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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. Definition of psychology as a science, Main branches of psychology 1. Psychology is a science that occupies a dual position among other scientific disciplines. As a system of scientific knowledge, it is known only to a narrow circle of specialists, but at the same time, almost every person who has sensations, speech, emotions, images of memory, thinking and imagination, etc., knows about it. The term "psychology" first appeared in the scientific world in the XNUMXth century. The word "psychology" comes from the Greek words "syhe" - "soul" and "logos" - "science". Thus, literally, psychology is the science of the soul. Already later in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, psychology significantly expanded the scope of its research and began to study human activity, unconscious processes, while retaining its former name. Let us consider in more detail what is the subject of study of modern psychology. The psyche includes many phenomena. With the help of some, knowledge of the surrounding reality takes place - these are cognitive processes that consist of sensation and perception, attention and memory, thinking, imagination and speech. Other mental phenomena are necessary in order to control the actions and actions of a person, to regulate the process of communication - these are mental states (a special characteristic of mental activity for a certain period of time) and mental properties (the most stable and significant mental qualities of a person, his features). Modern psychology - this is a fairly branched complex of sciences, which continues to develop at a very fast pace (every 4 - 5 years a new direction appears). Nevertheless, it is possible to single out the fundamental branches of psychological science and special ones. The fundamental (basic) branches of psychological science are equally important for the analysis of the psychology and behavior of all people. Special (applied) branches of psychological knowledge study any narrow groups of phenomena, that is, the psychology and behavior of people employed in any narrow branch of activity. Let us turn to the classification presented by R. S. Nemov (1995). General psychology 1. Psychology of cognitive processes and states. 2. Psychology of personality. 3. Psychology of individual differences. 4. Age psychology. 5. Social psychology. 6. Zoopsychology. 7. Psychophysiology. Some Special Branches of Psychological Research 1. Pedagogical psychology. 2. Medical psychology. 3. Military psychology. 4. Legal psychology. 5. Space psychology. 6. Engineering psychology. 7. Economic psychology. 8. Psychology of management. 2. Methods of scientific research Scientific research methods - these are techniques and means for scientists to obtain reliable information, which are then used to build scientific theories and develop recommendations for practical activities. In order for the information received to be reliable, it is necessary to comply with the requirements of validity and reliability. Validity- this is such a quality of the method, which indicates its compliance with what it was originally created to study. Reliability - evidence that repeated application of the method will produce comparable results. There are various classifications of methods of psychology. Consider one of them, according to which the methods are divided into main and auxiliary. Basic methods: observation and experiment; auxiliary - surveys, analysis of the process and products of activity, tests, twin method. Observation is a method by which the individual characteristics of the psyche are known through the study of human behavior. It can be external and internal (self-observation). Experiment - a method of scientific research during which an artificial situation is created, where the studied property is manifested and evaluated in the best way. Types of experiment. 1. Laboratory - carried out in specially equipped rooms, often using special equipment. It is distinguished by the rigor and accuracy of data recording, which makes it possible to obtain interesting scientific material. 2. Natural experiment - an artificial situation is created in natural conditions. It was first proposed by A.F. Lazursky. For example, you can study the features of the memory of preschoolers by playing with children in the store, where they have to "make purchases" and thereby reproduce a given series of words. Polls are auxiliary research methods containing questions. Questions must meet the following requirements. Before the survey, it is necessary to conduct a brief briefing with the subjects, to create a friendly atmosphere; if you can get information from other sources, then you should not ask about it. The following survey methods are distinguished: conversation, questioning, interviews, sociometry. Conversation is a survey method in which both the researcher and the subject are in equal positions. Can be used at various stages of research. Questioning is a method by which you can quickly get a large amount of data recorded in writing. Interview - a method carried out in the process of direct communication, the answers are given orally. Sociometry is a method by which social relations in groups are studied. Allows you to determine the position of a person in a group, involves the choice of a partner in joint activities. Analysis of the process and products of activity - the products of human activity are studied, on the basis of which conclusions are drawn about the mental characteristics of a person, for example, drawings, crafts, essays, poems, etc. 3. Modern psychological concepts K. Levin known for his work in the field of personality and interpersonal relationships. He believed that the behavior of a person can be understood only on the basis of the holistic situation in which this person finds himself. The environment is determined by the subjective perception of the people acting in it. The merit of Gestalt psychology is that it found modern approaches to the study of the problems of psychology, but the problems that caused the crisis were not fully resolved. Psychoanalysis was developed by the Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist Z. Freud, therefore it is sometimes called "Freudianism". Founding the scientific theoretical direction in psychology, Freud proceeded from the analysis of his rich psychotherapeutic practice, thereby, as it were, returning psychology to its original subject: penetration into the essence of the human soul. The fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis are consciousness and the unconscious. It is the unconscious (the main of which is sexual desire - libido) that plays a significant role in the regulation of human activity and behavior. Censorship on the part of consciousness suppresses unconscious inclinations, but they "erupt" in the form of reservations, descriptions of unpleasant forgetting, dreams, neurotic manifestations. Psychoanalysis has become widespread not only in Europe, but also in the United States, where it is popular to this day. In the first years of Soviet power, this direction was also in demand in our country, but in the 1930s. Against the general background of the restriction of psychological research (the resolution "On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education"), Freud's teaching was also subjected to repression. Up until the 1960s. psychoanalysis has been studied only from critical positions. Only since the second half of the XNUMXth century has interest in psychoanalysis increased again, not only in Russia, but throughout the world. So, none of the newly emerging psychological trends completely resolved the contradictions that led to the crisis of psychology as a science. Let us consider some modern psychological concepts that have been actively developed since the second half of the XNUMXth century. Cognitive psychology arose on the basis of the development of computer science and cybernetics. Representatives of the cognitive school - J. Piaget, W. Naiser, J. Bruner, R. Atkinson and others. For a cognitivist, human cognitive processes are analogous to a computer. The main thing is to understand how a person cognizes the world around him, and for this it is necessary to study the ways of forming knowledge, how cognitive processes arise and develop, what is the role of knowledge in human behavior, how this knowledge is organized in memory, how the intellect functions, how the word and image correlate in human memory and thinking. The main conclusion is that in many life situations a person makes decisions mediated by the peculiarities of thinking. 4. Activities Human activity is understood as the activity of the individual, designed to satisfy the needs and interests by achieving a consciously set goal. In the structure of activity, goals and motives are distinguished. What a person strives for is the goal of the activity, and why he does it is the motive of the activity. Activities are divided into separate elements, which are called actions. Action types 1. External (can be observed from the side) - internal (hidden from view, performed in the internal plan). As one or another activity is mastered, external actions can turn into internal ones. This process is called internalization: for example, first a child learns to read aloud, and then to himself. The reverse process, when any difficulties arise in the performance of activities and internal actions pass into the external plan, is called exteriorization. 2. Arbitrary (volitional) - involuntary (impulsive). Involuntary actions are carried out under the influence of strong, often unexpected stimuli, strong feelings. Arbitrary actions are thought out in advance and carried out with the help of volitional efforts. Stages of activity 1. Goal setting. This stage can be complicated if, in the process of setting a goal, a person must choose between several motives. In this case, there is a struggle of motives: for example, go for a walk or prepare for an exam. 2. Work planning. At this stage, the optimal operations and means that contribute to the achievement of the goal are selected. An operation is a way of performing an activity, which is determined by the presence of certain skills and abilities in a person, as well as the conditions in which this activity is performed. The means of performing an activity are those objects that are designed to help in the performance of an activity: for example, lecture notes. 3. Performing activities. Here, the previously found optimal means and operations are used. 4. Control part - results are checked, errors are corrected, results are summed up, conclusions are drawn. Modern man performs a large number of various activities depending on his needs. Activities are communication, play, teaching, work. Communication - the type of activity that first arises in the course of ontogenetic development of a person. Its main purpose is the exchange of information between people. Game - an activity in the course of which a material or ideal product appears (with the exception of business and design games). Labor - activities in the course of which objects of spiritual and material culture are produced, tools of labor are improved, living conditions are improved, science, technology, production, and creativity are developed. Skills - individual elements of activity that allow performing activities with a high level of quality. Emboldening Salvo - this is an action, the individual operations of which, as a result of training, have become automatic and are carried out without the participation of consciousness. Habit - an irresistible desire of a person to perform certain actions. 5. The concept of sensation. Types of sensations Feel - these are the properties of the objects and phenomena of the surrounding world that are currently affecting the brain at the moment, reflected in the cerebral cortex. Sensations are inherent not only to humans, they are the property of all life on Earth, and the sensations of animals are sometimes more subtle than those of humans. Feelings can be divided into three large groups: 1) sensations that reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, skin; 2) sensations that reflect the state of the body: organic, balance, motor; 3) sensations that are a combination of several sensations (tactile), as well as sensations of various origins (for example, pain). visual sensations. The light-sensitive organ of the eye is the retina, which contains two types of cells - rods and cones. The rods are responsible for the perception of light and function during the day, and the cones are colors and work at dusk. Auditory sensations. Air vibrations, getting into the ear, cause vibrations of the eardrum, and then through the middle ear are transmitted to the inner where the cochlea is located - the organ of sound perception. Feelings: 1) noises 2) musical 3) speech (combine musical sounds and noises). Taste sensations. They arise as a result of exposure to receptors of substances dissolved in water or saliva. Taste buds are located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate, which are able to distinguish four types of elementary taste sensations: sweet, sour, bitter, salty. Olfactory sensations. Receptors are olfactory cells located in the nasal cavity. Skin sensations. Kinds: 1) temperature (the ability to distinguish between changes in air temperature, and the most sensitive are those areas of the skin that are covered with clothes); 2) tactile (touch); 3) vibrational (impact on the surface of the skin of air vibrations). 2. Organic sensations. Receptors are located in the walls of internal organs. The most common sensations are thirst, hunger, nausea, etc. Feelings of balance. The receptor is the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear, which gives signals about the position of the head. Motor sensations. Their receptors are found in muscles, ligaments, and tendons. Tactile sensations. They are a combination of such sensations as skin and motor. Pain has two origins: 1) irritation of certain points of pain: for example, a skin burn; 2) arise as a result of exposure to any analyzer of a superstrong stimulus: for example, a strong smell of paint can cause a headache. 6. Properties of sensations The following properties of sensations are distinguished: 1) thresholds of sensations and their sensitivity 2) adaptation 3) synesthesia; 4) sensitization. Thresholds of sensation and sensitivity analyzers. In order for a sensation to arise, the stimulus must be of a certain magnitude. For example, a person will not feel a few grains of sugar in a glass of tea, will not perceive ultra-high frequencies, etc. The minimum stimulus that can cause the weakest sensation is the lower absolute threshold of sensations. If we continue to carry out the experiment with adding small portions of sugar to a glass of tea at the same time with several people, then it may turn out that someone will feel the presence of sugar earlier than everyone else. About such a person, we can say that his taste sensitivity is higher than that of the rest. The ability of a person to distinguish the weakest external influences is called absolute sensitivity. The absolute sensitivity of the visual analyzer is very high. Absolute threshold and absolute sensitivity are inversely related. This means that the higher the sensitivity, the lower the threshold value (for example, a person needs less sugar to taste it). In cases where the magnitude of the stimulus becomes so large that the sensation disappears, they speak of the upper absolute threshold of sensations (for example, the light of the sun blinds). The sensitivity of analyzers and the value of thresholds are influenced by many factors, the most significant of which are the professional activity of a person, his interests. Adaptation. Numerous experiments have shown that the analyzers of the same person can change their sensitivity, adapting to new conditions of life. This ability is called adaptation. However, different sense organs have different degrees of adaptation. The adaptation of the visual and skin analyzers is very high. For example, under the influence of bright light, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer decreases by 200 thousand times. The auditory analyzer is much less capable of adapting. As a rule, they get used to the noise, but they still hear it. Sensitization. Sometimes it is possible to change the sensitivity of one analyzer by influencing another. This phenomenon is called sensitization. For example, it is known that the sensitivity of the visual analyzer increases if it is stimulated by weak musical sounds, and decreases if it is affected by sharp, strong sounds. Synesthesia. Special studies have shown that sometimes people combine different sensations into one. This fusion is called synesthesia. It has been experimentally established that there are sounds bright and dull, joyful and sad. In cases where a defect is observed in the activity of any analyzer, then other analyzers begin to work in an enhanced mode, that is, our sense organs have compensatory capabilities. Many examples can be given when the blind became excellent musicians, and the deaf-blind adapted to the world around them thanks to the active work of tactile, olfactory sensations, etc. 7. The concept of perception. Types of perception Perception - these are objects and phenomena of the surrounding world reflected in the cerebral cortex, which are currently acting on human analyzers. Types of perception. Consider two existing classifications. 1. Based on the unequal participation of individual analyzers in the process of perception, i.e. the type of perception is determined by the analyzer that is most significant. Most often, such types are distinguished as visual, auditory, tactile. Sometimes several analyzers take the lead at once. 2. The classification is based on the object of perception. The following types are distinguished 1) perception of objects; 2) relationship perception 3) perception of movements; 4) perception of space; 5) perception of time; 6) perception of a person. Let us consider in more detail the features of the perception of time. Time is objectively measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, etc. However, subjectively, each person perceives time differently. If a person is passionate about something, he is interested, then time flies unnoticed. Being in a state of fear or depression, a person often tends to overestimate time. However, not everything is so clear. For example, the French speleologist M. Sifr spent almost 63 days in the Scarasson abyss at a depth of 135 m in a cave where there was no light and no time indicators. When more than 40 days had passed, it seemed to him that he had been in isolation for only 25 days. When the voluntary confinement ended and friends came for the scientist, he said: "If I knew that the end was so close, I would have eaten the remaining tomatoes and fruits long ago." The subjective acceleration of time was also noted by other cave explorers. The paradox of such a phenomenon lies in its contradiction to the basic psychological law of time perception - time is underestimated if it is filled with interesting activities, and overestimated if it is associated with expectation, boredom. Some professions require the ability to accurately estimate time (pilots, paratroopers, astronauts, etc.). Special training sessions are held with representatives of these professions, where they are taught to maintain the correct sense of time. Space is an integral part of the person himself. If another person intrudes into personal spaces, then communication may be disrupted (see the topic "Communication"). For a person, the system of organizing space is also very important. Thus, the American psychologist E. Hall was invited to clarify the causes of disagreements in the branches of American firms located in the Federal Republic of Germany and German Switzerland. Local employees and specialists from the USA worked in the branches. It turned out that the whole thing is in the door. Americans are accustomed to working in large common areas with open doors. This creates the feeling that everyone is doing one common thing together. However, according to German traditions, each room must have reliable doors. The door, wide open, is evidence of complete disorder. 8. Objectivity Objectivity expressed in the fact that a person is able to combine disparate sensations into a holistic image with its boundaries, dimensions, color, for example: from a huge variety of sounds of the surrounding world, a person singles out birdsong, human speech, motor noise, etc. Selectivity It manifests itself in the possibility of highlighting exactly those objects, phenomena, situations that are extremely important and necessary at the moment. Selectivity is expressed in the selection of the object from the background. The object of perception is considered to be what is in the center of attention, and everything that surrounds it is the background. The law of selectivity is often used both in the animal world and in human society. This is connected with the presence of a protective color in animals, their ability to merge with the environment (for example, a color change in a chameleon). meaningfulness is associated with the personal experience of each individual, while age, professional activity, and mental characteristics of a person are of great importance. For example, people perceive the forest differently depending on the profession: the arborist - as an object of care and protection, the hunter - as a place for hunting, tourists - as a place of rest, a forest industry worker - as an object for production. Comprehending what is happening, a person often proceeds from his attitudes, that is, the predisposition to perceive everything in a certain, predetermined way. In human life, the role of attitudes is very significant. They arise, as a rule, unconsciously and act as prejudices. Illusions is a distorted perception. In practical life, our perception sometimes does not reflect the exact picture of what is happening. So, for example, an oar immersed in water seems to be refracted. Many illusions are associated with the perception of space, especially perspectives: distant objects seem small, parallel rails seem to converge, etc. Illusions of contrast are also common: white on black seems even whiter; a person will appear taller if a person of small stature is nearby and vice versa; stars appear brighter on a moonless night. Knowing the features of our illusory perception, we can correctly use it in everyday life. A woman who is prone to fullness should not wear a dress with transverse stripes, and a thin one - with longitudinal ones. A room whose walls are covered with blue wallpaper will seem more spacious than a room with red walls. Draped in black velvet, the back of the stage gives the viewer the illusion of bottomless depth. constancy - permanence of perception, its immutability. If a person of high stature is at some insignificant distance, then he will still remain tall for those around him. Objects that we perceive from different angles of vision remain recognizable, although their images on the retina differ. If a person did not possess this quality, then his orientation in space would be impossible. 9. The concept of attention. Types of attention Attention - this is the concentration of a person on the objects and phenomena of the world around him, the most significant for him. Attention does not exist by itself. It is simply impossible to be attentive; for this, the functioning of mental processes is necessary. types of attention. Let's consider two classifications. 1. Attention can be external (directed to the environment) and internal (focus on one's own experiences, thoughts, feelings). Such a division is to some extent arbitrary, since often people are immersed in their own thoughts, pondering their behavior. 2. The classification is based on the level of volitional regulation. The attention is involuntary, voluntary, post-voluntary. Involuntary attention arises without any effort on the part of the person, while there is no purpose and special intention. involuntary attention may occur: 1) due to certain characteristics of the stimulus. These features include: a) strength, and not absolute, but relative (in complete darkness, the light from a match can attract attention); b) surprise; c) novelty and unusualness; d) contrast (among Europeans, a person of a Negroid race is more likely to attract attention); e) mobility (the action is based on this beacon, which is not just lit, but blinking); 2) from the internal motives of the individual. This includes the mood of a person, his interests and needs. Arbitrary attention occurs when a goal is consciously set, for the achievement of which volitional efforts are applied. Most likely voluntary attention in the following situations: 1) when a person is clearly aware of his duties and specific tasks in the performance of activities; 2) when the activity is performed under familiar conditions, for example: the habit of doing everything according to the regimen creates in advance an attitude towards voluntary attention; 3) when the performance of the activity concerns any indirect interests, for example: playing scales on the piano is not very exciting, but necessary if you want to be a good musician; 4) when favorable conditions are created during the performance of activities, but this does not mean complete silence, since weak side stimuli (for example, quiet music) can even increase work efficiency. Post-voluntary attention is intermediate between involuntary and voluntary, combining the features of these two types. It arises as an arbitrary one, but after some time the performed activity becomes so interesting that it no longer requires additional volitional efforts. 10. Focus Concentration (concentration) - attention is kept on any object or activity, while being distracted from everything else. Stability - this is a long retention of attention, which increases if a person is active when performing actions with objects or performing activities. The amount of attention is determined by the number of objects that a person is able to perceive clearly enough at the same time. For most adults, the amount of attention is 4 - 6 objects, for a schoolchild - 2 - 5 objects. Distribution of attention - the ability of a person to perform two or even more activities simultaneously, when a person is simultaneously focused on several objects Switching attention - the ability of a person to focus alternately on one or another activity (object) in connection with the emergence of a new task. Attention also has its drawbacks, the most common of which is absent-mindedness, expressed in two forms. 1) frequent involuntary distractibility in the process of performing activities. They say about such people that they have "fluttering", "sliding" attention. May occur as a result of: a) insufficient development of attention; b) feeling unwell, tired; c) for students - neglect of educational material; d) lack of interest; 2) excessive focus on one object or activity, when no attention is paid to anything else. The attention of a preschooler is characterized by such qualities as involuntary, lack of concentration, unsteadiness. Let us name only some of the pedagogical techniques that increase the attentiveness of schoolchildren. 1. The use of voice and emotional modulation, gesticulation attracts the attention of students, i.e. the teacher should constantly change the intonation, pitch, volume of the voice (from ordinary speech to a whisper), while using adequate facial expressions and gestures. Be mindful of gestures of openness and goodwill. 2. Change of pace: maintaining a pause, a sharp change in speed, a transition from deliberately slow speech to a tongue twister. 3. In the course of explaining the new material, students should take notes on the key (key) words, you can invite someone alone to do this on the board. At the end of the explanation, the students take turns reading their notes. 4. In the course of the explanation, interrupt the speech at words that are quite obvious to the listeners, requiring them to continue. The activity of schoolchildren should be encouraged in accessible ways. 5. "Mistakes of memory", when the teacher allegedly forgets something quite obvious to the audience and ask him to help him "remember" (dates, names, terms, etc.). 6. The use of various types of questions in the course of explaining new material: leading, control, rhetorical, clarifying, counter, questions-suggestions, etc. 7. Changing the types of activities during the lesson significantly increases the attentiveness of schoolchildren (for example, in a mathematics lesson, this can be an oral account, a solution at the blackboard, answers on cards, etc.). 11. The concept of memory Memory is a complex cognitive process through which a person can remember, preserve and reproduce his past experience. Researchers identify different types of associations, but classically they are: 1) associations by similarity; 2) associations by contrast; 3) associations by adjacency Many poetic comparisons are based on similarity associations ("the river flowed like rain", "the blizzard cries like a gypsy violin"). On a hot summer day, we remember how good it was to ski in the winter, and in the winter how much fun we had on the beach. Human memory can be classified in several ways. 1 Material storage time: 1) instantaneous (iconic) - thanks to this memory, for 0,1 - 0,5 s, a complete and accurate picture of what the sense organs have only perceived is retained, while no processing of the received information is performed; 2) short-term (KP) - is able to store information for a short period of time and in a limited amount Typically, most people have a CP volume of 7 ± 2 units; 3) operational (OP) - functions for a predetermined time (from several seconds to several days) depending on the task that needs to be solved, after which the information can be deleted; 4) long-term (LT) - information is stored for an indefinitely long period; 5) genetic memory. 2. The leading role of one or another analyzer: 1) motor - motor reactions are remembered and reproduced, therefore, on its basis, basic motor skills are formed (walking, writing, sports, dancing, labor); 2) emotional - remembering a certain emotional state and reproducing it when the situation is repeated when it arose for the first time. Features: special strength; fast formation; involuntary reproduction; visual - the preservation and reproduction of visual images prevails. For many people, this type of memory is the leading one. Sometimes visual images are reproduced so accurately that they resemble a photograph. They say about such people that they have an eidetic memory (eidos - an image), that is, a memory with photographic accuracy; 4) auditory - contributes to good memorization and reproduction of a wide variety of sounds. Particularly well developed in musicians, acousticians, etc.; 5) olfactory - odors are well remembered and reproduced; 6) taste - the predominance of the taste analyzer in memory processes; 7) tactile - it is well remembered and reproduced what a person could feel, what he touched with his hands, etc. In addition to the above classifications, memory can vary in such parameters as speed, duration, strength, accuracy and memorization volume. 12. Composition of memory Memorization is a process of memory, the result of which is the consolidation of previously perceived information. Subdivided into 1) voluntary (the task is set to remember, while certain efforts are made) - involuntary (there is no special task to remember, the material is remembered without any effort); 2) mechanical (information is remembered as a result of simple repetition) - logical (connections are established between individual elements of information, which allows the forgotten to be re-discovered through logical reasoning). In order for memorization to be successful, the following points must be adhered to: 1) make an installation for memorization; 2) show more activity and independence in the process of memorization (a person will remember the path better if he moves on his own than when he is accompanied); 3) group the material according to its meaning (drawing up a plan, table, diagram, graph, etc.); 4) the process of repetition during memorization should be distributed over a certain time (day, several hours), and not in a row. 5) a new repetition improves the memorization of previously learned; 6) arouse interest in what is remembered; 7) the unusualness of the material improves memorization. Playback (Restore) - the process of memory, thanks to which previously fixed past experience is retrieved. The following forms of reproduction are distinguished: 1) recognition - the appearance of a feeling of familiarity during perception; 2) memory - the restoration of material in the absence of perception of the object, it is always more difficult to remember than to find out (for example, it is easier to remember a person's last name if you find it in the list); 3) reminiscence - reproduction delayed in time (for example, a poem is recalled that a person told in early childhood); 4) recall - an active form of reproduction, requiring the use of certain techniques (association, reliance on recognition) and volitional efforts. Preservation - retention in memory of previously learned material. Information is stored in memory through repetition, as well as the application of acquired knowledge in practice. Memory researchers have found that the material that begins and ends the general series of information is best preserved, the middle elements are preserved worse. This phenomenon in psychology is called the edge effect. Actions that remained unfinished, the subjects recall almost twice as often as those that they managed to complete. Forgetting - loss of memory, the disappearance of previously memorized material. The material is forgotten faster in the first time after memorization than in the future, meaningless material is also forgotten faster than connected by a logical chain. Most often, forgetting is considered a negative phenomenon, but it should be remembered that this is a very expedient, necessary and natural process of memory, otherwise our brain would be overloaded with a mass of unnecessary or irrelevant information. Sometimes forgetting becomes painful, up to complete loss of memory. This phenomenon is called amnesia. 13. The concept of thinking. Types of thinking, forms of thinking Thinking - this is the most complex cognitive process, which is the highest form of reflection by the brain of the surrounding world. Thinking Traits: 1) creatively reworks existing ideas and creates new ones, which at the given moment do not yet exist either in the subject or in reality itself; 2) is able to reflect not only individual objects, phenomena and properties, but also the connections existing between them, and in a generalized form. 3) indirectly reflects the surrounding world A person resorts to mediated cognition in the following cases: a) if direct knowledge is impossible, because our analyzers are imperfect or completely absent; b) if direct knowledge is impossible in real time, for example, archaeological excavations c) if direct knowledge is impractical, for example, it makes no sense to go outside to find out the air temperature; 4) actively functions in a problem situation 5) expands the boundaries of knowledge; 6) allows you to predict the onset of certain events, for example, a solar eclipse According to the nature of the tasks to be solved, theoretical thinking is distinguished, with the help of which general patterns are established, and practical, through which specific tasks are solved. According to the degree of development, thinking is discursive (the problem is solved gradually, step by step) and intuitive (the solution comes suddenly, based on a guess). Depending on originality, novelty, reproductive thinking (assimilation of ready-made knowledge) and productive (creative) thinking are distinguished. In terms of form, thinking is visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical. Visual-effective thinking is aimed at solving problems through external, practical actions. Visual-figurative thinking is based on representations or perceptions, since tasks are solved through images. Verbal-logical thinking is conceptual thinking, when the problem is solved with the help of reasoning. The form of thinking, through which the general, most essential properties of phenomena and objects of the surrounding world are reflected, is called a concept. Concepts are divided into general (differ in large volume) and specific. General concepts are expressed through specific ones, for example, they plant not just a tree as such, but specifically a birch, an apple tree, etc. Judgments are divided into general, particular, individual. General judgments contain affirmative or negative information about all objects and phenomena ("children have a high switchability of attention"). Private - only about a part of the objects and phenomena included in the concept ("children of this class dance well"). Single - we are talking about an individual concept ("Vitya Ivanov draws well"). The form of thinking by which various judgments are compared and analyzed in order to obtain a new judgment is called inference. 14. Operations of thinking. Individual features of thinking Mental tasks are solved with the help of mental operations. Analysis - a mental operation by means of which the whole is divided into its constituent parts. Synthesis - mental unification of separate parts into a single holistic image. Comparison - a mental operation, due to which a comparison of objects and phenomena takes place in order to detect similarities and differences between them. Abstraction is a mental operation, during which significant, essential properties of objects and phenomena are distinguished, while being distracted from non-essential properties. Generalization is a mental operation that combines phenomena and objects according to their essential, most common features. Concretization is a mental transition from general concepts, judgments to single ones, corresponding to general ones. The presence of selected mental operations in a person indicates a good level of development of thinking. Each person differs from another in various qualities of thinking. Let's take a closer look at them. breadth of mind - this is the ability of a person to see the task as a whole, on a large scale, but at the same time not to forget about the importance of details. A person with a broad mind is said to have a broad outlook. depth of mind - the ability of a person to understand the very essence of the issue. The opposite negative quality is the superficiality of thinking, when a person, paying attention to the little things, does not notice the main, important, essential. Independence of thinking - the ability of a person to put forward and solve new problems without the help of other people. Flexibility of thinking - the ability of a person to abandon previously developed methods for solving problems and finding more rational methods and techniques. The opposite negative quality is inertia (stereotyping, rigidity) of thinking, when a person follows previously found solutions, despite their unproductiveness. Quickness of mind - the ability of a person to understand the task in a short time, to find effective solutions, to draw the right conclusions. Often the presence of this quality is determined by the characteristics of the functioning of the nervous system. They say about such people - quick-witted, resourceful, smart. However, it is necessary to distinguish the speed of thinking from haste, when a person rushes to solve a problem without having thought it through to the end, but having snatched out only one side. Criticality of the mind - the ability of a person to give an objective assessment of himself and others, comprehensively checking all existing solutions. An example of criticality can be considered the statement of Socrates, who said: "I only know that I know nothing." Thus, each person has his own individual characteristics that characterize his mental activity. 15. Speech and its functions. Types of speech Language is a means of communication that was developed by mankind in the process of its development, representing a system of signs. When language is used for communication purposes, speech arises. Language and speech - although very close, but still different from each other concepts. A language becomes "dead" as soon as people stop communicating in it. The following speech functions: 1) designation - the presence of this function indicates the difference between human speech and animal communication. The sounds of animals express only emotional states, while the human word indicates some object or phenomenon; 2) generalization - the function is manifested in the fact that one word can designate a group of similar objects (concept) that makes speech related to thinking. Thoughts of a person are clothed in a speech form, thought does not exist outside of speech. 3) communication - is expressed in the use of speech in the process of communication. External speech is the leading one in the process of communication, therefore its main quality is accessibility for the perception of another person, which in turn can be written and oral. Written speech is a detailed speech statement. It is important that the presentation is clear and precise. If the speech is intended for a wide readership, then you should take care of its validity, content, and fascination. Oral speech is more expressive, since facial expressions, gestures, intonation, voice modulation, etc. are used. The specificity of this type is that you can immediately see the reaction of listeners to the words of the speaker, which allows you to correct speech in a certain way. Oral speech is divided into monologue and dialogic. Monologue speech - the speech of one person. Its main advantage lies in the ability to convey to the audience one's own thought without distortion and with the necessary evidence. Dialogue speech occurs between two or more persons. This is an easier type of speech, as it does not require development, evidence, thoughtfulness in the construction of phrases. Its drawback is that speakers can interrupt each other, distort the conversation, and not fully express their thoughts. It is divided into situational and contextual speech. Situational speech is incomprehensible to a person who is not initiated into the situation. It contains many interjections, few or no proper names, which are replaced by pronouns. Contextual speech is more detailed, previous statements cause the occurrence of subsequent ones. egocentric speech - speech of a person, addressed to himself and not calculated on any reaction from others. This is an intermediate form between external and internal speech. Most often, this type of speech is manifested in children of middle preschool age, when in the process of playing or drawing, modeling, they comment on their actions, without addressing anyone in particular. In adults, egocentric speech can also sometimes be found. Most often this happens when solving a complex intellectual problem, during which a person thinks aloud. Inner speech - talk about yourself. Its most characteristic features are fragmentation, fragmentation, and brevity. 16. The concept of imagination. Types of imagination. Imagination functions Imagination - this is a mental process, thanks to which such images are created that a person has never perceived before. Can be distinguished four types of imagination representations: 1) images of what is in reality, for example, a person represents the Sahara desert, which he has never been to, but which really exists; 2) historical images, for example, you can imagine what a prehistoric man or a saber-toothed tiger looked like; 3) fabulous images: Baba Yaga, Zmey-Gorynych, etc.; 4) images of the future, for example, what a car of the XNUMXnd century looks like. Imagination images can be created in various ways. The most common are the following methods. 1. Agglutination - this is a combination of any qualities, properties, parts into a single, often bizarre image, sometimes very far from reality. For example, the connection of the upper part of the body of a man and the lower part of the horse were embodied in the image of a centaur, and, putting the hut on chicken paws, they received the dwelling of Baba Yaga. Most often, this technique is used in myths and fairy tales. 2. Accentuation - selection in the existing image of any part, detail and raising it to the rank of dominant. The method is most often used in cartoons, cartoons. Typing - the most complex, sometimes creative technique, expressed in the fact that the most characteristic, significant qualities and properties are distinguished from specific images and a new image is created on their basis. Very often, writers use this technique, creating images of literary heroes. It helps out in situations where it is impossible, difficult or simply inappropriate to perform practical actions. Thus, without imagination, progress in any field of human activity would not be possible. The following kinds of imagination: 1) active (voluntary) - passive (involuntary); 2) aroductive (creative) - reproductive (recreating). Passive imagination arises without volitional efforts and without conscious intentions on the part of a person. Dreams are the most common form of passive imagination. Active imagination occurs when new ideas or images are created by a person's intention. Reproductive (recreating) imagination is based on the reconstruction of new images in accordance with the existing description, scheme, etc. Productive imagination - new images and ideas are created as a result of independent creative activity. However, most often it is not possible to draw a clear line between reproductive and creative imagination. 17. History of ideas about temperament Temperament is a combination of properties that determine the dynamics of the functioning of mental processes and human behavior. The doctrine of temperament has a long history and goes back to the views of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. According to his description, the type of temperament depends on the ratio in the human body of various fluids of blood, bile and lymph. Working several centuries later, Roman doctors began to use the word "temperamentum" ("proper proportions of parts") to indicate the proportions of the liquid when they are mixed. A detailed classification of temperament types was given by the Roman physician and anatomist K. Galen (II century BC). Later, ancient physicians limited the number of temperament types to four. According to the views of the ancients, the types of temperament were determined by the following ratio of fluids in the body: the predominance of blood ("sangvis" - "blood") gave a sanguine temperament; the predominance of lymph ("phlegm" - "mucus") - phlegmatic; yellow bile ("chole" - "bile") - choleric; black bile ("melain chole" - "black bile") - melancholic. Subsequently, these names lost their scientific status, but were preserved as a tribute to history. humoral theory (from Latin "humor" - "moisture", "juice"). This direction can be attributed to the already considered views of ancient scientists, and the more modern views of both Kant and P.F. Lesgaft. The doctrine of higher nervous activity, which is based on the views of I. P. Pavlov on the dependence of the properties of temperament on the properties of the nervous system. I. P. Pavlov believed that the type of higher nervous activity (HNA) is determined by three properties of nervous processes: 1) strength - evidence of the efficiency and endurance of the nervous system, as far as it is able to withstand strong stimuli; 2) balance indicates the ratio of the main nervous processes: inhibition and excitation; 3) mobility - how quickly the processes of excitation and inhibition can replace each other. The selected properties, combined, give four types of GNI. The first type is weak, it corresponds to the melancholic type of temperament. The second type is strong, unbalanced, it corresponds to a choleric temperament. The third type - strong, balanced, mobile - sanguine temperament. The fourth type - strong, balanced, inert - phlegmatic temperament. Subsequently, additional properties of the nervous system were distinguished (B. M. Teplov, V. D. Nebylitsin). Let's note some of them: 1) dynamism - how quickly conditioned reflexes are developed; 2) lability - how quickly the processes of excitation and inhibition arise and proceed; 3) high sensitivity - inherent in persons with a weak type of HNA. Recent scientific data testify to the heredity of certain properties of the nervous system. 18. Types of temperaments. temperament properties. Individual style of activity According to modern views on the classification of temperaments, the classical division into four types is somewhat arbitrary. Most people who have individual manifestations of some basic type, however, cannot be fully attributed to it. In this case, they speak of a mixed type of temperament. Each type of temperament has its own combination of mental properties, the main of which are different degrees of activity and emotionality, features of motor skills. In the structure of temperament, the central place is occupied by general mental activity. The degree of activity in different people varies from inertia, lethargy in some to violent outbursts of energy in others. Externally, activity manifests itself in such forms as energy in performing actions, the variety of these actions, endurance in the manifestation of activity, the rate of reactions, their swiftness or slowness. An active individual has bright facial expressions and pantomime, rapid speech, increased gesticulation, as a rule, their voice is stronger, louder. In the less active, these same qualities have the opposite manifestation. Activity can manifest itself in reactivity, i.e., in increased sensitivity, reactions to the most insignificant stimuli. This property characterizes people with a weak type of GNI. Other, no less important properties of temperament are plasticity - rigidity. These qualities are manifested in the ability of a person to quickly (plastic) or slowly (rigidity) adapt to changing environmental conditions, for example: moving to another job, moving to another place of residence, etc. Also very important qualities of temperament are extraversion - introversion. Extrovert - this is a person who actively interacts with the outside world, he is characterized by increased sociability, the circle of his acquaintances is very wide, speech is active, movements are frequent, sometimes fussy. Introvert more focused on his own inner world than on others, closed, his circle of friends is very narrow, he is prone to introspection, social adaptation is difficult. A certain combination of the considered qualities gives different types of temperaments. Sanguine characterized by pronounced mental activity, lively and agile, facial expressions and movements are expressive, quickly reacts to ongoing events, relatively easily survives troubles, an extrovert. Phlegmatic person - his mood is distinguished by constancy, feelings are deep and stable, facial expressions are inactive, speech and movements are slow, an introvert. Choleric characterized by increased activity, passion and vigor, prone to violent emotional outbursts, but able to quickly calm down and change mood to the opposite, an extrovert. Melancholic - Easily vulnerable, impressionable, but outwardly it manifests itself weakly, speech is muffled, movements are restrained, an introvert. 19. Temperament and problems of education Age-related manifestations of temperament depend primarily on the course of maturation of brain structures, the properties of the nervous system The younger the children, the more they are characterized by manifestations of weakness of the nervous system, namely: low endurance and high sensitivity. In younger schoolchildren, the activity of the nervous system is manifested in the ease of the emergence of interest and in the absence of the ability for long-term concentration. When performing monotonous work, children with a weak type of nervous system are in a more advantageous position, since their high sensitivity does not allow the development of drowsiness, which is quite possible under such conditions. But in those situations where strong, sometimes unexpected stimuli arise, such children are lost and cannot cope with the activity. Considering the mobility of nervous processes, the following can be noted. Students with high mobility coped with the task faster, but at the same time made mistakes. Those with an inert system worked smoothly, evenly, performed the task punctually, allowing a minimum number of errors, but did not always fit into the allotted time. In order to determine the type of temperament of the child as accurately as possible, it is important to note the presence of the following features 1) activity - manifested in how energetically the child is drawn to the new, interacts with others, overcomes obstacles; 2) emotionality, which is judged by how easily emotional states change, how sensitive the child is to emotional influences, whether emotion easily becomes a motivating force for actions; 3) motility, expressed in sharpness, speed, amplitude and other muscle movements. The elementary bad manners of a child should not be attributed to temperament, for example: lack of endurance is far from always evidence of a choleric temperament, but a consequence of miscalculations in education in the presence of any type of temperament. Children have different attitudes to the negative assessment of the teacher. It turned out that this stimulates a student with a strong nervous system to correct himself, while a student with a weak type may experience a feeling of depression and confusion. Special attention of teachers is often attracted by children with choleric and melancholic. Cholerics should be kept in every possible way from the manifestation of violent emotional outbursts, instill the habit of working systematically, calmly, without haste. Melancholic people need a clear regime, to increase their self-esteem, to demand actions related to overcoming difficulties. Temperament affects the traits of behavior, but does not predetermine their mandatory manifestation. It is well known that under favorable conditions of upbringing, a melancholic can develop strong volitional qualities, and a choleric can be taught to restrain his violent emotional outbursts. 20. The concept of abilities. Ability types Abilities - these are the features of a person that are not reducible to knowledge, skills, but allow them to be quickly acquired and effectively applied in practical activities. B. M. Teplov identifies the following as the main features of abilities: 1) these are individual mental characteristics of a person that distinguish one from another; 2) these are not any features, but only those that affect the success of the activity; 3) are not limited to existing knowledge, skills, abilities As a rule, the effectiveness of the performance of an activity depends not on one, but on a combination of abilities. Classification of abilities. 1. Natural (natural) and specific human (social). Many abilities are common to both humans and animals. Such general, biologically determined abilities include perception, memory, elementary thinking and communication, mainly at the level of expression. Basically, the formation of these abilities occurs on the basis of elementary inclinations through training. Specific human abilities (social) are formed as a result of the following situations: 1) the existence of a socio-cultural environment that reflects all the experience accumulated by generations of people; 2) the impossibility of mastering some subjects only on the basis of natural inclinations; 3) the need to perform complex activities with the participation of other people; 4) the existence next to the child of people who have formed abilities and are able to transfer them as a result of training and education; 5) the minimum number of rigid innate forms of behavior, the immaturity of brain structures, which allows the psyche to develop under the influence of training and education. 2. General and special abilities. General abilities affect the success of various activities. 3. Theoretical and practical abilities. Theoretical ones indicate a tendency to abstract reasoning, logical conclusions, and practical ones - to the success of the implementation of specific, practical actions. 4. Educational and creative abilities. Learning abilities are manifested with the successful acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, the formation of personal qualities; creative - when creating some new, previously uncreated objects of material and spiritual culture. 5. Ability to communicate, interact with people (communicative) - subject-active or subject-cognitive abilities. The first group of abilities allows you to successfully contact people around you. Subject-cognitive - these are the abilities for various types of theoretical and practical activities. It is very favorable for a person if both of these species complement each other. 21. Development of memory Makings are the prerequisites for the development of abilities. Many consider inclinations only innate properties and qualities, however, if we consider the process of developing abilities in stages, then it is possible to single out acquired inclinations. In order for the ability to reach a high level, it is important that it was well formed in the previous stage. For example, a high level of development of mathematical abilities suggests that the child has mastered elementary mathematical knowledge, and in this case they act as inclinations. A comparative analysis of the role of the environment and heredity can be carried out using the following methods: 1) a systematic change in the conditions of education and upbringing; 2) a comprehensive study of the characteristics of the psyche and behavior of children brought up in conditions of various social and national cultures, various types of families; 3) comparison of the characteristics of the psyche and behavior of homozygous (identical) and heterozygous (fraternal) twins. Based on the studies carried out, scientists (B. M. Teplov, V. D. Nebylitsyn, V. M. Rusalov) conclude that the properties of the nervous system cannot be considered as inclinations for the development of abilities, however, "they form the basis on which it is easier some forms of behavior are formed, others are more difficult" (B. M. Teplov). The properties of the nervous system are stable formations, therefore the pedagogical task is not to change the negative properties, but to find the best method of training and education for each type of the nervous system. Speaking about the influence of heredity and environment on the development of intellectual abilities, it is difficult to give an unambiguous answer. In some situations, heredity determines the formation of intellectual abilities, in others such a relationship is not traced. Gender differences in the formation of abilities also do not have a clear expression, but they can increase as they grow older. For example, men engaged in manual labor may have better coordination of movements than women, better orientation in space, and understanding of mechanical connections. Women, in turn, have better speech abilities, more dexterous movements, superiority in the speed of perception, memorization, and counting. Many human abilities begin to form immediately after the birth of a person and go through the following stages in their development: 1) preparation of the anatomical and physiological base of future abilities (biological inclinations); 2) formation of the makings of a non-biological plan; 3) the ability reaches the required level of development. These steps can either run in parallel or overlap to varying degrees. 22. Definition of character Character is a reflection of stable personality traits that manifest themselves in activities and communication and express a person’s attitude to people and work performed. The manifestation of character can be observed when performing any activity: some prefer complex activities, finding positive emotions in overcoming difficulties, others are satisfied with simple activities. In the process of communication, a person's character is judged by his demeanor, ways of responding to the behavior of interlocutors (delicate behavior or unceremonious, polite or rude, etc.). At the same time, it is not so much the features of the human nervous system that matter, but the level of his upbringing and culture. We talk about character when we note the degree of a person's independence, his diligence and perseverance, purposefulness and perseverance. When a person shows opposite qualities both in activity and in communication, they say about him that he is spineless. Character is closely related to temperament, being just as stable and unchanging, but, unlike temperament, this is a lifetime formation. In the structure of character traits, the following blocks can be distinguished: 1) a system of attitude to reality; 2) strong-willed qualities. In turn, the system of attitude to reality is divided into: 1) attitude towards the team, other people (honesty, collectivism, conformism, selfishness, sincerity, etc.); (rationalism, prudence, diligence, frugality, etc.); 3) attitude towards oneself (independence, self-esteem, egocentrism, etc.). Character occupies a central place in the structure of personality, influencing cognitive and emotional processes. It is closely related to needs and interests and is clearly manifested when the most powerful and urgent needs are satisfied. Unlike other personal qualities, character is formed at a fairly early age and is stable. For example, interests, social attitudes can change throughout a person's life. A change in character is possible, but this happens only in exceptional cases, for example, when a person falls seriously ill, finds himself in a situation of deep stress and a life crisis, due to age-related changes leading to deep organic disorders in the central nervous system. 23. Typology of characters Throughout the history of the development of psychology, numerous attempts have been made to construct a typology of characters. Based on those character traits that testify to the attitude towards people, K. Leonhard creates his own classification. 1) hyperthymic type - high contact, talkativeness, expressiveness of gestures, facial expressions and pantomimics. Does not stand up to the end of the topic of conversation, deviating from it. Not very serious about official duties and family obligations. They often provoke conflicts. Optimistic and energetic, often frivolous. Easily irritated; 2) dysthymic type - reticence, slowness in movements, pessimism and passivity, low sociability, individualism. Often leads a secluded life, a homebody. Low conflict, serious, objective and conscientious; 3) cycloid type - characterized by a frequent change of mood and, as a result, a change in communication methods; 4) excitable type - uncommunicative, slowness in movements and speech is noted. Often dull and gloomy; it is difficult to get along with him, as he often arranges scandals. If everything goes well, then this is a conscientious, neat person who loves small children and animals. In adverse situations, he is irritable, quick-tempered, has poor control over his behavior; 5) stuck type - moderate sociability, sometimes boring, sensitive in social justice, but easily offended in case of criticism, vengeful, ambitious, jealous, strives to be the first in everything; 6) pedantic type - bureaucrat, strives to do everything according to the rules, reliable, accurate, conscientious, but boring, grumpy, rarely enters into conflicts; 7) anxious type - timid and insecure, with low self-esteem, friendly and self-critical, low sociability, executive, often responsible for those actions that he did not commit; 8) emotive type - carries his grievances in himself, prefers a narrow circle of friends, a heightened sense of duty is inherent, kind and compassionate, tearful; 9) demonstrative type - easily establishes contacts with others. Thirsts for power and praise, courteous and artistic, able to captivate others, but at the same time selfish, hypocritical, likes to brag and shirk work; 10) exalted type - increased sociability and talkativeness, amorousness, altruism. Brightness of feelings and good taste, but prone to alarmism, prone to momentary moods; 11) extroverted type - a large number of friends and acquaintances, talkativeness and frivolity, willingness to listen carefully, but at the same time willingly spreads rumors; 12) introverted type - isolation, a tendency to philosophize, stubbornness, rigidity, adherence to principles. 24. The concept of will. Volitional regulation of behavior Performing various types of activities, a person is guided by some specific motives that are not always realized, or are not realized very clearly, and the actions corresponding to them are not controlled by consciousness. In this case, they say that the actions of a person are involuntary (fear, delight, amazement, etc.). However, in most cases, human actions are subject to awareness and control. Then one speaks of arbitrary actions, i.e., derivatives of the will. Sometimes, to achieve a goal, a person does not make any significant efforts, for example, reading an interesting book. If some obstacles are overcome, efforts are made, then such actions are volitional. The obstacles on the way to achieving the goal are divided into external (not dependent on the person, for example, he was late for a meeting because the bus broke down) and internal (depending on the desires and activity of the person himself, for example, he was late because he overslept). Will is the mental activity of a person, manifested when achieving a goal and overcoming obstacles and difficulties that stand in the way of achieving this goal. Overcoming difficulties, a person makes volitional efforts, manifested in neuropsychic tension, due to which the moral and intellectual forces of a person are mobilized. The will manifests itself in two kinds of activity: 1) executive volitional activity (a person consciously carries out the orders of other persons, guided by a sense of duty and an understanding of responsibility in solving the tasks facing him); 2) independent volitional activity (decisions are made independently, but this independence can manifest itself at various stages of the activity). 2. Volitional actions can be simple and complex. Simple volitional actions are characterized by the clarity and clarity of the idea of how the activity will be performed. The elements of this action are the goal, motive, means and methods of implementation. There are the following steps to perform this action: 1) awareness of the goal, the desire to achieve it; 2) awareness of the available opportunities to achieve the goal; 3) decision making; 4) execution of decisions, achievement of the goal. The stage of decision execution can manifest itself in two ways: 1) the action is performed with the help of external actions; 2) outwardly actions are not performed, a person refrains from them, for example, refrains from drinking alcohol, etc. Volitional action ends with a self-assessment of the effectiveness of achieving the goal. 25. Development of the will in a person, volitional qualities In the structure of personality, volitional qualities can be distinguished, the significance of which in a person's life is very great. Purposefulness It manifests itself in the desire of a person to subordinate his behavior to the achievement of a sustainable life goal. Independence - this is the construction of one's behavior in accordance with one's own views and beliefs, however, an independent person is always able to listen to someone else's opinion. Negativism - this is behavior contrary to the opinions of others, when no advice, even reasonable ones, is recognized. Suggestibility - behavior is built in accordance with other people's advice. Determination manifests itself in the ability of a person to quickly make adequate decisions and implement them in a timely manner. Perseverance - this is the ability of a person, despite difficulties and obstacles, to achieve the goal. Exposure (self-control) - the ability of a person to refrain from actions that are undesirable at the moment and not to lose self-control even in difficult situations. The opposite negative quality is impulsiveness, when a person rushes to perform an action on the first impulse without analyzing the consequences. Courage and boldness are manifested in the desire of a person to achieve a goal, despite the dangers. The opposite quality is cowardice. Discipline is the desire of a person to build his behavior in accordance with social norms. Let us consider in what directions the development of volitional regulation is carried out. 1. The transition of involuntary mental processes to arbitrary ones. 2. Development of the ability to exercise control over one's own behavior. 3. Formation of strong-willed qualities. 4. Conscious adherence to increasingly distant goals, the achievement of which requires significant strong-willed efforts over a long period of time. Volitional regulation of behavior is improved depending on the level of intellectual and personal development, especially the formation of the motivational sphere. Playing and learning activities play a special role in the formation of volitional processes in children. Following certain rules will help adults instill a strong will in a child. 1. Do not do for the child what he is able to do on his own, or what he can learn, but only provide conditions for the performance of the activity. 2. Maintain a sense of joy from the result achieved. 3. Lead the child to a rational decision, and do not decide for him. 4. Demand from yourself what you demand from your child. 5. The demands made must be justified and achievable, deliberate and not numerous. 6. Don't demand interest in all tasks, some should be done automatically. 26. The concept of emotions and feelings. Kinds of feelings "Emotions" and "feeling" are very close and most often inseparable concepts, but still they are not identical. Emotions It is a direct experience in a specific period of time. Feeling - this is a personality trait, a relatively stable attitude to the world around. The inseparability of emotions and feelings is expressed in the fact that feelings are manifested in specific emotions. For example, love for a loved one is manifested in joy for his successes and achievements. The importance of emotions in human life is great. They help to navigate what is happening, evaluating it from the standpoint of desirability or undesirability, under their influence a person can do the impossible, since there is an instant mobilization of all the forces of the body. The views of the psychophysiologist P. V. Simonov are interesting, who believed that emotions arise when there is a mismatch between what you need to know and what is known. where E - emotions P - need (in the formula it is taken with a negative sign "-"); H - information necessary to meet the need; C - information that can be used, what is known. The following conclusions can be drawn from the formula: 1) if P \u0d 0, then E \uXNUMXd XNUMX, i.e. there is no need, there are no emotions either; 2) if H \u0d C, then E \uXNUMXd XNUMX, that is, a situation where a person has completeness of information and opportunities to meet a need; 3) if C \u0d XNUMX, then E is maximum, since if there is a need, there is no information about how to satisfy it. This is the case about which they say: "It is not the event that is terrible, but its expectation"; 4) if C is greater than H, then positive emotions arise. In human life there is a huge number of emotions, which are sometimes difficult to combine into any groups, so there is a wide variety of classifications of emotions. Let's name the most commonly used: 1) positive (cause pleasant experiences) and negative (cause unpleasant experiences). It should be noted that personal and public assessments of the sign of emotion do not always coincide, for example, guilt is unpleasant for a person, and therefore it is a negative emotion, but for society this emotion is clearly positive; 2) ptenic (cause human activity) and asthenic (hinder activity, provoking passive behavior); 3) W. Wundt proposed a classification in three areas: a) pleasure - displeasure; b) voltage - discharge; c) excitation - inhibition; 4) the modern American researcher K. Izard ("Human Emotions") proposes to divide emotions into fundamental and derivative ones. The fundamental ones include interest, joy, surprise, grief, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, guilt. 27. Emotional reactions and states. Higher feelings. Development of emotions and feelings in children External expression of emotions is defined as an emotional reaction. Expressive movements contribute to better understanding between people, being an involuntary accompaniment of speech. The language of emotions is a language understandable without an interpreter, however, it should be remembered that there are cultural and national characteristics that are determined by customs and traditions. The most common of these are mood, affect, frustration, and stress. Affect - a rapidly emerging and rapidly flowing emotional state, which is characterized by a violation of the conscious control of one's actions, the inability to adequately assess what is happening. A person completely loses control over himself, his actions are reckless. At the end of an affective outburst, weakness and emptiness come, a breakdown, sometimes a person falls asleep. Stress - this concept was introduced by G. Selye, who defined it as a state of strong and prolonged psychological stress resulting from an overload of the nervous system. It is impossible to unambiguously take a negative attitude to a stressful situation, since against the background of a destructive effect on a person, stress can also mobilize the body's resources to achieve high results, for example, in sports. Nevertheless, if the tension is long and very strong, then it does not pass without a trace and is fraught with the occurrence of somatic diseases, fatigue, indifference, and depression. There are three phases in the course of stress: 1) an alarm reaction, which is characterized by great stress in the functioning of the body; by the end of the phase, resistance to a particular stressor increases; 2) stabilization, where functions taken out of balance are set at a new level; 3) exhaustion. Frustration - an emotional state that occurs in a situation where it is impossible to achieve the goal due to constantly arising obstacles. It can have two forms of expression: aggression or depression. The main reason for the occurrence is the inability of a person to endure prolonged emotional stress, poor endurance. Feelings, like emotions, are difficult to classify, and psychology has no generally accepted classifications. Simplistically, feelings can be divided into moral, intellectual and aesthetic. Moral (moral) feelings testify to the attitude of a person towards other people, society, and their manifestation is based on moral norms that a person is guided by when organizing his behavior. Intellectual feelings arise in the process of cognitive activity and reflect a person's attitude to this activity. Aesthetic feelings reflect a person's attitude to various aspects of life, their expression in art, are manifested in artistic tastes, in assessments, etc. These feelings are a product of the cultural development of the individual, an indicator of his maturity. 28. Mental development of a child of infancy The child is born helpless, having only a very limited set of unconditioned reflexes (sucking, orientation, defensive) and some motor - atavistic reflexes (catching, swimming, repulsion). The process of cognition of the surrounding world begins from the moment of birth. Vision is the first to develop actively. A one-month-old child is able to make tracking eye movements, first in a horizontal plane, then in a vertical one, and by two months elementary eye movements begin to be recorded. In the second month of life, visual concentration occurs, but up to 2-4 months of age, the infant's vision is still relatively weak. From about the second month, the baby is able to distinguish between simple colors, and at 3 - 4 - the shapes of objects. In the second month of life, the child begins to show emotional-motor excitement if an adult begins to communicate with him ("revitalization complex"). A 3-4 month old baby demonstrates by his behavior a preference for communicating with people he knows. For about eight months, the child is worried if he sees a stranger or gets into an unfamiliar environment, even if his mother is nearby. This feeling of fear continues to progress and reaches a maximum by about 14-18 months of the child's life, and then gradually fades away. Soon after birth, the child is able to distinguish the timbre, volume and pitch of sounds, after 3-4 months he recognizes the face and voice of the mother at any time of the day, and at 8-12 months - objects, even in separate parts. At this time, an active search for objects that suddenly disappeared from the field of vision begins, which indicates the child's ability to retain the image of the object in memory. Independent movement in space leads to the development of depth perception in an infant. During the second half of the first year of life, the child can restore the image of the object from memory. In the second half of the first six months, the child begins to respond with expressive movements to the speech of an adult, which may indicate that the infant understands this speech. At 6 - 6,5 months, the child is able to associate an object with a word denoting it. By the end of the first year of life, the baby understands approximately 10-20 words. A 7-8 month old child performs simple movements in accordance with verbal instructions, and in the last months of the first year he can establish the simplest connections between objects. 3. The statement that the personal development of a child begins at the age of 2-3 years is not entirely true. This is true only in relation to the manifestation of external signs, but the process of formation of these personal properties begins much earlier than their external manifestation. Such conclusions can be drawn based on the following provisions: 1) no psychological quality immediately appears ready-made; 2) many personal qualities appear only after a fairly long time from the moment when they began to form. Thus, it can be assumed that the personality formation of a child begins already in the first year of life, but outwardly this manifests itself later. 29. Personal development at the age of one to three years. Crisis "Me" Early age is very significant in the formation of the psyche of behavior, the personal development of the child, since the qualitative transformations that occur to him are great. Psychologists even tend to suggest that three years is the middle of the path of development from birth to maturity. We single out the main achievements of an early age that affect the mental development of the child: 1) mastering a straight gait 2) mastery of active speech; 3) development of objective activity. As a result of independent movement, a wider range of objects becomes available to the child, with which he can interact, using not only his hands and eyes, but also his entire body and legs. These are not only toys, but also household items: dishes, shoes, furniture, etc. At the same time, the child’s movements become more coordinated and accurate, coordinated, which leads to the development of attention stability, perception accuracy, and the formation of volitional qualities. Independent walking leads to acquaintance with large objects, the child gets the opportunity to recognize them from different angles, thus assimilating the concepts of the size of the form, learns to navigate in space, developing the eye. Overcoming the difficulties and obstacles that he encounters on his way, the baby solves problems with the help of practical actions, training his thinking and volitional sphere, while receiving a variety of emotions. During early childhood there is a gradual assimilation by the child of human forms of behavior. The kid wants to receive praise from an adult and is upset if he is dissatisfied. A feeling of sympathy towards other people continues to form, which can be expressed in sympathy, the desire to share toys. During this period, the child learns his name. The kid identifies himself with his name early enough, defends the right to it and protests if he is mistakenly called by another name. By the end of the 3rd year of life, there is an awareness of oneself as a separate person, which indicates the beginning of the crisis, which psychologists call "I myself." This crisis has very bright outward manifestations. Let's name the most striking symptoms. 1. Negativism - the child does not want to do something just because it was suggested by an adult. 2. Obstinacy - the child insists on something, not because he really wants it, but because he does not want to give in. 3. obstinacy - dissatisfaction on any occasion. 4. willfulness, willfulness - the child's desire for independence, the desire to do everything himself. 5. Protest (rebellion) - behavior acquires a protest character, quarrels often arise with parents, brothers, sisters. 6. Depreciation - the child begins to use abusive words, breaks toys, etc. 7. In a family with an only child, manifestation of despotism is possible, with several children - jealousy towards parents. During this crisis, the child's social position is restructured in relation to the people around him, motives arise that are associated with the manifestation of the child's personality. 30. Cognitive development of a young child. Speech development At an early age, the leading type of activity is objective activity, and as a result of actions with objects, the child's psyche actively develops. By the end of early childhood, other activities begin to take shape that will be actively in demand beyond this age. This is primarily a role-playing game and productive activities (drawing, modeling, designing). The content of the initial games includes only two or three actions; by the age of three, the child masters story games. In the third year of life, children begin to widely use substitute objects in games (for example, instead of a thermometer - a stick), which is an important acquisition in the child's mental development. Drawing begins to form for about a year, when the child is still able to hold a pencil in his hand. At first, children draw scribbles, seeing some images in them, by the age of three, a rounded line becomes their favorite pattern, with the help of which almost all objects and objects are depicted (the "cephalopod" stage). Construction is still elementary The child copies the patterns shown by adults. The beginning of an early age is characterized by imperfection in the development of cognitive processes. This also applies to perception. The child is oriented in the environment and objects, but often the orientation occurs on the basis of any one conspicuous feature. Comparison of objects occurs through external actions, but by the end of the age stage, in simple cases, it can be carried out with the help of vision. In the third year of life, the child often uses well-known objects as a constant model for comparison (triangular objects - "like a house", "like a roof", oval ones - "like a testicle", etc.). At the same age, the child is able to distinguish between shapes such as a circle, an oval, a square, a rectangle, a polygon, and all the primary colors of the spectrum. The leading type of thinking at an early age is visual-effective, nevertheless, the child is already able to perform simple mental actions in the mind. In elementary cases, children can make generalizations on such essential features as color, shape, size. Early age is the most favorable (sensitive) period for mastering speech. For about a year, a child can pronounce individual words, his vocabulary ranges from 4 to 10 words. At about two years old, the baby speaks in simple sentences, and by four - almost the same as adults. The development of speech goes in the following directions: 1) improving the understanding of speech (passive speech); 2) own active speech is formed. The vocabulary of a child of 1,5 years is from 30 - 40 up to 100 words, by the end of two years - about 300 words, and by the age of three - already 1200-1500 words. At the initial stage of mastering the speech structure, the child learns syllables, first stressed, then doubled and single-syllable words. At this time, the construction of sentences is not yet taking place, but one, later two words, which do not change by gender and case, act as such. At 1,5 - 2 years, the child's speech still bears little resemblance to the speech of an adult. Such speech is called autonomous. 31. Personal development in preschool age The leading activity in preschool age is the game. However, throughout the entire age period, gaming activity undergoes significant changes. Younger preschoolers (3-4 years old) mostly play alone. The duration of the games is usually limited to 15-20 minutes, and the plot is to reproduce the actions of those adults whom they observe in everyday life. Middle preschoolers (4 - 5 years old) already prefer joint games, in which the main thing is to imitate relationships between people. Children clearly follow the rules in the performance of roles. In the middle preschool age, drawing actively develops. A schematic, x-ray drawing is characteristic, when something that is not externally visible is drawn, for example, when depicted in profile, both eyes are drawn. Games-competitions begin to arouse an active interest, which contribute to the formation of motives for achieving success in children. An older preschooler (5 - 7 years old) is able to play for a long time, even for several days. In games, more attention is paid to the reproduction of moral and ethical standards. Construction is actively developing, during which the child learns the simplest labor skills, gets acquainted with the properties of objects, develops practical thinking, learns to use tools and household items. The drawing of the child becomes voluminous, plot. The personal development of a preschooler includes: 1) understanding of the world around him and his place in this world; 2) development of the emotional and volitional spheres. The attitude of an adult to a child largely determines the formation of his personality. Younger preschoolers learn cultural and hygienic skills, daily routine, rules for handling toys, books; middle and older preschoolers - rules for relationships with other children. At preschool age, the self-awareness of the child begins to actively form, which is manifested in self-esteem. At the initial stage, the child learns to evaluate the characters of fairy tales, stories, then transfers these assessments to real people, and only by the older preschool age does the ability to correctly evaluate oneself begin to take shape. Throughout preschool age, feelings accompany the behavior of the child. The kid is not yet able to fully control his emotional experiences, his mood can quickly change to the opposite, but with age, feelings acquire greater depth and stability. The "reasonableness" of feelings rises, which is explained by the acceleration of mental development. Increasingly, one can observe the manifestation of such feelings as a sense of joy and pride in a completed task, or the opposite - feelings of chagrin and shame if the task is not completed, a sense of the comic (children come up with verbal shifters), a sense of beauty. By the end of preschool age, the child in some cases manages to restrain violent manifestations of feelings. 32. Cognitive processes of a preschooler At preschool age, the sensory sphere actively develops. The child improves in the accuracy of perception of color, size, shape, weight, etc. He is able to notice the difference between sounds of different pitch, sounds similar in pronunciation, learn a rhythmic pattern, determine the position of objects in space, intervals of time. By the older preschool age, the meaningfulness of perception increases sharply, i.e., ideas about the environment expand and deepen. The thinking of a preschooler is represented by three types: visual-effective, visual-figurative verbal-logical. At the beginning of the preschool period, the child solves most problems with the help of practical actions. By the senior preschool age, visual-figurative thinking acquires leading importance. Against the background of its rapid development, the foundation of logical thinking begins to be laid. The attention of the child throughout the entire preschool age continues to be involuntary, although it acquires greater stability and concentration. By the end of the preschool period, the child is able to maintain steady attention when performing intellectual activities: solving puzzles, guessing puzzles, charades, riddles, etc. The memory of a preschooler has the following features: 1) the most developed figurative memory, including such a variety of it as eidetic; 2) memorization occurs better if it is organized in the course of gaming activity, involuntary memorization is characteristic; 3) when setting a mnemonic task, memorization occurs mechanically, i.e., by repetition; 4) a preschooler listens with pleasure to what he has already heard, thus training his memory; 5) well-developed emotional memory. Features of the imagination of a preschooler: 1) images of imagination easily arise; 2) the "products" of fantasy are contradictory: on the one hand, the child is a "terrible" realist ("It doesn't happen like that"), on the other, a great dreamer; 3) the images of the preschooler's imagination are distinguished by their brightness, emotionality, originality of ideas, although most often these ideas are repelled from the previously known (recreating imagination); 4) often the child's fantasies are directed to the future, although in these images he is very fickle. At preschool age, the child's speech continues to improve actively. This is facilitated by play activities, during which children agree on the rules, distribute roles, etc. As a means of communication, the child uses speech of the following types: 1) situational; 2) contextual; 3) explanatory. Situational speech is often understandable only to the interlocutor, it remains inaccessible to outsiders, it contains many verbal patterns, adverbs, there are no proper names, the subject drops out. As the child masters more complex activities, speech becomes expanded, including explanations of the situation. Such speech is called contextual. At the senior preschool age, the child develops an explanatory speech, when the sequence of presentation is preserved, the main thing is highlighted. 33. Readiness of the child for schooling Let us dwell on the consideration of psychological readiness for schooling, which is understood as "the necessary and sufficient level of a child's mental development for mastering the school curriculum in the conditions of training in a peer group" (IV Dubrovina, 1997). In other words, the child, being in a peer group, should be able to learn school material. There are different opinions on the subject of highlighting the parameters of the mental development of the child. L. I. Bozhovich singled out: the level of motivational development, including cognitive and social (the desire to take a certain position in a group of peers) motives for learning; a sufficient level of development of arbitrariness and a certain level of development of the intellectual sphere, while priority was given to motivational development. Readiness for schooling implies the formation of the "internal position of the student", which means the child's ability to consciously set and fulfill certain intentions and goals. Most researchers assign one of the main places to arbitrariness. D. B. Elkonin singled out as the main skills such as the conscious subordination of one’s actions to the rule, orientation to a given system of requirements, attentive listening to the speaker and the exact fulfillment of the task offered orally. These parameters are the elements of developed arbitrariness. For successful schooling, it is also important to have the ability to communicate with adults and peers, readiness to accept a new social position: "the position of a student." Intellectual readiness for schooling primarily does not consist of the amount of acquired knowledge, but of the level of development of cognitive processes, that is, the child's ability to reason, analyze, compare, draw conclusions, etc. At the same time, a good level of speech development is extremely important. Summarizing the above approaches, we can distinguish three aspects of school readiness: intellectual, emotional, social. The intellectual component is expressed in the level of outlook, a certain vocabulary, the level of development of cognitive processes (perception, memory, attention, thinking and imagination, speech) and the ability to single out a learning task. Emotional readiness is the ability of a child to perform an unattractive task for a long time without being distracted, a decrease in impulsive reactions, the ability to set a goal and achieve it, despite difficulties. The social component is manifested in the ability and desire to communicate with peers, to obey the laws of the children's group, in the readiness to accept the status of a student. Some researchers focus on motivational readiness, which manifests itself in a pronounced need to achieve success in learning and communication, the presence of adequate (corresponding to the true position) self-esteem, a moderately high level of claims (the desire to achieve something). So, a child who is psychologically ready for schooling should have all the components listed above. 34. Psychological features of the initial stage of education The initial stage of schooling is in the age range from 6-7 to 10-11 years. Consider the psychological specifics of this stage. With whatever level of readiness a child enters school, he is not able to immediately get involved in school life. A more or less long period of adaptation or adaptation to school is needed. The adaptation process is subject to psychological patterns that should be taken into account when working with first-graders. There are three levels of adaptation: 1) a high level of adaptation: the first grader has a positive attitude towards school, the educational material is mastered relatively easily, he is attentive and diligent in the lessons, willingly participates in social work, has a high social status in a peer group 2) the average level of adaptation: the student has a positive attitude towards the school, the educational material is assimilated if it is presented in detail and visually independently solves typical tasks, he performs instructions well under adult supervision, attention is focused if he does an interesting job, conscientiously performs public assignments, has a lot of friends among classmates; 3) low level of adaptation: the student's attitude to learning at school is negative or indifferent, a depressed mood prevails, complaints about health are frequent, he violates discipline, he hardly completes tasks on his own, he has no friends in the class, educational material is digested fragmentarily. Adaptation will be more successful if the child is psychologically ready for school, while it is very important that the family has a friendly atmosphere, there are no conflicts. Another problem that needs to be addressed in primary school is the differences in motivations, the level of development of mental processes, knowledge, skills and abilities among children. These differences lead to the fact that in some cases learning is perceived as a very easy, and therefore uninteresting process, in others as extremely difficult and difficult, and only for some it is in accordance with their level. Teachers and psychologists are faced with the task of psychologically equalizing children, pulling up those who are lagging behind, at the same time, one should not forget about gifted children. In both cases, there are a lot of problems, and often they can be solved only in the process of individualization of education, the creation of classes corresponding to the level of development of children (leveling classes), the selection of individual training programs, etc. Another important problem facing elementary school - these are differences in the physical development of children. Children with physical disabilities require a sparing attitude towards themselves, compliance with psychohygienic and psychological requirements. At the initial stage of education, increased attention to schoolchildren is required from parents and teachers so that the adaptation process goes more quickly and painlessly. 35. Mental and cognitive development of children of primary school age The perception of a younger student is characterized by high emotionality and brightness of the perceived images. Symbolic and schematic images are perceived worse, visual material is better. Little life experience does not allow students to accurately assess time and space. Historical dates are often an abstraction, it is difficult for children to understand the remoteness of events in time, in most cases small intervals of time are significantly underestimated and large intervals of time are overestimated. Limited perception of space can lead to improper organization of the workplace, difficulty in fluent reading due to narrow lines, errors in the perception and spelling of similar letters and numbers, visual errors in measurement, etc. The main feature of the attention of a younger student is a relatively weak arbitrariness. During elementary school education, all the properties of attention, except for switching, become almost the same as in an adult. Switching at this age is even better developed than in adults, which is explained by the mobility of nervous processes. School education contributes to the development of the memory of a younger student. Mechanical memory develops quite quickly in the first school years, mediated, logical memory lags behind in pace, since in most cases the child has enough mechanical memory to assimilate the material. If due attention is not paid during these years to the formation of mediated, logical memorization, this will adversely affect learning in the middle and senior levels of the school. The intellectual development of a younger student goes in the following areas: 1) the widespread use of speech as a means of thinking; 2) three types of thinking (visual-effective, visual-figurative, logical) mutually enrich and complement each other. If any of the types of thinking is not used in teaching, then the intellectual development of the child is one-sided. Younger students master concepts, learn to compare, generalize, draw conclusions. The process of comparison in children of the same age can take place in different ways. More often children find differences, less often - similarities. Second-graders, when compared, identify a greater number of features than first-graders. If new objects are compared, then students more easily discover different features, if the objects are known - similar qualities. When comparing again, the number of selected features of similarity becomes larger. The comparison operation is sometimes replaced by a simple juxtaposition of objects, that is, the properties of one object are noted first, and then another. Generalization is best done by younger students, starting from specific situations, detailed descriptions. The criterion for a well-made generalization is the ability to give a specific example that corresponds to the knowledge gained. So, during the period of elementary school, the mental and cognitive development of the child progresses markedly. 36. Personality formation in primary school age Learning activity becomes the leading activity of the child after entering school. However, personal development also occurs in the framework of other activities (play, work, communication). It is in various activities that business qualities are formed, the motivational sphere develops. One of the most significant motives in human life is the motive of achieving success. In order for it to develop and consolidate, the following personal qualities are necessary: 1) boundless trust in adults, especially (especially in the first grade) in teachers. The formation of his self-esteem depends on how adults evaluate the child, which in younger students can already be overestimated, underestimated, adequate; 2) the ability to consciously set a goal and volitional regulation of one's behavior. The younger student can already control behavior, guided by a distant goal; 3) adequate or moderately high self-esteem and a high, but real, level of claims. The level of claims can be determined both by academic success and position in the peer group. A child with a high social status, as a rule, has adequate self-esteem. During the primary school age, the child comes to understand that the lack of any ability can be made up for through the efforts made. At primary school age, such significant personal qualities as diligence and independence are improved. Diligence is formed as a result of the efforts made in the performance of educational and labor tasks and receiving rewards from adults for success. It is important that the reward system is not focused on relatively easy achievements, but on those that have been fully obtained as a result of the efforts made. Primary school age can be considered a turning point for the formation of independence. On the one hand, the child is still completely dependent on an adult, on the other hand, granting independence too early can provoke disobedience and closeness. To develop self-reliance, you can use the following techniques: 1) trust the child more, entrusting the independent performance of tasks; 2) encourage the desire for independence; 3) entrust the performance of household chores with minimal assistance from an adult; 4) to entrust such affairs, performing which, the child becomes a leader for other people. At primary school age, both general and special abilities develop rapidly, and individual differences between children are very large. At this age, adults can still actively influence the child, as significant motives remain to receive recognition and approval from the adult, the desire to earn high praise from him. By the end of this age period, relationships with peers are becoming increasingly important, so the following methods of influence can be used: public approval of achievements and deeds in the presence of classmates, competition with peers, etc. 37. General characteristics of cognitive and personal development Adolescence is a period of restructuring of social activity, accompanied by very powerful shifts in all spheres of a child's life. Therefore, adolescence is often called a crisis, transitional from childhood to adulthood. There is a rapid growth of the skeleton (for a year, girls grow by 3 - 6 cm, boys - by 4 - 7 cm). The functioning of the organs does not ensure the full functioning of the whole organism, therefore, complaints of palpitations and headaches are frequent. In adolescence, puberty begins, gender identification takes place, the child begins to perceive himself as an adult. Adolescents often have an ambivalent attitude towards their "new" body: a sense of pride can coexist with a feeling of disgust. Outwardly, this can manifest itself in such unexpected reactions as girls bandaging their breasts, or, conversely, emphasizing them. Boys may become more sloppy, thus showing an unconscious protest against their "I" Adults are often outraged by cynicism, swagger in statements and communication with the opposite sex, but in such manifestations one should see not only a “negative” teenager, but also a weak one who does not know how to solve his problems. The overstressed work of the body leads to the fact that younger teenagers quickly get tired, although they may not notice it. As experiments have shown, most cases of disobedience in adolescents were detected precisely in the second half of the day, when fatigue was already beginning to affect. A situation arises similar to infancy: when the baby is tired, he begins to act up, cry. Against the background of rapid personal formation, the level of development of the cognitive sphere by the senior grades of the school reaches the level of an adult. The main achievement is the arbitrariness of mental processes. However, it is precisely in adolescence that strong fluctuations in the attention of schoolchildren during lessons are noted. Such inattention is explained by the increased excitability of some or the fatigue of other students. The concentration of attention also decreases after suffering somatic diseases, neuropsychiatric diseases, all kinds of injuries, emotional experiences. Interest in other people overrides interest in learning activities. There is a period when they go to school not to gain knowledge, but to communicate with their peers, more often with the opposite sex. The situation is restored only by the senior classes of the school, when young people think about plans for their future lives. Teenagers and young men willingly engage in reasoning, introspection, freely reflect on moral, political and other topics. They can draw general conclusions based on particular messages, they can operate with hypotheses. Thus, in adolescence and youth there is an intellectualization of all cognitive processes, there is a search for one's place in the system of social relations. 38. Improvement of cognitive processes. Development of general and special abilities Perception in adolescence and youth is part of memorization. In practice, this means that when memorizing, the student is fixed on the properties of those objects that are necessary for subsequent reproduction. Based on this, the teacher, when presenting new material, should highlight the key elements, using the following words: "I draw your attention to ...", using multi-colored chalk, accented repetition, etc. Starting from adolescence, arbitrary and logical memory actively develops, which soon reaches such a level that it is used almost everywhere. This leads to a slowdown in the development of mechanical memory, although many new school subjects require its use, and therefore the teenager's complaints of poor memory become more frequent. Against this background, there is an increased interest in memory improvement techniques. Memory processes function more efficiently if an appropriate motive is created, based on the emotional inner world of a person. In adolescence and youth, significant individual differences are noted in the work of memory, which should be taken into account in the organization of the educational process, offering students various ways of presenting material. At this age, the productivity of involuntary memorization decreases and the efficiency of indirect memorization increases. In adolescence, the relationship between memory and thinking changes dramatically. If earlier these relations were built on the principle of thinking - it means remembering, now, remembering means thinking, that is, the process of memorization consists in establishing logical connections. Monologue and written speech are actively developing in the middle and senior grades of the school. In adolescence, the child learns to independently prepare the text of an oral presentation. Argument your thoughts, write an essay on an arbitrary or given topic. In middle and senior school age, the formation of general and special abilities continues on the basis of education, communication and work. Teaching contributes to the development of general intellectual abilities (logical reasoning, using concepts, drawing conclusions, etc.); communication - improving communication skills (to achieve the location of people, the ability to find mutual understanding, make contact, etc.); in labor activity, the formation of practical skills and abilities necessary for future professional development takes place. The development of abilities is based on the following provisions: 1) by adolescence, the child's body is physically stronger, and, therefore, the existing innate inclinations should already manifest themselves; 2) no later than 6 - 7 years, the child must undergo a psychological examination to identify existing inclinations; 3) the education of children should be based on the identified inclinations and abilities, especially in the upper grades of the school. 39. Development of thinking Adolescence is characterized by the ability to learn both theoretically and practically. For the first time, such a feature as a tendency to experiment is manifested, a particular manifestation of which is the unwillingness to take everything on faith. A teenager doubts everything, does not trust other people's experience, he needs to personally verify how the hypotheses correspond to the truth. He is inquisitive, seeks to earn the high appreciation of others, reacts negatively to the proposal to solve simple problems. In organizing the educational process, the teacher should focus on the development of both figurative and logical thinking in accordance with the complexity of the material, while it is undesirable to overly complicate and unnecessarily simplify the proposed material. In high school, a new attitude to learning is formed. Graduates are interested in those subjects where they can get to know themselves better and show independence. The independence of the young man's behavior testifies to the independence of thinking. High school students perform only such actions, follow such forms of behavior that seem appropriate and reasonable to them. The development of the intellectual sphere can be accelerated if you work in the following areas: develop the conceptual structure of thinking; speech intelligence and internal plan of action. The development of speech intelligence in high school is possible as a result of rhetoric, that is, the formation of the ability to plan and deliver public speeches, answer questions, and lead a discussion. When forming conceptual thinking, it is important to remember the following: 1) many scientific concepts have several meanings; 2) there are often not enough words of everyday speech to reveal the content of the concept; 3) one concept may have several definitions, not always completely coinciding; 4) with the development of scientific knowledge and the development of man himself in the process of ontogenesis, the volume and content of the concept changes. It follows from the foregoing that it is important not to memorize the definitions of concepts mechanically, but to teach the student to independently find and derive these definitions. It is extremely important in adolescence and youth to develop practical intelligence, the structure of which includes the following qualities: economy, prudence, enterprise, the ability to quickly solve tasks. Entrepreneurship can be developed by organizing student self-government at school, efficiency and prudence by organizing student cooperatives or similar events where it is required to make calculations, draw up an estimate of income and expenses. The ability to quickly solve the tasks set will be formed if a teenager is taught to use the rule: as soon as a problem arises, it is necessary to immediately, without delay, begin to solve it. Thus, thinking in adolescence and youth is distinguished by a variety of forms and independence. 40. Individual characteristics of adolescents. Character accentuations Character accentuation is an extreme version of the norm, when individual traits are strengthened to such an extent that a person becomes extremely vulnerable to certain psychogenic influences, while maintaining good resistance to others. Consider the typology of character accentuations. 1. Hyperthymic type - characterized by activity, endurance, capable of inspiring confidence. This is a sociable, resourceful person who does not get lost in stressful and unusual situations, prefers to be a leader. 2. The autistic type manifests itself in such qualities as the ability to make non-standard decisions, keep a sober mind in any situation, and show deep knowledge in a subject of interest. Such a teenager can work alone for a long time, he is prone to accurate facts, and is well-informed. 3. The demonstrative (hysterical) type is characterized by a developed intuition, artistry, the ability to transform, to everything bright, non-standard. In social situations, he prefers various forms of blackmail ("If you don't do this, then I..."), knowing what those he blackmails are afraid of. 4. The stuck type is characterized by perseverance in achieving goals, punctuality and commitment, attention to detail, a desire for thoroughness in completing the task. In difficult situations, where their authority and power are encroached upon, they blame everyone and everything, easily falling into anger. 5. The unstable type is characterized by gullibility and devotion to the group. A teenager with this type of character is able to get strong vivid impressions of life every day, not to overwork. 6. The labile type is manifested in softness towards others, the ability to empathize. Such adolescents are characterized by a developed sense of gratitude to those who sympathize and love them. 7. The sensitive type is able to penetrate into the essence of what is happening, to focus on the true, and not on the ostentatious feelings of people. These people have no pronounced protest reactions, unless driven to extreme desperation. 8. The painful type is characterized by increased sensitivity and inability to rely on one's own strength. Such people rarely protest, and this protest is expressed, as a rule, in real painful symptoms. 9. The pedantic type is characterized by concern for the well-being of other people, attachment to the mother, close people. They are responsible and diligent, able to check everything, including minor details. 10. The conformal type is distinguished by devotion to the group, the desire for stability and sustainability. 11. The cycloid type is characterized by a great attachment to the home, home traditions. These adolescents are characterized by a change in mood from optimistic to pessimistic. 41. The relationship of adolescents with adults / It is important for adults to know the features of a teenager's relationship with his character: 1) awareness of one's behavior as an external manifestation occurs at about 13-15 years of age. Only upon reaching this age does it make sense to explain to a teenager that the external manifestations of character and his inner essence are not the same thing; 2) character is a given that some use for their own purposes, while others do not want and are afraid to recognize themselves, thereby remaining losers; 3) you should accept your character, treat it as a tool for communication and knowledge of the world around you, constantly study your character. In adolescence, the child claims new rights, which primarily apply to the sphere of relations with adults. A teenager is characterized by the expansion of his rights, he claims to respect his human dignity. Changing the relationship between adults and adolescents can go well, but adults themselves must take the initiative and rebuild these relationships. However, in real conditions, a number of points contribute to the preservation of the old relationship 1) the social status of a teenager does not change: he was and remains a student; 2) a teenager is financially completely dependent on his parents 3) adults are used to directing and controlling the child 4) the child retains childish features in behavior and appearance for a long time, especially at the beginning of adolescence. Let's single out the most typical conflict situations that arise between adults and a teenager: 1) the conflict of instability of parental attitude is one of the most common situations when the inconsistency of adolescence is most clearly seen: parents demand adult behavior from a teenager, but they themselves behave towards him as a child; 2) the conflict of over-care, manifested in excessive care on the part of an adult, most often a mother. A common cause of such a conflict is an unconscious desire to maintain emotional closeness with the child for as long as possible. 3) the conflict of disrespect for the rights of a teenager to independence is manifested in the fact that parents consider themselves entitled to control what is owned by a teenager: read a diary, electronic messages, check the contents of pockets, etc. The absence of a child's own room negatively affects. Where the boundaries of personal space are not respected, conflicts and quarrels are inevitable; 4) a conflict of paternal authority often arises where adults try to shift responsibility for something that they themselves could not achieve in life to a teenager. The desire of the father at all costs to make a "real man" out of his son often turns into the formation of an insecure person with low self-esteem and a level of pretension. In this case, an adult must first of all change his attitude towards himself, in order to then become more tolerant of his own child. 42. The nature of human consciousness The fundamental difference between man and animals is that he has consciousness, with the help of which the world around is reflected. Characteristics of consciousness: 1) contains a complex of knowledge about the world around - cognitive processes are included in the structure of consciousness, due to which a person is constantly enriched with new knowledge. If there is a violation in the activity of any cognitive process, or even more so its complete disintegration, this inevitably leads to a disorder of consciousness (for example, memory loss); 2) the ability of a person to know others and himself - a person with consciousness is able to evaluate his own and other people's actions, he realizes himself as a being different from the rest of the surrounding world, with violations of consciousness (for example, hypnosis, sleep), this ability is lost; 3) the ability to goal-setting activities - before starting any activity, a person sets himself any goals, guided by certain motives, weighing his capabilities, analyzes the progress of implementation, etc., the inability to such actions for one reason or another is interpreted as a violation of consciousness ; 4) the ability to give an emotional assessment of interpersonal relationships - this property is better understood by analyzing the pathology, since with some mental illnesses a person’s attitude towards people around him changes: for example, he begins to hate his loved ones, whom he had previously loved very much and treated them reverently; 5) the ability to communicate using speech or other signals. The above characteristics are used in a number of sciences when defining the concept of "consciousness" (psychology, psychiatry, etc.). Summarizing these characteristics, one can understand consciousness as a person's ability to navigate in time and space, the environment, to adequately assess one's own personality, to be able to manage one's desires and actions, to maintain a system of relationships with people around, to analyze new information based on existing knowledge. So, consciousness should be understood as the highest form of reflection by the brain of reality with the help of abstract-logical thinking and speech. 43. Conscious and unconscious Man functions not only at the level of consciousness. Far from everything he is able to realize and analyze. There is also an unconscious level. The unconscious is such a combination of mental properties, processes and states, the influence of which a person does not analyze (does not realize). Being in an unconscious state, a person is not oriented in the place of action, in time, is not able to give an adequate assessment of what is happening, the regulation of behavior with the help of speech is violated. The presence of unconscious urges was considered in experiments on the study of human behavior in a post-hypnotic state. The hypnotized subject was suggested that after the end of the hypnosis session, he needed to perform certain actions: for example, go to a nearby person and untie his tie. Feeling embarrassed, the person nevertheless performed these actions, although he did not understand why he was doing it. Unconscious Phenomena: 1) unconscious mental processes - not always mental processes (sensations, perception, memory and thinking processes, imagination and attitudes) proceed under the control of consciousness: for example, forgetting names is often associated with unpleasant memories in relation to a person who bears this name, or an event, associated with him, inadvertently there is a desire not to remember this person or event; 2) unconscious phenomena that were previously realized by a person, but within a certain time moved to the unconscious level: for example, most of the motor skills that a person constantly uses in his life (walking, writing, speaking, professional possession of various tools, etc.). ); 3) unconscious phenomena related to the personal sphere - desires, thoughts, needs, intentions, which, under the pressure of "censorship", were forced out to the unconscious level. Very often, repressed desires, needs, etc. appear in our dreams in a symbolic form, where they are realized. If the effect of "censorship" is so strong that even in a dream it is blocked by social norms and values, then the dream becomes very confusing and incomprehensible and practically cannot be deciphered. In psychology, there are various directions that interpret dreams from the standpoint of certain scientific schools. Special merit belongs to psychoanalysis and its founder S. Freud. The unconscious, as well as consciousness, is involved in the management of human behavior, but their roles are different. In difficult situations, when constant control over what is happening, increased attention is required, the participation of consciousness is necessary. Such situations include the following: 1) the need to make decisions in intellectually difficult situations; 2) in cases of overcoming physical or psychological resistance; 3) when resolving conflict situations; 4) when finding a solution in unexpected situations that contain a physical or psychological threat. 44. Psychological defense mechanisms The merit of Z. Freud lies in the creation of the theory of psychological defense mechanisms, which also belong to the category of unconscious mental phenomena. Psychological defense mechanisms are a set of such unconscious techniques, thanks to which a person provides his inner comfort, protecting himself from negative experiences and mental trauma. Consider one of the modern options (R. M. Granovskaya). 1. Denial - an unconscious refusal of a person to perceive information that is unpleasant for him. A person can listen carefully, but not perceive information if it poses a threat to his status, prestige. It is hardly possible to achieve the desired result by telling a person "the truth in the eye", since most likely he will simply ignore this information. That is why psychology and pedagogy recommend never discussing a person's personality, but only his negative act. 2. Repression - a person easily forgets the facts of his biography that are unpleasant for him and at the same time, in contrast, gives a false, but acceptable interpretation of these facts. This mechanism is described in Leo Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace" using the example of Nikolai Rostov, who quite sincerely "forgot" about his non-heroic behavior in the first battle, but described his exploits with an emotional upsurge. 3. Rationalization - devaluation of what is unattainable. This mechanism is well described in I. A. Krylov's fable "The Fox and the Grapes", where the fox, unable to reach the grapes, began to convince himself that it was sour ("It looks good, but green - there is no ripe berry : you will immediately set your teeth on edge"). 4. Projection - unconscious attribution of one's own, most often socially condemned qualities to another person. 5. Identification - "merging" oneself with another person. In a child, this mechanism often manifests itself in their unconscious imitation of one of the adults, most often a parent of the same sex, in adults - in the worship of an idol. 6. Substitution - the internal tension that has arisen is removed as a result of redirection from an inaccessible object to an accessible one. The inability to directly express their dissatisfaction with the high authorities, a person takes out on his own subordinates, close people, children, etc. 7. Inclusion - empathy as a way to alleviate one's own internal tension. For example, empathizing with the heroes of another soap opera, people are distracted from their own, sometimes more significant and significant problems. 8. Isolation - emotional ties with people around are broken, and sometimes completely broken, thus protecting a person from situations that traumatize the psyche. Vivid examples of such a mechanism can often be alcoholism, suicide, and vagrancy. 45. The concept of a small group A small group is a small group whose members are united by common social activities and are in direct personal communication, which is the basis for the emergence of emotional relationships, group norms and group processes (Andreeva, 2004) Among the main features of a small group are the following: 1) size - the number of members of the group; 2) the psychological climate of the group - the moral and emotional coloring of relationships in the group; 3) composition - a characteristic of the members of the group (number, gender and age composition, nationality, social status of the members of the group), i.e., the individual composition of the group; 4) the structure of the group - those functions that the members of the group perform, as well as the state of formal and informal relationships in the group; 5) group processes - indicators of actual social relations existing in the group (leadership - leadership, stages of group development, group pressure, etc.); 6) group norms - the rules of conduct that the members of the group adhere to. The characteristics of a small group listed above are the grounds according to which small groups are classified and studied in social psychology. The problem of classifying social groups is understood differently by different researchers. Consider the classification on page 133 proposed by G. M. Andreeva. Conditional - these are groups that unite people who are not members of any small group. Real - really existing associations of people who fully correspond to all the parameters of a small group. Psychologists often deal with a real laboratory group for research purposes, which is created by an experimenter in order to accompany any scientific research, to test a hypothesis. This group exists only during the experiment, after which it disintegrates. Real natural groups are formed regardless of the desire of the experimenter, but arise and exist based on the needs of society or the people included in these groups. Formal groups - existing within the framework of officially recognized organizations. The goals followed by the members of this group are set on the basis of the tasks of the parent organization in which this group is included. Informal groups arise and exist outside of formal organizations. The goals pursued by the members of such groups are personal interests and loyalties, both coinciding with and different from the goals of official organizations. A reference group is any real or conditional group that is especially significant for a person, to which he voluntarily considers himself or whose member he wants to become. The goals of such a group, group norms and values, forms of behavior, expressed thoughts are of particular value for a person, which he wants and tries to follow in life. A non-reference group is of no value to a person, despite the fact that he is a member of it. Underdeveloped groups are distinguished by the absence of a strong psychological community, relationships are not stable, there is no clear distribution of responsibilities, recognized leaders. 46. The concept of a team The team is a group of people united for joint activities, important and necessary for a significant number of people, not only members of this team. Relationships are characterized by trust, openness, mutual respect, etc. R. S. Nemov points out the following requirements for the team: 1) successfully cope with the tasks assigned to him (efficiency in relation to his main activity); 2) have high morals; 3) be distinguished by good human relations; 4) to create for each of its members the possibility of development as a person; 5) be capable of creativity; 6) have an established differentiated system of various business and personal relationships built on a high moral foundation. The following criteria testify to the presence of collectivist relations in the group (R. S. Nemov, 1995): 1) morality - relationships are built on the norms and values of universal morality; 2) responsibility - each member of the team assumes responsibility for the fate of each person, regardless of belonging to this team, while demanding himself, his words and duties, adequately assesses his own achievements, is disciplined; 3) openness is manifested in the ability to build good relations not only with members of one's own team, but also with other groups and teams, and, if necessary, provide all possible assistance; 4) collectivism - caring for the members of the team, counteracting phenomena that can destroy the team; 5) contact - trusting relationships between members of the team; 6) organization - interchangeability, conflict-free distribution of duties, quick elimination of shortcomings in work, etc.; 7) awareness - a clear understanding of the goals, objectives, final and intermediate, joint activities; 8) efficiency - high-quality and timely solution of the tasks facing the team. Moving along the path of its formation, the group, as a rule, does not move along an ascending straight line, but along a sinusoidal line, experiencing ups and downs. A. G. Kirpichnik revealed the following dependence: any group on the way of its development as a team necessarily goes through a period of temporary decline. At the initial stage, as a rule, there is an upsurge, enthusiasm, followed by a more or less noticeable decline. Under the condition of preserving oneself as a group, an ascent follows again, although not to the height at which the group was originally located. Temporary psychological decline is a consequence of the restructuring of interpersonal relationships within the group. Initially, it is built on an emotional basis, then the importance and business qualities of the group members acquire, which cannot be the same for everyone. All this inevitably leads to friction in relationships. In case of successful overcoming of these frictions, the group reaches a higher level of its development. 47. Structure of small groups If we take the position of the individual in the group as the basis for consideration, then we can distinguish the following indicators: 1) position - the official position of a person; 2) status - the place actually occupied by an individual in the system of intra-group relations, the degree of real authority. 3) internal setting is a person's subjective understanding of his position in the group. 4) role - a pattern of behavior set by social norms, expected and approved by the group 5) conformity is opportunism, a conscious unwillingness of a person to go against the opinion of the majority in the group, so as not to create problems for himself in communication. Types and variants of intragroup communication structures: 1) frontal - group members are next to each other and can observe each other without even entering into direct contacts (a class in a lesson, a student group in a lecture, etc.); 2) radial - members of the group do not have the opportunity to directly contact each other, but communicate through the central person 3) hierarchical - implies the presence of at least two (maybe more) levels of subordination, while part of the group can make visual contact, and part does not have such an opportunity; 4) chain - each member of the group (with the exception of two extreme participants) interacts with two neighbors; 5) circular - the possibilities of all members of the group are equal, each can directly observe the reaction of the other; 6) complete - there are no obstacles for free interpersonal communication. Group values - what is most important and significant for a given group; group norms - rules of conduct followed by group members (first level - violations are unacceptable under any circumstances; second level - some deviations are allowed; low level - compliance is not necessary). Researchers identify the following functions of group norms: 1) regulatory; 2) evaluation; 3) stabilizing; 4) authorizing. Group management can be carried out both at the official level - by the leader, and at the informal level - by the leader. In the process of managing a group, both the leader and the leader can use various means of psychological influence, which together determine the style of leadership (leadership). Classically, there are three styles: authoritarian, democratic, liberal. The success of the activity determines the style of leadership. For a group close to the level of the collective, a democratic and sometimes liberal style is preferable. For groups with an average level of development, the best results are obtained by a flexible style that combines elements of directiveness, democracy, and liberality. In underdeveloped groups, the directive style with elements of democracy is most effective. 48. Interpersonal relationships in groups Официальные - relations that are regulated by official duties fixed by law. Unofficial - it is based on personal likes and dislikes of people, which do not have any legal basis and firmly established norms. Business - arise between people about the implementation of joint activities. Personal - relationships that develop between people, regardless of the jointly performed activities. Rational - based on the objective qualities of a person, which are recognized by the majority of people around. Emotional - in assessing a person, they proceed from a subjective opinion about him, which does not always correspond to the true situation. There are various ways to improve the effectiveness of group activities. The size of the group has an ambiguous effect on the effectiveness of the activities performed by the group. The consequence of a change in the number of members of the group, both in one direction and in the other, can be both positive and negative phenomena. The positive effects associated with increasing the number of group members include easier distribution of responsibilities, the emergence of more bright personalities, the ability to do more work in less time, more people participate in the development of a decision, which makes this decision optimal. Negative phenomena: a decrease in cohesion is possible, the likelihood of disintegration into groups increases, difficulties arise in management, a spread of opinions increases, and there is a decrease in the personal responsibility of each for what is happening. Also heterogeneous on the effectiveness of the activity and the impact of the composition. Highly developed groups with a heterogeneous composition of members are better able to cope with complex problems than homogeneous ones. In such situations, in underdeveloped heterogeneous groups, it is advisable to divide people into working subgroups in accordance with psychological compatibility. If the group works in conditions of temporary shortage, and the tasks are relatively simple, then the activity of a homogeneous group will be more effective. Established interpersonal relationships are important for successful work. Otherwise, groups with favorable relationships work more efficiently. The effectiveness of an activity can also be determined by the form of its organization: collective-cooperative (close interaction of each with each and a great possibility of interdependence), individual (each works independently of others), coordinated (correlation of the result with the activities of others). In most cases, with the exception of complex individual creative work, a collective-cooperative form is preferable. The success of the activity determines the style of leadership. For a group close to the level of the collective, a democratic and sometimes liberal style is preferable. For groups with an average level of development, the best results are obtained by a flexible style that combines elements of directiveness, democracy, and liberality. In underdeveloped groups, the directive style with elements of democracy is most effective. 49. The concept and types of communication Communication is a process of interaction between people, which results in the exchange of information. Content - this is the information that is transmitted by living beings during interindividual contacts. Both humans and animals can transmit information about needs, emotional states, and danger signals to each other. In humans, the goals of communication can be quite diverse: for example, development, training and education, establishing business contacts, etc. In animals, the goals of communication are usually limited to the satisfaction of biological needs, in humans it is also the satisfaction of cultural, aesthetic, social, cognitive and other needs. Means of communication - methods by which transmitted information is processed and decrypted. R. S. Nemov finds four types of classification of types of communication for various reasons. 1. By content: 1) material, when in the process of communication, products and objects of activity are exchanged by employees to meet urgent needs; 2) conditional - communication, during which there is a certain influence on the well-being of each other, that is, communication designed to bring each other into a certain physical or mental state; 3) motivational - in the process of communication, attitudes and motives are transmitted that prepare them to perform certain actions; 4) cognitive - the transfer of knowledge to each other; 5) active - the transfer of skills and abilities to another, the exchange of actions and operations. 2. By goals: 1) biological - communication, thanks to which the functioning of the body is preserved, developed and maintained, organic needs are satisfied; 2) social - communication, involving the establishment and development of interpersonal contacts, personal growth. This classification can be extended indefinitely, since one can put forward an innumerable number of private goals of communication, depending on the needs of a person. 3. By means: 1) direct (by using organs given by nature - arms, legs, vocal cords, etc.) and indirect (using special means designed to transmit information - telephone, media, etc.); 2) verbal (using language) and non-verbal (through the use of non-linguistic means - facial expressions, gestures, touch, etc.). 4. Depending on the motives of communication: 1) business - arises in the course of the implementation of any joint activity and is designed to increase the efficiency of this activity; 2) personal - information is transmitted about intrapersonal problems: about the motives and interests of a person, about the search for the meaning of life, about resolving intrapersonal conflicts, etc. 50. The role of communication in the mental development of a person. By nature, a person is endowed with a certain set of the simplest forms of behavior, which are a necessary condition both for survival in the first days after birth, and for mental development in the future. In remote areas of Paraguay, the Guayaquim tribe lives to this day. This people leads a primitive way of life, avoids people, their main food is the honey of wild bees, in search of which they constantly roam. In 1957, the French ethnographer Villard undertook an expedition to study the life of this tribe. In one of the camps, in a hurry to leave it, the members of the tribe left a little girl, whom the scientist took with him to France. After 20 years, this girl became an ethnographer who knew several languages, and was no different from her European peers. The examples given are clear evidence that it is only through human interaction that the infant receives the opportunity for normal mental development. Being in a human society, through communication with their own kind, the child from the first days receives all the information necessary for individual development. Another means of mental development - objective activity - appears only by the second year of life. Let's consider this in more detail. Business conversation - contributes to the formation and development of communicative and organizational abilities of a person. personal communication - affects the development of a person as a person, forms character traits, interests and inclinations, life goals and principles, worldview, etc. Material - provides the necessary items of material and spiritual culture. Conditioning - contributes to the emergence of readiness for learning, optimizes other types of communication. cognitive- develops intellectual abilities. Motivational- an additional energy source of a person. active- Enriches and improves various activities. Biological- a necessary source of self-preservation of the body. The social- serves the development of social forms of life: groups, collectives, etc. Direct- makes it possible to use data from the nature of simple and effective means and methods of learning. mediated- develops the ability to self-education and self-education of a person. non-verbal- provides the possibility of mental development before the active use of speech. verbal- promotes the assimilation and development of speech. 51. Communication techniques and techniques Communication technique - these are the ways that a person resorts to prepare for communication and his behavior in the course of communication. Communication techniques are the most preferred means chosen for the communication process. Psychology of gestures. Verbally transmitted information can be misunderstood if it is accompanied by inappropriate gestures. Knowing the psychology of gestures will help you change your behavior, end negotiations on time, etc., if something does not go as you would like. Opening Gestures: 1) open arms (hands palms up); 2) unbuttoning the jacket. Protection Gestures 1) arms crossed on the chest; 2) hands clenched into a fist. Reflection and critical appraisal: finger along the cheek; tilted head (position of attentive listening); scratching the chin ("okay, let's think"); gestures with glasses, a gesture is also resorted to if time is required to think, while the bow of glasses is taken into the mouth, it is difficult to speak, so it remains to listen carefully, thinking about the answer; walking around the room; pinching of the bridge of the nose. Suspicion and secrecy: sideways glance ("what do you mean?"); protecting the mouth with the hand: during speech - deceit; during the hearing - feels that the interlocutor is lying; 3) touching the nose - option 2 in disguised form; 4) rubbing the eyelid; 5) scratching or rubbing the ear. Warning - you can not build the considered gestures in the absolute. Conversation attitude: 1) legs (or the whole body) are facing the exit - evidence that the person wants to end the meeting, so you should either end the conversation or take it to a more interesting direction; 2) propping the cheek and chin with the palm - evidence of boredom, sometimes confused with a gesture of attentive listening, but in this case the index finger is directed vertically to the temple. Territorial rights: 1) the intimate zone (from 15 to 46 cm) is the psychological property of a person, only a very close person has the right to violate this zone, when a stranger invades, for example, during a crush in public transport, a person experiences irritation and discomfort; 2) personal zone (from 46 cm to 1,2 m) - distance for parties and official meetings; 3) social zone (from 1,2 to 3,6 m) - a zone for communication with strangers, for example, the owner of the apartment and the plumber should be at such a distance so as not to irritate each other; 4) public area (more than 3,6 m) - distance for communication with a large audience. 52. Signs of attention Tokens - these are statements or actions addressed to the interlocutor, the purpose of which is to support a person, improve his well-being. Compliment - This is a verbal sign of attention that does not take into account the specific situation of communication. For example, complimenting an employee about her appearance does not address the fact that she is very upset. Praise - a sign of attention containing an assessment, a comparison with others, and in favor of the one to whom the praise is addressed. "You are better than someone" implies that "someone is worse than you". Adults, believing that a child should be praised more often, and constantly comparing his results with the results of other children, can form an addiction to approval. Without this approval in adulthood, a person begins to experience discomfort. Support - rendering a sign of attention to a person when he needs it, and regarding what there are difficulties at the moment. When a person is supported, they turn to his personality, regardless of his successes and failures, mistakes and achievements. Listening Techniques. The most important condition for productive communication is the ability to listen. The ability to listen does not mean simple silence, it is an active and rather complex process designed to increase the effectiveness of communication. We can distinguish the following types of listening active passive, empathic. Active listening involves clarifying questions, a paraphrase like: "Did I understand you correctly that ...", and you should definitely wait for an answer. This technique is actively used if the interlocutors exchange information. In situations where the interlocutor is in a state of emotional stress, strong emotional arousal, passive listening is effective. Active listening is useless, as the person does not understand their actions very well and does not control emotions. A sympathetic interlocutor provides an opportunity to speak, demonstrating his willingness to support. You should not just be silent, but show your interest with the help of such words: “yep”, “yes”, “of course”, etc. The task of the listener is to keep the conversation going until the interlocutor speaks out, so you can use clarifying questions: "What about you?", "How did you answer?" etc. In cases where problems that are significant for the individual are solved in the process of communication, the use of empathic listening is effective. This technique should be used when the person himself is ready to share his problems with you. Empathic listening assumes that the feelings of the interlocutor, his experiences are reflected, remarks interpreting his motives are not allowed ("so you have it because ..."). 53. Development of communication The process of communication develops both in phylo- and in ontogenesis. In the process of phylogenesis, the content of communication changes. This change manifests itself in the following: 1) saturation with new information: the biological internal state of the organism + information about the important properties of the surrounding world + knowledge about the world. The first two stages are common to humans and animals, the third stage is unique to humans; 2) the emergence of new needs leads to the enrichment of communication goals; 3) the development of means of communication occurs in several directions: a) the development of organs adapted for communication, for example, hands; b) the emergence of the possibility of expressive movements (facial expressions, pantomime); c) the invention and the beginning of the use of iconic forms; d) the emergence, improvement of technical means. In ontogeny, communication develops as follows (Nemov, 1995): 1) from birth to 2 - 3 months - contact, biological in content, communication aimed at meeting the organic needs of the baby. The main tool is elementary gestures and facial expressions; 2) from 2 - 3 months to 8 - 10 months - the stage of initial knowledge, the beginning of the activity of the sense organs, the emergence of a need for new sensations; 3) from 8 - 10 months to 1,5 years - communication becomes coordinated, non-verbal - verbal, the main goal is to satisfy the cognitive need; by the end of the period, the language begins to be actively used as a means of communication; 4) from 1,5 to 3 years - business and gaming communication appears, which is due to the development of objective activities and games. Here is the beginning of the separation of business and personal communication; 5) from 3 to 6 - 7 years - the ability to arbitrarily choose one or another type of communication, depending on natural data or the most mastered method; development of plot-role-playing communication; 6) school age - the accelerated intellectual and personal growth of the child leads to a wide variety of communication content, differentiation of goals and improvement of means; there is a clear separation of business and personal communication. Thus, a psychologically developed person is distinguished by a pronounced need to communicate with various people, a wealth of content, a variety of goals and a wide range of means of communication. 54. The influence of the group on the individual. The well-being of the individual in the group The reference (significant) group can have both a positive and a negative impact on personality development. Positive influence 1) members of the group act as sources of spiritual culture for the individual; 2) in the group there is an assimilation of positive values and social norms; 3) as a result of intragroup communication, communication skills are improved; 4) from members of the group, the individual receives objective information about himself, which contributes to the formation of adequate self-esteem; 5) members of the group support the individual in his activities and undertakings. Bad influence: 1) the loss by the individual of his individuality, the rejection of his own views - "depersonalization"; Reasons for depersonalization: a) anonymity; b) a high level of emotional arousal; c) focusing attention not on one's own behavior, but on what is happening around; d) high group cohesion leads to conformism; e) reduced level of self-consciousness and self-control of the individual (Nemov, 1995); 2) the group can reduce the level of creative potential of highly gifted individuals. Collective creativity is sometimes of a lower quality than the result of the creativity of a gifted individual. 3. The predominance of one or another emotional state in a person during the period of communication with group members is called the emotional state of a person in a group. In many ways, the emotional state of the individual is determined by the psychological climate of the group. If an unhealthy atmosphere prevails, then there are frequent conflicts - both between individual members of the group and between individual groups within the group. Intra-group conflicts are dangerous in their consequences. Thus, it has been experimentally proven that the time spent on the conflict itself is approximately two times less than the time spent on post-conflict experiences (the difference was approximately 12-20 minutes). Negative relationships in the group contribute to the formation of increased anxiety in the individual, provoke interpersonal conflicts. Anxiety is manifested in an increased tendency of the individual to negative experiences, to the expectation of an unfavorable development of events. Distinguish between personal and situational anxiety. Personal anxiety is a property of an individual's personality. Situational anxiety - a state of anxiety occurs during temporary adverse situations. 55. People's perception and understanding of each other Factors affecting people's perception of each other: 1) implicit personality theory, according to which the appearance and behavior of a person determines the presence of certain character traits. Communicating throughout life with various people, a person accumulates in memory an impression of their appearance and behavior. Long-term memory retains only a generalized image of these individuals. Subsequently, when meeting outwardly similar people, a person projects onto them his memories of previously met, and ascribes (correctly or incorrectly) to them those character traits that are included in the saved image; 2) the primacy effect (halo effect) - the first impression of a person is so strong that it can influence the formation of a stable opinion about him. It is noted that if the first impression is positive, then we tend to filter out the insignificant negative qualities of this person, consistent with the first impression. The opposite happens if the first impression is negative. The halo effect can have both a positive and a negative effect on perception; 3) the effect of novelty - the information stored in the memory of the latter has a stronger influence on the formation of a person's image and its assessment than the previous one, with the exception of the very first impression. The halo and novelty effects can be explained by the previously studied edge effect (see the topic "Memory"). When people perceive each other, facial expressions, especially eyes and lips, and hand movements, especially fingers, are of paramount importance. Evaluation of emotional states. As experimental data show, people in 30-50% of cases give incorrect estimates of the emotional states of the people around them, and positive emotions are evaluated more correctly than negative ones. Among the most correctly assessed positive emotions are joy, then admiration. Such negative emotions as resentment, anger, longing are poorly evaluated. Forms of perception and understanding of a person by a person: 1) analytical - common among artists and doctors who associate each external feature of a person (eyes, hair, hands, etc.) with a certain personality trait; 2) emotional - the presence of personal qualities is determined based on the emotional attitude towards a person (mechanisms of novelty and primacy). The most common among children and adolescents, as well as easily excitable people with figurative memory and thinking; 3) perceptual-associative - attention is drawn to the external manifestations of a person, which are compared with the images stored in the memory, on the basis of which an assessment is given to this individual. This method is most often used by older people, actors, leaders, doctors and teachers; 4) social-associative - the perceived person is evaluated by virtue of the prevailing social stereotypes. 56. Interpersonal conflicts Interpersonal conflicts. Interpersonal conflicts in their development go through four stages: the emergence of a conflict situation, awareness of this situation as an objective reality, conflict behavior, conflict resolution. Researchers identify the five most common ways of behaving in conflict. 1. Cooperation - is optimal in almost all conflict situations. 2. Compromise - this method should be resorted to if the partner provoked a "fire" situation. 4. Adaptation - perhaps if the partner is really right. 5. Rivalry - the most commonly used method, but its effectiveness is minimal. Principles of conflict management: 1) it is necessary to decide whether it is really necessary to aggravate the situation, bringing it to a conflict. 2) own emotions interfere with the correct assessment of the situation, therefore, control over their manifestation should be exercised; 3) it is necessary to analyze the true causes of the conflict, which may be hidden behind imaginary ones; 4) strive to localize the boundaries of the conflict as much as possible; 5) abandon excessive focus on self-defense; 6) it may be useful to reformulate the opponent's arguments; 7) the manifestation of activity even in case of defeat will help to keep the initiative in one's hands. Ways to resolve the conflict: 1) direct methods - when work is carried out directly with the participants in the conflict: 2) indirect methods, proposed by A. B. Dobrovich, suggest the "arbitrator" as the main character in resolving the conflict: a) the principle of the release of feelings - it is possible to freely express one's negative emotions about someone or something that he has done, which usually removes the intensity of passions; b) the principle of emotional compensation - effective sympathy for the wrong, and usually both are wrong, which most often gives rise to a manifestation of repentance in him; c) the principle of an authoritative third (remaining a secret for those in conflict) - the use of a well-known and respected person as a "messenger of goodwill"; d) the principle of forced hearing, when the "third" invites the conflicting parties to answer the opponent only after they repeat the last remark or the meaning of the tirade, which, as a rule, clearly demonstrates to the quarreling that they do not hear each other; e) the principle of exchanging positions - the same "authoritative third" offers the warring parties to change places and continue the quarrel on behalf of each other, which allows them to see themselves from the outside through the eyes of the other; f) the principle of expanding the spiritual horizon of the disputants - is implemented by recording a quarrel on a dictaphone and presenting it to the conflicting ones, which usually causes not only their surprise, but even a state of shock from what they heard. Author: Bogachkina N.A.
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