following cases:

1) when solving logistics problems:

▪ when it is determined what specialists in the logistics service and other functional departments of the enterprise need to know and understand;

▪ when it is necessary to link the goal of the logistics system with multiple means of achieving it;

▪ when elements of the logistics system have extensive connections that can cause long-term consequences in various parts of the supply chain, and decisions on them require taking into account the total costs of the product supply chain;

▪ when there are difficult to compare options for decisions or achieving a set of goals;

2) in the formation of new logistics systems;

3) when carrying out business improvement activities;

4) when making strategic decisions in the field of logistics, taking into account the factors of uncertainty and risk;

5) when developing responsible decisions for the long term (15-20 years). The need for the analysis of logistics systems arises when you want a lot, but the possibilities and means are limited. Under these conditions, it is important to streamline the procedure for determining goals - to find out their priorities and hierarchy. The essence of the analysis is to turn the complex into simple, i.e. turn a hard-to-understand logistic problem into a series of tasks that have solution methods, find effective means of managing complex logistic objects.

The order of the study of the logistics system:

1) the logistics system is divided into constituent elements in order to highlight tasks that are more accessible for solution;

2) the most suitable special methods are selected and applied to solve individual problems;

3) private solutions are combined in such a way that a general solution to the global problem of the logistics system is built.

The main objectives, solved in the analysis of logistics systems:

1) correctly and clearly describe the logistics system, formulate its main goals;

2) establish the degree of relationship between the goals of the logistics system and the means to achieve them;

3) identify the purpose of the element that solves the logistics problem in order to determine its composition, methods, forms and ways of interacting with other elements of the logistics system;

4) identify the purpose of the element that solves the logistics problem in order to determine its composition, methods, forms and ways of interacting with other elements of the logistics system;

5) develop several options for the development of the logistics system under the influence of various factors of the internal and external environment;

6) choose the optimal course for the development of the logistics system;

7) identify the effectiveness of the organization of enterprise management, the functions and structure of management bodies;

8) develop specific indicators.

6. STAGES OF ANALYSIS OF THE LOGISTICS SYSTEM

Analysis of the logistics system includes several stages:

1) awareness of the logistical problem.

Logistics problem - discrepancy between the necessary (desired) and the actual state of affairs in the field of logistics activities of the enterprise. The correct and precise formulation of the logistics problem is the first and necessary step in the study of the logistics system. Problems are identified on the basis of the functioning of the logistics system and the limitations of the external environment. The following requirements may be imposed on the logistics system: flexibility, the need to quickly adapt to changes in the external environment in conditions of political and economic instability, the possibility of functioning with an undeveloped infrastructure and circulation, etc.;

2) formulation of a global goal and a criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of the functioning of the logistics system. In order to formulate the global goal of the logistics system of an enterprise, as well as to choose a criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of the functioning of the logistics system, it is necessary to know the features of the logistics business, the theory of systems and the technology of functioning of the object of study;

3) structuring the logistics problem. To determine the logistics system, it is necessary to decompose the problem into a set of clearly formulated tasks, build them in a certain hierarchy and outline methods for their implementation. At the same time, unimportant tasks or tasks that do not have the resources to achieve them are cut off.

Analysis of the structure of the logistics system.

Are determined functional elements of the logistics system - such as supply, production, warehousing, distribution and transportation. Subsystems and elements of the logistics system and the processes implemented in them are distinguished in a certain order. The correct identification of goals, functional and information processes requires not only the rigor of logical thinking, but also the ability to find contact with employees of the functional divisions of the enterprise.

One of the main tasks of the analysis of the logistics system is the improvement of existing controls. In this regard, there is a need for a diagnostic analysis of the management bodies of the enterprise's logistics system, aimed at identifying their capabilities and shortcomings. A new system is introduced if it improves the efficiency of the functioning of the governing body.

Forecast and analysis of future conditions.

The analysis of logistics systems, as a rule, is carried out taking into account the development perspective. Interest is any information about the future - situations, resources, legislation, products and technologies. Therefore, forecasting is the most important and most difficult part of the analysis of logistics systems.

Drawing up development plans. Three types of plans are usually drawn up depending on forecasts of future conditions: optimistic, pessimistic and most probable.

Formation of the development program. As a result of solving the problems of analyzing logistics systems, development programs for the entire enterprise as a whole and its individual divisions are developed.

7. METHODS OF SYSTEM ANALYSIS

The main methods used in the analysis of logistics systems.

1. Scenario Method - is a means of primary ordering of a logistical problem, obtaining and collecting information about the relationship of the problem being solved with others, about possible and probable directions for future development.

Scenario - a predominantly qualitative description of possible options for the development of the investigated logistics object under various combinations of certain (pre-selected) conditions. The scenario in a detailed form shows the possible scenarios for the development of events for their further analysis and selection of the most realistic and favorable ones.

Logistics Panel draws up a scenario plan, which outlines the functional areas of logistics, as well as environmental factors taken into account when setting and solving a logistics problem. Different sections of the script are usually written by different groups of experts.

2. Delphi method. Unlike the scenario method, the Delphi method involves preliminary familiarization of logistics experts with the situation using a model.

Stages of the Delphi method:

1) several experts are asked the same question;

2) each expert develops his own estimates independently of other experts;

3) responses are collected and statistically averaged;

4) experts whose answers strongly deviate from the averages are asked to substantiate their assessments after presenting the averages;

5) experts develop justifications and submit them for consideration;

6) the average value and the corresponding justifications are presented to all experts for the development of the final decision.

3. Goal tree method. Logistics experts are invited to evaluate the structure of the logistics model as a whole and make proposals for including unaccounted connections in it. A goal tree is a connected graph, the vertices of which are interpreted as the goals of the logistics system, and the edges or arcs are the connections between them. This is the main tool for linking the goals of the upper level of a logistics organization with specific means of achieving them at the lower operational level.

In program-target planning (when the goals of the plan are linked to resources using programs), the tree of goals acts as a diagram showing the division of the general goals of the logistics plan into subgoals of various levels.

The presentation of goals begins at the top level of the logistics organization, and then they are successively disaggregated. The basic rule for disaggregating goals is completeness: each goal of the top level must be presented in the form of subgoals of the next level in an exhaustive manner, i.e., so that the combination of subgoals completely defines the original goal.

4. Matrix method. Matrix forms of presentation and analysis of logistics data are not a specific tool for analyzing logistics systems. However, they are widely used at various stages of logistics system analysis as an auxiliary tool.

Matrix - this is a visual form of data representation, revealing the internal relationships between elements, helping to clarify and analyze the unobservable parts of the structure. An example is the periodic system of D. I. Mendeleev.

8. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LOGISTICS

Logistics principle - this is generalized experimental data, the law of phenomena, found from the observations of logistics experts.

Knowledge of some principles by logistics experts makes it easy to compensate for the uncertainty of some environmental factors.

Basic principles of logistics.

1. Principle of rationality - such management decisions are selected that are the best (optimal) in terms of a set of indicators for given conditions. The decision is always made in such a way that thanks to the chosen option, i.e. due to the chosen ratio of costs and the achieved result, the rational achievement of the goals of the enterprise's logistics system is carried out.

2. The principle of integrity - this is the property of the logistics system to perform a given target function, implemented only by the system as a whole, and not by its individual elements.

Any logistics system should be considered first at the macro level, i.e. in interaction with the environment, and then at the micro level.

3. The principle of consistency - involves the study of a logistics object, on the one hand, as a whole, and on the other hand, as part of a larger system in which the analyzed object is in certain relationships with other systems. Thus, the principle of consistency covers all aspects of the object and object in space and time.

4. Hierarchy principle - this is the order of subordination of lower elements to higher ones according to strictly defined steps (hierarchical ladder) and the transition from a lower level to a higher one.

The hierarchical construction of logistics systems is due to the fact that management in them is associated with the use and processing of significant amounts of data. At the lower levels, more detailed and specific information is used, covering only certain aspects of the functioning of the logistics system. Generalized information characterizing the conditions for the functioning of the entire logistics system arrives at higher levels.

5. Principle of integration. Integration means combining any parts or properties into a whole. The principle of integration is aimed at studying the integrative properties and patterns in logistics systems. Integrative properties manifest themselves as a result of combining elements into a whole, combining functions in time and space. A logistics system, as an ordered set of elements with certain connections, has special system properties that are not inherent in individual elements and allow for a synergistic effect.

Synergistic connection - a connection that, with the joint actions of independent elements of the logistics system, provides an overall effect that exceeds the sum of the effects of the same elements acting independently, i.e., an increasing connection between the elements of the system.

6. Formalization principle Formalization involves obtaining quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the functioning of the logistics system of the enterprise.

The principles of system analysis in relation to logistics are constantly evolving, and in different directions.

9. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE FORMATION OF LOGISTICS SYSTEMS

Requirementsrequirements for the formation of logistics systems:

1) integration of supply chain links into a single system that ensures efficient management of material and information flows;

2) integration of control systems over the movement and use of the range of raw materials, materials and other products entering production, as well as finished products delivered to the consumer;

3) ensuring effective interaction and consistency in the construction and functioning of the elements of the logistics system;

4) consistency with existing processes and enterprise management systems;

5) the functioning of the system should help employees of the departments of the enterprise to identify important tasks and opportunities. In other words, the logistics system should include elements that help solve really important and priority tasks (that is, those for which resources are allocated);

6) equal attention to methods, objects, subjects and the subject of research itself;

7) orderliness and clarity (which does not exclude the value of intuition), compatibility with the management style adopted at the enterprise, focus on action.

Depending on the type of business, scale and other factors, the logistics systems of a particular enterprise may differ from each other. Consequently, one of the tasks is to clarify models of logistics systems, criteria for the development and evaluation of logistics systems of enterprises in various industries. Since in the logistics systems of enterprises it is possible to distinguish subsystems of procurement, storage and distribution, the next task is to clarify (develop at a lower level) models and criteria for these subsystems.

Thus, it is necessary to consider a large number of levels and, consequently, specific objects and subjects of research corresponding to a certain technological range of systems and subsystems. For each of them, specific system models and criteria are developed. However, one should strive for their standardization, the creation of subject information bases. Such a solution to the tasks set will significantly increase the efficiency of the consumer service cycle.

Logistic system characterized by intra-system connections and connections with the external environment. This is a system with closed incoming and outgoing flows, so the connections of the logistics system with the external environment are defined mainly as cyclic and synergistic.

Principles formation of a logistics system.

1) consistency of information, resource, technical and other characteristics of the logistics system (for example, any information must be unified for all subsystems of the logistics system);

2) a systematic approach - the elements of the logistics system are considered as interconnected and interacting to achieve a common goal;

3) system-wide optimization - coordination of local goals of the functional elements of the logistics system to achieve the global goals of the system;

4) the principle of stability and adaptability - the logistics system must work stably with permissible deviations of the parameters and factors of the internal and external environment.

10. LOGISTICS STRATEGY

With the growth of the instability of the external environment, the need for enterprises in strategic management increases. Strategic management can be thought of as management by results.

Axiom of strategic management - To survive and succeed, the management of the enterprise must adhere to aggressive operational and competitive behavior. Only then will the enterprise be able to meet the volatility of demand and various market opportunities.

Strategy describes the principal course of action chosen in order to achieve the stated objectives.

Logistics strategy is a generalizing model of actions necessary to achieve the set goals by coordinating and distributing enterprise resources.

Strategic Logistics Management - activities related to setting goals and objectives of the enterprise's logistics system and maintaining relationships between the enterprise and the external environment, which enable the enterprise to achieve its goals, correspond to its internal resource capabilities and allow it to remain susceptible to environmental factors.

Types of strategies:

1. Differentiation strategy - the company's desire for uniqueness, for example, in the customer service system.

2. Cost Leadership Strategy - market leadership strategy by reducing logistics costs along the supply chain.

3. Focus strategy - concentration on meeting the needs of consumers of one segment or a specific group of buyers, without striving to cover the entire market.

The purpose of such a strategy - meet the needs of consumers of the selected target segment better than competitors. The focus strategy can be based on both differentiation and cost leadership, or both, but only within the target segment. The strategy allows you to achieve a large share in the target market segment, but may lead to a small share in the market as a whole.

4. Diversification strategy used to ensure that the enterprise does not become dependent on one functional strategic unit.

Types of diversification.

1. Horizontal involves the expansion of the enterprise's activities in relation to its traditional consumer groups using existing expansion channels and sales methods (for example, marketing techniques for branded products); expansion of the product range by adding 1 to it related and new types of products that can be manufactured and marketed using the know-how of the enterprise, as well as expanding the enterprise's activities to new market segments.

2. The vertical - the enterprise expands its activities to the previous or subsequent stages of the production and distribution process. Vertical diversification is a form of implementing an integrated growth strategy, when the position of an enterprise in the market is changed by expanding by adding new structures.

3. Lateral - inclusion in the production program of the enterprise of products that do not have a direct connection with the previous field of activity of the enterprise.

11. FORECASTING IN LOGISTICS

Prediction - the process of obtaining prognostic information. Forecast:

1) a probabilistic representation of the occurrence of events in the future, based on observations and theoretical positions;

2) reasonable judgment about the probability of occurrence of one or more events or about the possible states of the process (phenomenon);

3) judgment about the future period of time.

Forecasting procedure:

1) definition of forecast objects;

2) selection of objects that are predicted;

3) determination of time horizons of the forecast - short-term forecast, medium-term or long-term;

4) selection of a forecasting model (models);

5) collection of data necessary for the forecast;

6) justification of the forecasting model;

7) making a forecast;

8) tracking results.

Forecasting methods - these are various ways of determining the probable development of an event at a given period of time in the future and establishing its volume in monetary or physical terms.

They are usually developed for specific uses, so it is not possible to give a complete overview of all existing methods.

Typically, standard methods with a complex structure are used. The forecasting methods can be based, in particular, on a representative survey and a survey of experts.

The whole set of methods can be divided into the following main groups:

1) logical-economic methods - the forecast is made in the form of logical assessments and judgments based on a comprehensive analysis of its development trends in the past and at the present stage (by the time the forecast was made), taking into account the expected changes in socio-economic conditions and factors (price changes, population growth, restructuring of the assortment, output to the new product market). The forecast is in the nature of an expert assessment. Expert assessments are carried out according to a special procedure, and in no case can one rely on the opinion of one specialist, no matter how experienced and qualified he may be;

2) economic and mathematical methods - are based on the application of methods of mathematical statistics. The most commonly used is the method of economic and mathematical modeling. In this case, the forecast is made on the basis of the implementation of the model, which is a certain system of numerical indicators interconnected in such a way that they reproduce the main connections and patterns of the phenomenon under study;

3) normative methods - based on the use of a system of norms and standards for rational consumption. With this approach, the norm of rational consumption of a particular type of goods for a certain future is taken as a guideline.

12. PLANNING IN LOGISTICS

The problem of planning in logistics - to develop projects that establish certain parameters of logistics activities for the future, as a result of which the goal of the enterprise's logistics system is achieved.

Logistics planning - an orderly, based on the processing of logistics data, the process of developing a logistics project that determines the parameters for achieving goals in the future.

Purpose of conceptual planning - prevent the dispersion of enterprise resources into too many disparate actions (actions).

Planning stages:

1) formulation of goals;

2) problem statement;

3) search for options;

4) forecasting;

5) evaluation and decision making.

Types of scheduling:

1) strategic - concerns the forms and methods of maintaining the existing level of business, its development in a constantly changing external environment (global goals and strategies for 10-20 years).

2) long term - investment plans and customer service programs are being prepared. Covers up to 10 years.

3) medium term - prerequisites are being created for the implementation of long-term planning programs. This takes into account the financial, economic, technical and technological aspects of planning. Its time period - about 5 years - is determined primarily by the need for time required for investments and, especially, for the preparation of equipment and premises, manufacturing for special equipment.

4) moving short-term.

Types of planning by functional areas:

1) sales planning;

2) planning the need for materials;

3) product procurement planning;

4) production planning.

Requirements for planning systems:

1) documentary support - in order to coordinate planned calculations and control over the implementation of plans, it is important that their main components are documented;

2) completeness;

3) accuracy - it is very important to choose correctly with what degree of accuracy the characteristics of planning objects should be measured, as well as to correctly determine the elements and content;

4) consistency - all private plans of the planning system are integrated and coordinated. The coherence of plans concerns primarily the component parts of the plan and the relationships between the individual plans. From the standpoint of the content of plans, it is possible to coordinate goals, forecasts, activities, means, actions of persons responsible for plans and deadlines. Individual plans need to be aligned in terms of need, urgency, hierarchy, consistency and flexibility.

Plan integration - coordination of plans of different ranks.

Plans coordination - coordination of plans of the same rank. Coordination of plans is an integrated approach to planning the operation of the system - the development of interconnected plans for the processing of material flow and the development of standards and specifications for the implementation of logistics procedures.

economic planning provides information useful in assessing general trends in price, cost, wages, and other costs. Comparing with the achieved level of consumption, the probable sales growth rates are calculated to ensure the achievement of a rational level. The normative method is applicable only for medium- and long-term forecasting (for 5 years or more).

Prediction is used as a preliminary stage in the development of plans and serves as an additional source for making decisions on the development of financial and economic activities.

13. SALES PLANNING

Many enterprises, in order to overcome the crisis, develop a business plan, in which an important place is given to justifying the volume of sales. Others depend on its size. data - such as income, expenses, profit.

Development of a trade turnover plan comes down to determining the needs of consumers for goods and services. Timely and accurate identification of needs serves as the basis for purchasing goods on time from suppliers, in the required quantity and required quality. If the need for goods is estimated at a deviation from the required value, then the consequences will be severe: excess goods will have an impact on the deterioration of the financial situation, and their shortage can lead to interruptions in trade, loss of customers and a decrease in sales volume.

The basis for developing a trade turnover plan

in the range are: accounting for the nature of changes in the structure of sales in the region as a whole and according to budget surveys of households; achieved sales volume by product groups; materials for the analysis of current trends in the structure of sales of goods by the enterprise over the past 3-4 years. Particular attention is paid to the following issues:

1) dynamics of total sales by types and product groups in current and comparable prices. The possibility of expanding sales of any goods should be considered;

2) the share of trade turnover by product groups and by total volume in the commodity markets of the region. Particular attention should be paid to comparing the turnover indicators of a wholesale enterprise with the value and trends in indicators of competing enterprises. If the company has many competitors, then it is worth considering the possibilities of working in another region;

3) the share of retail and wholesale buyers in total sales;

4) applications of buyers.

Stages of developing a sales plan.

1. On the basis of planned production indicators, resource requirements are established, as well as the main suppliers of resources. Comparison of available and required resources allows logistics experts to make sure that the movement of material resources in the required volumes can actually be ensured during the period under consideration.

2. A program is drawn up for the movement of products through the supply chain: from manufacturing enterprises to retailers and end consumers of products. At this stage, the needs for warehouses and vehicles are planned, the volume of resources is taken into account in terms of external and internal possibilities for servicing consumers in a given planning period. When there is a shortage of vehicles and storage space, the developers of the sales plan review the already developed logistics programs. At the same time, the previously drawn up plan for the production and sales of products is adjusted.

3. Warehouse layouts and traffic flows are being optimized. Calendar plans-schedules of preparation of products for shipment and deliveries of products to consumers are being developed.

The total volume of sales of products in the planned year is determined by all types of supplies and terms, as well as the terms of payment and shipment, agreed with consumers.

14. PLANNING THE REQUIREMENTS FOR PROCUREMENT OF GOODS, RAW MATERIALS AND MATERIALS

Procurement planning for goods and materials determines the needs for raw materials, materials, products and services that are acquired by the specialists of the purchasing department of the enterprise.

Purchasing planning goals:

1) reducing the level of excess stock of products;

2) maintaining the required level of customer service;

3) Coordination of delivery schedule and production plan.

Parameters and factors taken into account when developing a product procurement plan:

1) the minimum lot of the order issued by the supplier;

2) discounts for changes in the volume of supplied products;

3) restrictions on time (shelf life) and volume of storage of raw materials, packaging and finished products in the warehouse of a manufacturing enterprise;

4) location of the supplier. If the supplier is foreign, it is inappropriate to carry out frequent deliveries of small batches of raw materials or packaging, as this significantly increases the level of logistics costs. At the same time, conditions can be negotiated with a local supplier under which the recipient will maintain a minimum level of stock of raw materials, materials or packaging;

5) supplier reliability. If the supplier is reliable, the manufacturing enterprise gets the opportunity to arrange delivery just in time;

6) range and nomenclature of materials and raw materials purchased from one supplier. It is advisable to deliver all products purchased from one supplier at the same time in order to avoid increasing transportation costs. This is especially true for foreign suppliers;

7) terms of delivery of raw materials and materials from the moment of order (the longer the delivery time, the greater the stock of this material should be at the enterprise). "Just in time" concept - a method consisting in the acquisition or manufacture of such a quantity of products that is necessary for the production of finished products with the required level of quality and within the time period established by the customer.

The concept provides:

1) exclusion of overspending of resources;

2) execution of orders on time in terms of quantity and quality;

3) exclusion of the causes of inefficient functioning, and not their consequences.

Components of a Material Requirements Planning System.

1. The schedule of the main production or trade process, which determines the amount of finished goods, broken down by time.

2. Data on the optimal norms of stocks of goods and materials.

3. Inventory data for each component, assembly and part (quantity available, expected receipts, and the number of used parts not yet written off).

4. Data on the main products that are purchased and all products that are produced by the enterprise itself.

5. Forecast of the need for materials in accordance with the schedule of the main production process.

6. Structured list of raw materials and materials.

7. Data on stocks, open orders and lead times to calculate lead times and order quantities for materials.

Basic principles of product requirements planning, raw materials and consumables:

1) coordination of needs for materials (components) and a plan for the production of finished products;

2) breakdown by time.

15. PRODUCTION PLANNING

When planning production, the following indicators are determined:

1) the number of components required for production;

2) the period of time during which the products are produced;

3) the amount of raw materials and equipment needed to produce the required volume of products within the planned period of time.

Planning is divided into:

1) by terms:

▪ calendar planning includes the distribution of annual planned tasks by production departments and deadlines, as well as communicating the established indicators to specific performers of work;

▪ current planning represents constant operational control and continuous ongoing regulation of the progress of production processes;

2) by scope:

▪ intershop planning - development, regulation and control over the implementation of production plans by all functional departments of the enterprise;

▪ intra-shop planning is a procedure for developing operational plans and current work schedules for a separate production site.

Operational planning systems.

1. Detail system used in highly organized and stable production. According to this system, the progress of work, technological operations and production processes for each part is planned and regulated for a certain planning period (hour, shift, day, week).

2. Order system used in single and small-scale production with a large range and a small volume of products. The object of planning is a separate order for the production of the same type of work. This planning system is based on calculations of the duration of production cycles and lead times, with the help of which the deadlines required by the customer for the execution of both individual processes or works, and the entire order as a whole are set.

3. Complete system used in mass production. Various parts included in the general set of products are used as the main planning and accounting unit. With a complete planning system, calendar tasks for production units are developed not according to the details of a separate name, but according to enlarged groups or sets of parts for a unit, machine, order, or a certain volume of products.

Methods used in operational production planning.

1. The volumetric method is designed to distribute annual production volumes by individual departments and shorter time intervals - quarter, month, decade, week, day and hour.

2. The calendar method is used to plan specific dates for the launch and release of products, standards for the duration of the production cycle and ahead of the production of individual works. Planning is carried out in relation to the release of final products intended for sale on the market.

3. The volume-calendar method allows you to simultaneously plan the terms and volumes of work performed at the enterprise as a whole for the period under consideration - a year, a quarter, a month.

4. The volume-dynamic method provides for the close interaction of such planned and calculated indicators as the timing, volumes and dynamics of production.

16. CONTROL IN LOGISTICS

To develop ways to improve logistics systems, it is necessary to constantly monitor the activities of all functional units.

Controlling - a set of tasks, the subject of which is the coordination of management at the enterprise, as well as the supply of information to management personnel to ensure the optimal achievement of the goals of the enterprise's logistics system.

Logistics control - this is an orderly and, if possible, continuous process of processing logistics data to identify deviations or discrepancies between the planned and actual values of logistics indicators, as well as analyzing these deviations to identify the causes of discrepancies.

There are the following phases of control of the logistics system:

1) determination of the planned values of logistics indicators (based on existing contractual obligations and development forecasts);

2) calculation of actual values of logistic indicators;

3) comparison of actual and planned values of logistic indicators: calculation of the absolute deviation from the plan, the percentage of the plan, the amount of overspending or savings relative to the plan, both for individual indicators and for a group of indicators;

4) identifying the causes of deviations of actual values from planned ones;

5) calculation of growth rates of indicators relative to previous periods and analysis of the reasons for the decrease or increase in values.

Internal control is an audit procedure carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of the supply chain.

Evaluated in particular:

1) its relationship with internal consumers (other services);

2) methods of work used by employees of the supply service;

3) relationships with suppliers. The regulation on internal control at the enterprise contains the following items:

1) reliability of responsible persons;

2) division of responsibility:

▪ separation of operational responsibility from reporting responsibility. For example, the finished goods manager, not the operator, should keep records of manufactured products. Inventory accounts for balances should be kept not by the storekeeper, but by an employee of the enterprise’s accounting department;

▪ division of responsibility for the safety of products and its accounting. For example, an accountant should not accept money; a cashier, in turn, does not have access to the book of accounts and individual documents;

▪ delimitation of powers to carry out transactions and responsibility for the safety of products;

▪ separation of responsibilities for accounting functions;

3) powers of managers;

4) compliance of documents with the established requirements. Documents and reports have a different design: from primary documents (invoices, credit and debit orders) to accounting reports and registers. Direct, complete and unforgeable paperwork is provided. Documents are numbered, special registers are compiled, invoices are stored in safes, direct documentation is provided and details are filled in, which is especially important when selling products for cash. Special signal strips and marks for rewarding buyers are applied;

5) standard procedures;

6) security;

7) transfer of duties;

8) independent checks.

17. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES OF THE LOGISTICS ENTERPRISE

Organization is a system consisting of elements, the connections between which are ordered in a certain way.

The idea of a logistics organization is that changes in one of its elements cause a chain reaction of changes in others.

The course of development of logistics organizations in Russia by the end of the 1990s. has changed significantly. For a long time, the evolution of logistics organizations went in the direction of narrow specialization - the functions were split up, becoming more and more specialized and narrow. This was starting to lead logistical management activities into an obvious dead end. In this regard, integration is currently becoming relevant, i.e., the desire to cover the entire range of logistics procedures, to predict in advance the entire system of interactions and interdependencies, to take into account all the consequences of decisions made in the field of logistics: direct and indirect, immediate and remote.

Concepts for the development of organizational structures.

1. Compression of the organizational structure (staff reduction, network organization, grouping of functions, size optimization, deferral of operations, business process reengineering).

2. Empowerment.

3. Formation of teams.

4. Professional training (training).

The logistics system of the enterprise operates under the thoughtful and competent management of the logistics service and involves the interaction of employees of the functional divisions of the enterprise.

The work of external and internal services at a logistics enterprise is based on the following principles:

1) the principle of separation of tasks. External services (sales, marketing and sales departments) perform "customer processing". The internal service (logistics department) solves the problems of customer service;

2) the principle of customer service. The external service manages the execution of the received order. The system reduces the number of additional requests and reduces the intensity of data exchange between external and internal services when executing a consumer order;

3) the principle of cooperation. To support and relieve the external service, as well as to stimulate team spirit, employees of the internal service are involved in working with the buyer. This eliminates the traditional separation between the service that works with consumers and the service that fulfills orders. The principle of cooperation remains valid only when the external and internal services work together. It is important that the actions of employees of individual departments are coordinated as part of one team.

Requirements for the organizational structure as a process of customer service:

1) the efforts of employees of the functional divisions of the enterprise, as well as the available resources, are directed to creating additional value for the consumer;

2) all the means and resources of the enterprise necessary to fulfill consumer orders are available regardless of their functional affiliation. The main types of resources are in a state of constant readiness to perform the required work, operations, services;

3) the activities of employees of functional units are organized and focused on the implementation of a holistic process of fulfilling consumer orders.

18. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE LOGISTICS STAFF

For employees of the logistics service of the enterprise, job descriptions should be developed.

Job description - This is an organizational and legal document that defines the main functions, duties, rights and responsibilities of an employee of an enterprise in the exercise of his professional activities in a certain position. The job description is developed on the basis of qualification characteristics.

Sections of qualification characteristics for each position.

1. Job responsibilities.

2. Must know.

3. Qualification requirements.

Qualification category - this is the level of qualification, professionalism and labor productivity that meets the regulatory criteria, providing the employee of the enterprise with the opportunity to solve professional problems of a certain degree of complexity.

Official duties - duties of the employee, taking into account the tasks and functions of a particular structural unit of the organization with a detailed description of the main areas of his professional activity.

Consider brief examples of job responsibilities for certain types of professions within the framework of the logistics system:

Manager of logistick - carries out the selection of suppliers, delivery operators, the development of the procurement process, the placement of orders, inventory management, the determination of stock standards and the frequency of orders.

Pricing Specialist - ensures the development of proposals for improving wholesale and retail prices, prepares reports on the amount of trade markups.

Storekeeper - Carries out the acceptance of products and their placement for storage, care for them during storage. Bears financial responsibility for ensuring the safety of products from the moment they arrive until they are delivered to the packaging area (expedition).

Merchandiser-braker - carries out constant monitoring of the quality of goods, expiration date, labeling and completeness, organizes the return of defective products, considers claims for low-quality goods.

Selector - carries out the selection of storage units, their primary packaging in inner containers and transfer to the packaging area, fills in the selection lists (registers).

Packer - puts the products in containers, then marks the packaging and seals the container places. Responsible for the correct packaging, safety and availability of products in the packaging unit.

Sorter - carries out unpacking of products upon acceptance, counting the received products by quantity and type, selects materials for drawing up acceptance certificates.

Auditor - Carries out inventories, determines the actual availability of inventory items, cash, selective checks of the correctness of the application of retail prices in retail outlets.

Truck driver and loader - Performs operations for moving, carrying and stacking products.

Freight Forwarder - carries out the receipt of goods from the supplier's warehouse, organizes the delivery of inventory items, draws up acceptance documentation, controls the availability of properly executed certificates and other accompanying documentation.

19. MANAGEMENT OF LOGISTICS STAFF

Logistics specialists can be divided into two categories:

1) tactics who are well versed in the necessary work skills (computer literacy, knowledge of information systems, warehouse equipment and vehicles);

2) strategists with high analytical skills and good communication skills, possessing the skills of planning, organizing and managing.

The task of the logistics specialist - Achieving productive working relationships with specialists from other functional divisions of the enterprise. To effectively solve customer service problems, logistics specialists have direct access to all types and levels of information. The logistics specialist must have the formal authority of his position in the enterprise management hierarchy. This gives him the right to make decisions. The logistics specialist also has the powers associated with his intellect, experience and ability to establish interpersonal relationships between employees of the functional divisions of the enterprise. Such powers are expressed in the degree of influence of a logistics specialist on resolving issues that are outside the formal relationship.

Head of Logistics Service Reports directly to one of the Deputy General Directors or directly to the General Director. Thus, the head of the logistics service receives a fairly high status and authority, as well as relative independence from the heads of other functional services and departments of the enterprise.

Each employee in the management hierarchy has both a leader and subordinates (the principle of unity of command). An employee reports to only one leader and receives orders only from him. Each employee must clearly know his place in the organizational structure of enterprise management.

The interests of the enterprise take precedence over the interests of an individual representing a specific functional unit of the enterprise. Decisions are made only from the point of view of achieving the global goals of the enterprise, and not of an individual.

Principles of logistics personnel management:

1) stimulation of independence and entrepreneurship. A creative approach and a justified degree of risk in the performance of job duties by logistics personnel are encouraged. Innovation enthusiasts, "make sure you make an acceptable number of mistakes";

2) connection with life, value guidance. Successfully functioning enterprises have strong traditions. These values are supported with the personal participation of the top managers of the enterprise. It is necessary to strive to be closer to the customer service process;

3) loyalty to your work. Stay close to the case you've learned. Let this be your decisive force. Changes occur when the employees of functional departments have recognized their need, they themselves made decisions in favor of changes and chose their directions.

Labor productivity of logistics personnel is determined by the ratio of the volume of income received to the average number of logistics workers employed at the enterprise.

20. MAKING THE LOGISTICS DECISION

Decision-making - this is the choice of the optimal option for a given goal, taking into account side conditions.

The task of making a logistic decision arises when, under a certain state of the external environment, the one that best contributes to the achievement of the goal of the enterprise's logistics system is selected from several options.

In accordance with this, the task of making logistics decisions consists of the following three components:

1) assessment of the state of the external environment;

2) setting logistical goals;

3) search for options.

Assessment of the state of the external environment takes into account the rate of change in the intensity of competition, the development of scientific and technical progress, consumer preferences, and also takes into account political factors that can influence the economic situation.

Logistics goals represent the expression of the desired end results or states of the logistics system that must be achieved or will arise as a result of decision-making by the logistics specialist.

The logistical goal is characterized by:

1) content - the value that should be influenced by the selected option. This value can be determined by a characteristic (for example, profit, turnover, total costs), a change in a characteristic (for example, an increase in turnover), the ratio of two characteristics (for example, profitability and profit (capital));

2) time period - the C period for which the goal must be achieved must be established.

Search options - identification, formulation and analysis of ways to achieve the goals of the logistics system.

Search process:

1) a systematic and multilateral search for individual ideas (instructions, approaches to solving a logistics problem);

2) combining individual ideas into independent options;

3) exact wording of the variants found;

4) analysis of the structure of options and relationships between particular options;

5) limitation of options in the admissible area (screening out options that cannot be implemented under existing conditions and environmental factors);

6) checking the completeness of the admissible area.

When preparing a logistics solution, possible options are identified, i.e., different ways to achieve the goals of the logistics system, methods for solving each logistics problem, the advantages and disadvantages of each of them, so that you can choose the best ones. Options should be justified, prepared in such a way that their advantages and disadvantages are visible. In particular, objective criteria must be developed for evaluating different solutions, by which these options can be compared and the best one chosen.

Set of basic options presented to the company's management. The options are formulated in such a way that they exclude each other. The management of the enterprise, being free from functional considerations and having a broader view of the totality of all environmental factors that are significant in this case, makes the final decision. All options that can be implemented constitute the range of acceptable values.

Acceptable range (solution space) is the set of feasible options currently available to the logistics expert.

21. SUPPLIER SELECTION

One of the most important issues in logistics is the choice of supplier.

The use of third-party organizations to replace the internal organizational structures of the enterprise is advisable when:

1) the function can be performed better or cheaper by third-party specialists;

2) it reduces the risk of the enterprise in case of transition to new technologies or changes in consumer preferences;

3) it contributes to the organizational flexibility of the enterprise, reduces the duration of the customer service cycle and speeds up decision making;

4) it allows the enterprise to focus on the core business and do what it does best.

Main factors influencing the choice of supplier.

1. Information about the position of the company in the existing market: work experience, supplier's reputation, reputation, personality of the leader, contingent of main customers, size of the sales market at the moment and plans for the future.

2. Relationships with the supplier: the presence of existing or already invalid contracts with this company, the prospects for long-term cooperation, the presence of various circumstances affecting the choice of supplier (family ties, bribes), the volume of sales of goods necessary for mutual interest.

3. Supplied products: fame, breadth of assortment, quality and appearance of goods, compliance with established sanitary and technical standards, availability of certificates.

4. Price policy: prices for the supplied products, their difference from the average market, the possibility of discounts.

5. Supply security: adherence to the delivery schedule, compliance with applications in terms of the volume and structure of goods, the implementation of transport services by the supplier, the possibility of varying various delivery conditions.

6. Other factors: the possibility of returning substandard products, packaging of goods.

To organize uninterrupted work, it is desirable to have a large number of suppliers, this provides the following advantages:

1) opportunities for successful negotiations on prices, terms of delivery or other obligations;

2) the ability to choose if one of the suppliers is experiencing difficulties (difficulties may be related to the terms of delivery, product quality and service);

3) the possibility of solving problems that arise when increasing production or sales volumes that are not provided for by the current production (sales) plan.

The effectiveness of working with a particular supplier is evaluated according to the following indicators:

1) quality of deliveries - the share of orders completed in accordance with the requirements of the consumer;

2) reliability of the supplier - the ability of the supplier enterprise to satisfy, within a certain period of time, the requirements of the consumer related to product quality, terms and volumes of deliveries;

3) readiness for delivery - comparison of received and completed orders. This indicator indicates the consistency of the timing of the execution of orders related to the needs of the consumer. Confirmed by the deadline for the completion of the order by the enterprise;

4) flexibility of delivery - the readiness of the enterprise to carry out changes made by the consumer in the order.

22. CARRIER SELECTION

Factors to consider when choosing a carrier:

1) condition of vehicles;

2) the degree of competence of managers and controllers to ensure the safety of transportation;

3) a list of services provided;

4) type of transported products;

5) volume of transportation;

6) delivery speed;

7) compliance with the delivery schedule;

8) the possibility of ensuring the safety of transported products;

9) cost of service (transport services); Non-financial position of the carrier;

11) place occupied in the rating of carriers;

12) the possibility of joint transportation of various types of products;

13) the possibility of delivery to the required point;

14) work with claims;

15) safety of data, especially when transferring information to the customer about the upcoming shipment of goods;

16) statistical data of the carrier on theft and damage to the goods transported by him.

When choosing a carrier, the geographical location of the customer and the frequency of departure of goods in his direction by the considered modes of transport are also taken into account. Often resort to a combination of vehicles on the same route. The degree of study of the influence of these and other factors on ensuring the required level of safety during transportation depends primarily on the characteristics of the cargo to be delivered to the recipient.

Parameters taken into account when choosing vehicles:

1) the characteristics of the cargo determine whether it is possible to use universal rolling stock or whether it is necessary to use specialized vehicles;

2) the density of the cargo affects the choice of the cargo capacity of the vehicle, determined by the ratio of its carrying capacity and the internal volume of the body;

3) the amount of cargo presented for transportation (consignment size) determines the carrying capacity of the vehicle;

4) the urgency of transportation affects the choice of speed characteristics of vehicles;

5) the distance of transportation affects the choice of a vehicle in terms of range;

6) the conditions of loading and unloading determine the requirements for vehicles in terms of suitability for loading and unloading operations. Factors taken into account when choosing the parameters of an automobile vehicle (when drawing up a specification for the seller);

7) the base of the vehicle affects the axle load controlled at the weighing stations;

8) the height of the fifth wheel coupling affects the height of the loaded road train. If this height is more than 1200 mm, then the total height of the loaded road train may exceed the maximum permissible height of 4 m;

9) the presence of an air suspension - a device in which compressed air is used as a shock-absorbing element, providing at least 75% of the shock-absorbing effect. Transportation on a vehicle with spring suspension is paid by freight forwarders, as a rule, at a lower tariff rate;

10) the dead weight of the vehicle affects the weight of the transported cargo due to the limitation of the total weight of the vehicle;

11) the presence of an automatic transmission;

12) the presence of spoilers (air fairings) - allows to reduce fuel consumption;

13) type of tires: tube and tubeless (currently UNECE is discussing the requirements for tires).

23. SELECTING A BUSINESS LOCATION

Enterprise location selection problem is to find a location that makes it possible to implement a given program of production and sales. The choice of the location of the enterprise is determined by the need to save resources, the ability to produce a certain product at a given location with lower total costs than in other places. At the same time, the influence of logistics costs on the decision regarding the location of the enterprise is investigated. In particular, the costs of transportation, raw materials and fuel, labor, storage of products are taken into account.

Factors influencing the decision regarding the location of the enterprise:

1) internal - financial constraints to cover the costs associated with choosing a location;

2) external - are determined, as a rule, by legislation (regulations in the field of construction and in the field of ecology may contain prohibitions on the implementation of industrial construction).

Factors taken into account when determining the location of the enterprise:

1) general - transport costs and labor costs;

2) special, important for enterprises of certain industries (availability of raw materials, water);

3) regional - attract enterprises to certain regions (for example, deposits of raw materials);

4) concentration factors - determine the territorial concentration (for example, sales markets with a high population density);

5) socio-cultural (for example, the cultural level of the city).

Factors for choosing the location of the enterprise in terms of supply:

1) land plots (structure, purchase price or amount of rent);

2) raw materials, auxiliary and production materials (prices, transportation costs);

3) labor force (labor resources depending on the size of the population, the standard of living in a given region, the level of wages, qualifications of the labor force, attitude to work);

4) energy (energy supply costs);

5) transport (transport infrastructure, eg availability of roads, proximity to airports, transport costs).

Factors for choosing the location of the enterprise in terms of sales:

1) sales potential (population structure, purchasing power, competition, special prestige of the product in the area of production);

2) transport (transport routes);

3) contacts that promote implementation (fairs, advertising agencies).

Factors for choosing the location of the enterprise, determined by the state:

1) taxes (tax rate, tax incentives for certain regions);

2) legislation governing border crossing (customs regulations, foreign trade laws);

3) the economic system (competitive business laws, the right to take part in the affairs of the enterprise), as well as the risks associated with political instability (for example, restrictions on the movement of capital, expropriation);

4) measures in the field of environmental protection (reducing the level of environmental pollution);

5) government assistance (programs to assist regions with an underdeveloped economic structure, assistance in founding private enterprises, promotion of research and development work).

24. BASIC CONCEPTS OF QUALITY. QUALITY OF CUSTOMER SERVICE

Customer service quality - this is an integral indicator covering a set of logistics parameters (delivery time, number of completed orders, duration of the service cycle, waiting time for placing an order for execution, etc.).

Customer Service Quality System - a set of organizational structure, procedures, processes and resources necessary to provide the required level of customer service.

Lack of service - non-compliance of the service with the standard, the terms of the contract or the requirements of consumers to the level of quality of service.

The quality policy includes:

1) documentation, which presents the principles, goals and strategies for quality that are mandatory for the entire enterprise;

2) the commitment made by the management of the enterprise regarding the quality of customer service;

3) a procedure that ensures that employees of all functional departments of the enterprise know the principles and goals regarding quality and implement them in their daily work.

The Customer Service Quality Guidelines, in summary form, contain:

1) principles of control over the quality of customer service;

2) description of the organizational structure of the enterprise;

3) description of customer service processes;

4) description of the responsibility of the personnel of the functional divisions of the enterprise;

5) necessary links to regulatory, technical and management documentation.

Basic principles of customer service quality:

1) focus on meeting the needs of consumers;

2) orientation to the functional process;

3) orientation of the customer service system to prevent errors, failures and inconsistencies;

4) focus on improving the functional and information processes, documentation;

5) participation of all employees of the functional divisions of the enterprise in ensuring the quality of customer service;

6) a clear distribution of job responsibilities.

Efficiency of the customer service system - an indicator (or a system of indicators) that characterizes the level of quality of the functioning of the service system at a given level of total costs of the enterprise. From the point of view of the consumer, who is the final link in the supply chain, service system efficiency determined by the level of quality of execution of his order.

Efficiency of logistics systems relies heavily on the ability to identify potential outcomes early in the customer service process. This creates an adequate atmosphere of expectations and incentives for staff.

В reporting system indicators are included that allow managers to quickly identify and prevent potential problems. For example, a distribution control system prioritizes orders so that managers can prevent possible failures in the execution of a key customer's order. Another example would be a warning that the order processing system is overloaded. This monitoring of the situation allows early detection of signs of a future inability to service accepted orders.

25. CUSTOMER SERVICE CYCLES. CERTIFICATION OF SERVICE SYSTEMS

Customer Service Cycle - this is a repetitive complete closed process that translates the goal (satisfaction of consumer needs) into a specific result (product, subject and object) of meeting the need.

Laws of the customer service cycle:

1) the law of structure determines the way of organizing and ensuring the unity of the stages of the consumer service cycle. Relationships between service cycle stages are essential and necessary. The sequence of stages, the requirements for the efficiency and quality level of each stage, the repeatability of the requirements for the stages of the maintenance cycle, for the preparation of documentation, the priority of the stages are the components of the law of the structure of the maintenance cycle;

2) the law of functioning states the determining role of the initial stages of the service cycle, and also expresses the interaction of stages in the customer service cycle. For example, materials selected at the procurement stage determine the methods of their processing at the production stage, the functioning of the product at the operational stage, and decisions on disposal as a result of physical or moral obsolescence of the product;

3) the law of development characterizes the correspondence of the stages of the service cycle to each other, as well as the transition from one system of relationships to another at various stages of the service cycle. For example, contradictions in the requirements for the consumer service system at the stages of marketing research (increasing the level of consumer requirements) and production (minimizing resource costs) can lead to insufficient fulfillment of consumer requirements.

Customer service quality indicators include:

1) sales volume;

2) the number of completed orders;

3) number of returns;

4) the number of short deliveries;

5) the amount of the deficit;

6) the number of canceled orders;

7) the number of eliminated short deliveries;

8) length of time of underdeliveries;

9) the number of incomplete shipments;

10) number of claims;

11) the number of timely shipments.

Units: packaging units, product units, product categories, weight units, monetary units, dozens (tens), number of damaged packages.

Service System Certification is a validation procedure whereby a third party independent of the manufacturer and consumer certifies in writing that the CM the service system complies with the established norms and requirements.

Service System Certification Procedure:

1) assessment of the customer service system available at the enterprise for compliance with the requirements of the international standard;

2) determining the necessary changes;

3) definition and implementation of new procedures in the field of customer service;

4) a preliminary meeting with the auditor to review the documentation on the customer service system;

5) customer service audit;

6) obtaining a certificate of conformity.

Quality System Certificate is a certificate issued according to the rules of the certification system and certifying the compliance of the customer service system with the specified standard.

26. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE QUALITY OF GOODS

Under demand refers to the features that a product must comply with in order to be able to be used for its intended purpose for a certain period of time.

Hygiene requirements - provide for the provision of safe and harmless conditions for human life during its interaction with the product.

Aesthetic requirements - these are requirements for the form of construction, external design and other features of the product.

Technological requirements - apply primarily to materials, such as varnishes, fabrics, building materials. Such materials should be lightweight and easy to use, allow the use of modern processing methods.

Requirements for the reliability of goods - products must be reliable in operation. Reliability requirements are expressed in the requirement for reliability, maintainability, storability and durability, which helps to lengthen the service life of goods. The terms of physical and obsolescence of products are important.

Goods safety - the requirement is made to the conditions that ensure the preservation of the use value of goods within the established periods and after their expiration. This requirement is of particular importance for chemical products, perfumery and others, which, under the influence of the external environment (humidity, temperature, light), change their basic properties, as a result of which, as a rule, the quality indicators of goods decrease.

Economic requirements - include not only production costs, but consumer costs associated with the acquisition, use, repair of goods and other expenses.

social demands - the conformity of the production of a particular product to social needs, the justification of its production and consumption. Analysis of statistical indicators, development of consumption models make it possible to identify these requirements. On the basis of such an analysis, for example, an optimal assortment of goods is developed.

Functional requirements - requirements for the product to perform its main function.

Ergonometric requirements - provide for the convenience of using the product during operation, its compliance with the characteristics of the human body, ensuring optimal operating conditions in everyday life.

The following factors can influence the quality of goods:

1) factors that directly affect the quality - the quality of design and modeling, the quality of workmanship, the quality of raw materials, equipment, tools, compliance with the technological regime.

2) factors stimulating quality - economic efficiency (including price), material interest of workers. These factors can be objective and subjective.

Objective factors are the design of the product, the technical level of the production base, etc.

Subjective factors - these are factors that are associated with human activity, that is, they depend on the ability and attitude of people to perform production functions: professional skills, general educational level, psychological warehouse.

27. PRODUCT CERTIFICATION AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN THE ORGANIZATION OF COMMODITY TRAFFIC

Certification of products is a set of actions, as a result of which, with the help of a special document - Certificate - compliance with the requirements of international, national standards of importing countries and state standards is confirmed. The choice of a particular standard as a certification criterion is determined by its purpose.

For the domestic market, the certified product must meet the requirements of the relevant GOSTa. For goods imported, for example, to Egypt, the consumer must stipulate in the contract the requirements that the product must meet: the Egyptian standard, international standard or GOST.

There is mandatory and voluntary certification.

With voluntary certification, carried out at the initiative of the manufacturer, the goal is to increase the competitiveness of their products.

Mandatory certification aims to ensure the safety and environmental friendliness of products. It is carried out at the initiative of the state. In accordance with Law "On Protection of Consumer Rights" goods, works and services aimed at ensuring the safety of life, consumer health and environmental protection are subject to mandatory certification. The sale of goods that have not passed certification is prohibited.

There are two forms of certification:

1) self-certification - the manufacturer of the product guarantees to the consumer - the customer that the quality of the manufactured product meets the established requirements, which is specified in a special document. This form is used by manufacturers who have firmly established themselves in the market and are confident in the trust of the consumer (Sony, Philips);

2) certification of conformity - carried out by special bodies that are independent of the parties involved. Certification participants represent the interests of suppliers and buyers. For goods sold on the domestic market, such a body is the State Standard. To certify the conformity of goods, the applicant must submit an application to the certification body. In this application, the manufacturer states that its products meet the requirements of specific standards and requests certification of the products. The certification body determines the laboratory in which certification will be carried out. If the results are positive, a test report is drawn up, which is sent to the product certification body, and a copy of it is sent to the product manufacturer.

If the verification results are positive, the certification body issues certification, registers it in the State Register and issues the appropriate document to the applicant. The certification body sets the validity period for the certificate. The maximum validity of the certificate should not exceed 3 years. Production is certified for the same period. The certification body or, on its behalf, the manufacturer of products, when issuing a certificate for a product, marks it and the accompanying documentation with a mark of conformity. The marking on serial products (in case of issuing a certificate) is applied by the manufacturer under his own responsibility. The conformity mark is applied near the manufacturer's trademark.

28. RECEIVING AND PROCESSING A CONSUMER ORDER

Functioning of logistics systems aimed at meeting the effective demand of consumers. The products of the logistics system of the enterprise is the execution of consumer orders.

Order is an information unit of logistics operations. In the general case, it is a form that goes through all stages of the customer service process. An order, as a rule, combines all documents related to a particular transaction (agreement, contract).

Technological process of order fulfillment is a set of sequentially performed logistics operations. The sequence in which work is performed is determined by priority rules.

Customer service time - the time interval between the receipt of an order for the supply of products and the receipt of the ordered products by the consumer. This includes, in particular:

1) the time of placing the order in the prescribed manner (the time spent on correcting and clarifying the order);

2) time to transfer the order to the supplier;

3) the waiting time for the execution of the order, i.e. the time from the moment the order is received by the system until the start of service;

4) lead time of the order by the supplier;

5) the time of delivery of manufactured products to the customer.

Order Fulfillment Procedure - logistics operations related to the production and delivery of products to consumers based on their orders.

Order cycle:

1) for the seller, this is the time from the moment the order is received to the moment when the product arrives at the warehouse, where it is accepted by the consumer;

2) for the buyer - this is the period of time from the moment the order is placed until the moment the products are received.

Order cycle stages:

1) order planning - for a more even loading of production capacities, enterprises can draw up plans that distribute consumer orders over time;

2) transfer of the order - occurs in the period of time between the placement or sending of the order by the consumer and the receipt of the order by the seller;

3) order processing - collection, storage, transmission and processing of order data;

4) order picking and picking - carried out in accordance with the order picking sheet;

5) order delivery. There are two options: the recipient takes the products out of the warehouse on his own, or the order is delivered by the supplier to the recipient's warehouse.

Order execution quality indicators.

1. The speed of order fulfillment - the time from the moment the order is received to its execution (delivery to the consumer).

2. Uninterrupted execution of logistics operations - the ability of the enterprise service system to maintain the expected order execution times over many functional cycles.

3. The level of consumer service deficiencies - reflects the likelihood of failures in transport and logistics services;

4. Flexibility of logistics operations - the ability of the enterprise service system to meet the special needs of consumers.

Typical situations requiring flexibility:

1) support for unique sales and marketing plans;

2) introduction of a new product;

3) tailoring the level of service to specific markets or consumers.

29. REENGINEERING THE CUSTOMER SERVICE PROCESS

Service process reengineering is the revision and reconstruction of order fulfillment processes in order to improve the performance of the service system.

Service process reengineering includes:

1) compiling a list of all processes;

2) selection of a priority process;

3) interview with the end user;

4) process monitoring;

5) drawing up a process diagram;

6) process redesign;

7) testing and verification of the process;

8) selection of the next process.

Service process reengineering consists of the following steps:

1 phase - study of the existing system for processing and fulfilling orders.

It includes:

1) research and analysis of the process of passing one, as a rule, priority, most important or urgent order along the entire supply chain - from the receipt of the order to the acceptance by the recipient of the ordered products. Attention is focused on key processes;

2) analysis of the consumer's requirements for service, the actual and desired parameters of the service system for the consumer. To this end, interviews are conducted with consumers;

3) drawing up a diagram of the service process indicating all stages of order processing, performers, tasks performed by them and the boundaries of their responsibility. It also calculates the time spent on

From the main and auxiliary work;

2 phase - development of recommendations for improving service systems:

1) making and analyzing proposals for optimizing the order fulfillment process, eliminating resource losses, reducing the time for performing auxiliary operations (for example, reducing intermediate quality control, introducing scientific and technical progress, performing operations in parallel, not sequentially). Consideration of proposals is carried out with the participation of the heads of all functional divisions of the enterprise and the main consumers;

2) development of recommendations based on the generalization of proposals;

3) implementation of the most optimal proposal.

3 phase - checking the effectiveness of the new service system.

The probability of occurrence of new problems is analyzed, the limiting factors of the external environment, possible unexpected reactions to changes are determined, for which a new process is tested. The redesigned customer service process is implemented, monitored and standardized.

Recommendations for reengineering the order fulfillment process:

1) give preference not to a long and extensive analysis, but to concrete actions. Analysis should not paralyze action;

2) do not delay the timing of reengineering. Reengineering must give concrete results within one year, otherwise the support of the enterprise management is lost. It is better to do less than to overestimate your own strengths and resources. Redesign order fulfillment processes one by one, achieving consistent results;

3) not be limited to the process itself. Reconstruction of the consumer order fulfillment process, as a rule, entails a change in everything related to this process, for example, organizational

4) take into account the interests of those who are directly affected by the results of the redesigned service process.

30. ORDER MANAGEMENT, ORDER PREPARATION

Order management addresses the following key issues.

1. What to order?

2. How many to order?

3. When to order the required products?

4. Which division and who specifically should order?

5. In addition, the execution of the order is controlled.

Purchase Order is considered as a document on the basis of which the necessary products are purchased. It clearly and concisely sets out the agreement between the buyer and the supplier. If accepted, the order acquires the legal force of a binding contract. A purchase order is made on the basis of a requisition.

Application - a control document, according to which funds are released for the purchase of certain types of products. The need for products is identified and specified by the employee who submitted the application. A certain amount is allocated to him from the budget of the enterprise for these purposes.

The application specifies:

1) subject of procurement;

2) code of the article to which the costs relate;

3) special conditions governing the purchase (technical conditions, delivery requirements, nature of use).

The order management system involves the calculation of the following indicators:

1) the minimum level of stock of products - the minimum level of residues, when reduced to which an order is submitted for the supply of the next batch of products;

2) optimal stock level - a level sufficient for the uninterrupted functioning of the enterprise during the supply cycle, in which the safety stock of products remains intact;

3) optimal order frequency - the frequency with which the purchasing manager should place regular orders to suppliers to maintain optimal inventory levels.

There are the following types of orders:

1) standard - take place when placing orders to maintain the required level of product inventory is carried out constantly and systematically. This provides a reduction in the level of costs for the creation and storage of product inventories;

2) special - take place when there are no stocks of the required products in the warehouse. A special order is made on the basis of customer orders. The authority to place special orders is limited. In the absence of a reliable inventory control system, the volume of products purchased on special orders increases, which can become a serious problem for the entire enterprise.

The ordering process includes:

1) clarification of the amount of product balances;

2) analysis of the current debt on orders, including on the basis of determining the share of canceled and outstanding orders;

3) inclusion in the regular standard order of all products from unprocessed special orders;

4) finalization of the order;

5) sending the completed order to the supplier.

When placing an order, you must:

1) check the received products with the invoice data;

2) conduct a physical inspection of the delivered products to detect defective products;

3) fix the receipt of the ordered products in the warehouse documentation;

4) after a certain period (for example, 30 days), a special scheme for working with unsold products is applied (it is sent to a warehouse, for sale, or returned to the supplier).

31. SYSTEMS AND METHODS OF STOCK MANAGEMENT

Inventory functions that provide flexibility in the customer service system:

1) accumulation of products with subsequent distribution;

2) protection against price changes and inflation;

3) cost management by using a price discount that depends on the size of the order.

Inventory management system - a set of rules and indicators that determine the time and volume of purchases of products to replenish stocks. Skillful and thoughtful inventory management is one of the conditions for increasing the efficiency of trading activities.

Inventory management system parameters:

1) order point - the minimum (control) level of stocks of products, upon the occurrence of which their replenishment is necessary;

2) the standard level of stocks - the estimated value of stocks, achieved during the next purchase;

3) volume of a separate purchase;

4) frequency of purchases - the duration of the interval between two possible purchases of products, i.e. the frequency of replenishment of stocks of products;

5) the replenished quantity of production at which the minimum cost of holding the stock is achieved for a given cost of replenishment and a given opportunity cost of invested capital.

Stages of the inventory management process:

1) forecasting the possible use of product stocks:

▪ monitoring the actual use of product reserves;

▪ monitoring of actual costs for replenishing product inventories;

▪ monitoring the time required to create inventory through delivery or production (delivery time or production time).

Main indicators of inventory management:

1) the level of stocks of products - characterizes the security of the enterprise with stocks on a certain date and shows how many days of trade (with the current turnover) this stock will last;

2) the rate of turnover of stocks of products - the ratio of the volume of stocks of products to the volume of products sold for a certain period;

3) inventory turnover - the time interval (in days) between the receipt of products at the warehouse and the release of materials into production, as well as between the receipt of products at a trading enterprise and its sale;

4) inventory turnover rate - an indicator that characterizes the number of sales of products for a certain period (usually a year);

5) inventory turnover ratio - shows how often stocks are turned over or sold while ensuring the current sales volume of products. This coefficient characterizes the efficiency of the procurement, production and marketing system at the enterprise.

Inventory control system - detailed accounting of raw materials and products used in the production process, non-manufacturing materials, such as consumables, office supplies, as well as items for maintaining and repairing premises and equipment.

Reserve estimation method to average is based on the calculation of the average cost of inventory. "Weighed" the number of stocks of products purchased bathed at different prices.

Piece valuation method used to account for items such as cars and unique paintings, expensive jewelry and custom-made furniture.

32. CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVES

Commodity stocks - goods that are in the sphere of commodity circulation, as well as at the manufacturer and in transit. Their presence characterizes the static state and location of the commodity mass in the process of product distribution at a certain point in time. They are a complex economic category and express the multifaceted relationships between participants in economic activity.

There are the following types of reserves:

1) stocks in transit - stocks of products that at the time of accounting are in the process of being transported from suppliers to consumers or to wholesalers;

2) illiquid stocks - long-term unused or unsold production or commodity stocks;

3) carryover stocks - product balances at the end of the reporting period. Ensure the continuity of production and consumption in the reporting (or following the reporting) period until the next delivery of products;

4) preparatory stocks - a part of stocks of products, the presence of which is caused by the need to prepare products for release to consumers: registration of acceptance or release, sorting, loading and unloading, picking;

5) production stocks - stocks intended for production consumption;

6) seasonal stocks - stocks formed during the seasonal nature of production or during the seasonal nature of consumption and transportation. Their purpose is to ensure the stable functioning of the enterprise and the uninterrupted supply of production during the seasonal break in production, consumption or transportation;

7) reserve stocks - a constantly maintained stock of products in case of unforeseen orders and sharp fluctuations in demand. Reserve stocks must ensure the uninterrupted functioning of the enterprise until the moment when the order is delivered to the recipient's warehouse;

8) insurance (warranty) stocks are designed to ensure continuous (uninterrupted) supply of the enterprise in the event of unforeseen circumstances:

▪ deviations in the frequency and size of supply batches from those planned or provided for in contracts;

▪ failure to fulfill the production plan by the supplier;

▪ sharp increase in demand;

▪ delay of products in transit when delivered from suppliers;

▪ impossibility of timely procurement and delivery of products;

9) current stocks ensure the continuity of the enterprise's supply between two successive deliveries and are calculated based on the delivery interval;

10) stocks of raw materials and materials - materials that should become part of the finished product as a result of the production process;

11) inventories of work in progress - products that are in the process of production and the processing of which has not yet been completed;

12) stocks of finished products - products produced, but not sent to consumers;

13) the stock of the current replenishment characterizes the average quantity of the assortment of products, updated with each delivery batch, and depends on the frequency of delivery of products and the completeness of the receipt;

14) a stock in the amount of a one-day turnover is stored on the trading floor, replenished daily at the expense of the stock of the current replenishment and is intended for the direct release of products to customers.

33. JUSTIFICATION OF THE NECESSARY VALUE OF COMMODITY STOCKS OF A TRADING ENTERPRISE

Each enterprise, when justifying the required amount of inventory, uses the following information:

1) on retail trade turnover and sales by groups of goods in the reporting and forecast period;

2) on commodity stocks in terms of volume and structure, on the turnover of goods;

3) from accounting statements on total expenses, expenses for paying loans, transportation and storage of goods;

4) on the size of trade margins;

5) on the availability of own working capital.

Methods for calculating the required amount of inventory:

1) experimental-statistical - establishing the recommended amount of stocks (in days to sales volume and in total) based on the prevailing trends in the change in turnover and factors affecting it, taking into account expected changes in the planning period. This method is the main one in determining the required value for groups of goods, the share of which in the sales volume is less than 5% and for small enterprises (small retail);

2) technical and economic - is used for those groups of goods that occupy 5% or more in the sales volume. The essence of this method is to calculate the total value of the required stocks for a commodity group (M) according to its components: stocks associated with the time spent on picking, receiving and preparing goods for sale (K); working stock, i.e. goods that must be sold in the period between the importation of consignments of goods (P); stock of the current replenishment (P/2) - for goods of a simple assortment, it is equal to half the frequency of delivery; safety stock (C) is established empirically by the enterprise.

M \u2d K + R + P / XNUMX + C

Consider the method of calculating each of terms:

K - is determined based on the time spent on the period of preparation of goods and the acquisition of the trading range. It is in reality 1-3 days;

P - working stock, determined by the time spent on the formation of an order and the organization of its delivery. For locally produced goods, it is usually 4-6 days;

P/2 - the stock of the current replenishment is intended for uninterrupted trade between the next replenishment of stocks and when calculating the standard, it is taken in the average size (P/2) based on the fact that at the time of receipt of goods the maximum stock is created, and before the next delivery their total value will be minimum. The total value of the replenishment stock (P) is determined by multiplying the normalized current delivery period in days by the renewal factor of the entire assortment (it, in turn, is determined by dividing the number of varieties in the assortment list by the number of varieties in one batch). Calculations of the value of this stock can be calculated in several ways. An increase in the frequency of importation of goods and the number of varieties imported on average in one batch affects the decrease in the stock of the current replenishment and vice versa. Enterprises, making a decision to change the inventory standard, should provide for a change in the relevant delivery conditions: frequency and completeness of delivery;

C - an insurance stock is created in case of a sharp increase in demand from the population. It is 30-50% of the replenishment stock.

34. BASIC SUPPLY CONCEPTS

Supply - this is an activity that includes the procedures for the purchase, delivery, acceptance, storage and pre-sale preparation of products.

Supply management - is the activity of coordinating the interaction of participants in the supply chain in order to provide added value for consumers.

Supply policy - these are general recommendations on the basis of which the purpose, purpose and aspects of the activity of the supply unit of the enterprise are determined.

Supply policy content:

1) description of the organizational structure of the supply unit;

2) regulation on valuable purchases;

3) regulations on the ethics of supply activities.

Supply Functions:

▪ identification and study of sources of resources and suppliers of products;

▪ determining the need and calculating the quantity of ordered products;

▪ order decision;

▪ establishing the quantity and timing of deliveries and monitoring them;

▪ inventory management;

▪ accounting and control of the progress of fulfillment of contractual obligations.

Supply principles:

1) regularity - delivery of products on the basis of planned delivery schedules;

2) rhythm - the delivery of products at relatively regular intervals, which creates optimal conditions for the operation of wholesale and retail trade enterprises, warehouses, transport and other parts of the supply chain;

3) efficiency - the implementation of the process of supplying products depending on changes in demand for it;

4) efficiency - the minimum cost of working time, material and financial resources for the delivery of products. It is achieved through the efficient use of vehicles, the mechanization of loading and unloading operations, the establishment of the optimal link in the supply chain;

5) centralization - supplying consumers with products by the forces and means of suppliers;

6) manufacturability - the use of modern procurement and supply technologies.

Development of a supply program - determination of the type and quantity of products purchased in various markets, as well as the time of purchase of a particular type of product.

Supply chain challenge - ensuring the planned level of customer service with minimal total costs.

Supply system requirements:

1) ensuring a continuous flow of products: ensuring a continuous flow of raw materials, components and the provision of services necessary for the life of the enterprise;

2) inventory management: bringing together the level of investment associated with stocks of products, and the cost of maintaining them;

3) maintaining the level of quality of customer service;

4) work with suppliers: search for competent suppliers;

5) standardization: buying standard products where possible;

6) achieving a minimum total cost of service, the procurement process requires the availability of products and services at the lowest cost;

7) ensuring the competitive advantage of the enterprise;

8) development of relations and achievement of harmonious, productive and working relations with employees of other functional divisions of the enterprise;

9) ensuring supply while reducing overhead costs. Reliability of supply is the guarantee of providing the consumer with the products he needs within a planned period of time.

35. BASIC CONCEPTS OF PURCHASING

Stages of the procurement process in the enterprise:

1) determining the scope of the project (determining the volume of production and sales, estimating the amount of costs, budget parameters);

2) formation of a procurement plan, preliminary evaluation of suppliers. A list of all future purchases for the project is compiled, as well as a schedule for the purchase of each type of product;

3) placement of advertisements for submission of proposals;

4) evaluation of the proposal;

5) final negotiations;

6) preparation of documentation;

7) delivery and quality control;

8) discussion of controversial issues and warranty obligations.

Operations carried out within the procurement function:

1) market analysis;

2) study of price trends and analysis of the cost of production of the supplier. Allows you to conclude that the purchase is made under the most favorable conditions and at the best time;

3) receiving and evaluating the supplier's offer;

4) choice of supplier;

5) coordination of the cost of service and conclusion of the contract;

6) verification of compliance of the purchased products with certain requirements or specifications of the buyer;

7) conducting preliminary negotiations between the supplier and the buyer;

8) placing an order;

9) delegation of authority and assessment of the consequences of the procurement policy;

10) establishment of a unified policy in relations with suppliers;

11) development of methods for accounting for products;

12) reducing the time of verification and approval of product specifications;

13) acceleration of payment for products;

14) saving enterprise resources, for example, by consolidating orders and setting stock standards;

15) search for cheaper substitutes for products without compromising its consumer properties;

16) selection, classification and analysis of data necessary to search for an alternative type of product;

17) forecast of supply, demand and prices for the main types of purchased products;

18) analysis of the value and capabilities of the supplier;

19) development of new methods for processing the necessary data for the effective functioning of the procurement system.

Factors affecting the level of service quality in the enterprise procurement system:

1) the speed of order fulfillment (the time from the moment the order was sent to the receipt of the products);

2) the possibility of urgent delivery of products by special order;

3) the willingness of the supplier to accept the returned products if a defect is found in them, and replace them in the shortest possible time with quality products;

4) ensuring various volumes of batches of shipments of products;

5) the ability to choose the most appropriate type of transportation;

6) availability of an efficiently functioning consumer service;

7) availability of a reliably functioning distribution and storage network;

8) sufficient level of product stocks;

9) the level of prices at which services are provided to consumers.

Goals of the procurement management system in the enterprise: expanding the product range, reducing total resource costs and eliminating waste, getting rid of obsolete and slow-moving stocks, controlling special orders, controlling lost sales, increasing the share of purchases carried out under the standard order procedure.

36. BASIC PROCUREMENT METHODS

Procurement Methods:

1) direct purchases - purchases of products directly from manufacturers;

2) counter purchases - purchases from suppliers who are also consumers;

3) leasing - rent, for example, warehouse equipment;

4) new purchase - the situation of the purchase by the enterprise, in which the buyer makes the purchase of this product for the first time, may require serious research;

5) regular repurchase;

6) modified re-purchase - a procurement situation in which the purchasing company changes the specification of the order, price, terms of delivery or supplier of products, requires little research;

7) complex procurement - is carried out on the basis of a complex decision and does not require the adoption of any separate decisions.

Procurement management methods:

1) method of increasing the volume of purchases;

2) the method of reducing the volume of purchases;

3) method of direct calculation of purchase volumes.

Purchase volume increase method:

1) the demand for specific types of products is taken into account to make a decision on their purchases;

2) the demand is analyzed for at least 12 months to take into account all possible types of seasonal fluctuations;

3) a sufficient volume of demand is determined for 12 months to create stocks of a particular type of product;

4) decisions to create inventories are made depending on the number of orders for specific types of products, and not on the number of types of products sold.

Purchasing reduction method:

1) monthly analysis of sales statistics for products that are not in demand;

2) on the basis of sales statistics, those types of products are determined, the volume of stocks of which should be reduced;

3) criteria are developed on the basis of which the need to reduce or eliminate specific types of product stocks is determined;

4) the share of slowly sold types of products is minimized on the basis of taking into account indicators of the volume of stocks of products.

Method of direct calculation of purchase volumes (calculation of average values without taking into account the dynamics and cyclicity of demand):

1) the period of time for which the calculation is carried out is determined;

2) based on sales statistics for the selected period of time, the total number of products sold is determined;

3) the average inventory value (in weeks) is determined by dividing the total number of products sold by the number of weeks in the selected period;

4) to determine the stock of a given type of product, the value of the optimal stock level is multiplied by the average stock per week;

5) as new products are sold, the calculated value, and with it the numbers in the standard order, change;

6) the value obtained as a result of the calculations changes weekly, reflecting the current statistical data, therefore the average value of stocks and the optimal level of stocks are constantly recalculated.

Product procurement policy based on ABC analysis:

1) purchases of resources of group "A" are carried out from more reliable suppliers than in group "C";

2) the names of group "A" are subject to more careful physical control over storage;

3) forecasting the need for products of group "A" is carried out more carefully.

37. ORGANIZATION OF SUPPLY

There are two main forms of supply of raw materials and materials:

1) warehouse - delivery of products is carried out through intermediate and distribution warehouse complexes and terminals;

2) transit - delivery of products directly to the consumer from manufacturers; receipt of purchased products to retailers directly from suppliers.

The transit form of supply will be cost-effective for the supplier and consumer under the following conditions:

1) the number of products sold is large enough to recoup the cost of direct marketing;

2) there are few consumers, and they are located in a relatively small area;

3) products require highly specialized service.

Active Enterprise Policy in the field of terms of delivery is that the sale of products must be delivered as close as possible to the warehouse of the buyer. Upon purchase, the products must be received in ownership as close as possible to the seller's warehouse. This contributes to better business planning and supply chain control.

Benefits of an active delivery terms policy:

1) better control of the supply chain;

2) business planning in terms of customer service in accordance with the supply. When choosing the terms of delivery, in particular the method of transportation, it is taken into account which of the parties in the transaction is more profitable to organize the delivery of products.

Measures taken by the consignor to ensure the safety of the quantity and quality of the shipped products:

1) compliance with the established rules for packaging and packing of products, marking and sealing of individual cargo items;

2) accurate determination of the quantity of shipped products (weight and number of pieces, boxes, bags, bundles, bales, packs);

3) when shipping products in a package - execution for each container place of a document (packing label, packing list) indicating the name, quantity and quality of products located in this container;

4) clear and correct execution of shipping and settlement documents, compliance of the data on the quantity of products indicated in them with the actual quantity shipped;

5) exercising control over the work of persons involved in determining the quantity of shipped products and issuing shipping and settlement documents for it;

6) shipment (delivery) of products that meet the quality and completeness requirements established by standards, specifications, drawings, recipes, samples, standards;

7) clear and correct execution of documents certifying the quality and completeness of the supplied products (technical passport, certificate, certificate of quality), shipping and settlement documents, compliance of the data on the quality and completeness of products indicated in them with the actual quality and completeness;

8) timely sending of documents certifying the quantity, quality and completeness of products to the recipient; documents are sent along with the products;

9) observance of the rules for the delivery of goods for transportation, their loading and fastening, as well as special rules for loading established by standards and technical conditions in force in transport.

38. SUPPLY PERFORMANCE

Organization of accounting and control over deliveries is an important part of logistical work.

The purpose of accounting and control of deliveries - day-to-day monitoring of the progress of fulfillment by suppliers of their supply contracts to ensure timely and uninterrupted receipt of goods in the agreed assortment, of proper quality and quantity. Accounting is maintained in special cards or journals, which record information about the actual shipment and receipt of goods and identify cases of violations of contracts by suppliers. The card or journal form of accounting for the fulfillment of contracts is very laborious, as a rule, carried out manually and does not allow for daily data on the receipt of goods for a wide range.

therefore an urgent task of logistics activities is the mechanization and automation of accounting for deliveries with the help of modern computer technology. The successful implementation of the procurement work is facilitated by the development by the logistics apparatus of operational procurement plans that provide for the amount and range of goods to be purchased, the timing and frequency of delivery. For each supplier, the actual delivery indicators are considered and the deviation from the planned ones is calculated. Delivery indicators characterize the volume, structure and rhythm (uniformity) of deliveries.

Delivery time - the period of time between the receipt of a purchase order in the logistics system and the receipt by the consumer of the ordered products.

The delivery interval is the time between two successive deliveries.

Delivery frequency represents the number of possible deliveries during a certain period of time (for example, the number of deliveries in an accounting period). The average delivery interval can be expressed through the frequency of deliveries.

Reliability of supply - the share of orders completed with the required time indicators for a certain period of time, in the total volume of orders for the same period of time, is determined both in the context of each product range, and in general for the enterprise.

Optimal delivery lot - the volume of the delivery batch of products shipped by the supplier at the request of the consumer. The optimal delivery batch provides the consumer with the minimum value of the sum of two components: transportation costs and the costs of forming, storing and maintaining the required level of stocks.

Rhythm of deliveries - deliveries within the terms established by the supply contract.

Supply uniformity - deliveries of products in equal batches for equal periods of time.

Average delay of deliveries - an indicator that characterizes the excess of the delivery time of products (in days) in comparison with the standard delivery time.

Coefficient of connection "supplier - consumer" - a value that reflects the closeness of the relationship of a given consumer with a particular supplier. It is calculated as the ratio of the amount of products received from a given supplier during the reporting period to the total amount of products received by the consumer over the same period of time.

Readiness degree for immediate delivery characterizes the share of the total need for products, the satisfaction of which by supply can be carried out immediately.

39. SUPPLY CONTRACT

Subject of the supply contract - the seller must transfer the goods, and the buyer must pay a certain amount for the goods.

Provider - a seller who undertakes to transfer, within a specified period (timeframes), the products produced or purchased by him to the buyer for use in entrepreneurial activities or for other purposes.

The main details of the supply agreement:

1) product name;

2) the quantity of supplied products;

3) prices;

4) delivery time;

5) the procedure for financial settlements;

6) method of transportation;

7) sanctions for non-compliance with the terms of the contract;

8) the procedure for acceptance of products in terms of quality and quantity. Many enterprises use various forms of contracts, samples of which are offered in various collections and recommendations. Along with very short contracts containing a minimum of conditions, multi-page, very detailed contracts are often concluded, providing for a significant number of additional conditions.

There is no universal contract form.

Contract - the document is strictly individual, and it should be drawn up in each specific case separately.

Recommendations for drawing up a supply contract:

1) if you intend to conclude a supply contract, you should clearly know what goals are achieved in its implementation, and clarify the most important points related to its execution, signing and execution;

2) it is desirable that the project be developed by an interested party, and not received from partners, since it may not properly take into account all the interests of the enterprise and will have to be adjusted to fit someone else’s agreement;

3) when signing the contract, make sure that the representative of the counterparty has the legal right and authority to sign the document;

4) the contract should not contain ambiguity and fuzzy wording, since in the event of a dispute, the counterparty will try to interpret any inaccurate wording in his favor, and the court, when interpreting the terms of the contract in accordance with the requirements of the Civil Code, always proceeds from the literal meaning of the wording set forth in it;

5) according to Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of December 20, 1994 No. 2204 "On Ensuring Law and Order in Making Payments for Obligations for the Supply of Goods (Performance of Works or the Rendering of Services)", a mandatory condition for contracts for the supply of goods (performance of works or the provision of services) is the determination of the deadline for fulfilling obligations for settlements for goods delivered under the contract (work performed, services rendered). The deadline for the fulfillment of settlement obligations is three months from the date of actual receipt of goods (performance of work and provision of services);

6) you should carefully consider the wording of the conditions on the circumstances exempting from liability (the so-called force majeure clauses). This or that wording determines the property liability of the parties to the contract (increases or reduces it). If the contract contains a specific list of circumstances, the occurrence of which exempts from liability in case of breach of obligation, arbitration courts, as a rule, decide on the recovery from the guilty party of losses resulting from circumstances that were beyond control, if these circumstances are not provided for by the contract.

40. ORGANIZATION OF PRODUCTION

Production process - this is a combination of resources and factors of production in a certain combination in order to create products and their subsequent marketing.

Types of production processes:

1) piece production;

2) mass production;

3) production in commercial lots.

When organizing production, the following indicators are calculated:

1) the norm of time - scientifically substantiated costs of the necessary working time for the performance of work in certain production conditions;

2) batch of parts - the number of identical parts processed at interconnected workplaces with a single cost of preparatory and final time;

3) the optimal batch of products - a batch in which the costs per one product are minimal;

4) the need for material resources: materials, raw materials, semi-finished products and finished products used at further stages of the production process, auxiliary materials, production materials, and components.

Materials are the resources consumed during manufacturing operations, such as parts for repairing equipment.

Raw - primary materials that have not undergone processing at all or have undergone it to a small extent.

Semi-finished goods - source products of a higher degree of processing (pre-assembled parts).

auxiliary materials - materials that occupy an insignificant part in the composition of the final product (sewing threads for tailoring).

Manufacturing materials - materials that are not part of the final product, but necessary for the normal functioning of the production process. They provide commissioning and operation of the equipment (lubricants, cleaning and detergents).

Accessories - products that require little or no processing at all (re-grading, batch resizing, labeling).

Indicators of the use of material resources:

1) product yield - evaluates the efficiency of the use of material resources in production;

2) utilization factor - characterizes the degree of useful use of material resources;

3) recovery factor - characterizes the degree of extraction of a useful product from the feedstock;

4) cutting factor - characterizes the degree of use of materials (sheet, strip, 2 rolls) in the procurement production;

5) limit - a strictly defined amount of material resources. This amount of resources is released from warehouses to the production units of the enterprise to fulfill the planned production program;

6) specific consumption of raw materials and materials - an indicator of the actual use of raw materials and materials, which is the amount of actually consumed material per unit of output (work). It is determined by dividing the amount of material used by the volume of products produced from it.

Ways to reduce logistics costs based on diversification of production:

1) unification of parts and assembly units;

2) standardization;

3) implementation of preliminary assembly of nodes;

4) the use of parts with a high specific gravity in the finished product.

41. ESSENCE, CONTENT AND TYPES OF RISKS

Risk - possible danger of losses arising from the specifics of certain natural phenomena and human activities. As an economic category, risk is an event that may or may not occur. In the event of an event, three economic outcomes are possible: negative (loss, damage, loss), zero, positive (win, benefit, profit). The risk can be managed, but the effectiveness of the management organization is largely determined by the risk classification.

There are the following types of risks:

1) due to the occurrence:

▪ objective (principal) - risks, the causes of which are beyond human control and are impersonal. The consequences of these risks can be significant. Objective risks include natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions and other manifestations of natural forces). Wars, social upheaval and political interference are also included in this type of risk;

▪ subjective (specific) - risks, the causes of which can be personalized, that is, they can be tied to a specific person. These risks include theft, fires, road accidents and other manifestations based on denial or ignorance of an objective approach to reality;

2) according to the impact on the object of insurance:

▪ internal risks associated directly with the transportation of cargo on a specific vehicle (fires, explosions, damage to cargo during loading, stacking, unloading, refueling, negligence of personnel, in particular the driver);

▪ risks affecting the cargo from the outside (threat of fire, natural disaster, threat of collision with another vehicle, various criminal actions, as well as prohibiting orders from government agencies);

▪ risks affecting other objects due to cargo incidents (fire spread, explosions, damage to other cargo, harm to people);

3) by type:

▪ natural - associated with manifestations of elemental forces of nature: earthquake, flood, fire, storm, etc.;

▪ environmental risks - risks associated with environmental pollution;

▪ political risks - risks associated with the political situation in the country and the activities of the state: the impossibility of carrying out economic activities due to military operations, revolutions, the introduction of a moratorium on external payments, changes in tax legislation, etc.;

▪ transport risks - risks associated with the transportation of goods by transport: road, sea, rail, etc.;

▪ property risks - risks associated with the likelihood of loss of the entrepreneur’s property due to theft, sabotage, negligence, etc.;

▪ production risks - risks associated with loss of production interruption associated with damage to fixed assets, as well as those associated with the implementation of scientific and technical progress achievements;

▪ trade risks - risks associated with losses due to delayed payments, non-delivery of goods;

▪ financial risks - the probability of loss of funds. They are divided into risks associated with the purchasing power of money and risks associated with investing capital.

42. RISK MANAGEMENT

Measures taken by insurance companies in the field of risk management:

1) carrying out organizational and technical measures to prevent the onset of impending dangers;

2) encouraging clients to take adequate precautions by setting lower insurance premiums;

3) initiating the introduction of effective security measures into business practice to increase the level of own profitability.

Risk management methods:

1) risk avoidance;

2) risk transfer;

3) risk limitation;

4) risk reduction.

Security Methodology:

1) resources and types of logistics activities that bring added value to the consumer and are potentially at risk are identified and established;

2) the probability of occurrence of these risks is estimated;

3) a system is developed and implemented to manage the identified risks.

Effective risk management is possible only if there is reliable and sufficient information under the given conditions, since this allows one to make a specific decision on actions under risk conditions. This information includes awareness of the likelihood of an insured event, the presence and magnitude of demand for goods, capital, financial stability and solvency of its clients, partners, competitors, prices, rates and tariffs, including for insurers’ services, insurance conditions and etc.

There are no ready-made solutions in risk management, therefore, in cases where it is impossible to calculate the risk, risk decisions are made using heuristics.

Heuristics - a set of logical techniques and methodological rules for theoretical research and the search for truth. Of course, heuristics are less reliable and less certain than mathematical calculations. However, it makes it possible to obtain a definite solution.

Basic risk management heuristics:

1) you can not risk more than your own capital can afford. This means that before making a decision on a risky investment of capital, one should determine the maximum possible amount of loss for this risk, compare it with the amount of invested capital, compare it with one's own financial resources;

2) you need to think about the consequences of the risk. This means that the manager, knowing the maximum possible loss, must determine what this can lead to and decide whether to abandon the risk or transfer the risk to another responsible person;

3) you can not risk a lot for the sake of a little. This is especially evident in the transfer of risk, i.e., insurance. In this case, it is necessary to clearly define and choose an acceptable ratio between the insurance premium and the sum insured.

Insurance fee - is the payment of the insured to the insurer for the insurance risk.

Sum insured - This is the amount of money for which material assets are insured. The enterprise should not take on the risk if the amount of loss is relatively large compared to the savings on the insurance premium;

4) a positive decision is made only in the absence of doubt;

5) if there are doubts, negative decisions are made;

6) one cannot think that there is always only one solution, perhaps there are others.

43. ORGANIZATION OF CARGO INSURANCE

Insurance - a mechanism by which the insured (the person insuring the risk) diverts from himself the financial consequences of the risk by transferring them to the insurance company (insurer), paying an insurance premium for this.

Types of transport insurance:

1) cargo insurance in case of its physical loss or damage;

2) liability insurance of the carrier (forwarder). The object of insurance is the property interests of the person on whose insurance the insurance contract is concluded. Property interests are associated with the possession, use and disposal of cargo.

Insurance contract is a written agreement between the policyholder and the insurer. According to the contract, the insurer undertakes an obligation upon the occurrence of an insured event to pay the sum insured or compensate for the loss caused within the limits of the sum insured to the insured or another person determined by the insured in whose favor the insurance contract is concluded. The policyholder undertakes to pay insurance premiums (insurance premium) and comply with the terms of the contract.

Subjects of insurance:

1) policyholder - an individual or legal entity (property owner or person responsible for property) who insures his interest in property against certain risks (hazards) and is interested in its safety;

2) insurer - an insurance company that provides insurance on the basis of a license obtained in the prescribed manner.

Other concepts of insurance:

1) insurance premium - payment for insurance, which the insured is obliged to pay to the insurer in the manner and within the time limits stipulated by the insurance contract;

2) insurance value - the actual value of the insured interest. For property, its actual value at its location on the day of concluding the insurance contract;

3) insurance policy - a document issued by the insurer or on behalf of the insurer and indicating the acceptance of risk by the insurer. The insurance policy contains data characterizing the object of insurance, the conditions of liability of the insurer and the sum insured;

4) deductible - the share of the loss that is not payable by the insurer. The deductible is calculated from the sum insured of the entire cargo or its separate part;

5) force majeure circumstances - various types of natural disasters (earthquakes, floods), fires, decisions of state and government bodies, hostilities, civil unrest, strikes, banditry and piracy, the occurrence of which cannot be predicted in advance.

Benefits of insurance:

1) creation of a stable business climate;

2) transfer to the insurer of such risks as loss and damage to products, i.e. risks that the insured cannot control when transporting products. Due to this, the insured can concentrate his efforts on the main activity to obtain maximum results;

3) the release from the insured of funds created and contained in the liquid target insurance reserve to finance measures to prevent and eliminate the consequences of various emergencies. They can be directed to invest in the production capacity of your business.

44. CARGO INSPECTION AND CLAIMS PROCEDURE

In order to carry out transport operations, the parties enter into contractual and planning relations. After the completion of the transaction, various disputable situations may arise, facts of violation by the parties of their obligations for transportation. Violators must bear financial responsibility, therefore, upon receipt of the cargo, it is first of all inspected.

The procedure for carrying out cargo inspections:

1) before applying for inspection of the cargo and sending a claim to the insurance company, it is verified that the loss of the company does not apply to the cases listed below, claims for which are settled with suppliers and (or) carriers, and not with the insurance company:

▪ loss or damage to cargo due to delay in delivery;

▪ loss of cargo if the packaging is intact or the sender’s seals are intact;

▪ loss (damage) of cargo due to the use of inappropriate packaging;

2) the quantity and quality of the cargo is checked upon acceptance from the carrier;

3) certify the number of packages, the integrity of the packaging of products and the safety of seals;

4) the cause of the damage is determined and measures are taken to prevent further losses;

5) contact is made with the emergency commissioner of the insurance company or directly with the insurance company for a possible inspection;

6) in case of detection of theft of cargo, you should immediately contact law enforcement agencies. The insurance company is informed about the theft of cargo;

7) in order to retain the possibility of filing claims against persons liable for losses, the following is necessary:

▪ invite a representative of the carrier for a joint inspection of the cargo;

▪ certify in writing the detected damage or loss of cargo;

▪ submit a written claim to the carrier holding him responsible for the damage caused.

When carrying out these actions, they are guided by the charters, laws, norms and customs adopted for this type of transport. Total loss, partial loss, damage, deterioration or deterioration of the quality of the cargo, delay in its delivery, excess of carriage charges are the basis for claims. The procedure for filing claims against the carrier, their consideration are determined by the charters and codes of individual modes of transport and the rules issued in the prescribed manner.

The claim of the insurance company is drawn up in writing, must contain a description and a reasonable calculation of the required compensation. Attached are the following documents:

1) original insurance policy;

2) the original transport document with the necessary marks;

3) invoice (invoice);

4) specification;

5) packing list;

6) application to the carrier (if necessary);

7) the original of the act-notification and the general act or other official document confirming the existence of a loss and drawn up in accordance with the rules and customs of the port (in case of sea transportation);

8) the original commercial act (for rail or air transportation);

9) emergency certificate;

10) invoice for repair or replacement;

11) certificate from the traffic police (in case of a traffic accident during transportation);

12) a certificate from the police (if necessary).

45. BASIC CONCEPTS OF TRANSPORTATION AND FORWARDING OF CARGO

Forwarder - an individual or legal entity that carries out activities for the transportation of goods both within the country and abroad on behalf of other individuals or legal entities or on its own behalf and performs all necessary auxiliary operations.

Forwarding services include:

1) services for the transportation, consolidation, storage, processing, packaging or distribution of goods;

2) auxiliary and consulting services related to the implementation of the above services, including customs and financial issues, declaration of goods for customs clearance purposes, provision of cargo insurance, collection of documents related to goods, provision of payment.

Carrier - a natural or legal person who actually performs the transport of goods with his own transport (actual carrier), or any person who assumes the same responsibility as the carrier, as a result of an express or implied obligation to assume this responsibility (contractual carrier).

transport enterprise - a legal entity that carries out professional activities as a carrier of goods on roads and has a license to perform transport operations.

International transportation - trip of a laden or unladen vehicle whose origin and destination are in two different countries. International transportation may be carried out in transit through one or more countries.

Transit - a trip through the territory of a country in which neither loading nor unloading of cargo is carried out.

Intermodal (direct mixed) transportation - transportation carried out by different modes of transport under one contract of carriage and one transportation document.

Signs of intermodal transportation:

1) one contract of carriage, regardless of the number of modes of transport and the number of transshipments;

2) a single document confirming the existence of such an agreement - the FIATA waybill;

3) one person who is liable under the contract - the multimodal transport operator;

4) a single through tariff.

Forwarding functions:

1) choice of carrier;

2) work with documentation on deliveries;

3) tracking deliveries;

4) audit and endorsement of payment of transportation tariffs;

5) evaluation of the carrier's activities;

6) analysis of transportation (estimation of the total cost of transportation, including loading and unloading; methods of packaging; transportation time; incidents of theft and other losses; development of methods to reduce overall transportation costs).

Typical mistakes and omissions of a freight forwarder when executing client's orders:

1) incorrect description of the cargo (as a result of which the cargo is transported, for example, not cooled to the required temperature);

2) incorrect or incomplete information about the intended destination (for example, the port of Halifax - in the UK or in Canada?);

3) an erroneous choice of route for this cargo (as a result of which it may become the subject of an embargo);

4) the choice of a carrier in a difficult financial situation;

5) incorrect or incomplete informing the carrier about the specifics of the transportation of dangerous goods;

6) cargo insurance without taking into account the instructions received from the client.

46. TYPES OF TRANSPORTATION OF GOODS

There are various ways of cargo transportation, and each type of transport has different types of cargo messages, shipments and speeds of cargo transportation.

Rail transport.

Depending on the amount of cargo accepted under one consignment note, transportation is carried out by small, low-tonnage, carload, group and route shipments.

Small shipment a consignment of cargo with a mass of not more than 5 tons and a volume of not more than 1/3 of the capacity of a covered wagon is considered.

Low-tonnage shipment a consignment is considered to be a cargo of 10 to 20 tons with a volume of not more than half the capacity of the wagon.

For wagon shipment, a whole wagon is required.

Group sending - this is the amount of cargo for which more than one wagon is required, but less than the route. A route shipment is considered to be a consignment of cargo presented for transportation under one waybill, for which such a number of wagons is required that corresponds in weight to the norm of the train.

Automobile transport.

Freight road transport is distinguished according to the following rules:

1) on a territorial basis - urban, intra-district, intercity, international transportation;

2) method of implementation: local - by one motor transport enterprise; direct communication - by several motor transport organizations; mixed traffic - transportation by two or more modes of transport;

3) on an organizational basis - centralized and decentralized. With centralized transportation, motor transport enterprises act as organizers of the delivery of goods to the recipient and carry out this process themselves. With decentralized transportation, each consignee independently ensures the delivery of goods.

River transport:

1) types of communications: internal - within the boundaries of one river shipping company, direct - within two or more shipping companies, direct water - with the participation of shipping companies, mixed - with the participation of other modes of transport;

2) the size of the lot - ship, national team, small. A ship's consignment is a cargo of the same name, handed over under one waybill, as well as homogeneous goods, handed over under several waybills, following to one destination in an amount sufficient to fully load an individual ship. The consolidated consignment consists of cargo weighing more than 20 tons in an amount insufficient to load a whole vessel, or sufficient in mass, but addressed to different destinations, which makes it necessary to separate one cargo from another. A small consignment is considered to be presented for transportation under one consignment note in an amount not exceeding 20 tons;

3) depending on the urgency allocate deliveries with high speed and cargo speed.

Maritime transport.

The classification of maritime transportation provides for their division by type of transportation, navigation and communication:

1) according to the types of transportation, they are divided into dry cargo and liquid cargo;

2) depending on the type of navigation, sea transportation is divided into small, large cabotage and overseas navigation. Small coastal shipping is also understood as foreign navigation of ships within one or two adjacent sea basins without entering the territorial waters of other states. Large cabotage is the navigation of ships between ports of the same country located in different sea basins.

47. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INDIVIDUAL MODES OF TRANSPORT

Railway transport. Advantages:

1) the possibility of transporting large volumes of goods over long distances;

2) large carrying capacity of a rolling stock unit;

3) independence from weather conditions;

4) the possibility of transportation in specialized wagons (tanks, refrigerators, bucket cars for liquid metal and other goods that require heating before unloading, etc.);

5) rail transportation is low labor intensive;

6) traction train has high reliability and durability;

7) this type of transport is the most environmentally friendly.

Disadvantages:

1) high cost of initial and final operations (stations and devices in places of loading and unloading);

2) connection to the railway network, the construction of which is very expensive.

The most effective use of rail transportation is when transporting large volumes of goods over long distances, as well as in regions with a developed network of railways.

Advantages of road transport:

1) mobility, the ability to load and unload from almost any shop;

2) cars overcome steep slopes, pass along curves of a small radius;

3) do not require complex loading and unloading devices;

4) easily adapt to road and climatic conditions;

5) delivery without intermediate overloads.

1) small carrying capacity (up to 10-12 tons);

2) the need for liquid fuel (the most expensive);

3) large labor costs for transportation.

Advantages of water transport:

1) large carrying capacity (river - up to several hundred tons, sea - several thousand tons);

2) the relatively low cost of transportation due to the cheapness of the maintenance of the ship's passage, in contrast to rail and road transport.

Disadvantages:

1) the need for navigable rivers, marinas, ports, moorings;

2) the impossibility of transportation in winter: transportation is carried out only during the navigation period;

3) low speeds.

Advantages of air transport:

1) high speed;

2) the possibility of delivering cargo to any point (using helicopters);

3) long range of non-stop flight.

Disadvantages:

1) high cost of transportation;

2) limited size and tonnage of transported goods. The most effective use of aviation

cargo transportation when transporting expensive, sensitive and special cargoes.

Advantages of pipeline transport:

1) the possibility of its construction in difficult geological and climatic conditions;

2) large throughput;

3) low cost;

4) complete sealing of transportation;

5) automation of loading, pumping and unloading operations;

6) requires less capital investments and metal consumption than other modes of transport.

Disadvantages:

1) the possibility of transferring only two or three types of liquid when installing longitudinal diaphragms in the pipeline;

2) technical difficulties in pumping slurry with solids (for example, hydrocoal).

48. MAIN INDICATORS OF VEHICLES

Maximum vehicle weight:

1) total - the mass of a motor vehicle with or without cargo, not exceeding the permissible parameters established for driving on motor roads;

2) axial - the mass transmitted through the axle of a motor vehicle to a motor road, not exceeding the permissible parameters established for driving on motor roads.

Maximum vehicle dimensions - the maximum width, height and length of the vehicle, not exceeding the allowable parameters.

Vehicle load capacity - the total volume of the premises of the vehicle used for the placement and transportation of goods;

Specific loading volume - the volume occupied by a unit of cargo in the ship's cargo space.

Vehicle specific volume coefficient - the ratio of the total volume of the vehicle to its carrying capacity, i.e., the part of the volume per 1 ton of carrying capacity (m3 / t).

Capacity is determined by the product of the length of the vehicle by its width and height.

Capacity factor calculated by dividing the actual volume of cargo on the vehicle by the capacity of the vehicle.

Vehicle specific load factor - the ratio of the carrying capacity of the vehicle to its total volume.

Vehicle load - an indicator of the first degree of use of the carrying capacity and capacity of the vehicle, depending on the goods transported and the distance of their transportation.

Loading height of the vehicle body - this is the distance from the surface of the earth to the floor of the body (for flatbed vehicles) or to the upper edge of the sides (for dump trucks). The loading height determines the suitability of the vehicle for loading and unloading operations.

Maneuverability is estimated by the minimum turning radius of the vehicle, the overall turning corridor between the inner and outer radii.

Vehicle passability determines the possibility of carrying out transportation in difficult road conditions - in quarries, at construction sites, in places where agricultural products are harvested.

Ready to move is measured by the time it takes for the vehicle to leave the parking lot. The power reserve is calculated as the ratio of the capacity of the fuel tank to the fuel consumption per 100 km of run, it determines the possibility of delivering cargo without additional refueling along the way.

The compactness of the vehicle is estimated by the coefficient of use of overall dimensions and the coefficient of use of overall length.

Coefficient of use of overall dimensions - the ratio of the internal area of the body to the area of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbthe vehicle in the plan.

Overall length utilization factor - the ratio of the length of the body to the length of the vehicle.

Compactness index - the ratio of carrying capacity to the overall area of the vehicle. The compactness index of vehicles determines the size of the required areas for parking of rolling stock and for maneuvering at loading and unloading points.

49. ORGANIZATION OF CARGO ROAD TRANSPORTATION

Transportation by road to far-abroad countries are carried out on the basis of intergovernmental agreements on road transport, which establishes a permissive procedure for the transportation of goods between Russia and the corresponding states. Russia has signed agreements with many former republics of the USSR, according to which road taxes and fees are not levied there for the transport of Russian goods.

Organization of transportation:

1) preparation of the transport process;

2) selection of rolling stock and loading and unloading mechanisms;

3) choosing an effective way of interaction between transport and handling facilities;

4) choice of route.

The organization of transportation also includes procedures for planning, operational management, accounting and control, establishing the procedure for document circulation, and payments for transportation.

Transport technology - this is a sequence of technological operations in the course of the transport process.

Sections of the transport and technological scheme:

1) information about the cargo;

2) information about the technical means used (vehicles, lifting mechanisms);

3) the operational scheme of delivery by stages of the transportation process, indicating the required mechanisms, number, specialty and qualification of performers, labor intensity of work.

Upon acceptance of the goods, the carrier is obliged to check:

1 The correctness of the entries made in the bill of lading regarding the number of packages, their marking and numbering;

2) the external condition of the cargo, its packaging.

When transporting dangerous goods, the driver must check:

1) availability of all necessary information about the transported goods (for example, cards on dangerous goods);

2) the availability of the necessary equipment to ensure the safety of the vehicle and the transported cargo;

3) the presence of clean and clearly visible orange plates, securely attached to the vehicle;

4) cleanliness of the vehicle: spilled substances are thoroughly wiped off; during the voyage, it is periodically checked whether the product packages are leaking.

Safety measures for the transport of hazardous substances:

1) the load is installed so that it does not protrude over the side of the vehicle. This will prevent damage to the cargo during transportation;

2) when transporting flammable liquids or gases, the height of their packaging must not exceed level 3 of the fire net. The fire net is a fireproof shield installed behind the driver's cab to protect cargo from fire;

3) the cargo is secured in such a way that it cannot move freely along the body of the vehicle. If the weight of the cargo is more than 500 kg, then each package is secured separately;

4) if part of the cargo has already been unloaded, then the remaining part is again well secured before the start of movement. This is done even if the distance to the next unloading point is short. The same applies if loading is carried out at several points;

5) cargo, which should not be exposed to moisture, is transported in a closed vehicle or container. It should be remembered that waterproof capes usually do not provide reliable protection against moisture.

50. TECHNICAL AND OPERATIONAL INDICATORS OF TRANSPORTATION

Delivery time of goods - the time during which the goods move from the place of departure to the place of destination. Delivery times for various modes of transport are regulated by charters, codes and other regulations. The terms of delivery of goods are determined based on the conditions of transportation. In the event of a cargo delay for customs clearance procedures, veterinary inspection, delivery times are extended for the entire duration of the delay. For violation of the terms of delivery, which occurred through the fault of the carrier, the latter pays a fine to the cargo owner.

truck performance - the amount of transported cargo in tons per unit of time.

Total mileage - the difference between the readings of the speedometer of the vehicle when returning to the garage and when leaving the line.

Mileage utilization rate - a relative indicator for assessing the use of the total mileage, which is the ratio of the mileage of a vehicle with a load to the total mileage.

Rolling stock empty run coefficient - characterizes the value of the empty run. The coefficient depends on the following factors:

1) features of operation and use of vehicles;

2) specialization of vehicles;

3) the location of production and consumption points, raw materials sources and product processing points.

The volume of transport work (freight turnover) in ton-kilometers - is calculated by summing the ton-kilometers performed for all riders, obtained by multiplying the weight transported for each ride.

Labor intensity of transportation - represents the amount of labor expended by all categories of workers (drivers, workers at loading and unloading points, repair workers, administrative, management and maintenance personnel) per unit of transport work performed for a certain period (usually a year); measured in man-hours per 100 tkm.

Amount of transported cargo in tons - is determined by waybills by summing up the amount of cargo delivered to destinations.

Working fleet of rolling stock - a serviceable and serviceable fleet of vehicles (tractors and trailers) that can be used for transportation.

Fleet utilization rate - an indicator that characterizes the degree of use of the fleet of vehicles for the calendar period. It is defined as the ratio of the value of car days in work to the value of car days in the economy.

Vehicle fleet utilization rate by output - is calculated as the ratio of the number of vehicles in motion (on the line, in flight) to the number of vehicles available.

Technical readiness factor - the ratio of the number of vehicle days that rolling stock is in technically sound condition to the total number of vehicle days.

Output ratio - an indicator characterizing the release of rolling stock on the line.

Transport irregularity coefficient - evaluates the change in the volume of transportation in tons by

51. LEGAL REGULATION OF DOMESTIC TRANSPORTATION OF GOODS

All domestic transportation of goods on the territory of the Russian Federation is regulated by the following main regulatory documents:

1) Civil Code of the Russian Federation;

2) Merchant Shipping Code of the Russian Federation;

3) Air Code of the Russian Federation;

4) RF Law "On Road Safety";

5) Law of the Russian Federation "On Forwarding Activities" (under consideration in the State Duma of the Russian Federation);

6) Charter of the railways of the Russian Federation;

7) Charter of inland water transport of the Russian Federation;

8) Charter of motor transport of the Russian Federation;

9) Rules for the carriage of goods on various modes of transport;

10) Regulations on licensing of transportation, freight forwarding and other activities on various types of transport.

Any supply contract contains issues of transportation of goods. This takes into account the following factors:

1) type of transport used, method of transportation, type of cargo;

2) type of concluded transaction;

3) basic terms of delivery;

4) terms of shipment of products;

5) the place and procedure for the delivery of products by the seller to the buyer;

6) the carrier whose services are being purchased;

7) the number and location of ports, railway stations, state border crossing points, reloading points;

8) which of the parties to the contract of carriage pays the costs of loading and unloading and other costs;

9) the procedure for payment for transportation in transit through the territory of third countries;

10) the procedure for settlements with agents, brokers, forwarders, operators, providers and other intermediaries;

13) procedure for transport risk insurance (cargo insurance, carrier liability insurance);

14) documents accompanying the cargo.

The main conditions of transportation are regulated by the following documents:

1) contracts for the carriage of goods, as well as transportation documentation;

2) basic terms of delivery of goods;

3) contracts for the sale of goods;

4) cargo insurance contracts and carrier's liability in the course of transportation;

5) standards for packaging and labeling of goods, conditions for the carriage of goods in containers.

Domestic transportation of goods must be documented with the following documents:

1) contract of carriage;

2) waybill;

3) invoice;

4) waybill.

Contract of carriage of goods - an agreement between the shipper and the carrier, according to which the carrier must deliver the goods at a specified place and time, and the sender must provide the goods and pay for transportation services. According to the Law "On licensing certain types of activities" the carrier must have a license.

License (special permission) - a document granting the right to its owner to carry out a certain type of activity within the period specified in it, subject to mandatory compliance with licensing requirements and conditions.

Types of licenses:

1) standard - for the carriage of goods on a commercial basis within the Russian Federation; a standard license entitles you to transport goods for your own needs;

2) standard international - for the carriage of goods in international traffic;

3) limited - for the transportation of goods for production purposes.

52. LEGAL REGULATION OF INTERNATIONAL CARGO TRANSPORTATION

Documents regulating international transportation of export-import cargo, in addition to regulatory documents governing the transportation of goods in the Russian Federation:

1) International Cargo Convention;

2) European Agreement on the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road;

3) the Customs Code of the Russian Federation;

4) Law of the Russian Federation "On the customs tariff";

5) other international agreements.

Exported (imported) products must have a certificate of origin - document, indicating that the specified products originate from the relevant country, and containing:

1) a written statement from the sender that the product satisfies the relevant origin criteria;

2) a written certificate from the competent authority of the country of export that issued the certificate that the information provided in the certificate is true.

The main documents regulating the procedure exit from the Russian Federation and entry into the Russian Federation:

1) Federal Law "On the procedure for leaving the Russian Federation and entering the Russian Federation;

2) Decree of the President of the Russian Federation "On the main documents proving the identity of a citizen of the Russian Federation outside the Russian Federation";

3) others.

The list of personal documents that a driver must have when performing international transportation:

1) official foreign passport with valid terms of entry and exit visas of the countries through which the trip is carried out;

2) an international certificate for the right to drive a car;

3) certificate for the right to export foreign currency;

4) medical insurance policy.

The list of documents for the car that the driver must have when performing international transportation:

1) waybill;

2) certificate of registration of the vehicle in the traffic police;

3) certificates of suitability of the motor vehicle for international transportation of goods according to environmental and technical requirements;

4) a certificate of approval of the motor vehicle for the international carriage of goods under customs seals and seals;

5) a ticket on passing a technical inspection in the traffic police;

6) documents on civil liability insurance of the owner of the motor vehicle;

7) permission to perform road transport in a foreign territory;

8) certificate of approval of a motor vehicle for transportation of perishable or dangerous goods (when transporting them);

9) a guarantee of temporary import of a vehicle to the countries of the Near and Middle East with subsequent export.

The list of documents for the cargo that the driver must have when performing international transportation:

1) consignment note (with specifications, certificates, sanitary passport and other accompanying documents (quality certificate, quarantine certificate, veterinary certificate) attached by the consignor;

2) cargo customs declaration issued by the consignor;

3) certificate of carrier's liability insurance (copy of insurance policy);

4) invoice for the cargo;

5) license for export and import of goods from the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations of the Russian Federation;

6) a set of invoices for the return loading of the vehicle.

53. TRANSPORT DOCUMENTATION

All issues related to the movement of goods are regulated by the commodity-transport documentation.

The main document is the bill of lading. It contains the following data:

1) date and place of drawing up the invoice;

2) the name and address of the consignor of the cargo;

3) the name and address of the carrier;

4) date and place of acceptance of the cargo;

5) the place intended for delivery (destination);

6) name and address of the consignee;

7) type of cargo and its packaging;

8) the weight of the cargo;

9) number of packages;

10) payments related to transportation (carriage charges, additional payments, customs duties and fees), and other payments collected from the moment the contract of carriage is concluded and until the moment the goods are delivered to the recipient;

11) information on the availability of instructions required for the implementation of the customs clearance procedure and other procedures.

Being the main document for the carriage of goods, the bill of lading serves as the basis for:

1) to write off inventory items from the consignor;

2) for the posting of these inventory items from the consignee;

3) to record the transport work and other services provided by the transport company for consignors and consignees;

4) for settlements between the transport company and its clientele for the services provided.

The driver's performance of production tasks (transportation) is characterized by a waybill. It also takes into account the mode of operation of the driver and the vehicle, the consumption of fuels and lubricants.

Waybill contains the following information:

1) last name, first name, patronymic of the driver;

2) driver's license number;

3) last name, first name, patronymic of the dispatcher who issued the waybill, and his signature;

4) the result of the technical inspection of the motor vehicle by a mechanic;

5) the result of the medical examination of the driver;

6) indications of the speedometer when the motor vehicle leaves the route and returns from the route;

7) brand and quantity of the issued fuel;

8) the type of cargo being transported;

9) the time of departure and return of the motor vehicle;

10) the route of movement of the motor vehicle. The driver must have a passport or a document replacing it, a medical policy, a driver's license, documents for the car (a document on registration with the traffic police, on passing a technical inspection, on civil liability) and a waybill. Another transport document is invoice - a document drawn up when sending cargo by one enterprise to another enterprise.

The invoice contains the following information:

1) details of the buyer and seller (name and address of each of the parties involved in the transaction);

2) invoice number;

3) the number and date of conclusion of the supply contract and its terms;

4) name and code of goods according to TN VED;

5) type and number of packages;

6) gross weight of the cargo;

7) the price per unit of cargo and the total value of the goods;

8) date of preparation of the invoice;

9) terms of payment;

10) seller's stamp.

Special permission - a one-time permit for the passage of a motor vehicle, the maximum total and (or) axle weight or overall dimensions of which exceed the permissible parameters established for driving on motor roads.

54. TERMS OF CARGO TRANSPORTATION

In the process of transportation in many cargoes, under the influence of various factors, quantitative and qualitative changes occur, which must be taken into account when developing the conditions for transporting goods.

Depending on the physical and chemical properties of the cargo, a rolling stock is chosen for their transportation, the time of transportation is determined, and special mechanisms and devices are developed to facilitate loading and unloading.

Conditions for transporting certain types of cargo.

Paints and varnishes:

1) paints and varnishes can be loaded into various sealed containers: barrels, cans, bottles, flasks, cans;

2) large batches of paints and varnishes must be transported in rail and truck tanks;

3) it is necessary to have fire protection means;

4) on the package there should be an inscription: "Flammable", "Corrosive", "Poison".

Solid and gaseous fuels:

1) solid fuel is transported mainly by rail;

2) gaseous fuel is transported using the main gas pipeline;

3) gas is transported in cylinders that are designed for a pressure of 15-20 atm and are painted red for safety purposes.

Metal structures:

1) are transported by rail and road;

2) the main requirement during transportation is the prevention of metal damage.

To do this, the products must be bundled and placed correctly on the rolling stock. When loading and transporting wire, it must be wound into coils, rolls or onto spools. Small and valuable products must be packaged in soft containers;

3) the entire batch must have the same chemical composition.

Rubber products:

1) during transportation, it is necessary to prevent direct sunlight, excessively high temperature and humidity;

2) products must be packed with wrapping paper, placed in boxes or containers. Containers are transported in covered wagons. Compliance with these conditions preserves the elasticity of the product, its strength, dielectric properties and appearance. Timber is transported in large lots to one recipient. Mainly used by rail and water transport. Lumber is transported in covered wagons or open wagons for the purpose of safety. To prevent shifts in the process of moving, the lumber is additionally strengthened in the longitudinal and transverse directions. Mineral binders (cement, gypsum, etc.) are transported in bulk in covered wagons and specialized wagons - cement trucks, in multilayer bags, in containers, by road.

Oil products:

1) are shipped in large lots;

2) mainly pipeline transport is used, as well as rail, water and road transport;

3) transported by rail in tanks with a capacity of 60-120 m3, as well as in covered wagons - packed (barrels, bottles, etc.);

4) special heated tanks are used for transportation of binding oil products (bitumen, fuel oil), especially in winter. Oil depots must have heating devices for draining binder oil products.

55. BASIC CONCEPTS OF WAREHOUSE ACTIVITIES

Squad - this is a complex technical structure (building, various equipment and other devices) intended for acceptance, placement, accumulation, storage, processing, dispensing and delivery of products to consumers.

The main tasks of warehousing:

1) determination of the usable area of the warehouse;

2) determination of the optimal amount of handling equipment;

3) determination of the optimal loading of handling equipment;

4) development of strategies and tactics for the optimal use of the usable area of the warehouse;

5) optimization of the use of storage capacity;

6) reduction of product storage time;

7) increase in the warehouse turnover ratio.

The main functions of the warehouse:

1) transformation of the production assortment into a consumer one in accordance with demand and in order to fulfill orders from internal and external consumers;

2) warehousing and storage of products in order to equalize the temporal, quantitative and assortment gaps between production and consumption of products. This function makes it possible to carry out continuous production and supply based on the created stocks of products, as well as in connection with the seasonal consumption of certain types of products;

3) control and maintenance of the required level of stocks of products. Time alignment occurs when the time of occurrence and the frequency of demand for products do not correspond to the time of manufacture.

Quantity leveling refers to mass production. To reduce the total cost of resources, more products are manufactured than is necessary based on current demand.

Assortment leveling typical for those enterprises that produce a wide range of products required at different times. Since consumers may not order all the products included in the production program, a warehouse is used to equalize demand, where the entire range of products is stored.

Requirements for organizing the work of a warehouse:

1) the warehouses of the enterprise are specialized, since products with different physical and chemical properties may require different storage modes;

2) the warehouse is equipped with racks, shelves, cabinets and boxes for storing products;

3) a label is issued for each type of product, which indicates the name of the product, its nomenclature number, brand, grade, size, unit of measurement;

4) flammable substances are stored in rooms specially adapted for them, isolated from other warehouses and having fire-fighting equipment;

5) open storage materials (brick, sand, lumber, rolled metal, etc.) are placed on a warehouse area specially designated for this purpose under a canopy that protects them from atmospheric precipitation. Activities for the acceptance, selection, packaging and shipment of products are systematized in order to optimally use the working time of the warehouse staff - a certain work schedule is established. When organizing warehouse activities, the possibility of theft of products from the warehouse and damage to products during movement within the warehouse should be excluded.

56. CLASSIFICATION OF WAREHOUSES

Warehouse classification.

1. Production warehouses process products in a relatively constant and homogeneous range. Products enter the warehouse and leave the warehouse with a certain frequency and a short shelf life. What is required is a high level of mechanization and automation of warehouse operations.

2. Warehouses of raw materials and materials operate with homogeneous products, large batches of delivery. Products are characterized by relatively constant turnover.

3. Warehouses for finished products carry out the processing of packaged and piece products. Production, as a rule, of large batches and a homogeneous nomenclature with a quick turnover.

4. Distribution warehouses - designed mainly for the movement and processing of products (consolidation, picking, packaging and labeling of goods), and not for its storage.

5. Sorting and distribution warehouses are designed to receive products in terms of quantity and quality, sort and prepare them for release and dispatch to consumers. This includes warehouses of wholesale trading bases located in areas of consumption, as well as warehouses of retail trade enterprises.

6. Transit and transshipment warehouses are located at railway stations, water piers and serve to accept goods for batch storage. This is due to the need to reload goods from one mode of transport to another. Warehouses carry out the acceptance of goods, short-term storage and shipment of them in whole containers.

7. Revolving warehouse - operations are performed. shipments of complete storage units from one vehicle to another.

8. Storage warehouses are designed for warehousing, storage, protection and protection of products.

9. Seasonal storage warehouses - storage facilities for potatoes and vegetables, as well as other warehouses where seasonal products are processed and stored.

10. General warehouses are intended for the storage of non-food and food products that do not require the creation of a special storage regime.

11. Universal warehouses are designed to store a wide range of non-food or food products.

12. Specialized warehouses serve to store products of one or more similar product groups.

13. Special warehouses include vegetable stores, refrigerators.

14. Open warehouses are arranged in the form of unpaved areas. Designed for storage of building materials, fuel, products in containers.

15. Semi-closed warehouses are sheds for storing building materials and other types of products that require protection from precipitation.

16. Closed warehouses are the main type of storage facilities, representing a separate one- or multi-storey building with storage facilities. Warehouses can be heated and unheated (insulated and non-insulated).

17. Heated warehouses have heating equipment and devices for air ventilation. Designed for storage of products that require maintaining the temperature and relative humidity within certain limits.

18. Unheated warehouses are designed to store products that do not lose their properties at temperatures below 0 °C.

57. WAREHOUSE DOCUMENTATION

In order to enhance the information readiness of the enterprise, all procedures for the receipt, storage and sale of products are documented.

Acceptance of goods is regulated by the following documents:

1) invoices from external suppliers - are the basis for posting products in the warehouse, i.e. the basis for creating receipt invoices;

2) incoming invoice - designed to account for products arriving at the warehouse;

3) the act of acceptance of materials - is used to formalize the acceptance of products that have discrepancies in quantity and quality, as well as discrepancies in assortment with the data of the supplier's accompanying documents. This act is also drawn up upon acceptance of products received without documents. The act serves as a legal basis for filing a claim with the supplier (sender). The movement of products within the enterprise is regulated by the following documents:

1) requirement-invoice - used to account for the movement of products within the organization between materially responsible persons of various structural divisions;

2) statements (maps) of the use of limits - are used when registering the release of materials for production with requirements, as well as the return from production and the movement of materials from the warehouse to the pantry of the workshop (section) by waybills. These statements are compiled to control the release of materials within the limit.

The release of products from the warehouse to the side is documented by the following documents:

1) indication of shipment - comes from the sales department, contains a link to the invoice and the contract according to which the products are supplied, the range of products to be shipped, their quantity, cost, form of payment, delivery time and method. Indication of shipment - a directive document for the logistics department at the beginning of the shipment of products to the customer;

2) intake sheet;

3) invoice, etc.

Information about the storage of products is documented:

1) material accounting card - used to record the movement of products in the warehouse for each grade, type and size of products. Material accounting cards are issued by the accounting department as receipt documents are received in accordance with the nomenclature of materials and are transferred to financially responsible persons (storekeepers, warehouse managers) against receipt in the register along with receipt documents for the implementation of grade accounting;

2) a report on ongoing inventories - collation statements - are compiled for the types of products, the inventory of which revealed deviations from the accounting data. The collation statements reflect the results of the inventory, that is, the discrepancies between the accounting data and the data of the inventory lists (the actual availability of products).

Based on all primary documents, at the request of the head, the following reports can be drawn up:

1) a daily report on the status of stored products, the balance of the balance of products on the evening of the previous working day (contains data on all movements of products in the warehouse and the final balance of goods);

2) a report on the expiration dates of products (a warning about the expiration of the product's shelf life 6 months before its expiration for each product name).

58. WAREHOUSE REPORTS

Warehouse certificate - a document confirming the conclusion of a storage agreement and the acceptance of products for storage. The holder of the certificate acquires the right to dispose of the product while the product is in storage.

Options for issuing warehouse certificates for circulation:

1) Traditional. A warehouse is allocated to which all the rights of the custodian for the required quantity of products are transferred;

2) unconventional. The custodian is the company that manufactures the goods. There is a formal bailor who is given the right to dispose of the goods. At the same time, a package of warehouse receipts for the entire volume of goods is issued in his name.

Benefits of an unconventional approach:

1) the manufacturer is the custodian;

2) it is possible to organize storage with depersonalization of products, when the bailor, upon requesting products, is given not a specific type of product (for example, with its serial or serial number), which was once transferred for storage, but an equal amount of products of the same name and quality, which indicated on the certificates. This approach allows you to issue warehouse certificates in the amount of the minimum balance of products in the manufacturer's warehouse. In the future, it is only important to maintain the compliance of the volume and range of products in the manufacturer's warehouse with the volume of products indicated in the warehouse certificates in circulation.

Details of warehouse certificates:

1) the name and location of the goods warehouse;

2) the current number of the certificate according to the warehouse register;

3) the name and location of the bailor;

4) the number of units of production, its measure (weight, volume) and the name of the product;

5) the period for which the products are accepted for storage;

6) the amount of remuneration for storage and the procedure for paying for storage;

7) date of issue of the certificate;

8) the signature of a person authorized on behalf of the warehouse and the seal of the warehouse.

The list of documentation for issuing a license for the operation of a commercial (commodity) warehouse:

1) on issues under the jurisdiction of the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision of the Russian Federation: an agreement for the export of solid household waste; agreement with the disinfection service; medical books; documents for ventilation;

2) on issues under the jurisdiction of the State Fire Service: an act of the state commission on the acceptance of the building for operation; act of acceptance into operation of a fire alarm or automatic fire extinguishing system; documents defining the category of explosive premises, on checking the performance of the internal fire-fighting water supply, on cleaning the air duct and ventilation, on fire-retardant treatment of structures, on fire protection of the facility for

own funds account of the enterprise, scheme of parking of vehicles;

3) agreement with Vodokanal; permission to release harmful substances into the atmosphere, an order to allocate a land plot; land lease agreement; draft waste disposal limits; a contract for the removal of waste with a license attached to the organization exporting the waste;

4) on issues of the Administrative and Technical Inspection: contracts for garbage collection;

5) on traffic police issues: an agreement on the evacuation of motor vehicles.

59. METHODS OF ACCOUNTING AND CONTROL OF STOCK OF PRODUCTS IN THE WAREHOUSE

The basic principles of accounting for products in stock:

1) the efficiency and reliability of quantitative accounting in warehouses based on the use of warehouse cards or other registers by financially responsible persons;

2) control of accounting staff over the correctness and timeliness of documenting warehouse operations for the movement of products directly to storage sites, as well as over warehouse accounting;

3) implementation of accounting products in monetary terms at accounting prices;

4) comparison of product balances according to operational warehouse accounting data with product balances according to accounting data to confirm their compliance.

Types of accounting:

1) ordinary - a generalized product registration card is used, which shows the quantity of specific products available in a certain warehouse or in all warehouses of the enterprise at the time of accounting, and its cost;

2) batch - commodity items of the invoice are formed in strict accordance with the receipts of products (according to the principle "one receipt - one registration card");

3) operational (removal of balances) - is a procedure for reconciliation by financially responsible persons of the actual availability of products with the data of the warehouse accounting system by counting product storage locations (boxes, rolls, bags, boxes). Then, taking into account the relevant norms and standards, a recalculation is made, i.e., the quantity of products is determined, which is valued at current prices.

Checks ensure the accuracy of current information used in the inventory management system and minimize product shortages.

To establish the actual availability of products, inventories are carried out.

During the inventory check:

1) safety of storage units;

2) the correctness of their storage and release;

3) condition of weighing equipment and measuring instrument;

4) the procedure for keeping records of products.

Necessary prerequisites for effective control over the safety of products:

1) availability of properly equipped warehouses and storerooms;

2) specialization of warehouses;

3) placement of products in sections of warehouses, and within them - in separate groups and standard sizes (in stacks, bins, on racks, shelves) in such a way that it is possible to quickly accept, issue and check availability;

4) the presence in the places of storage of each type of product of a label indicating data on the products located here;

5) equipping product storage areas with the necessary weighing equipment, measuring instruments and measuring containers, ensuring their periodic re-examination and marking;

6) introduction of centralized delivery of products from central warehouses to branches according to agreed schedules;

7) establishment of a circle of persons financially responsible for the acceptance and release of products (warehouse managers, storekeepers, freight forwarders, etc.);

8) determination of the list of officials who are granted the right to sign documents for the receipt and release of products from warehouses, as well as to issue permits (passes) for the export of products from the warehouse.

60. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION OF TRADING AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE WAREHOUSE

Trade and technological processes in warehouses consist of a set of operations that are associated with the unloading of transport, preparation for the acceptance and acceptance of goods, their placement and storage, preparation for vacation and vacation. All operations in the warehouse are divided into main and auxiliary.

All- these are operations related to the acceptance, storage, sorting and release of products.

Auxiliary - these are operations related to unloading vehicles, packaging, etc.

Trade and technological processes are affected by:

1) the size of incoming and outgoing consignments of goods;

2) the degree of complexity of the assortment;

3) physical and chemical properties of goods;

4) conditions and procedure for storage of goods;

5) availability and condition of storage facilities;

6) equipment.

The scheme of organization of trade and technological processes includes the following steps:

1) unloading transport;

2) acceptance of goods;

3) placement of goods for storage;

4) storage of goods;

5) selection of goods;

6) acquisition and packaging of goods;

7) route picking of goods;

8) movement of goods to the loading area;

9) loading of goods. For individual warehouses, depending on the range of goods and mechanization systems, some adjustments may be made regarding the performance of individual operations.

Principles of organization of trade and technological processes in the warehouse:

1) systematicity - involves the development of a calendar plan for the receipt and release of goods by day and week, which allows for advance preparation for unloading, acceptance and placement of goods in the warehouse, and better use of material and technical resources;

2) uniformity and continuity - involves the distribution of operations by hours, days and weeks. This ensures the uninterrupted operation of warehouses throughout the working hours;

3) rational organization of the flow of goods - provides for the shortest ways to move goods in a warehouse, reducing the duration of individual operations;

4) mechanization and automation of operations - designed to facilitate the performance of labor-intensive work, increase the productivity of warehouse workers and reduce labor costs and funds;

5) efficient use of space, capacity and trade and technological equipment - aimed at ensuring more rational use of the material and technical base of the warehouse;

6) ensuring the safety of inventory assets - involves reducing commodity losses that arise during the implementation of trade and technological processes, and increasing the responsibility of financially responsible persons for careful handling of goods;

7) distribution of duties between individual performers of trade and technological processes - provides for the assignment of individual employees to individual areas of work and increasing their responsibility for the quality of work performed.

The main directions for improving trade and technological processes in warehouses:

1) introduction of progressive methods for performing warehouse operations;

2) the use of modern trade and technological equipment, machines and devices;

3) mechanization and automation of warehouse operations;

4) development and implementation of scientific organization of labor and management.

61. STORAGE PLANNING

Basic structural elements warehouse building: foundation, walls, supporting columns, interfloor ceilings, floors, roof, ramps and canopies above them, doors and windows.

Technological requirements for the arrangement of warehouses:

1) compliance of the area and volume of storage facilities with the nature and volume of technological operations performed;

2) compliance of the parameters and configuration of the warehouse building with the requirements of the optimal technology of the operations performed.

Warehouse planning requirements:

1) the possibility of using effective methods of placing and stacking products;

2) ensuring conditions for the complete safety of storage units;

3) exclusion of the adverse effect of some types of products on others during their joint storage, ensuring conditions for the preservation of product quality;

4) the possibility of effective use of handling equipment;

5) convenient access to products;

6) ensuring the flow and continuity of the warehouse technological process.

The main groups of warehouses:

1) premises of the main production purpose - serve to perform the following technological operations:

▪ storage of products;

▪ acceptance and release of products (expedition);

▪ unpacking, packing, packing and packaging of products;

▪ auxiliary premises - designed for storing containers, reusable containers and pallets, as well as for use as container repair shops;

2) utility rooms - designed to accommodate engineering devices and communications (engine rooms, ventilation chambers, boiler rooms, storerooms for household materials and equipment, repair shops, recharging battery stations);

3) administrative and amenity premises - designed to accommodate administrative services, places for rest and eating, dressing rooms, a hall for product samples, showers, sanitary facilities, etc. Work areas are used to accommodate the workplaces of commodity experts. They should be equipped with tables and chairs, a personal computer, filing cabinets, chairs for customers and furniture for storing documents. The exhibition area is divided into separate segments, equipped with wall and island slides with devices for displaying goods (shelves, consoles, rods). The waiting and resting area is designed for customers to work independently with albums, catalogs and lists of goods, as well as for them to relax after selecting goods. The passage area is used for movement in the hall of product samples and for passage to other areas of the warehouse.

The main characteristics of storage facilities:

1) warehouse capacity - characterizes the amount of products that the warehouse can accommodate at a time;

2) useful area of the warehouse - the area directly occupied by the stored products;

3) the area of workplaces - the area in warehouses allocated for the equipment of workplaces of workers of a warehouse;

4) areas of acceptance and assembly areas - are calculated on the basis of aggregated indicators of design loads per square meter of area at acceptance and assembly areas;

5) the area of the dispatch expedition - is used to complete the shipping lots.

62. STORAGE CONDITIONS

Material storage conditions - the environment (temperature, light, moisture, etc.) in which materials are stored in warehouses. Warehouses must maintain a special temperature regime and humidity level. For this purpose, reliable ventilation must be installed in the warehouses, and the warehouses must be kept clean. As a rule, all stored materials in warehouses should be placed on racks by grades, sizes and batches of receipt. Shelving arrangement ensures compliance with these requirements. Materials on pallets should be placed on racks in compliance with the terms of their receipt, so that previously received materials are released to the consumer earlier.

Storage conditions for individual groups of goods:

1) ferrous metals:

▪ protect metals from moisture and precipitation in the form of rain, snow in order to avoid metal corrosion;

▪ the temperature in winter should not be lower than 8-14 °C;

▪ keep warehouses clean;

▪ warehouses should be located away from production facilities that emit gases;

2) solid fuel. During long-term storage, coal can weather, resulting in a decrease in its mass and calorific value, and an increase in the tendency to self-heating and spontaneous combustion. Therefore, the following conditions must be met:

▪ storage facilities must be equipped with external lighting, fire-fighting water supply systems and fire extinguishing means;

▪ coating the surface of the stacks with such compositions as a suspension of lime, calcium chloride, liquid glass, etc.;

3) rubber products. To maintain the elasticity, strength, dielectric properties and appearance of rubber products, the following conditions must be met:

▪ products should not be exposed to direct sunlight - window glass should be painted yellow or white;

▪ air temperature should be 5-20 °C, relative humidity - 40-60%;

▪ products should be stored on wooden shelves;

▪ warehouses must be equipped with fire safety equipment, and electrical equipment in warehouses must have reliable grounding;

▪ storage near acids, alkalis, solvents, liquid fuel and other flammable materials is not allowed;

▪ Smoking and the use of fire in the warehouse are not allowed;

4) paints and varnishes. If storage conditions are violated, paints and varnishes lose their consumer qualities. Thus, solvents dry out under the influence of light and air, powder paints clump together, pigments darken and decompose. In addition, the accumulation of solvent vapors and dust formation of powder paints in rooms at certain concentrations form explosive mixtures. Therefore, the following conditions must be met:

▪ the accumulation of solvent vapors and dust formation of powder paints in the premises is not allowed, since vapors and dust at certain concentrations form explosive mixtures, therefore the premises must be treated with supply and exhaust ventilation, which reduces the number of harmful substances in the air;

▪ workers must be provided with special clothing, personal protective equipment for hands and respiratory organs;

▪ availability of fire extinguishing means.

63. CLASSIFICATION OF CARGOS

Cargo means any item carried, including articles, pallets, containers or similar transport and packaging devices not provided by the carrier or freight forwarder.

Types of cargo:

1) bulk - transported without packaging. These include grain, seeds of all agricultural goods;

2) bulk - also transported without containers, these include coal, sand, gravel, stone. These two groups of goods are presented for transportation mainly in large lots, providing a full load of wagons, ships and cars;

3) bulk - liquid cargo, which is transported in bulk in a special rolling stock (cistern, fuel tankers);

4) forest - round wood, lumber, plywood and other wood products;

5) general (piece) cargo - transported packed in a wide variety of containers or without packaging. Depending on the packaging, there are:

▪ bag loads;

▪ bale;

▪ roll-and-barrel;

▪ box;

▪ container;

▪ batch.

Cargoes that do not require protection against mechanical damage are transported in bags, natural and artificial fibers and products from them are packed in bales and bales. Rolled-barrel cargo includes goods transported in barrels - bagels and rolls. Piece cargoes without containers include metal in ingots, ingots, etc.;

6) dangerous goods - goods officially classified as dangerous, as well as goods that are or may become dangerous, flammable, radioactive, poisonous or harmful in nature.

Classes of dangerous goods, during the transportation of which certain requirements of the instructions are observed:

1) combustible substances;

2) corrosive substances, combustible and destructive materials (acids and alkalis);

3) toxic substances;

4) radioactive substances;

5) compressed gases;

6) explosives;

7) solid flammable substances;

8) self-igniting substances;

9) oxidizers;

10) organic peroxides.

When transporting goods, the concept of a cargo unit is used.

Cargo unit - a certain amount of products that are loaded, transported, unloaded and stored as a single mass and which, with its parameters, integrates technological processes at various parts of the supply chain into a single whole.

Main types of cargo units:

1) primary - cargo in a transport container, for example, in boxes, barrels, bags. The primary loading unit goes through the supply chain, usually without rebuilding;

2) enlarged - a cargo package formed on a pallet from primary cargo units, i.e. cargo in a transport container. An enlarged cargo unit, formed, for example, from boxes of candy in a factory, at some stage in the process of product movement, may be dismantled when an order is picked at a wholesale enterprise. The base module is a rectangle with sides 600 x 400 mm.

There is a unified system of standardized sizes of transport packaging.

The principle of creating this system is that the pallet area is divided into a grid of multiple sizes that determine the dimensions of the transport container. A pallet measuring 1200 x 800 mm contains 4 basic modules, a pallet measuring 1200 x 1000 mm contains 5 basic modules.

64. PACKAGING

Cargo packaging - a large and complex area of work at the enterprise. The distribution costs, profits and other financial performance of the enterprise largely depend on the quality and speed of packaging, the timely return of containers to suppliers.

The number of types of packaging exceeds several thousand and cannot be counted.

Container classification:

1) consumer packaging (bags, boxes, bottles, cans) - when the goods are sold, they pass to the consumer. The cost of this container is included in the price of the goods;

2) industrial packaging - used for moving within the enterprise, between workshops and supplying raw materials, semi-finished products, spare parts, tools to workplaces;

3) transport container - an independent transport unit in which products are transported, stored in the process of moving them from the producer to the consumer. Such containers include most types of wooden, cardboard, metal boxes, barrels, drums, fabric, mesh, polyethylene bags, etc. The cost of shipping containers, as a rule, is partially included in the cost of goods.

Containers can be classified according to:

1) the material from which it is made - wooden, cardboard, polymer, soft, transparent;

2) resistance to mechanical stress - hard and soft;

3) structures - non-separable, collapsible, folding, collapsible-folding;

4) the purpose and weight of the packaged products, as well as the conditions of transportation - closed, open, dense, lattice;

5) the number of revolutions - single, returnable, multi-turn.

The packaging should ensure the preservation of the original quality and quantity of the product during its transportation and storage, the possibility of mechanizing loading and unloading operations, the efficient use of vehicles and storage facilities, the acceleration of the turnover of inventory, working capital, etc.

Use of certain types of packaging.

Wooden packaging - haberdashery, knitwear, fur products, as well as porcelain and glass products are packed in wooden containers.

Cardboard and paper containers - used for packaging plastic, haberdashery, knitwear, fur products, fabrics, piece textiles and garments, shoes (except rubber), hats, threads.

Paper bags - are used for packaging bulk and piece products.

Metal containers - used for the transportation and storage of petroleum products, products of the paint and varnish industry and other liquid products that do not affect steel and zinc.

Glass container - it is intended for packing of perfumery-cosmetic, chemical and other goods.

Textile packaging - used for packaging products in the form of bales, bales and rolls. In bales, bales and rolls, fabrics, carpets, carpets are packed. Soft fabric in the form of covers is used to pack furniture.

Plastic container - polymeric materials and containers made of them have a number of advantages over containers and packaging based on paper or wood. Polymeric materials are characterized by low specific gravity, high mechanical strength, low water and vapor permeability, are easily formed by various methods and thermally welded, and have a pleasant appearance.

65. MARKING OF GOODS

All goods accepted for transportation, regardless of the types of communication, must be labeled, which must be the same for all modes of transport.

Labeling called the application on products, containers, packaging of various types of conventional signs, drawings, inscriptions or symbols that establish the procedure for their accounting and measures for their safety during transportation. Therefore, the marking is applied in such a way that it is clearly visible and remains until the end of the journey.

Distinguish marking commodity, shipping, special and transport.

1. Commodity (factory) marking - contains the name of the product and the name of the manufacturer, its address, brand, indication of the variety, GOST and other necessary information about the product.

2. Shipping marking contains the number of the place (in the numerator) and the number of places (in the denominator), the name of the sender and recipient, the point of departure and destination.

3. Special (warning) marking indicates the manner in which cargo is stored and handled en route and during cargo operations. Dangerous goods are additionally marked with signs, inscriptions and colored stickers in accordance with the rules for the transportation of these goods.

The supplier pays fines to the consumer if he supplies non-labeled or improperly labeled products. Marking expresses the trademark of the product: a name, sign or symbol that identifies the product. Trade enterprises using well-known trademarks can receive public recognition, high incomes.

There are four types of brand:

1) brand name - symbol, distinctive color, design, designation;

2) a trade name is a word or a group of words, a letter or a group of letters that can be pronounced;

3) trade image - a personalized trademark;

4) a trademark is a legally protected trade name, trade mark, trademark, or a combination of them, i.e. the first three types of trademarks do not provide legal protection against use by competitors. Therefore, the trademark is the most important element of labeling. The owner of a trademark is a market entity (manufacturer, trading company, commercial intermediary) that has a license for such a mark. The owner of the trademark has the exclusive right to use and dispose of the trademark, and the use of this mark without the permission of the owner is not allowed.

In today's market conditions, labeling is important for the following reasons:

1) product identification takes place (a distinctive image is created), in which the consumer, intending to purchase a product, instead of describing it, focuses not on the description of the product, but on the name of its manufacturer or seller;

2) it becomes known which market entity is responsible for this product;

3) a guarantee is provided that the product has a certain level of quality;

4) the commercial risk of consumers is reduced;

5) a brand is an advertisement for products, the thinking of buyers is guided by a trademark with its parameters;

6) the influence of the price factor decreases, since consumers are guided by the difference in goods by brands;

7) the prestige of products increases with the growth of public recognition of the trademark.

66. TYPES OF TRADING ENTERPRISES

Trade enterprises are divided into two large groups: retailers and wholesalers. Retail enterprises are called upon to sell goods to the population, which is their main trade and technological function. Its implementation is closely related to auxiliary trade and technological functions, which include the acceptance of goods by quality and quantity, the placement and stowage of goods for storage, the preparation of goods for sale, the display of goods on the trading floor, and the internal transportation of goods in stores.

There are two types of retail trade network - stationary and mobile.

Stationary trade network consists of shops and small retail trade enterprises:

1) shops - have a special room for the sale of goods - a trading floor and other premises for the acceptance, storage, preparation of goods, as well as administrative and amenity premises. Stores concentrate a wide range of products, use progressive methods of selling goods and additional customer service;

2) pavilions - a structure of a lightweight type, usually for two to four workplaces with a trading floor and a utility room;

3) tents are small structures, as a rule, for one workplace without a trading floor with a small room for storing current stocks;

4) kiosks - structures for one or two workplaces without a trading floor and utility room;

5) vending machines - allow you to organize round-the-clock trade, bring goods closer to customers, increase retail turnover and speed up turnover.

Mobile trading network used in individual localities (villages, hamlets) to serve the population. It is the main form for serving rural workers in field work, livestock farms, and remote areas. It is used for trade services at public events (fairs, bazaars, etc.), and the following are used:

1) auto shops are the most effective mobile trade enterprises due to their maneuverability, carrying capacity and capacity;

2) trucking - moving with the help of trucks, tractors, tractors. They are temporarily installed in settlements, and trade is carried out from them;

3) delivery - trays used for trade in confectionery, ice cream, etc.;

4) retail parcel trade - ordered goods are sent by postal parcels.

Retail stores by type are divided into:

1) department stores - stores with a universal range of non-food products. Each product group is presented in a separate section;

2) supermarkets - self-service stores with a universal assortment of food products with a department of non-food consumer goods;

3) specialized stores - stores selling any one group of goods.

Wholesalers - aim to sell products to enterprises in large quantities.

Wholesale Functions:

1) organizing the delivery of goods from places of production to areas of consumption;

2) acquisition of the assortment of goods necessary for supplying the retail trade network;

3) active influence on the production of consumer goods.

67. PRODUCT RANGE

Assortment of goods - this is a set of their species, varieties and varieties, combined or combined according to any sign (purpose, color, size, method of production).

Product range - the totality of all assortment groups of goods and commodity units offered to the buyer by a particular seller.

Product range is of great socio-economic importance, since the completeness of satisfaction of consumer demand and the quality of service for market entities depend on it.

Assortment indicators:

1) breadth of assortment - the number of products of a particular type;

2) depth of assortment - the number of varieties of a particular type of product, the number of positions in each group of goods;

3) completeness of the assortment - the ratio of the actual number of varieties of goods to its quantity, provided for by the corresponding nomenclature or specification;

4) the degree of renewal of the assortment - the share of new products in the total volume that went on sale;

5) the structure of the assortment - the share of commodity groups, subgroups, types and varieties of goods in the total amount of turnover. If the assortment structure does not reflect consumer demand, stocks of slow-moving, stale goods are formed, an artificial shortage is created for other goods required by the consumer.

A rationally formed assortment speeds up the sale of goods, reduces the cost of labor and time to search for, purchase the right product, and ultimately helps to meet the demand of potential consumers.

There are two types of assortment:

1) industrial assortment - a list of goods produced by a manufacturing or agricultural enterprise;

2) trade assortment - a list of goods that are in the sphere of circulation, in particular, in wholesale and retail enterprises. The trade assortment, as a rule, is wider than the industrial one, since it includes goods from various industries, as well as imported ones. The trade assortment depends on the type of enterprise (base, store, warehouse), region, demographic characteristics of the population. The assortment policy of market entities also contributes to the rational formation of the assortment of goods.

Assortment Policy in the field of commodity supply of the market is built on the basis of long-term programs for the development of the range of goods aimed at optimizing the nomenclature structure of goods, taking into account:

1) the demand of various consumer groups;

2) available material, financial resources for the production of various goods, the level and ratio of prices for them;

3) the main consumer parameters of products for various consumer groups.

To develop an assortment policy, it is necessary to study the so-called product life cycle, based on the fact that a product on the market consistently goes through a series of stages. Depending on the characteristics of each stage of the life cycle, it is necessary to select goods and plan the assortment, set the level and ratio of prices, evaluate profits, and use appropriate forms and methods of sales.

Assortment policy changes as the production of goods grows, the development of wholesale and retail trade, changes in the standard of living of the population.

68. FORMATION OF THE RANGE

Stages of the assortment formation process:

1) establishing the assortment profile of the store - this work is carried out on the basis of marketing research in the target market. Depending on this, the place of the enterprise in the general system of trade services for the population of the city, district, etc. will be determined;

2) calculation of the structure of the group assortment - determination of the quantitative ratio of individual groups of goods. The structure of the trading assortment is established taking into account the trading area of the store, its location and other factors;

3) determination of the intra-group assortment - the selection of specific varieties of goods within each group. This is the most important stage, the work is being carried out taking into account the expected changes in the demand of the population, as well as based on the available trade and warehouse indicators, the contingent of customers served and other factors.

The following factors influence the formation of the assortment:

1) historical traditions and folk customs (for example, on New Year's Eve, the range of alcoholic products and souvenirs should be expanded);

2) seasonality of demand (for example, June-July - the range of building materials should be expanded, August-September - the range of stationery, canning products, etc.);

3) the location of the store (for example, along the highway, the assortment of fast food products should be expanded, near the school - stationery, etc.);

4) social composition of the population (for example, if the bulk of the population are pensioners, consumers of pasta and other inexpensive food products, if a significant part is young people, then the range of perfumes and cosmetics products, clothing and footwear products, etc. should be expanded);

5) monetary income and prices (for example, the presence of a high-income population group indicates the need to expand the range of household appliances and jewelry).

regulation tool The range of goods in the store is the assortment list of goods. It is recommended to install it for each store individually. The presence of such lists makes it possible not only to rationally regulate the assortment of goods, but also to systematically control its completeness and stability.

Completeness of the range - compliance of the actual availability of goods at the trading enterprise with the developed assortment list.

Assortment stability - uninterrupted availability in the sale of goods provided for by the assortment list. The completeness of the assortment is determined using a coefficient, which is calculated by the ratio of the actual number of varieties of goods available for sale to the number of goods provided by the assortment list.

Kp \uXNUMXd Rf / Rn

where Kp - the coefficient of completeness of the assortment of the store on a specific date; Rf - the actual number of varieties of goods at the time of verification; Рн - the number of varieties of goods provided by the assortment list. The numerical value of the coefficients of completeness is in the range from 0 to 1. At the same time, the closer the indicator is to 1, the fuller and more stable the assortment of goods presented at the outlet.

69. DEVICE OF A TRADING ENTERPRISE

An important point when opening a trading company is its interior layout.

The total area of the store according to its functional purpose is divided into the following parts and groups of premises:

1) retail premises - retail, demonstration and exhibition halls;

2) premises for acceptance, storage and preparation of goods for sale - unloading, acceptance, storerooms for storing goods, refrigerated chambers;

3) utility rooms - for storage of containers, utensils, inventory, washing, etc.;

4) office and amenity premises - director's office, accounting department;

5) technical premises - ventilation chambers, elevators, etc.

The composition and dimensions of each of the listed parts depend on a number of factors:

1) store type;

2) assortment profile;

3) ways of selling goods;

4) commodity supply systems. The assortment of goods in a store significantly influences the availability of individual premises and their interconnection. For example, in stores selling goods that require pre-packing (cereals, sugar, confectionery, etc.), special premises are allocated to perform these operations. In stores selling perishable goods (meat, oil, fish), premises are needed to install special refrigeration equipment. When selling clothes in stores, premises are allocated to prepare them for sale (ironing, eliminating minor defects). Forms of product promotion (self-service, sale of goods by samples) determine the size and location of individual premises, the quantity and placement of inventory, payment units, etc. The organization of the trade and technological process in a store has a significant impact on the distribution of premises by functional location and the relationship between them, as well as the placement of commercial furniture and other commercial equipment.

The layout of the store should provide:

1) maximum convenience for buyers in the selection and purchase of goods;

2) the possibility of organizing trade using modern methods;

3) connection of the sequence of premises with the sequence of operations performed;

4) rationalization of the movement of commodity flows within the store;

5) the possibility of widespread introduction of means of mechanization of trade and technological processes;

6) normal working conditions for store employees;

7) safety of inventory items.

Store performance indicators:

1) throughput - the number of customers served in one shift of the store;

2) specific retail turnover per 1 m2 of retail space;

3) the structure of the areas of the store - the share of certain types of areas in the total area of the store;

4) the ratio of the installation and demonstration area is the ratio of the area occupied by retail equipment to the retail one. The installation area should occupy 27-30% of the sales area;

5) coefficient of equipment capacity - the ratio of the stock of goods placed on the trading equipment to the installation area;

6) the level of mechanization of the trading process - the ratio of the amount of work performed in a mechanized way to the total amount of work.

Calculation of indicators allows you to find reserves to improve the efficiency of the store.

70. STRUCTURE OF TRADING AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE STORE AND PRINCIPLES OF ITS ORGANIZATION

Trade and technological process in the store consists of operations, which are divided into main and auxiliary.

Main Operations are the processes of selling goods and serving customers.

Auxiliary operations - this is unloading goods from vehicles, unpacking, acceptance of goods, storing them, moving them to points of sale, placing and stacking on the trading floor, etc. All main and auxiliary operations are carried out in a certain sequence, are in functional interaction and are aimed at fulfilling The main task of the store is to sell goods and provide a high culture of customer service.

Structure of trade and technological processes in the store depends on the degree of independence of the trading enterprise.

Shops - trading units carry out only the in-store trade and technological process, i.e. operations that are directly related to the sale of goods. Stores - trading enterprises also carry out the functions of purchasing goods and delivering them from the supplier.

Depending on the subject of labor, the trade and technological process can be divided into three parts:

1) the first includes operations with goods before the offer of goods to buyers;

2) operations with goods and operations for direct customer service;

3) additional customer service operations.

Trade and technological process of stores, where customer service is provided by the seller, differs from the trade and technological process of stores that use modern forms of selling goods (self-service, selling goods by samples, etc.), both in the execution of the main operation and in the volume and sequence of individual operations of the process.

There are three main schemes of the trade and technological process:

1) the first scheme includes unloading goods from vehicles, acceptance in terms of quantity and quality, and sale. With this scheme, the main functional premises of the store are the premises for the acceptance of goods and for their sale;

2) the second scheme consists of operations of unloading goods from vehicles, their acceptance in terms of quantity and quality, storage and sale. In this case, there is a need for additional storage facilities;

3) the third scheme is the most complex, it consists of the operations of unloading goods from vehicles, their acceptance in terms of quantity and quality, storage, preparation for sale and sale. This scheme assumes the presence of special premises for the preparation of goods for sale.

Basic principles of organization of trade and technological processes in the store:

1) compliance of the trade and technological process with the scientific and technical level;

2) creation of maximum convenience for buyers;

3) achieving the most rational use of the material and technological base of trade enterprises;

4) creating favorable conditions for employees of trade enterprises that ensure high culture and labor productivity;

5) ensuring the complete safety of inventory items;

6) ensuring high economic efficiency of trade and operational activities of various enterprises.

71. TECHNOLOGY OF SERVING BUYERS IN STORES

Trade customer service is a set of operations performed by store employees when selling goods. It should be organized so that buyers can purchase all the goods they want with the least amount of time and with the greatest convenience.

Content of trade service operations depends on the range of goods, forms of sale and additional services provided to customers, on the state of the material and technical base of the store and other factors.

The general scheme of trade customer service in stores:

1) meeting buyers - the initial operation of the trade service process. To attract attention, various means of advertising are used, as well as interior design. When visiting the store, the buyer's opinion about him is formed, so here he must meet a friendly and attentive attitude. At the same time, the cleanliness of the trading floor and the appearance of sellers are essential;

2) identification of buyers' demand - the seller is obliged, without waiting for the buyer's question, to politely ask what goods he wants to purchase. Having clarified the intentions, the seller must offer the buyer the appropriate goods or, in the absence of the right one, recommend a substitute product. In self-service stores, buyers choose the goods themselves, but the seller can provide advice;

3) consultation and display of goods - when advising the buyer, the seller must know the properties of the goods, be able to

To show the goods in action (for example, technically complex goods - TVs, tape recorders), to know the norms of consumption of goods (for example, the consumption of fabric for sewing a product), modern fashion trends, conditions for storing and caring for goods, etc. In some cases, stores attract highly qualified specialists for consultation - dietitians, fashion designers, etc. Consultations should be comprehensive, and advice should be objective. There should be no imposition of goods, no desire to sell them at all costs;

4) technical operations for the release of goods - the selection of the desired product, measuring, weighing, cutting, etc. The performance of such operations depends on the range of goods. So, when selling food products, the main procedure is weighing. It is typical for the sale of a number of non-food products (bulk materials, nails, etc.). When selling fabric, tulle, braid, ribbons, electric cord, the most time-consuming part is measuring. When selling by the self-service method, the selected goods are placed in inventory baskets and sent with them to the settlement node, where they pay for purchases. Here, operations are carried out for packaging and delivery of the purchase;

5) payment for the purchased goods is an important part of the trade customer service. Accurate observance of the calculation rules, the choice of its most appropriate system, the selection of cash registers and the training of persons associated with the calculation can significantly increase the speed of customer service and the culture of trade;

6) packaging of goods - the final operation of the process of commercial customer service, which requires certain skills from the seller.

72. FORMS OF SALE OF GOODS IN STORES

There are traditional and modern forms of selling goods.

Traditional forms sales involve the direct sale of goods by sellers to buyers. These forms require high activity and costs of labor and time of sellers in connection with their performance of numerous operations for the sale of goods. Buyers also spend a lot of time buying goods, in addition, their independence in choosing goods is limited.

Modern forms of selling goods imply an acceleration of the process of trade service, an increase in the throughput of the store, a reduction in distribution costs, etc.

There are the following types of modern forms of sale of goods:

1) sale of goods by self-service - involves the complete preliminary preparation of goods for sale (packaging, packaging, placement and display of goods on the trading floor by groups, varieties, etc.), free access of buyers to goods, independence of buyers when choosing goods, payment for goods at settlement nodes serviced by cashiers-controllers;

2) sale of goods with an open display - the essence of this form of sale is that goods are openly placed on counters, stands, slides, in cabinets. Thus, the buyer is given a full opportunity to inspect and select the necessary goods. The selected goods are transferred to the seller, who packs them and issues them to the buyer. Payment for the goods can be made directly by the seller or through the cashier. An open display allows you to bring the goods closer to the buyer, speeds up service. An open display is used in the sale of fabrics, perfumes, haberdashery, hosiery, school supplies, etc. In the food trade, it is used in the trade of meat, fish, vegetables, fruits, etc .;

3) sale of goods by samples - this form of sale provides for an open display of individual samples of goods on the trading floor. Labels with a brief description of the goods are attached to the samples. The buyer independently or with the help of a sales assistant gets acquainted with the samples and selects the necessary product. A product similar to the selected sample, after payment at the checkout, is issued to the buyer through the purchase counter.

Sale of goods according to samples, it is widely used in the sale of furniture, refrigerators, washing and sewing machines, radios, televisions and other goods for cultural and household purposes;

4) sale of goods by pre-orders - with this form of sale, the buyer makes a preliminary order for the goods, and then receives it at a certain time. Reception of orders can be carried out through special departments or tables of orders. Orders may be placed orally, in writing or by telephone. They are issued with a preliminary full or partial payment, as well as with payment after receipt of the goods by the buyer. At the request of the buyer, the ordered goods can be issued at the place of receipt of the order or delivered to his home. The sale of goods by order is socially significant when serving the population of deep settlements, in which there are no shops selling goods of a complex assortment.

73. SALES PROMOTION

Appeal to uninformed buyers forms demand - people tend to buy a product that they have not yet used. A person who has the right to choose should have an image of the attractiveness of the product that optimally satisfies certain needs. By stimulating sales, there is an appeal to people who are already informed about the product, perhaps familiar with its consumer properties from personal experience.

The task of sales promotion:

1) motivation for subsequent purchases of this product;

2) increase in the number of consumers;

3) giving regularity to sales of a seasonal nature;

4) providing counteraction to emerging competitors;

5) the revival of the sale of goods, the sale of which is experiencing stagnation;

6) increase in turnover;

7) minimization of illiquid balances;

8) capitalizing on annual events (Christmas, March 8, February 23, etc.);

9) the use of any particular favorable opportunity (the anniversary of the establishment of the company, the opening of a new store, etc.);

10) advertising campaign support.

Sales promotion activities is especially important when there are many competing products on the market that differ little in their consumer properties (so that the buyer has no special logical reasons for preferring, and sales promotion promises the buyer a tangible benefit). Usually distinguish sales promotion activities, aimed at buyers and sellers (intermediaries, agents, dealers).

Sales promotion towards customers aims to offer a tangible commercial benefit to those who purchase the goods on agreed terms, and involves:

1) discounts - for the volume of the purchased consignment of goods, the regularity of purchases of a certain number of products (bonus discounts);

2) a loan in various forms - installment plan, no down payment, "gift" of a certain amount of money when buying a product;

3) free distribution of samples of goods based on the purchase of a large lot;

4) free transfer of goods for temporary use for testing;

5) accepting a used item as a down payment for a new item;

6) presentation (shows) of new products specifically for representatives of potential buyers (if we are talking about industrial goods);

7) excursions to manufacturing enterprises;

8) press conferences on the occasion of introducing a new product to the market;

9) a sharp price reduction - usually with the transition to the release of a new product model, the beginning of the next season, which is widely announced through the media - print, radio, television;

10) sponsorship - support by any manufacturer of a certain individual (sports team, racing car, sports vessel), which is expressed in the sponsor's taking on the costs associated with the preparation and participation in competitions. In exchange, the wards become a living advertisement for the brand, which is widely presented in the media.

To increase the effectiveness of sales promotion for the buyer, it is necessary to simultaneously stimulate the seller - his ability and ability to sell the goods should not be left unattended by the manufacturer.

These qualities should be encouraged and developed.

74. SALES PERFORMANCE

Sales indicators include the following groups of indicators:

1) sale of products, works or services at current and comparable prices;

2) indicators of implementation of the implementation plan for the total volume and for individual product groups;

3) indicators of the dynamics of sales volume;

4) indicators of the product range.

Sales organizations begin analysis with evaluation of the implementation of the plan set by them independently for the reporting period (month, quarter, year) by comparing the actual data for the reporting period with the volume of sales of goods according to the plan. For each enterprise, it is important to establish the reasons for the deviations of the actual sales volume from the planned one. This gives an assessment of the validity of the plan and finds out what conditions were not taken into account in its development.

Reasons for deviations there may be changes in the expected receipt of goods in terms of volume and timing, insufficient number of employees, the formation of an assortment of goods in stores without taking into account customer demand, the price factor, and many others.

An important point in the analysis of the company's turnover is to study its dynamics - the growth rate of the total volume and for the main commodity groups in current and comparable prices. Growth rates are calculated by the ratio of the actual turnover for the current period to the corresponding indicator of the base period. The role of dynamics indicators is very important, as they evaluate positively or negatively the results of the trading activity of the enterprise.

Turnover value in comparable prices is determined by dividing the actual sales volume by the price growth index. The resulting indicator characterizes the physical volume of trade turnover.

The difference between the actual and comparable trade turnover represents the amount of additional costs to buyers due to price increases. In the case of their decline, this difference shows the benefit received by buyers.

In the process of studying the dynamics of the company's turnover, of particular interest is study of sales and inventories of goods by individual product groups. This indicator reflects the distribution of customer costs for the purchase of various goods and the relationship between sales volumes of individual groups of goods. For trade workers, this indicator characterizes the role that the sale of a given product has in the formation of monetary revenue. Indicators can be expressed as indices or as a percentage of sales of one product to total sales. Comparing the costs of various goods also makes a certain sense. For example, you can find out how much money is spent on buying meat for every 1000 rubles. buying bread, etc.

The following indicators are also calculated.

Trade turnover per 1 m2 of retail space - to assess the degree of use of retail space.

Trade turnover per trade and operational employee - to assess the degree of utilization of the available staff.

The share of the enterprise in the turnover of the region - to assess success in the competitive struggle.

Various methods are used for analysis (building time series, using relative and average indicators, plotting graphs, index method, chain substitution method, etc.).

75. COMMODITY CHANNELS

There are two basic types of traffic channels:

1) direct - associated with the movement of products from the manufacturer to the consumer without the use of independent intermediaries. They are most commonly used by companies that want to control the entire marketing program, seek close contact with consumers, and have limited target markets;

2) indirect channels - associated with the movement of goods from the manufacturer to an independent participant in the movement of goods, and then to the consumer. They usually attract companies that, in order to increase their markets and sales, give up many sales functions and expenses and, accordingly, a certain amount of control over distribution channels and contacts with consumers. When manufacturers sell through company-owned outlets, a direct distribution channel is used (for example, oil company gas stations). If the distribution process involves multiple levels of wholesale (eg regional, local) and different types of retail stores (eg discount, general and specialty), then indirect channels are used.

Functions of distribution channels:

1) a decisive role in marketing research. Due to their proximity to the market, they have a good understanding of the characteristics and needs of consumers;

2) influence on the time of payment for the purchase of products - payment upon receipt, after sale, after a certain period or immediately;

3) wholesalers - stimulate and train retail staff, coordinate the promotion of goods in the field among retailers.

Retailers - local advertising, personal selling and special events, performance of consumer services;

4) participation in product planning, advice on existing and new products;

5) influence pricing, set the markups they require.

When choosing distribution channels, there are a number of key factors to consider:

1) consumers (number, concentration, average purchase size, location and opening hours of the store, assortment, sales staff assistance, credit conditions);

2) company (goals, control, sales, time);

3) resources (level, flexibility, need for service);

4) knowledge (functions, specialization, efficiency);

5) experience (methods of promotion, relations in the sales system);

6) product or service (price, technical complexity, storage period, frequency of shipments, unit weight);

7) competition (number, methods of promotion).

Firms producing consumer goods must not only choose distribution channels, but also determine the intensity of its use:

1) with exclusive distribution and marketing, the firm sharply limits the number of wholesalers and retailers in the region, one or two retail stores in a particular shopping area can be used. It strives for prestige and control over distribution channels;

2) in selective distribution and marketing, the company uses an average number of wholesalers and retail stores, tries to combine control over the channel, a prestigious image with a good volume of sales and profits;

3) with intensive sales, the company uses a large number of wholesalers and retailers. Its goal is a wide market.

76. INTERMEDIATES IN TRADING ACTIVITIES

1. Commercial wholesale organizations - get the right of ownership of the goods for its subsequent resale. They may provide a full range of services or limited services. Full service commercial wholesalers assemble a range of products at a specific location, provide trade credit, store and ship products, offer sales assistance, provide staff for personal selling, and offer research and planning support, and provide installation and repair services. Restricted Service Businesses cannot provide credit, sales assistance, or market research data.

2. Agents and brokers perform various functions, cl however, they do not take ownership of the goods. In excellentd1Other than commercial wholesalers who make a profit from the sale of goods they own, agents and brokers work on commission. The main difference between agents and brokers is that the former are used permanently, while the latter are used temporarily.

Benefits of using agents and brokers:

1) allow the manufacturer to increase sales, despite limited resources;

2) sales costs are predetermined as a percentage of sales;

3) have trained sales personnel.

Agents include:

1) manufacturers' agents - work for several manufacturers and deal with non-competing complementary goods with exclusive marketing rights in a certain region. They do not provide credit, but sometimes stock products and provide limited research and planning assistance. A manufacturer may use several agents, each of which can work in a separate territory or with a separate product group;

2) sales agents - are responsible for all product marketing. They have the authority to negotiate prices and other sales terms such as credit and delivery. They perform all the wholesale functions, but do not receive ownership rights to the products. Sales agents usually work for small organizations. Brokers work on the stock exchange and connect buyers with sellers to complete a transaction. They are well informed about the state of the market, terms of sale, sources of credit, pricing, and potential competitors. They do not have ownership of the goods and usually cannot complete the transaction without formal consent.

Broker - an official, registered on the stock exchange. As a rule, he pays a fee for his place on the exchange. The number of brokers on the exchange is limited. The broker is a counterparty to both parties and receives remuneration from both the seller and the buyer. He is obliged to keep the secret of the transaction.

Trade consultants, informants receive a set fixed percentage of the transaction for research in business circles. However, the consultant does not have the right to participate in the income and give guarantees to the firm.

Sales Representatives - make a deal on behalf of and on behalf of their company on the basis of a contract-mandate with an indication of his authority.

77. BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECONOMIC SUPPORT OF LOGISTICS

Economic analysis - this is an analysis of indicators of sources and funds, fixed and working capital, investment, leasing and innovation activities, business plan, financial condition, efficiency of capital use, labor resources, production and sales volumes, profit and profitability.

Types of analysis are classified according to:

1) research objectives - assessment of the financial condition, product quality, validity of the plan and results of economic activity, identification of reserves, forecasting;

2) according to the aspects of the study - functional cost, financial and economic, technical and economic;

3) degree of management - intrashop, factory;

4) the nature of the decisions being made - preliminary, current, operational, final;

5) frequency of holding - daily, monthly, quarterly, annual, etc.

The main tasks of the analysis:

1) assessment of the size, movement, structure and formation of funds, sources of funds and capital, the effectiveness of business plans, investment, economic and marketing activities;

2) determination of the degree of use of general, fixed and working capital and labor resources;

3) assessment of the financial condition, its forecasting and determination of the probability of bankruptcy;

4) differentiation between dependent and independent of the enterprise reasons for the deviation of actual indicators from the base ones and their quantitative change;

5) identification of reserves for increasing the efficiency of financial and economic activities and ways to use them;

6) forecasting the expected results of financial and economic activities for the next period;

7) preparation of materials for the selection of optimal management decisions.

Economic analysis fully justifies itself only when it brings real benefits, that is, it reveals untapped reserves at all stages of the formation of production potential and the efficiency of its use.

The following are the most commonly used types of analysis:

1) price analysis - assessment and verification of the total price of customer service without taking into account individual elements of costs or profits. Such an analysis presupposes, first of all, the determination of the lower limit of the price;

2) cost analysis is somewhat broader than price analysis, since on its basis the necessity and justification of each cost element, including profit, is determined;

3) concentration of resources on favorable opportunities - one of the ways to achieve control over logistics costs;

4) analysis of working capital necessary for the functioning of the customer service system (its dependence on the duration of the period of capital turnover from cash to inventory and back to cash and sales volume);

5) cost analysis - "negative flow of payments", i.e. analysis of the decrease in means of payment in the enterprise;

6) analysis of the profitability of activities - the ratio of profit to the capital expended;

7) analysis of profitability - the ratio between gross income and total costs (in some cases - actual costs);

8) analysis of the savings ratio - the ratio of the cost of the initial and optimal options for the purchase of units of production.

78. BASIC CONCEPTS OF INFORMATION SUPPORT OF LOGISTICS

Logistic information - this is purposefully collected information necessary to ensure the process of managing the enterprise's logistics system. Information support of logistics at the enterprise is an activity for the forecast, processing, accounting and analysis of information. A written confirmation of the fact of a logistic operation is a document.

Document - a written act of the established form, drawn up by competent officials, as well as citizens to present information about facts of legal significance, or to confirm rights and obligations.

Document types:

1) primary (waybill, consignment note);

2) secondary (book of receipt orders, etc.). The movement of documents in space and time from the moment they are created or received to the completion of execution or dispatch is a workflow.

Competent organization of document flow contributes to strengthening the information readiness of the enterprise.

information readiness is determined by the ability of the enterprise to provide the data requested by the consumer at all stages of order fulfillment. Information readiness is calculated as the ratio of the number of quick and accurate responses to requests to the total number of requests for a certain period of time. Currently, in connection with the development of scientific and technical progress, automated information systems are used to facilitate work.

Benefits of using information systems:

1) computerized processing of procurement procedure data reduces manual processing to a minimum. This reduces the number of possible errors and reduces processing time;

2) accounting information becomes more accurate and available on demand. This ensures the best preparation of negotiations, the best prices and quality;

3) the processing of a large amount of data is facilitated;

4) operational performance is improved due to the availability of operational data and improved control over operations.

Requirements for automated information systems:

1) scalability - the ability of the system to support both single users and multiple users;

2) distribution - the ability of the system to provide joint processing of documents by several geographically dispersed divisions of the enterprise;

3) modularity - the ability of the system to provide users with the ability to configure and select system functions based on the specifics and complexity of the enterprise, i.e. the automation system is flexible and consists of separate modules integrated with each other (sales, warehouse, procurement, production, personnel, finance , transport).

The main tasks of the information system:

1) continuous provision of reliable, relevant and adequate information about the movement of the order and the structure of the total costs;

2) implementation of the system of operational management of the enterprise in terms of key indicators (cost, cost structure, profitability level);

3) ensuring the possibility of timely identification of "bottlenecks";

4) ensuring the possibility of redistributing the resources of the enterprise;

5) ensuring the possibility of estimating the timing of the execution of consumer orders.

79. VALUE IN THE SUPPLY CHAIN

Production process is the most important stage in the circulation of enterprise funds. In the course of this process, the enterprise, spending material, labor and financial resources, forms the cost of products (works, services), which ultimately determines the results of its work.

Price - this is the amount that the consumer pays to receive a product or service and benefit from it. The cost of production includes:

1) the purchase price indicated in the invoice;

2) freight and other costs for transporting products to the place of sale;

3) the cost of unpacking products and putting down prices for them;

4) the cost of return, markdown and discounts provided by product suppliers.

Production cost - expressed in monetary terms, the costs associated with the use of fixed assets, raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, labor in the production process, as well as other costs for the production and sale of products.

The following is recommended grouping costs by calculation items:

1) raw materials and materials;

2) purchased components, semi-finished products and services of an industrial nature;

3) returnable waste (subtracted);

4) fuel and energy for technological purposes;

5) basic wages of production workers;

6) additional wages of production workers;

7) taxes and deductions to the budget, fees and deductions to local authorities;

8) wear of tools and devices for the intended purpose;

9) overhead costs;

10) general business expenses;

11) losses from marriage;

12) business expenses.

Production cost is one of the factors of profit formation. There is an inverse functional relationship between profit and cost. When the cost of goods sold increases at a higher rate than revenue, the profitability of sales decreases and vice versa. The cost of goods sold is not equal to the cost of goods manufactured. Differences in the growth rates of the cost of manufactured and sold products show trends in the return on sales in the next period, when the balance of finished products of the reporting period will be sold. So, if the cost of manufactured products increased at a slower pace than that of sold products, then we can assume that in the next period, other things being equal, the profitability of sales will increase.

Stages of cost analysis.

1. Comparison of costs for manufactured and sold products with changes in sales proceeds.

2. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the use of each type of resource.

3. Analysis of costs per ruble of manufactured (sold) products.

4. Analysis of revenue per ruble of invested funds. These indicators provide a clear link with profit - an increase in costs leads to a decrease in profit from each ruble of invested funds and vice versa.

The advantage of these indicators in that they are universal - they can be used in any industry and cover both all products and its individual types.

Lack of indicators - they can be influenced by many factors, both subjective and objective, i.e., not dependent on the quality of the enterprise.

80. PRICING METHODS IN LOGISTICS

Ways to form the basic price of products:

1) free setting of prices. Prices are set as a result of negotiations between the seller and the buyer. The price in this case adapts to the needs of a particular consumer. This method of setting prices is used when selling, for example, non-standard products;

2) application of the list price. When assigning a list price, the following factors characterizing specific consumers are taken into account: the buyer's belonging to a certain market segment; quantity of purchased products; the consumer has certain obligations for the physical distribution of products (organization and conduct of presentations, tastings).

For further pricing, two methods are used:

1) net pricing system - the seller fixes the price in relation to the direct buyer. If the buyer sells the purchased product further up the supply chain, he can set the price himself. The manufacturer in this case does not directly affect the value of the final price of his products;

2) gross pricing system. The manufacturer sets a retail price for the product that he considers most appropriate to the characteristics and needs of a given market, and may insist that the retailer sell the product at that price. When setting prices, a system of discounts and surcharges is often used.

Types of discounts:

1) quantitative - provided if the buyer orders a large number of products;

2) cumulative - when redeeming during the year part of the product for a set amount with a regular discount, the buyer receives an increased discount on subsequent orders until the end of the year;

3) discount for regular partners.

Purpose of discounts:

1) incentives for the purchase of large quantities of products (quantity discount);

2) ensuring long-term cooperation with the buyer (discount for regular partners, cumulative discount);

3) drawing attention to certain products (discount for introducing new products into the sale).

Types of allowances:

1) special - is used if the volume of the order is less than the value acceptable to the supplier;

2) bonification - a premium paid by the buyer to the seller upon delivery of products of a higher quality than was stipulated by the terms of the contract.

Another pricing strategy is price differentiation - Establishing different price levels for the same product. Principles of price differentiation:

1 Territorial - involves setting prices depending on the place of purchase and sale of products or on the place of its production;

2) by time - products are offered at different prices depending on the time of day (day and night prices), year, day of the week;

3) by groups of buyers - the condition for setting prices is that the consumer belongs to a certain social group (pensioners, disabled people, unemployed, students);

4) depending on the purpose of using the product - when setting prices, they proceed from where this product is used (for example, the use of salt as a seasoning, in animal husbandry or in winter for sprinkling the streets).

81. FINANCIAL FLOWS IN LOGISTICS

All economic flows in logistics divided into financial and non-financial. Financial flows include the movement of cash, financial claims and liabilities in various forms. They are formed as a result of economic activity and, after the sale of products and services, ensure the circulation of fixed and working capital and relationships with the institutions of the credit and financial system.

Financial flows represent the movement of financial resources, i.e., the totality of all types of funds, financial assets that an economic entity has and can dispose of. They are intended to fulfill financial obligations, implement the costs of expanded reproduction and economic incentives for workers. They are the result of the interaction of receipts, expenditures and distribution of funds, their accumulation and use.

There are the following methods of financial settlements in logistics.

Documentary letter of credit - the obligation given by the bank as a result of the order received by it from the client-importer, to pay the exporter a certain amount against the transfer of certain documents before a certain date. Depending on the guarantees provided to the exporter, a revocable letter of credit, which can be revoked at any time, and an irrevocable letter of credit are distinguished. The latter may or may not be confirmed. In both cases, the obligation of the issuing bank is firm.

Types of documentary letter of credit:

1) at sight - the exporter receives the amount of payment in exchange for the transfer of documents in his bank;

2) acceptance - when transferring documents, the exporter issues a draft to the advising bank, which accepts it. The accepted draft is then taken into account. Thus, the exporter can receive payment in any case, and the importer - only upon the due date of performance;

3) with deferred payment - payment is made not upon transfer of documents, but after the expiration of the period specified in the letter of credit;

4) "stand-by" is a declaration of a full guarantee issued by a bank;

5) transferable - the recipient of the payment in this case may instruct his bank to transfer the entire amount or part of it to another beneficiary;

6) returnable - this is a letter of credit that can be replaced by a non-transferable letter of credit issued in favor of another beneficiary;

7) revolving, or automatically renewed, - after using the letter of credit, the issuing bank renews it for the initial amount. This type of documentary letter of credit is convenient for an importer who receives goods in batches;

8) documentary collection - a method of financial settlements used in conditions where partners know each other well and their reliability and solvency are not in doubt. It can simultaneously be a means of payment and a lending instrument.

Types of documentary collection:

1) collection "documents against payment" - the collecting bank provides the importer with documents only against payment in cash in the currency specified in the contract;

2) collection "documents against acceptance" - the collecting bank provides documents against the acceptance of the draft.

82. EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF THE LOGISTICS SYSTEM

The task of the logistics specialist is to determine how best to use the control system to achieve the desired improvements. The system for evaluating the effectiveness of the logistics system of an enterprise includes a number of meters and (or) coefficients.

Requirements for logistic system meters:

1) suitability - the meter really should measure what it is intended for;

2) correctness and accuracy - the meter must correctly and accurately determine the characteristics of the object's behavior;

3) completeness - the measurement system must fully determine the behavior of the logistics object;

4) comprehensibility - meters should be simple and understandable and at the same time contain the necessary meaning. This criterion largely depends on the user of the system, as some users are more skilled than others;

5) quantifiability - the meter should contain a quantitative expression, as this makes it easier for the consumer to understand the nature of the logistics service;

6) controllability - meters should characterize those factors, relationships or any phenomena that are controlled by a specialist in the logistics service. Managers value a system that measures things they control more highly than a system that measures things they don't control;

7) Efficiency - Meters must be effective and facilitate the development of recommendations.

Methods for assessing the logistics system:

1) methods for determining profitability (for example, capitalized cost methods, cost-benefit analysis, goal weighting method);

2) methods for assessing stability (eg sensitivity analysis, risk analysis).

Criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of the logistics system :

1) efficiency is the degree to which the logistics system achieves its goals; the degree of completion of the work required for the consumer. At least three criteria are needed to evaluate effectiveness:

▪ quality: do we provide customer service in accordance with predetermined requirements;

▪ quantity: do we fulfill all consumer orders;

▪ timeliness: do we provide customer service within the required time frame;

2) efficiency is the degree to which the logistics system uses the necessary resources; a measure that characterizes the effectiveness of the logistics system in relation to costs. It can be expressed in terms of the ratio of resources to be consumed and resources actually consumed;

3) product quality;

4) quality of working life;

5) innovation;

6) profitability (costs and prices);

7) productivity is the ratio of the quantity of finished products and the cost of producing the corresponding products, as well as a comparison of the volume of customer service with the amount of resources expended.

Effective functioning of logistics systems is based on the fact that the measurement and improvement of system performance is possible in relation to several key elements of resource costs (human labor, materials, labor processes, technological processes). It is necessary to highlight the most important "lever" for this enterprise.

83. LOGISTICS COSTS

Logistic costs - a set of costs for managing the movement of material flows throughout the logistics system from suppliers of raw materials through a manufacturing enterprise to the end consumer.

For determining efficiency of the logistics system enterprises compare internal and external costs. It determines which activities are performed better than other manufacturers, compares the structure of logistics costs at this enterprise and its competitors.

Methods for analyzing logistics costs:

1) strategic analysis is a comparison of the position of an enterprise in terms of customer service costs with another engaged in a similar type of activity;

2) functional cost analysis is a method based on a thorough study of the individual stages of the process of fulfilling consumer orders and finding out the possibility of their standardization for the transition to cheaper technologies.

Principles of control over logistics costs:

1) efforts are concentrated on controlling costs where they occur;

2) data on different types of costs are processed differently;

3) an effective way to reduce costs is to reduce the types of activities (procedures, works, operations). Attempts to reduce incremental costs are rarely effective. One should not try to do at a low cost what should not have been done at all;

4) the activity of the enterprise should be assessed as a whole. For the economic valuation of a business, you need to have

area will affect performance in another;

5) it is not enough to control only those costs that arise within one enterprise; it is necessary to identify the mechanism of their formation and the influence of external factors.

Ways to reduce the level of logistics costs:

1) negotiating with suppliers and buyers to establish lower selling and retail prices, as well as trade discounts;

2) search for cheaper substitutes for resources;

3) identification by analysis and revision of the supply chain of those activities that do not create added value, and their exclusion;

4) offsetting the increase in costs in one link of the supply chain by reducing costs in another;

5) improving the interaction of the enterprise with its suppliers and consumers in the supply chain. For example, coordination of the activities of the enterprise and its partners in the field of timely delivery of products reduces the level of costs for warehouse operations, inventory management, storage and delivery of finished products;

6) conducting regular internal audits with subsequent identification of reserves to improve the use of enterprise resources;

7) updating the most costly links in the supply chain by attracting investment in the business;

8) increasing the level of training of employees through participation in trainings, advanced training courses, certification;

9) the use of progressive methods of remuneration (bonuses for achieving and overfulfilling planned targets);

10) assisting suppliers and buyers to achieve lower cost levels (customer business development programs, seminars for dealers).

84. CLASSIFICATION OF COSTS

Logistic costs - costs associated with the implementation of logistics operations (placement of orders for the supply of products, purchase, warehousing of incoming products, intra-production transportation, intermediate storage, storage of finished products, shipping, external transportation), as well as costs for personnel, equipment, premises, warehouse stocks, for the transfer of data on orders, stocks, deliveries.

Cost classification:

1) by the degree of value added creation:

▪ productive costs - costs of work aimed at creating added value;

▪ costs of maintaining a logistics business - in themselves create value, but they are necessary (for transportation, placing orders, keeping records of products);

▪ unprofitable costs - costs for work that cannot produce results (for equipment downtime);

▪ control costs - costs of activities aimed at preventing undesirable results of customer service;

2) according to the mechanism of assignment to a specific carrier:

▪ direct costs - costs that can be directly attributed to a specific medium (product, group of products, order);

▪ indirect costs - costs that can be attributed to the carrier only by performing auxiliary calculations;

3) in connection with the volume of production:

▪ variable costs - costs that depend on the volume of production (costs of changeover, placing an order, storing or storing inventory over time);

▪ fixed costs - costs that do not depend on changes in the volume of executed orders from internal and external consumers;

▪ total costs - the total amount of costs allocated to a specific object (product, product group, order, cost location, production area), both dependent and independent of the volume of orders being executed;

▪ partial costs - parts of costs attributable to a specific object, allocated according to certain characteristics. These costs typically depend on the volume of orders being processed;

▪ actual costs - costs actually attributable to a given object in the period under review with the actual volume of consumer orders being fulfilled and equal to the volume of consumed resources multiplied by the current prices for these resources;

▪ normal costs - average costs attributable to a certain object in the period under review with the actual volume of service. These costs are equal to the actual volume of resources consumed multiplied by their average prices;

▪ planned costs - costs calculated for a certain logistics facility and a certain period with a given service program, volume of consumer orders and technology. These costs are equal to the planned volume of resource consumption multiplied by their planned prices;

▪ opportunity costs - characterize lost profits. It is due to the fact that a limited amount of resources can only be used in a certain way, which excludes the use of another possible option that ensures profit;

▪ transaction costs - costs associated with processing procurement.

85. INVENTORY COSTS

The cost of maintaining inventory of products consists of the cost of order fulfillment and the cost of holding inventory.

Costs for the formation and storage of stocks - the costs of the enterprise associated with the diversion of working capital into product inventories.

Inventory holding costs - costs associated with storing stocks in a warehouse, their loading and unloading, insurance, losses from petty theft, damage, obsolescence, payment of taxes. It also takes into account the opportunity cost of capital associated with inventories or invested in them, insurance costs, wages of warehouse personnel in excess of the standard amount, interest on capital, etc.

Costs associated with holding a unit of stock:

1) storage costs (fee for area, energy supply, heating, water, sewerage);

2) wages of warehouse personnel;

3) taxes and insurance premiums depending on the value of the stock;

4) payment for production assets;

5) losses from immobilization of funds in stocks;

6) costs due to damage to products, deterioration in quality, markdowns, write-offs, natural loss from shrinkage, shaking, obsolescence, theft;

7) the cost of maintenance work carried out with stored products;

8) payment of personnel associated with inventory, prevention, inspection and cleaning of the warehouse;

9) costs for registration of incoming claims (applications and orders);

10) costs for personnel training;

11) costs of assembling products and packaging. Stock-out costs occur when required products are not available. For example, lost sales revenue, additional costs caused by delays in production, fines imposed for failure to deliver products to customers on time.

Additional costs in case of shortage of stocks:

1) costs due to non-fulfillment of the order (delay in sending the ordered products) - additional costs for promoting and sending the order that cannot be fulfilled at the expense of the available stocks of products;

2) costs in connection with the loss of sales - occur when a regular customer applies for this purchase to another enterprise (such costs are measured in terms of revenue lost due to the failure to carry out a trade transaction);

3) costs due to the loss of a customer - arise in cases where the lack of product inventories results not only in the loss of a particular trade transaction, but also in the fact that the customer begins to look for other permanent sources of supply. Such costs are measured in terms of the total revenue that could be received from the implementation of all potential transactions between the customer and the enterprise.

Ways to minimize the total cost of inventory storage:

1) reduce to the lowest possible level the fixed costs of each replenishment of the stock (which will reduce the average levels of stocks with a corresponding decrease in the opportunity cost of capital invested in stocks);

2) at a certain fixed cost per replenishment, optimize the average level of inventory holding in order to minimize the total cost of holding inventories over a certain period (total replenishment costs plus the opportunity cost of capital).

86. PRODUCT QUALITY COSTS

Production costs related to quality are divided into three groups.

1. Defect Prevention Costs - is the cost of any action taken to detect, prevent or reduce the risk of non-conformity of products with quality requirements:

1) marketing and marketing research;

2) quality planning;

3) quality control of design and technical documentation;

4) production verification of the design for reliability and safety;

5) development, implementation of methods of statistical control, analysis and regulation of the technological process, including the use of computers;

6) work on standardization (development of enterprise standards, regulatory documentation, working structures to ensure the functioning of quality systems;

7) metrological support of production (checking and repair of measuring instruments);

8) automation of workplaces;

9) technical training and advanced training of employees of the enterprise;

10) control of completeness, conservation, labeling and packaging of products;

11) control of conditions of storage and transportation of finished products;

12) commissioning (supervised installation of equipment).

2. The cost of monitoring and assessing product quality - the cost of determining the conformity of products to the specified parameters. These include:

1) input control costs;

2) the cost of operational control;

3) the cost of acceptance control and testing of finished products.

3. Waste costs - losses associated with the fact that the required quality has not been achieved. They are divided into internal and external costs.

Internal costs - costs arising within the enterprise due to non-compliance of products with quality requirements at any life stage of its development cycle and including:

1) the costs of analysis and evaluation of defective products identified in the production process;

2) the cost of repairing defective products;

3) waste processing costs;

4) the cost of repeated testing, control, design, etc.;

5) training costs.

4. External costs - costs arising after the delivery of defective products and including:

1) the costs of marriage, identified in the field of product operation;

2) the cost of additional self-supporting costs and losses associated with the release of low-quality products.

There is a group non-manufacturing costs These are non-production costs. These include:

1) the cost of confirming quality and providing the consumer with additional objective evidence of quality;

2) the cost of testing products in special third-party organizations;

3) the cost of demonstration tests for promotional purposes;

4) after-sales service.

Goals of ongoing quality cost analysis:

1) the choice of the optimal solution to all particular issues in the quality system;

2) accounting for the economic effect in quality programs and action plans;

3) cost recovery assessment;

4) establishing the order of improvement of quality systems, motivation of work in the field of quality.

87. WAREHOUSE COSTS

Storage costs - costs associated with ensuring the safety of products. Storage costs are additional costs caused by the continuation of the production process in the sphere of circulation, that is, they are of a productive nature. However, they will be productive costs only when storing the standard volume of product inventories necessary to ensure the continuity of the logistics process. Storage costs include:

1) the cost of maintaining warehouses;

2) salary of warehouse staff;

3) shortage of products within the norms of natural loss;

4) administrative and managerial and other expenses. Warehouse costs are determined by the amount of costs for organizing the storage of products and the amount of overhead costs.

Problems of minimizing storage costs:

1) determination of the optimal number of storage stages;

2) determination of the optimal number of warehouses at each stage;

3) determining the location of warehouses, providing the minimum total costs;

4) finding a rational distribution of places of delivery.

The list of costs required for the operation of the warehouse:

1) the costs of planning the loading and work of the warehouse staff;

2) commissioning and testing costs;

3) annual expenses for inter-warehouse movements;

4) cash costs written off as expenses;

5) costs for the necessary initial inventories of products.

The following warehouse efficiency indicators are calculated:

1) wholesale and warehouse turnover - the main indicator characterizing the work of the warehouse for a certain period of time (month, quarter, year);

2) freight turnover of a warehouse - the quantity of goods (in tons) received at the warehouse and released from the warehouse for a certain period;

3) specific wholesale and warehouse turnover - shows the wholesale and warehouse turnover per 1 m2 of usable warehouse space;

4) utilization ratio of the useful area of the warehouse - the ratio of the area occupied by the storage of goods to the total area of the warehouse;

5) warehouse throughput - shows how many goods can be processed in a warehouse per unit of time;

6) the cost of processing 1 ton of goods - the ratio of the total amount of annual operating costs to the cargo turnover of the warehouse. The total amount of annual operating costs for the wages of warehouse workers, the costs of storage, acceptance, dispatch of goods, the costs of maintaining warehouses and low-value inventory, the amount of commodity losses, etc.;

7) labor productivity of warehouse workers - is determined by the ratio of the annual cargo turnover of the warehouse to the average number of employees for a given period of time;

8) the level of mechanization of work - is defined as the ratio of the amount of work performed with the help of machines to the total amount of work;

9) specific capital investments - the ratio of one-time capital costs to the cargo turnover of the warehouse;

10) payback period of investments - the ratio of one-time investments to the annual amount of profit;

11) coefficient of efficiency of use of capital investments - shows what part of investments is compensated annually at the expense of profit and is calculated as the sum of profit for the period to one-time capital investments.

88. TRANSPORTATION COSTS

Transport costs - the cost of transporting products from the place of sale or purchase to the location of buyers. Transportation costs are additional costs associated with the continuation of the production process in the sphere of circulation. Transport costs include payment of transport tariffs and various fees of transport companies, the cost of maintaining their own transport, the cost of loading and unloading, freight forwarding.

Costs associated with the transportation of products from the seller to the buyer:

1) costs associated with the preparation of products for shipment (checking products in terms of quantity and quality, sampling, packaging);

2) the cost of loading products onto the vehicles of the domestic carrier;

3) payment of tariffs for transportation from the point of departure to the point of transshipment for mainline transport;

4) payment of tariffs for loading cargo onto main transport vehicles;

5) payment of the cost of transportation of products by international transport;

6) payment for cargo insurance upon delivery;

7) payment of customs duties, taxes and fees when crossing the customs border;

8) the cost of storing products in transit and points of reloading;

9) the cost of unloading the cargo at the destination;

10) costs for the delivery of products from the buyer's warehouse to the final destination.

The main directions for reducing transportation costs:

1) reducing fuel costs by choosing the best places for refueling, taking into account the cost of fuel in different countries;

2) reducing the cost of per diem and apartment by rationing the time of the flight;

3) reducing the cost of tolls due to the choice of the optimal route, as well as the use of mixed road-sea, road-rail communications;

4) increase in labor productivity.

Shipping costs include:

1) payment of tariffs and fees of transport enterprises when delivering products to trade enterprises. Tariffs are calculated as the product of the average tariff rate for 1 ton of cargo of this class (with an established average distance) by the weight of the cargo;

2) fees of transport enterprises for loading and unloading operations, as well as for supplying and cleaning vehicles (cars, wagons);

3) payment for forwarding services and other services;

4) the cost of maintaining your own transport.

Shipping costs include:

1) expenses for the equipment of vehicles;

2) expenses for forwarding cargo;

3) fees of transport organizations;

4) expenses for payment of invoices of third-party organizations;

5) the cost of paying for loading and unloading operations and services when sending products from wholesalers.

Cost of transportation - expressed in monetary terms, the value of the operating costs of the transport enterprise, falling on average per unit of transport production.

The cost of transportation of 1 ton of cargo consists of the costs of:

1) loading and unloading;

2) transportation;

3) repair and maintenance of motor roads;

4) organizing and ensuring traffic safety;

5) warehousing of cargo;

6) preparation of cargo for transportation and storage after unloading.

89. EXAMINATION OF GOODS

Object of expertise are the consumer properties of goods, manifested in the interaction with a person in the process of consumption.

The criteria used in the examination are divided into general and specific.

General Criteria - these are the norms and ideas that have developed in society, guided by which experts judge the consumer properties of the product.

Specific Criteria - these are real requirements for the quality of goods of this type, fixed in domestic and foreign regulatory and technical documents.

Types of expertise:

1) environmental expertise of goods - shows how the purchased product affects a person and the environment in the process of consumption. For example, this includes the following indicators - the content of harmful impurities emitted into the environment by outboard motors and car engines, environmental pollution with waste that is not readily decomposable in natural conditions (polyethylene packaging, batteries containing mercury);

2) economic expertise - aims to establish the actual state of the enterprise. The following questions are submitted for the decision of the economic expertise: to what extent the planning of production activities (for example, overpricing) allowed the enterprise to receive unearned income for the goods sold; how many organizations planned to receive products from the customer at preferential prices at unreasonably high rates; to what extent the violation of the methods of current planning of the internal cost accounting of the enterprise contributed to the damage, etc.;

3) commodity examination - is subdivided depending on the objects that are subjected to expert examination, into the examination of food and non-food products. In the process of examination of these objects, the following is determined: compliance of commercial qualities with current state standards, contractual conditions between the supplier and the buyer; decrease in the grade of goods in the process of production and transportation; compliance of the quality of the goods with the list price or contractual price; the correctness of the markdown and revaluation of goods; the size of the natural loss; reasons for defective goods; the validity of the write-off of damaged goods from the report of financially responsible persons on the results of the economic activity of the enterprise. Commodity examination also determines the correct name of the goods, the purpose and compliance with the labeling and accompanying documents. Commodity examinations are carried out by the Chamber of Commerce, BTI;

4) technological expertise investigates the technology of processing raw materials, semi-finished products and products, manufacturing products. The expertise examines the use of raw materials, the sequence of technological processes, methods for their implementation, determines the correct choice of the necessary equipment, the location of production facilities. Technological expertise differs from commodity expertise in that it solves the issues of compliance of the manufacture of products with the technological mode of production;

5) judicial-legal examination - in the field of consumer properties of goods is carried out in criminal proceedings both during the preliminary investigation and during the proceedings in court.

90. PRODUCT BAR CODING

Bar code - the code assigned to each specific unit of goods, which is characterized by price, size, weight, color, quality, is identified by assigning a bar code to it.

In international trade, bar coding has long been the norm. An EAN barcode is a 13-digit or 8-digit numeric code, which is a combination of bars and spaces of different widths. In this case, the narrowest stroke or gap is taken as a unit of thickness - the module. Other strokes and spaces make up two or three modules, that is, two or three thicknesses of the narrowest stroke or space.

Each digit is a combination of two dashes and two spaces. At the beginning and end of the barcode there are elongated edge strokes that indicate the beginning and end of the code reading, and in the center there are central elongated strokes that facilitate visual verification of the completeness of the code entry.

The 13-bit product code includes the country code, the code of the product itself, and the control number. The country code is issued centrally by the EAN association (for example, China - 690, Poland - 590). The next five digits, i.e., the manufacturer's code, are assigned by the national authority of the country (in Russia - UNISCAN) to a centrally specific manufacturer. The next five digits of the code are assigned by the manufacturer of the goods independently. The last digit - the digit - is a check number, which is designed to verify the correct reading of the bar code by the scanner.

The 8-digit code is intended for small-sized products. It consists of a country code, a manufacturer code and a check number.

Rules for placing barcodes on packages and labels:

1) each product must have only one code;

2) the code must be on the back of the package in the lower right corner at a distance of at least 20 mm from the edges;

3) the barcode must be dark in color, since the scanner does not distinguish colors, and must be printed on a light background.

Benefits of using bar coding:

1) the presence of a barcode allows you to determine the importing country, the manufacturer, as well as the specific product number, which makes it possible, if necessary, to make a claim to the manufacturer;

2) the use of a bar coding system makes it possible to refuse from numerous paper documents reflecting such information as the production of products, their technical characteristics, the collection of customer orders, accounting for the receipt of goods, their acquisition;

3) accounting and control of the sale of goods;

4) control of goods in the warehouse of the store;

5) increases the competitiveness of the product, increases the demand for it. In a number of developed countries, the absence of bar codes makes the sale of products almost impossible, since they cannot accept it from the manufacturer;

6) the use of bar codes makes it possible to organize effective control over the passage of goods, starting from the manufacturer and ending with the warehouse of the store, as well as to carry out electronic exchange of data on goods between trading partners, which speeds up the movement of goods to the consumer.

The application of a bar code does not increase either the time spent on the production of a product or its cost.

Author: Shepeleva A.Yu.

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