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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
History of world and domestic culture. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
Introduction to cultural history Before talking about the history of culture, it is necessary to reveal the content of the main concept of the topic. To date, there are at least 1 definitions of the concept of "culture". The word "culture", in addition, has several meanings in the Russian language. Perhaps the simplest and at the same time comprehensive is the following definition (definition): "Culture" is everything created by man, because animals do not have culture. Culture is the product of exclusively human activity." By the term "culture" we will understand not only all material, but also spiritual values created by a person in a specific period of his existence and in a certain territory, as well as the spirit of an era, a nation (what is usually denoted by the word mentality). This will give us the right to classify world culture according to the following principles: 1. According to temporal characteristics (ancient, medieval, modern culture, etc.) 2. On a territorial basis (Arabic, Chinese culture, etc.). The purpose of this manual is to acquaint the reader with the history of world culture, some terms that every educated person should know, as well as to give an idea of the specifics and patterns of development of world cultures, to highlight the values that dominate in a particular culture, their meaning and meaning. Unfortunately, we will not be able to consider the world culture in full within the framework of this manual. Such interesting pages as the culture of the American Indians, African culture, etc. will remain outside of it. However, we hope that this manual will find application in the educational process and become an incentive for self-expanding one's knowledge. LECTURE No. 1. Culture of Ancient Russia 1. Culture of the pagan period The history of the Old Russian state began long before the adoption of Christianity. The Christian culture of Russia was based on the pagan layer of culture. The earliest information about ancient Russian culture is contained in the Tale of Bygone Years, the first significant all-Russian chronicle. It is recorded there that Prince Vladimir the Holy wanted to create an all-Russian pagan Pantheon of gods. The main god of the Russians is Perun the Thunderer. It was believed that he lived in elevated places, was depicted as a horseman and had attributes - thunder and lightning, an ax. The "cattle god" Beles also occupied an important position (cattle in those days were identified with money). The weather was controlled by Stribog (wind god) and Dazhdbog (sun god). Of considerable importance was the female deity - Mokosh the spinner - the goddess of fate (thread - fate). The most cheerful and wild god is the god of fertility Yarilo. The epic gradually took shape. His plots were preserved mainly in epics recorded many centuries later ("Mikhailo Potok", "Danube", "Volga and Mikula", about the heroes Dobrynya Nikitich and Ilya Muromets). The most important feature of culture is undoubtedly the art of building, that is, architecture. No wonder they say that architecture is the soul of the people, embodied in stone. Russia for many years was a country of wood, and its architecture, pagan chapels, fortresses, towers, huts were built of wood. In the tree, Russian people, like the peoples living next to the Eastern Slavs, first of all expressed their perception of the beauty of architecture, a sense of proportion, the fusion of architectural structures with the surrounding nature. If wooden architecture dates back mainly to pagan Russia, then stone architecture is associated with Christian Russia. Western Europe did not know such a transition, since from ancient times it built both temples and stone dwellings. Unfortunately, the ancient wooden buildings have not survived to this day, but the architectural style of the people has come down to us in later wooden structures, in ancient descriptions and drawings. Russian wooden architecture was characterized by a multi-tiered structure, crowning them with turrets and towers, the presence of various kinds of outbuildings - cages, passages, canopies. Intricate wood carving was a traditional decoration of Russian wooden buildings. Pagan Russia knew painting, sculpture, music, but in an exclusively pagan, folk expression. Ancient wood carvers, stone cutters created wooden and stone sculptures of pagan gods and spirits. Painters painted the walls of pagan temples, made sketches of magical masks, which were then made by artisans; musicians, playing stringed and woodwind instruments, entertained the tribal leaders and entertained the common people. 2. Life of Russia The culture of the people is inextricably linked with their way of life, everyday life, just as the way of life of the people, determined by the level of development of the country's economy, is closely connected with cultural processes. All the testimonies of contemporaries indicate that Kyiv was a large and rich city. No wonder the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Anna Yaroslavna, who married the French king in the XNUMXth century, was surprised by the provinciality of the French capital. In Kyiv, golden-domed churches shone with their domes, the palaces of Vladimir, Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich struck with grace; Sophia Cathedral, the Golden Gate - a symbol of the victories of Russian weapons, surprised with monumentality, wonderful frescoes. The houses were decorated with carpets and expensive fabrics. From the fortress walls of the city one could see in the green bushes the white-stone churches of the Caves and other Kyiv monasteries. In palaces, rich boyar mansions, life went on. Vigilantes were stationed here, countless servants crowded. From here came the administration of the principalities, here they judged and dressed, tribute and taxes were brought here. Feasts were often held in the hallways, in spacious gridirons, where overseas wine and their native honey flowed like a river, servants carried huge dishes with meat and game. Women sat at the table on an equal footing with men. The harpists delighted the ears of eminent guests, sang to them; large bowls, horns with wine went in a circle. The favorite pastimes of rich people were falconry and hawk hunting. Races, tournaments, various games were arranged for the common people. Baths were an integral part of ancient Russian life. Below, on the banks of the Dnieper, a merry Kyiv market was noisy, where goods and products were sold not only from all over Russia, but from all over the then world, including India and Baghdad. Hundreds of large and small ships crowded at the piers of the Dnieper. There were also huge princely multi-oared and multi-sail boats, and lively, nimble boats. On long winter evenings, by the light of torches, women spun, men drank intoxicating drinks, honey, remembered the days gone by, composed and sang songs, listened to storytellers and storytellers of epics. LECTURE No. 2. Christian culture of Russia 1. Achievements of the Christian culture of Russia By the time of the adoption of Christianity, Russia was already a country with a distinctive culture. Crafts and wood construction techniques reached a high level. Not later than the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries. Slavic alphabets - Cyrillic and Glagolitic - are spreading in Russia. Created in the second half of the XNUMXth century by the brothers Cyril (Konstantin) and Methodius and having an initial distribution in the West Slavic state of Great Moravia, they soon penetrate into Bulgaria and Russia. The first Russian monument of Slavic writing is the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 911. The appearance in Russia after the adoption of Christianity of literature in the Slavic language, on the one hand, and the complication of public life with the development of feudal relations, the formation of a state structure, on the other, contributed to the widespread spread of literacy. A clear evidence of this is birch bark letters - letters on birch bark of various (mainly business) content. They were discovered during excavations already in nine ancient Russian cities (the bulk of the finds come from Novgorod). In the XI - early XII centuries. a large number of translated works (mainly from Greek) of both religious and secular content are distributed in Russia. The latter include, in particular, historical writings, among which one can single out the translation of the Byzantine Chronicle of George Amartol. At the same time, the formation of original literature takes place. The earliest of the works of ancient Russian literature that have come down to us is Illarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace". It was written in the middle of the 1051th century. Metropolitan Hilarion, the first (and the only one in the period from the adoption of Christianity to the middle of the XNUMXth century), Russian by origin, the head of the Russian Church. (Since XNUMX, being appointed by Yaroslav the Wise without the sanction of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and, shortly after the death of Yaroslav, forced to leave this post). The main idea of the "Sermon on Law and Grace" is the entry of Russia after the adoption of Christianity into the family of Christian peoples, in which the author sees the merit of Prince Vladimir and his son Yaroslav, who continued the work of spreading the new faith. At the same time, the pre-Christian past of Russia in the eyes of Illarion does not look like "dark ages", on the contrary, he emphasizes that Vladimir, his father Svyatoslav and grandfather Igor "dominated not in a thin and unknown land, but in Russian, which is known and heard in all four corners earth". In the second half of the XI - the beginning of the XII century. a number of original works arose in Russia, among which stands out a cycle of legends about the first Russian saints - princes Boris and Gleb and the "Life" of the abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Theodosius, written by the monk of this monastery Nestor. 2. Genre chronicle The most important place in ancient Russian literature is occupied by the chronicle genre. Some researchers believe that its appearance can be attributed to the end of the XNUMXth century, when the first annalistic code was created. The Tale of Bygone Years unfolds a wide canvas of Russian history, which is considered as part of world history (biblical and Roman-Byzantine history). The author used a number of translated Byzantine sources, oral legends (about the founding of Kyiv, about the calling of the Varangian princes, about Princess Olga and a number of others: works belonging to the hand of Prince Vladimir Monomakh - "Teaching children" and a list of "paths" - campaigns and trips that Monomakh committed during his life). 3. Construction of churches From Byzantium, Russia adopted the construction of its churches in the image of the cross-domed temple of the Greeks: a square divided by four pillars forms its basis; the rectangular cells adjacent to the dome space form an architectural cross. The first Russian churches, including the Church of the Tithes, at the end of the XNUMXth century. were built by Greek masters in strict accordance with Byzantine traditions, but St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv reflected a combination of Slavic and Byzantine traditions: thirteen cheerful domes of the new temple were placed on the basis of the cross-domed church. This stepped pyramid of St. Sophia Cathedral resurrected the style of Russian wooden architecture. Sophia Cathedral, created at the time of the assertion and rise of Russia under Yaroslav the Wise, showed that construction is also politics. With this temple, Russia challenged Byzantium, its recognized shrine - the St. Sophia Cathedral of Constantinople. 4. Church art The Christian Church introduced a completely different content into painting, sculpture, and music. Church art is subordinated to the highest goal - to sing the Christian God, the exploits of the apostles, saints, church leaders. It was created mainly according to church canons, where everything that contradicted the highest Christian principles was cut off. Asceticism and rigor in painting (icon painting, mosaics, frescoes), sublimity, "divinity" of Greek church prayers and hymns, the temple itself, which becomes a place of prayerful communication of people - all this was characteristic of Byzantine art. If this or that religious, theological theme was strictly established in Christianity once and for all, then its expression in art, in the opinion of the Byzantines, should have carried this idea only once and for all in an established manner; the artist became an obedient executor of the canons dictated by the church. LECTURE No. 3. Russian culture of the era of fragmentation 1. General features of the culture of the era of fragmentation 1. The era of fragmentation covers the XII-XV centuries. Russian history and the beginning of the XVI century. For the Russian spiritual culture of the middle of the XII-XIII centuries. the emergence of original cultural centers in different regions of Russia is characteristic. The main role in this process was played by large and strong principalities, such as: 1) Galicia-Volyn; 2) Vladimir-Suzdal; 3) Veliky Novgorod. By the middle of the XIV century. Gaining strength in the struggle for power, a new principality in the political arena - Moscow. The annals are widely developed. Any serious monuments in the field of material and spiritual culture of the XIII century. after the Mongol-Tatar invasion was not preserved. From the second half of the XIII century. In comparison with the previous period, an insignificant number of annals has come down, and they are distinguished by a more concise and dry presentation than the annals of previous periods. Literature is actively developing. Before the Battle of Kulikovo, the story "About the Battle of the Kalka", "The Story of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", stories about Alexander Nevsky were widely disseminated. Church ("hagiographic") literature also became widespread. The "Life" of Dmitry Donskoy reveals the deep patriotism and unity of the Russian people. Talented church writers Pakhomiy Logofet, Epiphanius the Wise compiled biographies of the largest church figures in Russia: Metropolitan Peter, who transferred the center of the metropolis to Moscow, Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. From the beginning of the XIV century. there has been a new upsurge of culture in the Russian lands, which continued during the XIV-XV centuries. Large cities of Russia were expanded and restored. In 1408, the All-Russian chronicle code was compiled. In 1442, the first Russian Chronograph, compiled by Pachomius Logofet, appeared - a world history that included the history of Russia. Stone construction and church painting continue to develop. In architecture, there is a combination of local traditions, forms borrowed from Byzantium and elements of the Western European Romanesque style. 2. Culture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' The first independent Vladimir-Suzdal prince was the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky. In North-Eastern Russia, a remarkable work of ancient Russian literature was created - "The Word of Daniel the Sharpener". For many centuries in Russia, the art of wood carving, and later - stone carving, developed and improved. The white-stone carving of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia during the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest, clearly expressed in the decorations of palaces and cathedrals, became a remarkable feature of ancient Russian art. Simultaneously with the court church, Yuri Dolgoruky founded the Transfiguration Cathedral (1152-1157) in the city of Pereslavl-Zalessky founded by him. Yuri's successor, Prince Andrei, decided to make the young city of Vladimir the capital of the principality he had inherited. Under Vladimir, Andrei founded a castle town called Bogolyubov, and he himself received the nickname Bogolyubsky. Andrei did not want to own Kyiv: he dreamed of turning Vladimir into a new Kyiv, which would not be inferior to the famous model. In Vladimir, in the princely courtyard, there was the Church of the Savior; they entered the city through the Golden Gate (1164). The new Vladimir Assumption Cathedral (1158-1160), founded by Andrei, surpassed all the cathedrals of Hagia Sophia in Russia in height. The walls and pillars in it were thinner than in the buildings of Yuri Dolgoruky; instead of protrusions-blades spreading along the wall, flat 4-sided semi-columns were constructed. For the first time Vladimir townspeople saw carved stone reliefs. On one of them, griffins (fantastic creatures with a lion's body, eagle's head and wings) lifted Alexander the Great to heaven. In Bogolyubovoye there is a building that has become a symbol of ancient Russian architecture - the famous Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165). The prince ordered to put it where r. The Nerl flows into the Klyazma, in memory of his son, young Izyaslav, who died in battle with the Volga Bulgars. 3. Culture of Veliky Novgorod For several centuries, Novgorod the Great was the "second capital" of Russia after Kyiv. This city was famous for its population and wealth. The princes of Kyiv "placed" their eldest sons on the throne of Novgorod. The Novgorod birch bark documents that have survived to this day testify to the presence of a high level of literacy among the urban population. In Novgorod, an original version of an Orthodox church is presented, and although it is less connected with the embodiment of Byzantine architectural consciousness than in Kyiv, in expressiveness and brevity it is akin to the nature of northern nature. In the second half of the XIII century. in Novgorod, stone construction came to a standstill. The city escaped the Mongol-Tatar invasion, but was forced to repel the onslaught of the Germans and Swedes, and then take on a fair share of the payments of the Horde tribute. Tver and Novgorod were the first to resume the tradition of stone construction. Already in 1292, Novgorodians began to build the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna, and in the 1360th century, a number of temples were created on Novgorod land, which are now considered remarkable creations of ancient Russian architecture. Among them are the churches of Fyodor Stratilat on the Brook (1374) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyina Street (XNUMX). 4. Creating a special style of temple building In the second half of the XIII - the middle of the XIV century. Novgorod masters created a special style of temple construction. The small size of churches was dictated not only by the fact that funds from the citywide treasury were no longer used for church buildings. Parishioners collected money for the construction, taking into account their own interests and opportunities. Customers from among the rich townspeople sought to ensure that their church was distinguished by the elegance of forms and original decor. The facades of temple buildings began to be covered with small figured niches, recesses in the form of rosettes, and crosses made of hewn brick. The drums of the domes were surrounded by rows of coquettish arches and triangles. The three-lobed covering, emphasized by a decorative arch, eventually turned into a favorite technique of Novgorod architects and became in the XIV-XV centuries. a true architectural symbol of the Novgorod style of temple construction. Novgorod architects of the post-Mongol era switched to other building materials: church buildings were laid out mainly from roughly hewn limestone slabs and boulders. In Novgorod the Great, in addition to church architecture, secular architecture developed. The stone Chamber of Facets was erected, in which noble boyars gathered for advice. The Novgorod school of painting developed later than the schools of other principalities. Its characteristic features were the clarity of the idea, the reality of the image, and accessibility. From the XII century. Remarkable creations of Novgorod painters have come down to us: the icon "Angel with Golden Hair", where, for all the Byzantine conventionality of the appearance of an Angel, one feels a quivering and beautiful human soul. Or the icon "The Savior Not Made by Hands" (also from the XNUMXth century), in which Christ, with his expressive break in his eyebrows, appears as a formidable, understanding judge of the human race. In the icon "Assumption of the Virgin" in the faces of the apostles all the sorrow of loss is captured. And the Novgorod land gave a lot of such masterpieces. Suffice it to recall, for example, the famous frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa near Novgorod (end of the XNUMXth century). 5. Moscow principality In Moscow, which led the process of collecting Russian lands, the most active construction was carried out. In the center of the Kremlin, on Cathedral Square, the Ivan the Great Bell Tower appeared (completed under Boris Godunov). Information about the first stone church in Moscow is contradictory. The chronicle calls the Assumption Cathedral, built in 1327 under Prince Ivan Danilovich, nicknamed Kalita. But a century and a half after the construction, the cathedral building was very dilapidated and in the early 70s. XV century was dismantled during the construction of a new Assumption Cathedral. The construction was carried out without delay, and two years later the walls of the temple were almost ready. But on the night of May 20, 1474, the northern wall of the building brought to the vaults suddenly collapsed. There were several versions of the cause of the disaster. The news has survived that the cathedral collapsed due to an earthquake. After the fall of the wall, Grand Duke Ivan III took care of the continuation of construction. On the advice of Sophia, his second wife, who lived for many years in Rome, he settled on Aristotle Fioravanti of Boshi. Four years later (1479), the building was completed. A majestic snow-white cathedral rose on the central square of the Moscow Kremlin, reminiscent of the temples of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia of the XNUMXth century. Fioravanti managed to organically combine the traditions and principles of Russian architecture with the advanced technical achievements of European architecture. The five-domed Assumption Cathedral was the largest public building of that time. In 1484-1489. Pskov craftsmen erected the Cathedral of the Annunciation - the house church of the Moscow sovereigns. Not far from it was built the tomb of the Moscow Grand Dukes - the Archangel Cathedral. At the end of the XV century. The Faceted Chamber was built, which got its name from the "facets" that adorned the outer walls. The Faceted Chamber was part of the royal palace, its throne room. The Moscow Kremlin has become a kind of symbol of the power and strength of the state that has developed around Moscow. In some cathedrals, colored (majolica) floors were made, copper doors with various images and decorations, gilded carved crosses, and internal and external wall painting was carried out. 6. Painting of the XIV-XV centuries Painting of the XIV-XV centuries. rose to a new, higher level of its development. In Novgorod, when painting the Volotovo Church, and later - in Moscow at the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries. the artist Theophanes the Greek worked. He worked together with Simeon Cherny on the design of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, and also participated in the design of the Archangel Cathedral in Moscow. The largest Russian artist of the late XIV - early XV century. was Andrey Rublev. Together with Theophan the Greek and the painter Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The famous work "Trinity" belongs to his pen. For Rublev's work, a departure from the church canons of painting is typical, his works are striking in their emotionality, depth and truthfulness of the image of people. Great development in the XIV-XV centuries. reached Russian applied art. Outstanding examples of jewelry, wood and stone carving, wooden sculpture, and silk embroidery have been preserved. The rise of Russian culture reflected the development of the Great Russian people. LECTURE No. 4. Russian culture in the XNUMXth century 1. General characteristics of the era The process of folding a single centralized state was reflected in the development of Russian culture. Many features of the development of local cultural traditions were lost. Entire icon-painting schools disappeared, as happened, for example, with Tver icon-painting. Art of the XNUMXth century closely related to the interests of the state. In the reign of Ivan IV, the state began to directly control art. Such measures, of course, harmed art, encouraging handicraft and thoughtless repetition of "models". Second half of the XNUMXth century turned out to be unfavorable for the development of Russian culture. Due to the crises of domestic and foreign policy, as well as the disasters of the late XVI century. many cultural processes go deep and declare themselves again only in the next century. 2. Science and literacy During this period, literacy develops in Russia. Knowledge of writing and counting was required in many branches of activity. Birch bark letters from Novgorod and other centers, various written records (chronicles, stories, etc.), inscriptions on handicrafts indicate that literate people were never translated into Russia. Wealthy people kept written records of their households; from the XNUMXth century various types of accounting books have been preserved. There are guides for: 1) grammar; 2) arithmetic; 3) treatment with herbs (alphabets, herbalists, etc.). Accumulated: 1) practical observations; 2) knowledge of construction equipment (were necessary in the construction of buildings); 3) knowledge of dynamics (calculations of the flight range of stones, nuclei). The circle of geographical knowledge was expanded by Russian travelers. They left descriptions of their travels. Such are the merchants V. Poznyakov, T. Korobeinikov (holy places, 2nd half of the XNUMXth century). Russian people, penetrating to the north, to Siberia, made descriptions, "drawings" of new lands; ambassadors - article lists with information about foreign states. An overview of world history was given by "Chronographs" of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, which glorified the activities of princes, church hierarchs, canonized saints, as well as "Life" (Dmitry Donskoy, Sergius of Radonezh, Stefan of Perm, etc.). Translated literary works were in circulation; from them, as well as various collections, educated Russian people drew thoughts, sayings of Democritus, Aristotle and other philosophers and writers. 3. Life and social thought In the writings of religious freethinkers-heretics of the XNUMXth century. bold judgments are preached about the need for a "cheap" church, the meaninglessness of church sacraments and icons. The theses about the trinity of God, the immaculate conception are disputed. The equality of people, peoples, faiths is proclaimed. These reformative, humanistic ideas were strangled in the beginning and middle of the XNUMXth century. A notable feature of the XNUMXth century - the rise of journalism. The most important issues of society become the subject of wide discussion not only by church, but also by secular authors who develop ideas: 1) centralization; 2) strengthening the grand ducal and royal power; 3) the role of the church; 4) about the situation of the peasantry, etc. In the middle and 3rd quarter of the century, a whole galaxy of publicists appeared with their works. I. S. Peresvetov in the autumn of 1549 submitted proposals for reforms to the young Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible. Ermolai-Erasmus, an opponent of nonpossessors and heretics, proposes to alleviate the situation of the peasants. He expressed this idea especially vividly in his treatise "The Ruler and Surveying of the Benevolent King". Sylvester, the king's confessor, comes from the conviction of the need for "righteous acquisition" (that is, profit). These ideas are also developed on the pages of "Domostroy" (in modern terms - home economics) - a set of everyday, moral rules, teachings, which he edited. The most prominent publicists of the oprichnina era were Tsar Ivan the Terrible and his opponent, Prince Andrei Kurbsky. The prince, who fled from Russia to Lithuania from the repressions unleashed by the suspicious and cruel tsar, exposes his behavior and terrorist methods of government. The tsar, reproaching Kurbsky for treason, proceeds from the principle: the tsar is free to pardon, they say, his subjects-serfs, and to execute him too. His opponent, not accepting the royal "fierce", believes that the monarch should rule together with "wise advisers", listen to them, and not be an unlimited autocratic tyrant. They treat the state as a divine creation. True, they draw the opposite conclusions from this. Ivan - about the right to autocracy, Kurbsky - about the sovereign's duty to take care of his subjects. In "The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir" the most important ideas of the official doctrine of autocracy were substantiated, and the family of Moscow sovereigns was erected to "August Caesar". The question of the nature of power was discussed in the controversy between the Josephites and nonpossessors. Nil Sorsky (the leader of the nonpossessors) did not take part in the controversy, but his student, the former disgraced prince Vassian Patrikeyev, paid great attention to it. The second kind of academy in Moscow was the circle of Metropolitan Macarius. From his midst, in particular, came such a monumental collection of ancient Russian literature as the "Great Honored Menaion". The ideology of the Orthodox Church was developed in such journalistic works as the messages of the Elder of the Pskov-Pechora Monastery Philotheus (in the 20s), "The Tale of the Novgorod White Klobuk", the creation of which a number of researchers date back to the 1453th century. These works preach the ideas of the sinfulness of the entire Catholic faith and the role of Russia as the only center of true Christianity after the fall of Constantinople in XNUMX. 4. The appearance of printing in Russia The emergence of book printing in Russia was of great importance. The printing of books began only in the middle of the 1550th century, under Ivan the Terrible. At first it was the so-called. "non-exit printing" (from the 50s), then - with imprint data (i.e., indicating the place, year of publication, etc.). In the early 1563s. XNUMXth century The first printing house begins its activity in Moscow. In XNUMX, Ivan Fedorov began to work in Moscow. He was not only a publisher, but also an editor of books. His first editions in Moscow were books of Holy Scripture. Under unclear circumstances, Ivan Fedorov was forced to move to Lvov. In the XVI century. life basically retained its former features. But there was also something new. They began to use spices in rich houses (cinnamon, cloves, etc.), lemons, raisins, almonds; sausage eaten with buckwheat porridge. The fashion for skullcaps (tafias) spread - this was condemned by the Stoglavy Cathedral. More stone houses were built, although most of them remained wooden. Russians were fond of playing checkers and chess. Interest in narrative, fiction literature, characteristic of the 2nd half of the XNUMXth century, has declined significantly. 5. Painting In the XVI century. The themes of ancient Russian painting began to expand significantly. Much more often than before, artists turn to the plots and images of the Old Testament, to the instructive narratives of parables and, most importantly, to the legendary-historical genre. Never before has a historical theme occupied so much space in the works of icon painters. In this regard, more and more penetrate into artistic creativity: 1) genre; 2) interest in everyday life; 3) more and more often Russian realities appear in the compositions. The so-called conditionally "Hellenistic" architecture is gradually being replaced by Russian icons. At the same time, in the painting of the XVI century. there is a perceptible inclination towards abstract "philosophizing". The church and the state tightly controlled iconography, so at that time iconographic originals (collections of samples), which established the iconography of the main plot compositions, as well as individual characters, became widespread. Moscow painting of the late 15th century. marked by considerable achievements. This is due to the work of outstanding masters - Dionysius and his school. He himself and his assistants decorated with frescoes the cathedrals of the Joseph-Volokolamsk, Pafnutievo-Borovsky, Ferapontov monasteries and others. Through their efforts, the iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin was created. In the depiction of the Mother of God, who was considered the patroness of Moscow, other characters from biblical history are struck by the bright colors and decorativeness, which later became distinctive features of Russian icon painting of the 16th-17th centuries. The creations of Dionysius, a skilled master, according to the chronicler, and other artists are permeated with an atmosphere of victorious jubilation, solemnity, and confidence. They vividly reflected the main milestones of their time: 1) gaining independence from the Horde; 2) unification of Russian lands; 3) the creation of a single state headed by Moscow. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries, on the one hand, the predominance of the Moscow school of painting in Russia is determined; on the other hand, her assimilation of the traditions of local schools, which were gradually leveled under the influence of the all-Russian cultural center, which Moscow has become with its masters, ideas, aspirations. The brilliance and careful attention to detail, the elegance and subtlety of the drawing are characteristic of the icons of the so-called Stroganov school. Its representatives (Prokopiy Chirin, Nikifor Savin, and others) worked in Moscow, but often carried out orders from the Stroganovs, the rich Sol-Vychegda. Their works, bright, colorful, miniature, resemble jewelry. They had a great influence on the development of Russian art; for example, their traditions are still preserved by Palekh masters. That little of everything that painting of the late XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries gave to Russian art can be defined as: 1) skill in drawing; 2) the brightness of the colorful range; 3) a joyful feeling of being; 4) the rise of the national spirit. But at the same time, there is a certain departure from the mighty examples of Andrei Rublev and Theophan the Greek, a decrease in the heroic breath of art from the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. At the same time, the progressive development of painting prepared his future successes. 6. Architecture The most outstanding achievement of Russian architecture at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. was the construction of the buildings of the Moscow Kremlin. Old, dilapidated buildings were replaced with new ones. 1. Uspensky. 2. Arkhangelsk. 3. Cathedral of the Annunciation. 4. Temple-pillar of Ivan the Great. For ceremonial receptions, the Faceted Chamber was built. A whole complex of buildings made up the palace of the Grand Duke. Finally, new fortress walls and archers (towers) appeared. In the XVI century. built on a larger scale. Many churches and cathedrals were erected throughout the country. Some of them have taken an outstanding place in domestic and world architecture. Such, for example, is the famous Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow (now within the city). It was built (1532) on the occasion of the birth of the son of Ivan, the future Tsar of the Terrible, at the Grand Duke Vasily III. The model for the building was the old wooden hipped-roof churches. The Pokrovsky Cathedral (Church of the Intercession of the Mother of God), or St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow, the greatest monument of tent architecture, in essence, a complex of nine churches, looks just as fabulous. It was built by Russian architects - Barma and Postnik in 1555-1560. Initially, the temple was white, and it received its motley coloring only in the XNUMXth century. Masters of filigree (filigree), chased, foundry, jewelry, silk sewing achieve high perfection. The art of bass stamping and enamel flourished. Jewelers created gold items of amazing beauty and elegance (for example, the golden dish of Tsarina Maria Temryukovna, presented to her by Ivan the Terrible in 1561). In general, Russian culture of the XVI century. is of great importance. Firstly, it fully reflected the final transition from a fragmented Russia to a centralized state with its new requirements for art. Further, she was able to withstand the ideological pressure of the 2nd half of the century and prepare the consciousness of the Russian people for the significant changes and shifts that took place in the cultural development of the XNUMXth century. LECTURE No. 5. Russian culture of the XNUMXth century 1. General trends in Russian culture of the XNUMXth century XNUMXth century in the history of Russian culture, as well as in the history of Russia in general, - the beginning of a new period. At this time, the secularization of culture takes place, a turning point in the consciousness of man and society. The Russian people in the turbulent years of the Time of Troubles, popular uprisings and wars, advances to Siberia and the Far East realized himself as a person. 2. Literature, education, science The heyday of Russian social thought in the 1st quarter of the XNUMXth century. associated with the appearance of a number of narratives of spiritual and secular authors about the events of the Time of Troubles. The most prominent representative in the official literature of the XVII century. was a monk Simeon of Polotsk. The folk accusatory trend is "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum", written by himself. The author was the inspirer of the movement of the Old Believers and preached the ideas of ancient piety. Throughout the century, a variety of everyday stories have appeared that depict the everyday life of ordinary people. Signs of secularization are also found in enlightenment - by the end of the century, every second or third city dweller could read and write. At the same time, literacy training ceased to be a church privilege. The men were trained. There were few literate women. They taught, first of all, the elementary alphabet according to the alphabet books. In 1634, V. Burtsev's primer was published and repeatedly republished over the course of a century. The question arose about the establishment of schools. In 1680, a school was founded at the Printing House, the main discipline in which was the Greek language; in 1687 - the Slavic-Greek-Latin School, and then the Academy, where both secular and spiritual disciplines were taught. The range of reading has expanded significantly. From the XNUMXth century a lot of books, printed and especially handwritten, have been preserved. Among them, along with the church, there are more and more secular ones: 1) chronicles and chronographs; 2) stories and legends. The kings and noble boyars had libraries with hundreds of books in different languages. Many foreigners came to Russia, well-versed in various fields of scientific and technical knowledge. They lived on the outskirts of Moscow in the German settlement, which the inhabitants of the capital called Kukuy (Kokuy). They looked at them with greedy curiosity and fear: dancing, smoking, the free manner of communication between men and women were unusual for a Russian person. Scientific knowledge also developed. Russians were famous as masters of metal processing, foundry business. Bells were cast well in Russia, their "crimson ringing" was famous throughout the country. The Russian masters of construction equipment, the construction of wooden and stone buildings, were equally successful and reliable. When constructing water mills and, which is especially significant and important, iron-working and other manufactories used water engines. Expanded geographical knowledge, ideas about Russia, its territory and the peoples living on it, the vast expanses of Siberia and the Far East. 3. Painting of the XNUMXth century Throughout the XNUMXth century Russian national style develops new features and forms. The Stroganov school was further developed with its fine writing, the finest drawing of details. The refinement of performance, the colorfulness of the icons delighted contemporaries. In the work of Simon Fedorovich Ushakov (1626-1686), the master of the Tsar's Armory, the largest Russian artist, and other masters, a desire for realism is outlined. Iosif Vladimirov wrote a kind of theoretical treatise with the rationale for realism in painting: proximity to nature, the need for art to strive for beauty and light, not to suppress, but to please a person. SF Ushakov, answering Vladimirov, his friend, pursues the same principles: realism, liveliness, accuracy, "mirror" image. Realistic tendencies, combined with bright, cheerful motifs, were traced in the works of Russian masters and in the painting of churches. The frescoes of the churches of the Trinity in Nikitniki (authors - Vladimirov and Ushakov) in Moscow, Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl (G. Nikitin, S. Savin) and many others amaze with their colorful and rich compositions, ingenuity and optimism, folk spirit and an abundance of everyday details. 4. Portrait genre Features of realism are also manifested in the portrait genre. If the parsunas (portraits) of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich (1600), Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky (1610) were painted in the usual icon-painting manner, then the works of the middle and 2nd half of the century speak of a desire for portrait resemblance, realistic letter. These include portraits of Tsars Alexei (S. Loputsky), Fedor (I. Bogdanov), Patriarch Nikon (I. Deterson). Realistic landscapes appear on the icons (for example, at Tikhon Filatiev, late XNUMXth century), images of buildings. But the fine arts, mainly icon painting, also retained a traditionally conservative style, as it was under the close supervision of the state and the church, the activities of painters were controlled by the Kremlin Armory, which since the XNUMXth century. became an art center. Works for the royal court were carried out here: portraits were painted, manuscripts were decorated, furniture and toys were made. 5. Russian architecture of the XNUMXth century In the XNUMXth century Significant changes have affected architecture. After the Time of Troubles, stone architecture began to revive. In Moscow, the walls and towers of the Kremlin are being restored; above its main gate, Spassky, a beautiful tent superstructure is erected, which gives the tower a festive and solemn look. Another new detail appears in the appearance of the tower - the chimes. The main building material was still wood. The pinnacle of wooden architecture of the 1667th century. is a luxurious royal palace in Kolomenskoye (1668-XNUMX), dismantled "for dilapidation" a century later, under Catherine II. Contemporaries called it the eighth wonder of the world. The following principles have been widely used here: 1) square; 2) rectangular; 3) cruciform; 4) octagonal support for the main building; 5) high gable roof; 6) tent; 7) 5-chapter completion. The Tsar's Palace in Kolomenskoye consisted of multi-frame choirs placed on basements (lower floors of economic importance). The facades of residential front rooms were richly decorated with carved architraves and various endings in the form of tents, barrels, cubed and ledge roofs. 6. Rise of civil architecture The rise of civil architecture, clearly manifested in the late XV - early XVI centuries. in the construction of the Kremlin Palace, had a worthy continuation in the XNUMXth century. On an unprecedented scale were built: 1) palaces; 2) administrative buildings; 3) residential buildings; 4) guest yards. The architectural appearance of these buildings reflected the desire of architects to create completely new types of buildings, to develop a new style. The Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, built in 1635-1636, seemed to defy the building traditions of the previous century with its size and magnificent decor. Gradually, the volume of brick construction increased - mainly the buildings of government agencies, commercial and industrial enterprises. The use of multi-colored tiles, figured bricks, and white stone details began, which gave the buildings a festive look. Traditional temple construction reached its peak. In the XNUMXth century the grandiose Rostov Kremlin was built, the design of the Joseph-Volokolamsky, Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky monasteries was completed. The rapidly developing trade needed modern trading yards for Russian and foreign merchants. Gostiny Dvor in Arkhangelsk (1668-1684) was built according to a special plan within the boundaries of a closed courtyard. Its territory included walls with towers, various premises (storage, residential, commercial) and a church. The residential architecture of the province reflected local traditions. Often, wooden chambers towered above the stone chambers, living in which was considered more beneficial to health. But due to frequent fires, wealthy citizens increasingly abandoned wooden superstructures. The picturesqueness of residential architecture was emphasized by the elegant asymmetry of the porches and the tinting of decorative details. At this time, the principle of regularity gradually began to prevail in architectural buildings. At the end of the XVII century. a new style of temple architecture arises - the Moscow baroque, which was used to build small churches in the estates of Russian nobles. It was in this style that the Church of the Intercession in Fili was built. It uses a tower type of construction, a combination of red brick for the main masonry and white stone for decoration. The buildings are distinguished by elegance and a variety of decorative decoration. Such architecture was called by researchers the Moscow, or Naryshkin, Baroque. However, although some of its details are made in the European Baroque style, there are many motifs in it that go back to the architecture of the Renaissance and Mannerism. Naryshkin buildings have amazing organicity, integrity and artistic perfection. The development of Russian art has always been distinguished by its peculiarities, which did not fit into the European framework. When the Renaissance flourished in Europe, there was still a deep Middle Ages in Russia. The architecture of the Naryshkin style became a bridge between the old and the new, between Byzantine and European. LECTURE No. 6. Culture of the era of Peter the Great 1. General trends in the culture of the era of Peter the Great At the turn of the XVII and XVIII centuries. In Russia, the Middle Ages ended and the New Age began. In Russia, this historical transition occurred rapidly - within the life of one generation. Russian art of the XVIII century. in just a few decades, it was destined to secularize (turn from religious to secular), master new genres (for example, portrait, still life and landscape) and discover completely new themes (in particular, mythological and historical). Because of this, different styles of art existed in Russia in the 7th century. simultaneously. The reforms carried out by Peter 1698 (1725-XNUMX) affected not only politics, economics, but also art. The goals of the young king were: 1) put Russian art on a par with European art; 2) to educate the domestic public; 3) surround your yard with architects, sculptors and painters. Despite the fact that at that time there were almost no major Russian masters, after only a hundred years, Russia presented a whole galaxy of talents. 2. Education, science The creation of a regular army and navy, the formation of an absolutist bureaucracy, and other reforms in the country required a radical restructuring of the entire education system and the training of a large number of qualified specialists. Peter I forced the Russian nobility to study. Already in 1699, the Pushkar School was founded in Moscow, and in 1701, a "school of mathematical and navigational sciences" was opened in the building of the Sukharev Tower. In the time of Peter the Great, the Medical School was opened (1707), as well as the following schools: 1) engineering; 2) shipbuilding; 3) navigation; 4) mountain; 5) handicraft. Secular education required new textbooks. In 1703, “Arithmetic, that is, the science of numbers...” by L.F. Magnitsky was published, which introduced Arabic numerals instead of alphabetic ones, and then Magnitsky and the English mathematician A. Farvarson released “Tables of logarithms and sines.” Simultaneously with the reform in the field of education in the 1st quarter of the XVIII century. The publishing industry flourished. In 1708, Peter I introduced a new civil script instead of the old Church Slavonic. New printing houses were created to print secular educational, scientific and specialized literature, as well as legislative acts. The development of science and technology in the Petrine era met, above all, the practical needs of the state. Great strides have been made in: 1) geodesy; 2) hydrography; 3) cartography; 4) the study of the bowels and the search for minerals. Russian sailors-hydrographers have done a lot to map the Azov, Caspian, Baltic and White Seas. The search for iron and copper ores in the Urals and Siberia was actively conducted with the assistance of local peasants. The activities of Russian inventors were noted with great success. E. P. Nikonov presented a project for the creation of "hidden ships" (submarines). A famous mechanic of the time of Peter the Great was A. K. Nartov, the inventor of lathes and screw-cutting machines, the creator of the optical sight. In the 1st quarter of the XVIII century. a number of valuable studies on national history were written. At the initiative of Peter I, a collection of scientific collections was initiated in Russia. The pinnacle of achievements of the time of Peter the Great in the field of science and education was the creation (by decree of January 28, 1724) in St. Petersburg of the Academy of Sciences (it was opened after the death of Peter I in 1726). The Academy of Sciences was created not only as a national scientific center, but also as a base for the training of scientific personnel. At this scientific center, a university and a gymnasium were opened. 3. Literature and theater This layer of Russian culture was the most colorful, the most mosaic and heterogeneous; he practically did not come into contact with the work of the elite. In the time of Peter the Great, there was less persecution of traditional pagan festivals with their stormy "hums", dances, round dances, etc. During this period, the nobility, and partly the townspeople, were direct witnesses of a noticeable increase in non-religious printed books. In 1708, a sample of letters of various content was published with the use of the latest vocabulary, where Dutch, German words, terms, and expressions abounded. Within the framework of literature, the birth of Russian classicism takes place. The most famous works of this genre are the creations of the orator, writer, church and public figure of the era of Peter the Great, the main supporter of the church reform Feofan Prokopovich. The main theme of Prokopovich is the glorification of the army, reforms and Russia. Economic journalism was represented by the works of the outstanding scientist I. T. Pososhkov (1652-1726). In 1702, a theater was built on Moscow's Red Square, which opened its doors to the common public. German actors played in it, the repertoire consisted of: 1) German; 2) French; 3) Spanish plays. However, such a theater was rare. Peter's time includes attempts to create public theaters ("comedy temples") in Moscow and St. Petersburg, where plays on historical themes and comedies were staged (for example, J.-B. Pierre's Amphitrion and The Forced Doctor). In the era of Peter the Great, interest in secular music, amateur music-making was born, and professional choral art was developing. Bravura military drill music is gaining popularity. 4. Life of the Russian people New everyday forms of culture were planted in the life of the noble elite. In 1700, at the gates of the Kremlin, mannequins with samples of new clothes for the nobility (Hungarian, Saxon and French) were even exhibited. The original figure of the king, who at first observed traditional ceremonies only at diplomatic receptions, brought dramatic changes to palace life. Traditions were simplified, stiffness disappeared. Since 1718, by decree of the king, assemblies were introduced that legalized the forms of royal communication with the people he needed and liked. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms set forth in the translated book "Youth's Honest Mirror". In the capitals, on solemn dates, in honor of one or another "victory" (the Northern War, the capture of Azov, the victory at Poltava, the anniversary of the Nishtad Peace, etc.), colorful fireworks and grandiose masquerades were in fashion. Treats were exhibited on the squares (fountains of wine, fried carcasses). The patriarchal way of life gradually gave way to secularism and rationalism. 5. Painting 1700-1725 In the field of fine arts in the 1st quarter of the 1701th century. active development receives secular painting. A. M. Matveev (1739-XNUMX) was an outstanding portrait painter of that time. Among the masters of engraving, I. B. Adolsky was famous. The works of artists A.F. Zubov, A.I. Rostovtsev and P. Picard brought to us the architectural appearance of both Russian capitals. The closest to everyday life was the genre of engraving, which had a fairly large circle of connoisseurs. Many books had engraved images. From the end of the XNUMXth century Russian pictorial art is being transformed. In the art of icon painting, a tendency to move towards a realistic depiction of the world and people began to appear. The so-called parsuna genre is developing - a realistic portrait created in a traditional planar manner. The artists of this genre were influenced by Western European painting. In the first years of the XVIII century. issued special decrees concerning the training and education of artists. The most talented were sent on long business trips abroad (A. M. Matveev, I. Nikitin, R. Nikitin). During this period, a number of foreign artists were also invited to Russia. These are Louis Caravaque, Johann Tannauer and others. 6. Architecture 1700-1725 Architecture in the time of Peter the Great also experienced Western European influence. A new phenomenon in Russian culture was the spread of sculptural compositions, which was especially pronounced in the creation of palace and park ensembles, for example, in the design of the Grand Cascade of the Peterhof Palace (architect J. B. Leblon). At the beginning of the XVIII century. in urban planning, a transition is being made to regular urban development, the creation of large architectural ensembles, mainly for civil, and not for religious purposes. The construction of St. Petersburg is a prime example of this. At the end of the XVII-beginning of the XVIII centuries. the formation of the so-called Naryshkin style, or the "Moscow Baroque" style of church architecture, is taking place (for details, see Lecture No. 4). There was also a fundamentally new architecture based on the order system (columns, porticos, pediments, etc.). The interiors of church churches began to be decorated with multi-tiered wooden iconostases with the most complex decorative carvings, the best craftsmen of which were Belarusian wood carvers. One of the brilliant masters of carving was the architect IP Zarudny. A fundamentally new architecture created the basis of the capital of Russia at that time - St. Petersburg. Here, from the very beginning, the North German (Dutch) version of the Baroque was developed with a restrained dry decor, with a desire for maximum rationality. The bearer of this trend was D. Trezzini. He took an active part in the planning of St. Petersburg, in particular its Vasilyevsky part. The Swiss D. Trezzini designed the most important buildings of St. Petersburg - the Peter and Paul Fortress and its cathedral, the building of the Twelve Colleges (built on Vasilyevsky Island in 1722-1734, completed by M. G. Zemtsov). The latter consists of 12 identical parts, located on the same line and decorated only with pilasters. The building is deployed not along the Neva, but at a right angle to it. As conceived by the architect, the long front facade of the Twelve Collegia was supposed to face the proposed square on the spit of the island. The palace of A. D. Menshikov, whose main facade faces the Neva, has long been the most luxurious private house in the northern capital. It has recently been restored to its original form. And in the design of the facades (high roofs, windows with small bindings), and in the interiors, decorated with wood, white and blue tiles (baked clay tiles) and various fabrics, Dutch taste dominates. Slightly upstream of the Neva was the Summer Palace (1710-1714, architects D. Trezzini and A. Schluter), which Peter presented to his wife Catherine. A special pride of Peter I was the Summer Garden surrounding this building. Peter's transformations in the sphere of culture, life and customs were of a pronounced political nature. The interests of the state were put at the forefront of these reforms. They were supposed to emphasize the fundamental difference between the Russian Empire, created in a quarter of a century, and a great state of the European type. LECTURE No. 7. Culture of Russia 1725-1800 1. General characteristics of the culture of the era of "palace coups" and Catherine's reign XNUMXth century occupies an important place in the history of Russian culture. The secular direction becomes decisive in its development. A system of general and special education was created, a university was opened, periodicals and journalism appeared. A new, western-oriented poetry, drama and prose is emerging. In painting, the portrait comes to the fore. Outstanding examples of civil architecture appear in architecture. In this lecture, we will focus mainly on the achievements of noble culture. 2. Education Since the time of Peter I, education in Russia has acquired an increasingly clear secular character. At the same time, the traditional form of "literacy education" was massive and ubiquitous. The number of soldiers' garrison schools has increased. The main attention was paid to the education of nobles in closed educational institutions. In 1731, the Shlyakhetsky Cadet Corps was created, and in 1752, the Naval Shlyakhetsky Corps. In addition, noble children were taught in private boarding schools, as well as at home. In the XVIII century. it is becoming fashionable to invite foreign teachers, especially French ones. Despite such great successes in the field of education in Russia, the need for an education system was felt more and more acutely. At the initiative of the empress, the development of school education projects was entrusted to one of the brightest public figures of that time - I. I. Betsky. He was also the initiator of women's education. But the activities of I. I. Betsky and the implementation of his plan in no way solved the problem of creating a system of primary education. To resolve this issue, in 1782 a "Commission on the Establishment of Schools" was organized. The first result of the work of the Commission was the opening of 4-class and 2-class public schools in the St. Petersburg province. In total, at the end of the XVIII century. in Russia there were about 550 different educational institutions, in which about 60 thousand people studied. One of the main events of the middle of the XVIII century. was the opening of the first higher civil educational institution - Moscow University. I. I. Shuvalov was its curator. However, the ideological builder of Moscow University was M. V. Lomonosov. He developed a project for the organization of the university, sought to ensure that the university was classless and secular (since it did not teach theology). He took an active part in the creation of textbooks. A special gymnasium with two departments was created at the university to train student personnel - for the nobility and the raznochintsy. Creation of the Academy of Sciences in Russia, rapid development in the XNUMXth century. world natural science contributed to the formation and development of Russian science. 3. Science It reached a significant level of development in the 1711th century. Russian science. M. V. Lomonosov (1768-1755) was an outstanding scientist of the XNUMXth century, whose interests covered various fields of science. His main merit was the founding and opening of Moscow University (XNUMX). In the XVIII century. the interest of Russian society in its historical past is growing, historiographic works are appearing. The first Russian historian VN Tatishchev (1686-1750) wrote "Russian History from the Most Ancient Times". Following Tatishchev, historical works appear: 1) M. V. Lomonosov; 2) M. M. Shcherbatova; 3) I. N. Boltina; 4) I. I. Golikova; 5) G. F. Miller and others. In the 70-80s. XNUMXth century Historical documents are published on the pages of the periodical press. A number of very interesting achievements characterize the development of technical thought in Russia. But in most cases, technical innovations did not find application. One of the most famous inventors of that time was IP Kulibin (1735-1810). Physical-geographic research and natural science have been widely developed. In 1724, by order of Peter I, the First Kamchatka Expedition was equipped, headed by V. Bering and A. I. Chirikov. The results of this expedition are grandiose: the riches of the Urals, Siberia and Altai are described, materials on geography, zoology, botany, ethnography, etc. are collected. 4. Literature and social thought. Theatre Under the conditions of the feudal-serf system, literature was predominantly of the nobility. Folk art was oral. Noble literature of the XVIII century. developed in line with classicism. The main trend in literature was classicism in the form of odes, tragedies, words of praise. This was most clearly manifested in the work of A.P. Sumarokov, who wrote comedies and tragedies that perform educational functions, as well as in the early representative of classicism of the 1703th century. - A. D. Kantemir. An important stage in the development of Russian classicism was the work of the court poet V. K. Trediakovsky (1769-1743). Defending the purity of the Russian literary language, M. V. Lomonosov creates the doctrine of three literary "calms". The largest Russian poet of the late XVIII century. was G. R. Derzhavin (1816-XNUMX). At the end of the XVIII century. there is a departure from classicism, overcoming sentimentalism and the formation of realistic tendencies. First of all, this manifested itself in the work of D. I. Fonvizin (1745-1792), the creator of social comedy. N. M. Karamzin (1766-1826) is considered the founder of Russian sentimentalism. The largest figure in Russian social thought is A. N. Radishchev (1749-1802). While holding the post of military prosecutor, during the years of the Pugachev uprising, he got acquainted with the cases of fugitive recruits, in which, like in a mirror, the orders of serf Russia were reflected. This led Radishchev to the idea of the need for a peasant revolution in Russia. In his literary work "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" he made the transition from the literary genre of sentimentalism to critical realism. In the second half of the 1750th century, journalism developed in Russia. From the end of the XNUMXs. the first private journals appear. Among them is "Hard-working bee" by A.P. Sumarokov. Basically, these were the nobility-class publications. During the reign of Catherine II, the activities of the educator N. I. Novikov (publisher of the satirical magazines "Druten", "Painter", "Ridder", publisher of dictionaries, children's, women's magazines) unfolded. In the 1768th century, theatrical art developed quite widely in Russia. The most famous theater with a magnificent troupe of serf actors was owned by Counts P. B. Sheremetyev and N. P. Sheremetyev. The famous serf actress and singer P. I. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova (1803-XNUMX) shone in the Sheremetev troupe. An interesting evolution in the XNUMXth century. undergoes musical creativity. Among the nobility, Russian folk songs are widely distributed, as well as stylization of the folk style of the song. 5. Painting A characteristic feature of the painting of the XVIII century. - liberation from cult themes. A special place in Russian painting of the XVIII century. took the portrait. Realism begins to appear in the portraits of L. P. Antropov (1716-1795). The serf artist Sheremeteva I. P. Argunov (1729-1802) successfully worked in the portrait genre. Russian portrait art of this time is of world importance, three masters stand out in particular: 1) Dmitry Levitsky; 2) Vladimir Borovikovsky; 3) Fedor Rokotov. Along with a magnificent formal portrait in the work of F. S. Rokotov (1736-1808), an informal, intimate portrait appears, in which all attention is paid not to magnificent clothes, but to a person’s face. The work of D. G. Levitsky (1735-1822) is diverse and widely represented. Ceremonial portraits of Levitsky, admiring the splendor of clothes, convey the richness of the subject texture. Examples of this are the portrait of the richest breeder P. A. Demidov; a series of portraits of noble pupils of the Smolny Institute - adolescent girls in the form of secular ladies (E. I. Nelidova, E. N. Khrushchova and others). D. G. Levitsky painted portraits of Diderot, Catherine P. The continuer of Levitsky's traditions was VL Borovikovsky (1757-1825), in whose portraits the art of psychologism reached the pinnacle of perfection. The master is close to sentimentalism (portraits of the dreamy and languid M. I. Lopukhina are one of the best examples of this genre; Empress Catherine II, walking in the garden in simple clothes, without any attributes of her royal position, for which Borovikovsky was awarded the title of academician). 6. Architecture, sculpture In the 1st half of the XVIII century. the dominant style in architecture was baroque. It is characterized by the creation of huge ensembles, distinguished by solemnity, splendor, an abundance of stucco, sculptures, columns. In the 2nd half of the XVIII century. baroque is replaced by classicism. The most striking figure of the middle of the XVIII century was V. V. Rastrelli (1700-1771). Its main architectural masterpieces are: 1) a palace in Peterhof; 2) the palace ensemble in Tsarskoye Selo; 3) Smolny Monastery near St. Petersburg. He built magnificent palaces, temples, pavilions, suburban complexes, etc. In 1754-1762. Rastrelli erected a new Winter Palace in approximately the same place where the Winter Palace of Peter I stood. In the 2nd half of the XVIII century. a number of the largest talented Russian architects appear. In their work, Russian classicism acquired its main features. V. I. Bazhenov (1737-1799) - the great Russian architect, one of the first representatives of Russian classicism. He suffered a tragic fate: the project of a grandiose palace in the Moscow Kremlin was approved, but not implemented. His second work was the design and construction of the royal country palace in the village. Tsaritsyno near Moscow - was brought to the end of construction, but, by order of Catherine II, it was destroyed due to the proximity of Bazhenov to Novikov. For many years, V.I. Bazhenov carried out orders from private individuals, and only in the 90s. 1797th century created a project for the Mikhailovsky Castle, built for Paul I in 1800-XNUMX. architect Brenn. Along with the palace and park architecture in the 1700th century, the construction of public buildings was becoming increasingly important. One of the first buildings of this type is the famous Admiralty in St. Petersburg by the Russian architect I.Korobov (1747-XNUMX). The great Russian architect M. F. Kazakov (1738-1812) made a great contribution to the construction of large public buildings in Moscow. Being one of the students and admirers of V.I. Bazhenov, he continued to improve the features of Russian classicism, making it even more strict and simple. A wonderful example of Kazakov’s creativity is the Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin. Simultaneously with Russian architects, foreigners also successfully worked in Russia. Among them, the most talented were the Scot Charles Cameron and the Italian Giacomo Quarenghi. One of the first examples of classicism was the huge building of the Academy of Arts, which was built over a quarter of a century (1763-1788). To create in Russia the Academy of Arts, where painters, sculptors, architects could study, that is, a kind of art center, was conceived by Peter I. This idea was carried out by his daughter Elizabeth at the end of her reign - in 1757 in St. Petersburg. The architect I. E. Staroye (1745-1808) also adhered to the canons of classicism. His most famous work is the Tauride Palace of Prince G. A. Potemkin-Tavrichesky in St. Petersburg (1783-1789). He also built the Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. It was Starov who created the classic type of palace-estate, using a special composition with the main building and side wings (outbuildings) brought forward (Russian landowners really liked this scheme). Finally, one cannot fail to mention the magnificent achievements of Russian sculptors of the 1740th century. Among the first is the famous F. I. Shubin (1805-XNUMX). The tendencies of realism, sharp portrait characteristics are expressed in his work clearly, in relief. Shuba's portrait busts are designed for all-round inspection. The play of shadows and highlights on the surface of marble or bronze gives the sculpture a special liveliness and expressiveness. A whole galaxy of outstanding masters worked in the field of decorative sculpture in this era: 1) F. G. Gordeev; 2) M. I. Kozlovsky; 3) I. P. Prokofiev; 4) F. F. Shchedrin; 5) I. P. Martos. They produced remarkable examples of decorative and monumental sculpture. Of particular note is the monument to Peter I, created by the French sculptor Falcone (1716-1791). In general, in the late XVIII-early XIX centuries. the public preferred sculptures based on mythological and historical subjects. Therefore, M. I. Kozlovsky (1753-1802) was very popular, since in his work he turned mainly to ancient mythology and biblical traditions. LECTURE No. 8. The golden age of Russian culture. 1st half 1. General characteristics of the culture of this period The fate of Russia in the first half of the XNUMXth century was ambiguous. These years began with the victory in the Patriotic War, and ended with the unsuccessful Crimean War. The first half of the 1th century, the time of Pushkin, is called the Golden Age of Russian culture. Its beginning coincided with the era of classicism in Russian literature and art. After the defeat of the Decembrists, a new upsurge in the social movement began. This gave hope that Russia would gradually cope with its difficulties. The country achieved the most impressive successes in these years in the field of science and especially culture. The first half of the century gave Russia and the world Pushkin and Lermontov, Griboyedov and Gogol, Belinsky and Herzen, Glinka and Dargomyzhsky, Bryullov, Ivanov and Fedotov. 2. Development of education, literature and science During the period of transformations of the beginning of the XIX century. the public education system was reformed. In 1803, six educational districts headed by trustees and four categories of educational institutions were created. According to the Charter of 1804, the universities became centers for the training of pedagogical personnel, carried out the methodological guidance of schools in the educational district. In 1802, Dorpat University was restored, in 1804 universities were founded in Vilna, Kazan, and Kharkov. Universities enjoyed significant self-government rights. At the beginning of the century, closed educational institutions for nobles appeared - lyceums (in Yaroslavl, Odessa, Tsarskoye Selo), higher educational institutions were opened (Commercial Institute, Institute of Communications). As early as the beginning of the 1813th century. N. M. Karamzin wrote about "the love of reading in Russia." In 66 there were 64 printing houses in Russia. The number of periodicals by the middle of the century had grown from 200 titles to XNUMX. Relying on the achievements of European science, Russian scientists have achieved major successes. The centers of scientific thought were: 1) Academy of Sciences; 2) universities; 3) scientific societies. Mathematics achieved outstanding successes: 1) N. I. Lobachevsky (creator of non-Euclidean geometry); 2) P. V. Chebyshev; 3) astronomer V. Ya. Struve; 4) chemist N. N. Zinin. The level of development of world science corresponded to the discoveries and inventions of Professor V. V. Petrov (electrochemistry and electrometallurgy), Academician B. S. Jacobi (electroplating), P. L. Schilling (electromagnetic telegraph), P. P. Anosov (metallurgy). New ideas in medicine and physiology were put forward by N. I. Pirogov. Among the historians of this period, Professor of Moscow University T. N. Granovsky stands out. In 1811, Russian sailors led by Captain V. M. Golovkin (1776-1831) explored the Kuril Islands. F. P. Litke (1797-1882) explored the Arctic Ocean, the shores of Kamchatka and America, founded the Russian Geographical Society. In 1819, Russia sent an expedition to the southern polar seas on two sloops led by F. F. Bellingshausen (1778-1852). Major geographical discoveries in the Russian Far East are associated with the name of G. I. Nevelsky (1813-1876). In 1819, persecution began at the universities, and theological departments were established in them. The rigid "cast-iron" charter of 1828 for lower and secondary educational institutions determined that children of "people of lower status" should study in parish schools, children of merchants, artisans and other orozhans in district schools, and children of nobles and officials in gymnasiums. In 1835, the universities were deprived of the status of scientific centers, as well as internal autonomy. To train qualified personnel, technical higher educational institutions were opened: 1) Moscow vocational school; 2) Architectural school; 3) Medical and Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg; 4) Lazarevsky Institute of Oriental Languages in Moscow; 5) Spiritual, military schools and academies. Social thought in Russia at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. developed in the tradition of the Enlightenment. Ideas spread: 1) Montesquieu; 2) Diderot; 3) Voltaire; 4) Rousseau. However, only a small part of society considered it necessary to reform autocratic rule and abolish serfdom. The bulk of the nobility and bureaucracy were conservative. 1st half of the 1815th century became the time of the formation of the Russian literary language. Russian scientific terminology expanded - verbal departments were opened at universities. "Freed the language from the alien yoke" N. M. Karamzin. The followers of Karamzin created the association "Arzamas" (1818-XNUMX). 3. Literature and social thought In the literature of the 1st half of the XIX century. different artistic directions coexisted: 1) classicism; 2) sentimentalism; 3) pre-romanticism; 4) romanticism; 5) realism. At this time, A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol create their works. The significance of literature in Russia in the first half of the century was enormous. In scientific and literary societies, in circles of students and teachers, secular salons, topical political problems were discussed. An important stage in the development of national identity was the Patriotic War of 1812. At the same time, after the war, religious sentiments intensified in society. Fearing the influence of the European revolutionary movement, the government increased political control within the country. In 1814-1815. the first secret organizations arose in the army, whose task was to change the existing system. In 1816, on the initiative of the brothers Muravyov, S. P. Trubetskoy, the brothers Muravyov-Apostles and I. D. Yakushkin, the Union of Salvation was created. The Union had about 200 members. At the congress held in January 1821, opinions on the Union's program of action were divided. The leadership announced the dissolution of the Welfare Union. But immediately after that, the conspiratorial Northern and Southern Societies arose simultaneously. In 1824, the Southern Society adopted a program document ("Russian Truth" by P. I. Pestel). The Northern Society adopted the "Constitution" of Nikita Muravyov. In 1824, during the negotiations, it was decided to convene a congress at the beginning of 1826 to unite the two societies. But in November 1825, Alexander I suddenly died in Taganrog, and after the issue of succession to the throne was clarified, the oath to the new emperor Nikolai Pavlovich was scheduled for December 14, 1825. The leaders of the Northern Society, K. F. Ryleev and A. A. Bestuzhev, decided to act. Nicholas I became aware of the conspiracy. Of the 579 people involved in the investigation, 289 were found guilty. K. F. Ryleev, P. I. Pestel, S. I. Muravyov-Apostol, M. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P. G. Kakhovsky were hanged on July 13, 1826. A. I. Herzen called the period that came after the defeat of the Decembrists "the time of external slavery." The censorship charter of 1826 forbade everything that "weakens respect" for the authorities. In the 30s. XNUMXth century is being developed: 1) the genre of the story (A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, V. F. Odoevsky); 2) historical novel (A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol). In poetry, the authors of the so-called Pushkin galaxy stand out. Early 1th century - the time of the formation of Russian journalism. The number of newspapers and magazines increased significantly, their circulation increased, although even the most popular publications were printed in no more than 500 copies. Among Russian magazines, Vestnik Evropy, founded by N. M. Karamzin, was especially popular. In the second half of the 2s - early 20s. 30th century Numerous secret circles were formed in Russia. Their members discussed political and philosophical problems, tried to comprehend the events of December 14, 1825, and read forbidden literature. Circles were created at Moscow University: V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. V. Stankevich, and others. Most of them were dispersed by the police. The ever-increasing censorship was primarily directed against periodicals, which played a large role in the ideological struggle. In 1836, the magazine "Telescope" published one of the "Philosophical Letters" by P. Ya. Chaadaev (1794-1856), a bright and original thinker. S. S. Uvarov, who became the Minister of Public Education, proposed introducing a "truly Russian" education, which was based on three inseparable principles: Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality. The theory of "official nationality" by S. S. Uvarov became the basis of the ideology of the Nikolaev era. In the 1830s and 40s the main directions of social thought are formed, proceeding from the need for transformations in Russia. Their representatives called themselves: 1) Slavophiles; 2) Westerners; 3) revolutionaries. 4. Theater Theater began to play an increasingly prominent role in public life. The centers of theatrical life were the Maly Theater in Moscow (since 1824) and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg (since 1832). Theaters existed in many cities of Russia. In 1825, the Bolshoi Opera and Ballet Theater began operating in Moscow. Both "Woe from Wit" by A. S. Griboyedov and "The Inspector General" by N. V. Gogol were staged. Composers such as A. A. Alyabyev, A. L. Gurilev, A. E. Varlamov wrote songs and romances based on poems by Russian poets. The formation of the Russian national school in music is associated with the name of M. I. Glinka (1804-1857), the author of romances, symphonic works, classical operas A Life for the Tsar (1836), Ruslan and Lyudmila (1842). A. S. Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869) was an innovator in music. He created the opera-ballet The Triumph of Bacchus, the operas Mermaid and The Stone Guest. Although foreign troupes and serf theaters continued to play a large role in the theatrical life of Russia, some Russian landowners became theater entrepreneurs. Their theaters were turned into public ones. In the same years, Glinka's opera A Life for the Tsar was staged at the Bolshoi Theater (subsequently it was performed on the Soviet stage under the name Ivan Susanin). The brightness of musical colors, the ingenious lightness of technique and classical simplicity are also distinguished by another opera by Glinka - Ruslan and Lyudmila, which was coldly received by the public. Pushkin's plot also formed the basis of the opera "Mermaid" by A. S. Dargomyzhsky. This opera also met with a cold reception from the public, accustomed to the music of Italian composers. 5. Painting The beginning of the XNUMXth century is called the golden age of Russian painting. At this time, Russian artists reached such a level of skill that put their works on a par with the best examples of European art. The primacy remained with the historical genre. A well-known portrait painter of this time was O. A. Kiprensky (1782-1836). His painting attracts with warm golden tones in the spirit of the Dutch artist Rembrandt. Around 1808-1809 Kiprensky wrote "Portrait of a Boy A. A. Chelishchev". The artist seemed to predict the extraordinary fate of his hero: at the age of 15 he already participated in the Patriotic War of 1812 and reached Paris. The female images of Kiprensky have great depth. V. A. Tropinin (1776-1857) was born into a family of serfs, Count Morkov. A strong character and love for art helped him defend his right to do what he loves. In 1823, under pressure from the public, the count gave Tropinin his freedom. In the same year, the artist presented to the academy the works "Portrait of the Artist Skotnikov" (1821), "The Old Beggar Man" and "The Lacemaker" (both in 1823). Having received freedom, the artist settled in Moscow. In the period from the 20s to the 40s. 1827th century the master was unusually popular and wrote many works. Among them are a portrait of Pushkin (1846) - very simple and "homely", "Self-portrait with a palette against the backdrop of the Kremlin" (XNUMX), etc. The famous artist S. F. Shchedrin (1791-1830) was one of the first to discover the unusual color effect of the moonlit path, which became very popular in Russian painting in the middle and second half of the 2th century. His work anticipated the discoveries of the French Impressionist painters. K. P. Bryullov (1799-1852) managed to find the golden mean between classicism that dominated academic painting and new romantic trends. The first major work of 18-year-old Alexander Ivanov (1806-1858) on a plot from Homer's Iliad - "Priam asking Achilles for the body of Hector" (1824) - showed that he perfectly mastered the academic style of painting. In the painting "The Appearance of Christ to Mary Magdalene" (1834-1836), the classical posing and gestures of the heroes are combined with the Christian enlightenment of their faces, a sense of miracle. For this picture, Ivanov received the title of academician. For more than 20 years, the author has been working on the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People". 6. Architecture and sculpture In XNUMXth century architecture dominated by classicism. Buildings built in this style are distinguished by a clear and calm rhythm, correct proportions; they clearly comply with such laws of architectural composition as: 1) symmetry; 2) underlining the center; 3) the general harmony of parts and the whole. There were significant differences in the architecture of St. Petersburg and Moscow. Even in the middle of the XVIII century. Petersburg was a city of architectural masterpieces, immersed in the greenery of estates and was in many ways similar to Moscow. Then the regular building of the city began along the avenues that cut through it, rays diverging from the Admiralty. St. Petersburg classicism is not the architecture of individual buildings, but of entire ensembles that amaze with their unity and harmony. Work on streamlining the center of the new capital began with the construction of the Admiralty building according to the project of A. D. Zakharov (1761-1811). Construction was of fundamental importance at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. the Exchange building on the track of Vasilyevsky Island. The new building united the rest of the ensembles in this part of the city. The design of the Exchange and the design of the arrow were entrusted to the French architect Thomas de Thomon. Nevsky Prospekt, the main thoroughfare of St. Petersburg, has acquired the form of a single ensemble since its construction in 1810-1811. Kazan Cathedral. It was built on the model of St. Peter in Rome by the architect A. N. Voronikhin (1759-1814). In 1806, A. N. Voronikhin received an order to rebuild the buildings of the Mining Cadet Corps (since 1833 - the Mining Institute). Having preserved the existing buildings, Voronikhin united them with a common facade - strict, devoid of decorative details. The building is decorated with a series of sculptural works based on ancient scenes, symbolizing the purpose of this institution. They were made by sculptors V. I. Demut-Malinovsky (1779-1846) and S. Pimenov (1784-1833). For forty years, from 1818 to 1858, St. Isaac's Cathedral was built in St. Petersburg - the largest building erected in Russia in the first half of the 1th century. The project was developed by the French architect O. Montferrand (1786-1858). The triumphal motifs of the Alexander Column were embodied in the sculptural decoration of the arch of the General Staff Building, which engulfed Palace Square from the south. At the same time, the building of the General Staff, built according to the project of K. I. Rossi, seemed to repeat the solemn major motifs of the Admiralty, located obliquely from it. Thus, the ensemble of Palace Square was connected with the ensemble of Admiralteisky Prospekt. The final work on the formation of St. Petersburg ensembles is associated with the work of K. I. Rossi (1775-1849). Buildings were built according to his design. 1. Senate and Synod. 2. Alexandria Theatre. 3. Mikhailovsky Palace (now the Russian Museum). Not limited to the construction of individual buildings, the famous maestro rebuilt the streets and squares adjacent to them. These works acquired such a scope that it seemed that Rossi was close to realizing his dream - to turn the whole city into a work of art. However, the architect did not take into account the daily needs of the people living in the city, and his creations began to turn into grandiose decorations. Manifestations of Moscow classicism were characteristic of individual buildings. Even the fire of 1812 did not eliminate the diversity of Moscow streets, the picturesque randomness of buildings. In 1813, the Commission for the Restoration of Moscow was organized, which was engaged in the restructuring of the city for thirty years. In the same year, O. I. Bove (1784-1834) returned to Moscow from the people's militia, having received the post of architect. In the first decades of the XIX century. Moscow has taken on a new look. And in this, along with Osip Bove, Domenico Gilardi (1785-1845) played an important role. The first major work of the architect was the restoration of Moscow University after the fire of 1812. Gilardi kept the composition of the building built by M. F. Kazakov, but changed the facade. At the same time, the architect Stasov continued his work. His most famous buildings were two St. Petersburg churches - the Transfiguration and Trinity Cathedrals. For the Transfiguration Cathedral (1827-1829), the architect chose a simple and expressive cube shape. When designing the Trinity Cathedral (1828-1835), the master could not deviate from the forms of the old churches of the 6th century. As a result, he erected a cruciform building, completing each of the ledges of the cross with a 1-column portico and crowning it with a small dome on a smooth drum. Stasov occupied a special place in Russian architecture of the first half of the XNUMXth century, showing that a bright architectural solution does not depend on the purpose of the building. In 1839-1852. According to the project of the German architect Leo Klenze, the building of the New Hermitage was built in St. Petersburg. The calm balance of its parts, decoration in the modern Greek style, powerful granite atlantes at the entrance - all this created an impressive image of the museum - a repository of masterpieces of world art. K. A. Ton (1794-1881) in his work tried to revive the traditions of ancient Russian architecture. He built 5-domed churches with narrow rounded windows, used Russian and Byzantine decor. All this was subject to the strict proportions and symmetry of classicism, which Tone could not refuse. Nicholas I liked Ton's works. In 1838-1849. under his leadership, the Grand Kremlin Palace was built. In 1839, on the banks of the Moskva River, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was laid to commemorate the deliverance of Russia from the Napoleonic invasion. Sculpture also flourished. A monument to Minin and Pozharsky was erected on Red Square - the work of I.P. Martos (1754-1835). Following the traditions of classicism, the sculptor dressed his heroes in antique clothes. In the 40-50s. 1805th century Nevsky Prospekt was adorned with bronze sculptures by PK Klodt (1867-XNUMX) "Horse Tamers", installed on the foundations of the Anichkov Bridge across the Fontanka. The monument to Nicholas I on St. Isaac's Square in St. Petersburg also belongs to Klodt. LECTURE No. 9. Culture of the second half of the golden age 1. General characteristics of the era 2nd half of the 1853th century - the time of the final approval and consolidation of national forms and traditions in Russian art. In the middle of the XIX century. Russia experienced severe upheavals: the Crimean War of 1856-1855 ended in defeat, Emperor Nicholas I died, Alexander ascended the throne //carried out the long-awaited abolition of serfdom and other reforms. Years of government 1881-XNUMX. The "Russian theme" became popular in art. Russian culture was not isolated within national boundaries, it was not separated from the culture of the rest of the world. Achievements of foreign art resonated in Russia. In turn, Russian culture, primarily literature and music, received worldwide recognition. Russian culture has taken a place of honor in the family of European cultures. 2. Education The existing system of public education did not satisfy the social and economic development of the country. The low literacy rate of the general population and the shortage of educated professionals pointed to the need for change. Therefore, the reform of public education became an integral part of the reforms of the 1860s. The era of liberation gave a strong impetus to the cultural development of Russia, contributed to an unprecedented growth in the number of rural and urban schools. The legacy of the serf era was the low level of literacy of the people. Even in St. Petersburg in the late 60s. 7th century the proportion of illiterates (excluding children under 44 years old) was 1871%. In Moscow, according to the 55 census, XNUMX% were illiterate. On the issue of secondary education, there was a long discussion between supporters of the real and the classical schools. The supporters of the classical direction won the upper hand, relying on the conservative ministers of public education D. A. Tolstoy and I. D. Delyanov. "Regulations on primary public schools" of June 14, 1864 introduced, in addition to state, zemstvo and Sunday schools. The charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums, approved on November 19, 1864, divided secondary educational institutions - gymnasiums - into classical and real ones with a 7-year term of study. Tuition fees were quite high. In 1865 there were 96 gymnasiums, in the mid-1890s. - about 600. In 1897, the average literacy rate was 21,1%. At the same time, there were 2 times more literate people in the city than in the countryside. Literacy was more common among men (29,3%) than among women (13,1%). On June 18, 1863, a new charter for the universities was approved. University self-government was restored. In the post-reform period, new universities opened in: 1) Odessa; 2) Warsaw; 3) Tomsk. The universities taught such eminent scientists as: 1) A. M. Butlerov; 2) D. I. Mendeleev; 3) I. M. Sechenov; 4) S. M. Solovyov; 5) K. A. Timiryazev and others. The university statute of August 23, 1884 effectively abolished the autonomy of the universities. In 1858, women's gymnasiums also appeared. Prior to this, women were not allowed to enter universities. In the 1860s-70s. the first higher courses for women with a university program were organized in Moscow (Prof. V. I. Guerrier) and in St. Petersburg (Prof. K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin). After 1881, changes again took place in the field of education. And the infamous circular of the Ministry of Public Education of June 5, 1887 ("on the cook's children") introduced a restriction on admission to the gymnasium in order to prevent "the admission of the children of coachmen, lackeys, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers, etc. of people"; tuition fees have been increased. After permission in 1858 to discuss in the press the problems of public life and government activities, the number of periodicals and book titles increased dramatically. The "Temporary Rules", approved on May 12, 1862, even permitted the printing of critical materials in expensive editions inaccessible to the common people. But since the chief prosecutor and censor K.P. Pobedonostsev were deeply concerned about libraries and reading rooms, in 1888 the catalog of books allowed for distribution to readers was revised. 3. Science 2nd half of the XNUMXth century became a period of new outstanding discoveries of Russian science, for the development of which favorable conditions were created. Contacts between Russian scientists and colleagues from Western Europe have revived. I. M. Sechenov 1829-1905) laid the foundations of Russian physiology. II Mechnikov (1845-1916) founded the school of microbiology and comparative pathology. K. A. Timiryazev (1843-1920), investigating the process of photosynthesis, laid the foundation for the Russian school of plant physiology. 60-70s 1869th century called the golden age of Russian chemistry. The greatest discovery of this time was the periodic law of chemical elements (1834), discovered by D. I. Mendeleev (1907-1828) and recorded by him in the form of a table. A. M. Butlerov (1886-XNUMX) developed the fundamental theory of the chemical structure. Discoveries in the field of technology brought world fame to Russian scientists. These are the inventions of P. N. Yablochkov (1847-1894) - an arc lamp and an electric lighting system developed by him; A. N. Lodygina (1847-1923) - an electric incandescent lamp; A. F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) - the world's first patented aircraft (1881). A.F. Mozhaisky studied the flight of birds, made models, and in 1881 began building an aircraft with two steam engines with a capacity of 20 and 10 horsepower. P. L. Chebyshev (1821-1894) made major discoveries in the field of mathematical analysis, number theory, and probability theory. He laid the foundation for the Petersburg mathematical school. A. G. Stoletov (1839-1896) played an outstanding role in the development of physics. He owns a number of studies in the field of photoelectric phenomena, subsequently used in the creation of modern electronic technology. The discovery of world significance was the invention of the radiotelegraph. A. S. Popov (1859-1905), who dealt with this problem, could not fully realize his ideas: attempts to establish radio communications in the navy ran into skepticism and misunderstanding of the command. The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers visited places where no European had ever set foot before. In the 2nd half of the XIX century. their efforts were focused on exploring the interior of Asia. P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), head of the Russian Imperial Geographical Society, explored the Tien Shan, organized a number of major expeditions to Central Asia (N. M. Przhevalsky), to New Guinea (N. N. Miklukho -Maclay), etc. World geographical science in those years largely relied on the achievements of Russian researchers. By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic, in which Russian researchers took an active part, continued at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. S. M. Solovyov (1820-1879) and his student V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) actively worked in the field of historical science. In philosophy, original writings were created: 1) V. S. Solovyov; 2) K. N. Leontiev; 3) S. N. Trubetskoy. In the 2nd half of the XIX century. Russian scientists have achieved significant success in various branches of knowledge. Moscow and St. Petersburg are among the world's scientific centers. 4. Literature and social thought Fiction of the 2nd half of the 1880th century. continued the traditions of A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol. The clash of ideas, moral problems, new phenomena in public life, the path of development of Russia - these and other topics worried the heroes of the works of I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy. In the XNUMXs the first stories of A.P. Chekhov appeared. The theme of the people was central in the work of N. A. Nekrasov. Subtle lyrical works were created by A. A. Fet, F. I. Tyutchev. In the last quarter of the XIX century. Newspapers begin to circulate widely in Russia. Nevertheless, magazines remained the main type of time-based publications. At the end of the XIX century. Newspapers also appeared in the provinces. The book publishing business became an increasingly developing branch of entrepreneurship. Some publishers sought to give their activities an educational focus. ID Sytin (1851-1934) began with the publication of popular prints, dream books, oracles. Then he began to print primers, calendars, fiction and popular science literature - at a very low price, counting on mass demand. At the end of the XIX century. two publishing firms (F. A. Brockhaus (Leipzig) and I. A. Efron (Petersburg)) decided to publish in Russia a German encyclopedia in Russian with a little addition of new material. However, as a result, the editors created an independent Russian encyclopedia. "Encyclopedic Dictionary" of Brockhaus and Efron, in 82 volumes, was published in 1890-1907. and became the best Russian encyclopedia. 5. Museums. Theatre. Music The State Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow is one of the largest collections of Russian fine art, a world famous national cultural center. The museum bears the name of the founder, the Moscow merchant P. M. Tretyakov (1832-1898), who donated his art gallery to the city in 1892, as well as a small collection of his brother and a house that began to be rebuilt into a museum building. Tretyakov wanted to create a public museum of national art, giving "a complete picture of our painting." In 1881 it opened to visitors. The main theaters of the country in the second half of the XIX century. still remained Small and Alexandria. Talented actors and actresses - P. A. Strepetova, M. N. Ermolova - performed on the stage. At the end of the 70s. XNUMXth century the theatrical activity of director K. S. Stanislavsky begins. Painting and musical life of the 2nd half of the 1850th century. marked by the emergence of new talents that brought world fame to Russian art. Their aesthetic views were influenced by the ideas of the democratic movement of the 60s and 1863s. In 13, a group of students of the Academy of Arts, who left its walls ("revolt of XNUMX"), organized the "Artel of the Wanderers". The same ideas inspired the participants of the St. Petersburg Musical Circle: 1) M. A. Balakireva; 2) M. P. Mussorgsky; 3) N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. A special place in Russian music is occupied by P. I. Tchaikovsky, author: 1) operas; 2) ballets; 3) symphonic and chamber works. In the 60s. 1836th century in St. Petersburg, a small group of composers rallied, setting out to continue the work of M. I. Glinka. Subsequently, this group, according to the apt expression of the art critic V.V. Stasov, was called the "Mighty Handful". Its main organizer and theorist was M. A. Balakirev (1910-XNUMX). In addition to him, the "Mighty Handful" included: 1) M. P. Mussorgsky; 2) N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov; 3) A. P. Borodin; 4) C. A. Cui. The activity of the "Mighty Handful" is such a striking phenomenon in Russian culture that contemporaries spoke of it as a "musical revolution" of the 1860s and 70s. Having coped with the task with brilliance, the "Mighty Handful" finally approved the Russian national beginning in music. P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) was not included in the "Mighty Handful". He gravitated toward pan-European musical forms, although his work undoubtedly belongs to the Russian school. Especially brightly his talent manifested itself in the symphonic poems "Romeo and Juliet", "The Tempest". Tchaikovsky's ballets ("Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty", "The Nutcracker") have become world ballet classics. 6. Painting On November 9, 1863, a large group of graduates of the Academy of Arts refused to write competitive works on the proposed theme from Scandinavian mythology. 14 students of the history class defiantly filed a petition to withdraw from the Academy. Finding themselves without workshops and without money, the rebels united in a kind of commune - the "Artel of Artists", headed by the painter I. N. Kramskoy (1837-1887). Artel workers took orders for the performance of various works of art, lived in the same house, gathered in a common room for conversations, discussions of paintings, and reading books. This organization arranged annual exhibitions, showed them in different cities of Russia and distributed income among the members of the Partnership. Seven years later, it broke up, but by this time the "Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions", a professional and commercial association of artists who stood on close ideological positions, was born. By the mid 90s. 1917th century The partnership has lost its role. In total, up to 45, 48 exhibitions were held; the last, 1923th, was arranged in XNUMX. The eldest of the Wanderers, who worked in the domestic genre, was G. G. Myasoedov (1834-1911). The work that brought him the greatest success is Zemstvo is having lunch (1872). The most famous painting by another Wanderer - V. M. Maksimov (1844-1911) - "The Arrival of a Sorcerer at a Peasant Wedding" (1875). The accusatory meaning of the picture is obvious (at that time it was almost a mandatory requirement for a work of art), which showed the superstition and unenlightenedness of the peasantry. VE Makovsky (1846-1920) worked almost exclusively in genre painting. In one of his best works, "On the Boulevard" (1886-1887), the artist depicted a specific place - Tverskoy Boulevard in Moscow. N. A. Yaroshenko (1846-1898) also painted quite a few canvases, but the painting "Life Everywhere" (1887-1888) brought him fame. I.K. Aivazovsky (1817-1900), while still a student, chose the seascape as the main theme of his work. Settling in Feodosia, he created the best works, the most famous - "The Ninth Wave" (1850). Another outstanding work by Aivazovsky is The Black Sea (1881). The artist often painted from memory and could create a painting in two hours. He possessed the talents of an architect, musician, poet, and archaeologist. Antique jewels that he unearthed in the Crimea are still kept in the Hermitage. A. K. Savrasov managed to show the beauty and subtle lyricism of a simple Russian landscape. His painting "The Rooks Have Arrived" (1871) made many contemporaries take a fresh look at their native nature. I. I. Shishkin (1832-1898) became the singer of the Russian forest, the epic latitude of Russian nature. AI Kuindzhi (1841-1910) was attracted by the picturesque play of light and air. Russian landscape painting of the 1860th century reached its pinnacle. reached in the work of the student of A. K. Savrasov I. I. Levitan (1900-XNUMX). In the second half of the XIX century. account for the creative flowering of I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov and V. A. Serov. 7. Architecture and sculpture In the 2nd half of the XIX century. in connection with the expansion of the use of iron and glass, the beginning of the use of concrete, architects focused on the functionality of buildings. In the 2nd half of the XIX century. architecture and sculpture were in crisis. Realism dominated art. Architects turned to historical traditions, but in practice this led to a mixture of different styles. Such a mixture of different genres in one work is called eclecticism. At this time, the appearance of cities is rapidly changing. Tenement houses occupied the central streets, crowding out mansions. Theaters, museums, banks, department stores and train stations rivaled temples and palaces in size and abundance of decoration. At the same time, following the fashion of Western Europe, shopping arcades began to be built in Russia. The building of the passage animated the entire block, and along it, like along a boulevard, one could walk from one street to another. In 1889-1893. Upper trading rows were built in Moscow (architect A. N. Pomerantsev). Similar trends were observed in the field of sculpture. At the end of the 50s. 1862th century A competition was announced for the creation of a monument to the Millennium of Russia. It was supposed to be erected in Novgorod in 1835. M. O. Mikeshin (1896-1880) became the winner of the competition. The sculptor achieved success only by abandoning monumentality. Such is the famous monument to A. S. Pushkin on Tverskoy Boulevard in Moscow (1838) by Alexander Mikhailovich Opekushin (1923-XNUMX). The monument is small; This is a work not designed for a wide space. The poet stands, thinking, in a free pose. The sculptor managed to convey a moment of inspiration and make Pushkin's modest appearance sublime and beautiful. LECTURE No. 10. Russian culture of the Silver Age 1. General characteristics of the culture of the Silver Age Russian culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. received the name of the Silver Age (term N. A. Berdyaev). During this period, two different cultural streams met: on the one hand, traditions dating back to the XNUMXth century prevailed, on the other hand, a tendency to search for non-traditional forms appeared. Characteristic of this era was the fact that schools that departed from socio-political themes in art were often considered as representatives of the opposition (A. Blok and A. Bely, M. Vrubel, V. Meyerhold). Those who consciously continued the classical traditions were seen as spokesmen for general democratic ideas. At the turn of the century, many art associations arose in Russia: the World of Art, the Union of Russian Artists, etc. The so-called artistic colonies appeared - Abramtsevo and Talashkino, which gathered painters, architects, and musicians under one roof. In architecture, the Art Nouveau style is being promoted. A characteristic feature of the culture of the early XNUMXth century was the emergence and rapid spread of urban mass culture. The most striking example of this phenomenon was the unprecedented success of a new kind of spectacle - cinema. 2. Education and science The growth of the industry created a demand for educated people. However, the level of education did not change much: the 1897 census recorded 21 literate people per 100 inhabitants of the empire, and in the Baltic and Central Asia, among women and in the village, this level was lower. Government appropriations for the school increased from 1902 to 1912. more than 2 times. Since the beginning of the century, the question of compulsory primary education has been raised (it was adopted at the legislative level in 1908). After the revolution of 1905-1907. there was a certain democratization of higher education: the elections of deans and rectors were allowed, student organizations began to form. The number of secondary and higher educational institutions grew rapidly: by 1914 there were more than 200 of them. Saratov University was founded (1909). In total, by 1914 there were about 100 universities in the country with 130 thousand students. In general, the education system did not meet the needs of the country. There was no continuity between the various levels of education. in the humanities at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. an important turning point occurs. Scientific societies began to unite not only the scientific elite, but also amateurs, everyone who wants to engage in research activities. The most famous were: 1) geographical; 2) historical; 3) archaeological and other societies. The development of natural science took place in close contact with world science. The most striking phenomenon is the emergence of Russian religious and philosophical thought, an attribute of Russian philosophy. Russian historical school at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. won worldwide recognition. The studies of A. A. Shakhmatov on the history of Russian chronicle writing, V. Klyuchevsky (pre-Petrine period of Russian history) have become widely known in the world. Achievements in historical science are also associated with names: 1) P. N. Milyukov; 2) N. P. Pavlov-Silvansky; 3) A. S. Lappo-Danilevsky and others. The modernization of the country also required a fresh influx of forces into the sphere of natural sciences. New technical institutes were opened in Russia. World-class scientists were physicist P. N. Lebedev, mathematicians and mechanics N. E. Zhukovsky and S. A. Chaplygin, chemists N. D. Zelinsky and I. A. Kablukov. Moscow and St. Petersburg have become recognized scientific capitals of the world. At the beginning of the century, the geographical "discovery" of Russia was still going on. Huge unexplored expanses encouraged scientists and travelers to make risky expeditions. The travels of V. A. Obruchev, G. Ya. Sedov, A. V. Kolchak gained wide popularity. V. I. Vernadsky (1863-1945), an encyclopedist, one of the founders of geochemistry, the doctrine of the biosphere, which later formed the basis of his idea of the noosphere, or the sphere of the planetary mind, is among the famous scientists of this time. In 1903, the work of the creator of the theory of rocket propulsion, K. E. Tsiolkovsky (1875-1935), was published. The works of N. E. Zhukovsky (1847-1921) and I. I. Sikorsky (1889-1972) in aircraft construction, I. P. Pavlov, I. M. Sechenov and others were of significant importance. 3. Literature. Theatre. Cinema The development of literature went in line with the traditions of Russian classical literature of the XNUMXth century, the living personification of which was L. N. Tolstoy. Russian literature of the beginning of the XNUMXth century. represented by the names of A. P. Chekhov, M. Gorky, V. G. Korolenko, A. N. Kuprin, I. A. Bunin, etc. Early XNUMXth century was the heyday of Russian poetry. New trends were born: acmeism (A. A. Akhmatova, N. S. Gumilyov), symbolism (A. A. Blok, K. D. Balmont, A. Bely, V. Ya. Bryusov), futurism (V. V. Khlebnikov, V. V. Mayakovsky) and others. This period was characterized by such features as: 1) modernist thinking of the creators of culture; 2) strong influence of abstractionism; 3) patronage. The periodical press has acquired great importance in the life of Russian society. The release (1905) of the press from preliminary censorship contributed to an increase in the number of newspapers (the end of the 105th century - 1912 daily newspapers, 1131 - 24 newspapers in XNUMX languages), and an increase in their circulation. The largest publishing houses - I. D. Sytin, A. S. Suvorin, "Knowledge" - produced cheap editions. Each political movement had its own press organs. The theatrical life was also rich, where the Bolshoi (Moscow) and Mariinsky (Petersburg) theaters occupied the leading positions. In 1898, K. S. Stanislavsky and V. N. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Moscow Art Theater (originally the Moscow Art Theater), on the stage of which plays by Chekhov, Gorky and others were staged. At the beginning of the XX century. The attention of the musical community was drawn to the work of such talented Russian composers as: 1) A. N. Skryabin; 2) N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov; 3) S.V. Rachmaninov; 4) I. F. Stravinsky. Particularly popular among various segments of the urban population was the one that appeared at the turn of the 1908th-1914th centuries. cinema; in 300 the first Russian feature film "Stenka Razin" was released. By XNUMX over XNUMX paintings had been produced in the country. 4. Painting In the visual arts, there was a realistic trend - I. E. Repin, the Association of Traveling Exhibitions - and avant-garde trends. One of the trends was an appeal to the search for national original beauty - the works of M. V. Nesterov, N. K. Roerich and others. Russian impressionism is represented by the works of V. A. Serov, I. E. Grabar (Union of Russian Artists), K. A Korovina, P. V. Kuznetsova ("Golubayaroza") and others. In the first decades of the XX century. artists united to arrange joint exhibitions: 1910 - the exhibition "Jack of Diamonds" - P. P. Konchalovsky, I. I. Mashkov, R. R. Falk, A. V. Lentulov, D. D. Burliuk and others. famous artists of this period - K. S. Malevich, M. 3. Chagall, V. E. Tatlin. A major role in the development of artists had contacts with Western art, a kind of "pilgrimage to Paris". A significant role in the development of Russian art was played by the artistic direction "World of Art", which arose at the end of the 1897th century. In Petersburg. In 1898-1899. S. Diaghilev organized and held three exhibitions in Moscow and, having provided financial support, created in December XNUMX the magazine "World of Art", which gave the name to the movement. "World of Art" opened Finnish and Scandinavian painting, English artists to the Russian public. As an integral literary and artistic association, the "World of Art" existed until 1904. The resumption of the group in 1910 could no longer return its former role. The artists A. N. Benois, K. A. Somov, E. E. Lansere, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, L. S. Bakst and others united around the magazine. , theater directors and decorators, writers. The early works of M. V. Nesterov (1862-1942), who considered himself a student of V. G. Perov and V. E. Makovsky, were made on historical subjects in a realistic manner. The central work of Nesterov is "Vision to the youth Bartholomew" (1889-1890). K. A. Korovin (1861-1939) is often called a "Russian impressionist". Indeed, of all Russian artists of the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. he most fully mastered some of the principles of this direction - a joyful perception of life, the desire to convey fleeting sensations, a subtle play of light and color. A large place in the work of Korovin was occupied by the landscape. The artist also painted Parisian boulevards ("Paris. Capuchin Boulevard", 1906), and spectacular sea views, and Central Russian nature. Korovin worked a lot for the theater, designed performances. The art of V. A. Serov (1865-1911) is difficult to attribute to a specific direction. In his work there is a place for both realism and impressionism. Most of all, Serov became famous as a portrait painter, but he was also an excellent landscape painter. Since 1899, Serov took part in exhibitions of the "World of Art" association. Under their influence, Serov became interested in the historical theme (the era of Peter I). In 1907, he went on a trip to Greece (paintings "Odysseus and Nausicaa", "The Abduction of Europe", both 1910). The great Russian artist M. A. Vrubel (1856-1910) is widely known. The originality of his pictorial manner was in the endless crushing of the form on the verge. M. A. Vrubel is the author of tiled fireplaces with Russian heroes, benches with mermaids, sculptures ("Sadko", "Snow Maiden", "Berendey", etc.). A native of Saratov, V. E. Borisov-Musatov (1870-1905) worked a lot in the open air (in nature). In his sketches, he tried to capture the play of air and color. In 1897, he painted the Agave sketch, and a year later, Self-Portrait with Sister appeared. His characters are not specific people, the author himself invented them and dressed them in camisoles, white wigs, dresses with crinolines. The paintings reveal a poetic, idealized world of old quiet "noble nests", far from the general confusion of the modern critical era. 5. Architecture and sculpture In architecture, a new style has become widespread - modern with its characteristic desire to emphasize the purpose of residential and public buildings. He made extensive use of: 1) frescoes; 2) mosaic; 3) stained-glass windows; 4) ceramics; 5) sculpture; 6) new designs and materials. The architect F. O. Shekhtel (1859-1926) became a singer of the Art Nouveau style, the flourishing of the architecture of this style in Russia is associated with his name. During his creative life, he built an extraordinary amount: city mansions and summer cottages, multi-storey residential buildings, commercial and industrial buildings, banks, printing houses and even baths. In addition, the master designed theatrical performances, illustrated books, painted icons, designed furniture, and created church utensils. In 1902-1904. F. O. Shekhtel rebuilt the Yaroslavsky railway station in Moscow. The facade was decorated with ceramic panels made in the Bramtsevo workshop, the interior - with paintings by Konstantin Korovin. In the 1st decade of the XNUMXth century, during the heyday of Art Nouveau, interest in the classics began to revive in architecture. Many craftsmen used elements of the classical order and decor. So there was a special stylistic direction - neoclassicism. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. a new generation of sculptors was formed who opposed the realistic direction. Now preference was given not to careful detailing of the form, but to artistic generalization. Even the attitude towards the surface of the sculpture, on which fingerprints or stacks of the master were preserved, has changed. Interested in the characteristics of the material, they often preferred wood, natural stone, clay and even plasticine. A. S. Golubkina (1864-1927) and S. T. Konenkov, who became world-famous sculptors, are especially distinguished here. LECTURE No. 11. Russian culture of the 20-30s. XNUMXth century 1. General characteristics of the era Cultural life of the Soviet Union in the 1920-30s. contradictory: the elimination of illiteracy of the adult population, familiarization with the achievements of culture, ideological pressure, the fight against any manifestations of dissent, the persecution of religion, the expulsion of prominent cultural figures from the country and repression against those who remained. Writers and composers who began their creative life in the revolutionary years continued to create. At the same time, there were various trends in literature and art in the country: from classical realism to modernism in its most diverse manifestations. The revolution in October 1917 changed the direction of development of Russian art. In the first half of the 20s. artists still continued their experiments and searches, but artistic life was under increasing ideological pressure from the state. Many masters were forced to go abroad, and the rest were persecuted in the press. From the mid 1920s. the variety of creative directions began to gradually disappear. The activities of writers, artists, composers, and artists were controlled by the political authorities. When evaluating works of literature and art, their party affiliation came to the fore. In the 1930s in the art of the USSR, the "Great style" is affirmed. Avant-garde delights turned out to be completely unnecessary for the new society. Therefore, since the beginning of the 1930s. the first signs of a return to the outwardly traditional in culture are observed. The state ideology put forward socialist realism as the main artistic method - academic art, designed to educate people in the spirit of communist morality. In 1932, all independent associations were banned by a special government decree and a state system of creative unions was created - the Union of Artists of the USSR, the Union of Architects of the USSR, etc. 2. Education and science. Sport Theorists of Russian Marxism in the 1920s. They established a stamp in ideology according to which a “cultural revolution” took place during this period. The population census in 1920 revealed 54 million illiterate people in the country, so the task of eliminating illiteracy was one of the main ones. Thousands of literacy schools (educational schools) were created. Along with the elimination of illiteracy, the propaganda tasks of consolidating the Bolshevik ideology were also solved. This work was supervised by the Glavpolitprosvet." The network of workers' clubs, reading rooms, and libraries was increasing. FZU schools became a new form of training for workers. Personnel were also trained in technical schools, special schools, and short-term courses. Serious changes have been made in the system of higher and secondary specialized education in the country. During the odes of the civil war, much was done to make universities accessible to working people. Entrance exams were canceled, and everyone who wanted to enter universities was accepted. In the 1920s a special form of higher education arose - workers' faculties (workers' faculties). Measures were taken to radically change the curricula of higher educational institutions and universities, to remove professors and teachers disloyal to the government from universities. In 1921, the Institute of Red Professors (IKP) was established in Moscow to train Marxist teachers in higher education. By the end of the 30s. in all the union republics there were higher educational institutions, and in all their capitals - universities. In terms of the number of students studying at universities and technical schools, the Soviet Union came to one of the first places in the world. Large-scale construction unfolded during the years of the first five-year plan (1928-1933). At this time, pedagogical institutes, colleges and technical schools produced a significant number of specialists. The center of scientific life was the Moscow Academy of Sciences, which united the best scientists within its walls. The Soviet government, in order to develop science and increase the number of scientists, initiated the creation of republican academies of sciences, as well as branch academies (medical sciences, etc.). A whole network of design and design offices was organized, through which ideas were introduced into production. It should be noted that the state to a certain extent supported the natural and technical sciences. The humanities find themselves in a much more difficult position. In 1929, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after V.I. V. I. Lenin (VASKHNIL, president - N. I. Vavilov). Until his death in 1936, the well-known Russian physiologist IP Pavlov continued his research. Breeder I. V. Michurin achieved great success. A prominent role in the development of world science was played by the Institute of Genetics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Plant Growing (VIR). However, many prominent scientists were soon repressed, including N. I. Vavilov, S. P. Korolev, and others. The development of promising scientific areas (genetics, etc.) was interrupted for a long time. The Institute of History was also formed. In the 30s. 1th century the teaching of history is being developed in secondary and higher schools. On September 1934, XNUMX, the history faculties were restored at Moscow and Leningrad universities. The Moscow Institute of History, Philosophy and Literature played an important role in the training of specialists in the humanities. The leaders of the Soviet government also took measures to develop sports: athletes were awarded orders, were given cash prizes, and were awarded the title of Honored Masters of Sports of the USSR. In the 30s. a whole galaxy of outstanding athletes appeared who began to set world records. 3. Literature. public thought. Public life. Cinema. Theatre In 1934, the first All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers took place. Two years later, the Union of Writers of the USSR was created under the leadership of M. Gorky, and socialist realism was proclaimed the only official trend in Soviet literature. The dominance of socialist realism in subsequent years isolated Soviet art from the achievements of world culture. Massively created various groups and associations. One of the influential literary groups, the Serapion Brothers (1921), united mainly prose writers (K. A. Fedin, V. V. Ivanov, M. M. Zoshchenko, V. A. Kaverin). The literary group "Pass" was created at the magazine "Krasnaya Nov" (M. Prishvin, V. Kataev). Members of the group advocated the preservation of the continuity of the traditions of Russian and world literature. In 1924, the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) arose. Another literary group, the Left Front of the Arts (LEF, 1922), included the poets V. V. Mayakovsky, N. N. Aseev, and S. M. Tretyakov. Some prominent writers and poets did not belong to any groups and associations. In the early 20s. XNUMXth century poetry dominated literature. Due to the lack of paper, a form of "oral" poetry spread: 1) literary evenings; 2) concerts; 3) disputes. There are also new stories and novels by great masters of prose - for example, A. N. Tolstoy ("Walking through the torments" (1921)). Against the backdrop of the revolutionary era, symbolist and formalist works became widespread. The problem of the hero was relegated to the background for some time, and the problems of plot, form and style came to the fore. In prose, there has been a turn towards greater concretization and individualization of images. Books of intimate, detective content began to appear, and social prose also appeared. From the second half of the 1920s. literary works began to be filled with the same cliches, the range of plot topics was limited. Satirical novels built on adventurous social-utopian plots have become widespread. The writers closest to the authorities were provided with high fees, spacious apartments and summer cottages, and high-quality medical care. So the totalitarian regime tamed many cultural figures. A "Soviet artistic intelligentsia" began to take shape. However, even during these years, both within the mainstream and outside it, significant works were created: 1) "Quiet Flows the Don" and the 1st part of "Virgin Soil Upturned" by M. A. Sholokhov; 2) "The Master and Margarita" by M. A. Bulgakov; 3) poems and poems by A. A. Akhmatova, P. N. Vasiliev, N. A. Klyuev, O. E. Mandelstam, M. I. Tsvetaeva; 4) novels and stories by A. M. Gorky, A. N. Tolstoy, N. A. Ostrovsky, A. A. Fadeev, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, etc. The transition to the NEP brought to life the movement of "Smenovekhovites", which embraced part of the Russian intelligentsia (from the name of the socio-political collection of 6 articles by the authors of the cadet orientation - N. V. Ustryalova, Yu. A. Klyuchnikov and others - "Change of milestones"), which recognized the deeply Russian character of the revolution, noted the coincidence of the interests of the Soviet government and the needs of the Russian state. The Church, as the bearer of the spiritual values of the people, could not come to terms with the Bolshevik approach to culture and education of the masses, which was accompanied by the substitution of universal human values for class criteria. Hence the merciless struggle against religion launched by the Soviet government in the 1920s and 1930s. All religious denominations widespread in the USSR were persecuted: 1) Orthodoxy; 2) Protestantism; 3) Catholicism; 4) Uniatism; 5) Islam; 6) Buddhism; 7) Judaism; 8) various forms of sectarianism. Cinema still plays an important role. Talented directors, cameramen, actors created films that had an indelible impact on the minds of people ("Bright Path", "Volga-Volga", "Pig and Shepherd"). Members of the party leadership personally watched almost all the films released and were the highest censors. On the stages of many famous theaters (MKhAT, Maly Theatre), along with the classics in the 1920s. plays by new playwrights on revolutionary themes were staged. 4. Painting The development of art was also accompanied by the struggle of various directions. The Association of Artists of the Revolution (AKhR, 1922) was the most massive art organization, which aimed to develop the Wandering traditions in the spirit of "artistic documentaryism." Members of the AHR created many beautiful paintings (works by I. A. Brodsky, E. M. Cheptsov, K. F. Yuon). The AHR, like the RAPP, claimed a monopoly in art. Another significant association - the "Society of Easel Artists" (OST, 1925), organized by graduates of VKhUTEMAS, sought to create paintings that were modern not only in their content, but also in visual means (works by A. E. Deineka, Yu. N Pimenova and others). The Society of Artists "4 Arts" (1924) was formed from among the former members of the associations "Blue Rose", "World of Art". An impeccable professional culture, artistry, fidelity to tradition and, at the same time, bold searches characterized the members of this group (works by P. G. Kuznetsov, K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, M. S. Saryan, and others). The founder of Suprematism K. S. Malevich and V. Kandinsky also worked fruitfully. The creative manner of K. S. Petrov-Vodkin (1878-1939) is peculiar. Impressions from ancient Russian icons and canvases of the Italian Renaissance, Russian Art Nouveau and French Fauvism are intricately intertwined in his paintings. The result of the quest of Petrov-Vodkin was a real masterpiece - "Bathing the Red Horse" (1912). Very important for this artist was the image of the mother. One of the most significant works on this subject was the painting "1918 in Petrograd" ("Petrograd Madonna", 1920). The work of Marc Chagall (1887-1985), covering almost the entire XNUMXth century, has become one of the most interesting pages of both Russian and European painting. He easily mastered the traditions of different countries, eras and styles, while retaining his unique handwriting. The image of his native and surprisingly dear provincial Vitebsk became one of the themes of Chagall's work. V. E. Tatlin (1885-1953) - the artist of the Russian avant-garde, the founder of constructivism, who called the process of his work: "construction of materials", "culture of materials", etc. In the 1920s a number of artistic trends retained continuity with the art of Russian modern and avant-garde. On the other hand, new types of artistic activity arose: cinema, advertising, design. Painting was tightly controlled. Paintings and sculptures of historical and revolutionary content, portraits of leaders and leaders of labor were especially valued. Many artists went into landscape painting, into other neutral themes, but even there they were obliged to strictly observe the established forms. Already in the 1920s. critics noted the picturesque "turn towards realism". 5. Architecture and sculpture As a result of the nationalization of land and large real estate in the cities, the state became the sole customer for construction work in Soviet Russia. In the first post-revolutionary decade, his ideological dictatorship had not yet affected art. Open competitions, discussions, original projects and teaching systems in art universities made up a picture of an unprecedented creative upsurge in the late 1910s-1920s. Architecture during the 1920s characterized by an intensive search for new styles, innovative forms. In the first half of the 1s, when construction was limited, projects for various buildings (dwelling houses, labor palaces, workers' clubs, communal houses) were widely developed. The development was an architectural style based on the so-called constructivism. Neoclassicism began to revive. The most grandiose, albeit unfulfilled, plan was the construction of the Palace of Soviets in Moscow on the site of the blown up Cathedral of Christ the Savior. The palace was supposed to be crowned with a huge statue of Lenin. A striking example of technical innovation is the Moscow radio tower, erected in 1922 according to the project of V. G. Shukhov (1853-1939). He was one of the first to use steel mesh structures of double curvature - hyperboloids, which had a great future in world construction practice. The project for the development of the capital anticipated the later urban planning ideas of the West. In 1929-1930. a lively discussion about settling in a socialist society unfolded - a dispute between "urbanists" and "de-urbanists". The first (including A. A. and L. A. Vesnin) put forward the idea of creating communal cities with hotel-type housing and the complete socialization of all forms of cultural and community services, including even the upbringing of children. Their opponents (M. Ya. Ginzburg and others) considered it possible to replace cities with a network of highways, along which residential buildings stretched in a continuous ribbon, and behind them - industrial and agricultural strips. At the same time, each family was supposed to be endowed with a typical house and a car. In the early 30s. 1932th century in the development of Soviet architecture there was a sharp turning point. In XNUMX, all associations were merged into the Union of Architects of the USSR. Many buildings appeared, unpleasantly striking in size and abundance of decorations. At the same time, mass construction was carried out in the country. Model projects of residential buildings, schools, and public institutions were developed. The development of the construction industry was aimed primarily at reducing the cost and speeding up work: since 1927 cinder blocks began to be used, in 1940 the first panel houses were built. In 1935, large-scale work began on the reconstruction of Moscow (the author of the project was V. N. Semenov). By 1941, the ensemble of the Moscow center was re-formed, the system of transport arteries of the city was updated, 9 new bridges were built across the Moscow and Yauza rivers and granite embankments, three metro lines, green areas of the Gorky Central Park of Culture and Recreation were laid out. The art of sculpture acquired special social and political significance in Russia after 1917. Soviet propaganda sought to create an image of modernity as a heroic era; a fairy tale that becomes a reality before our eyes. For some time, Soviet sculpture still retained echoes of impressionism, modernity and avant-garde of the early 1920th century, but by the end of the 1887s. the main reference point for most sculptors was the classics. Here, for the first time, the intensely dramatic composition of ID Shadr (1941-1889) "Cobblestone - the weapon of the proletariat" was shown; the majestic, inspired by the image of the Russian Empire, the group of A. T. Matveev "October. Worker, peasant and Red Army soldier" and the statues of V. I. Mukhina (1953-1927) "Peasant woman" and "Worker and collective farm woman" (both XNUMX). LECTURE No. 12. Culture of the era of the Great Patriotic War 1. General characteristics of the era The conditions in which culture developed during the Great Patriotic War were very difficult. Everything was missing: paper, paints, marble, fabrics, building materials. The entire industry was urgently transferred to a military footing, buildings and cities were destroyed. The patriotic beginning in art was very strong. Many cultural figures carried out an important mission during the war years: their works created a favorable background in the allied countries for supporting the USSR in the fight against fascism. 2. Education and science A necessary condition for the successful development of the national economy of the country was the continuous training of new personnel in universities and technical schools. In 1941, admission to universities was halved, and their number decreased, the number of students decreased by 3,5 times, and the terms of study were reduced to 3 years. However, by the end of the war, the number of students approached the pre-war level. An important role was played by the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR (headed by V.P. Potemkin, founded in 1943). The war changed the peaceful orientation of scientific work. On June 23, 1941, at an emergency meeting, the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences called on scientists to mobilize all forces to fight the Nazi invaders. The war years became a time of bold and original technical solutions. In the first months of the Great Patriotic War, many research institutes were forced to evacuate to the east. During the evacuation, they retained their research teams. The presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences, evacuated to Sverdlovsk, remained the organizing core of the country's scientists. The research topics were focused on the following areas: 1) development of military-technical problems; 2) scientific assistance to industry; 3) Mobilization of raw materials. Bauxite deposits in the Southern Urals, tungsten, molybdenum, copper, manganese deposits in Kazakhstan, large oil reserves in Tataria were discovered and developed in the shortest possible time. Thanks to the geologists A. E. Fersman, V. A. Obruchev and others, new iron ore deposits were explored in the Kuzbass, new sources of oil in Bashkiria. Great strides have also been made in the fields of biology, agriculture and medicine. Soviet scientists found new vegetable raw materials for industry, looked for ways to increase the yield of food and industrial crops. Major problems were solved by medical scientists. But many remarkable scientists continued to languish in the prisons and camps of the Gulag. During the war years, N. I. Vavilov, P. A. Florensky and others died there. Since 1943, a laboratory under the direction of I. V. Kurchatov began to operate in Moscow, which began to develop the fission of uranium. And by the end of the war, S. P. Korolev and Yu. B. Khariton, released from the camp, began laying the foundations for the development of rocket technology. The contribution of mathematicians was also significant: 1) P. S. Aleksandrova; 2) I. M. Vinogradova. Physicists A.F. Ioffe, S.I. Vavilov, P.L. Kapitsa, chemists N.D. Zelinsky, A.E. Favorsky actively worked for the defense. The scientist A.P. Alexandrov successfully solved the problem of mine protection of ships. During the war years, the creators of the remarkable Soviet military equipment and weapons worked fruitfully. In the course of the armed struggle, there was a continuous qualitative improvement of artillery systems and aircraft (authors V. G. Grabin, I. I. Ivanov, F. F. Petrov, B. I. Shavyrin and others). Successes in the production of small arms were achieved with the leading role of designers N. E. Berezina, S. V. Vladimirov, S. G. Simonov, F. V. Tokarev. Soviet scientists managed to reduce the development and implementation of new types of weapons many times over. About half of all types of small arms and the vast majority of new models of artillery systems that were in service with the army in 1945 were created and put into series during the war. Through the efforts of Soviet tank builders, especially the workers and engineers of the Ural "Tankograd", the enemy's advantage in armored vehicles was relatively quickly overcome. By 1943, the preponderance of the saturation of the Soviet Armed Forces with tanks and self-propelled artillery began to grow. A huge merit in their creation belonged to N. A. Astrov, N. L. Dukhov, Zh. Ya. Kotin, M. I. Koshkin, V. V. Krylov and others. Since the second half of 1942, the production of aircraft and aircraft engines has been steadily increasing. The Il-2 attack aircraft became the most massive aircraft of the Soviet Air Force. 3. Literature. Music. Theatre In the spiritual confrontation with the fascist aggressors, our culture played its own special role. A characteristic feature of the development of culture is the deepening of interest in the national classical heritage. And this is no coincidence. Fascism with its division of peoples into "full" and "inferior" was an example of the destruction of the cultural heritage of many peoples. In the days of severe trials, patriotic journalism came to the fore. The authors have largely freed themselves from the stereotypes of the pre-war years, their works have become closer, more understandable to people. Poetry experienced a real upsurge. The most famous poem of the wartime "Wait for me" by K. M. Simonov, the soldiers cut out from newspaper pages, rewrote, passed from hand to hand. A. Tvardovsky's poem about Vasily Terkin became an outstanding work, the main character of which combined the features of many real people and characters of folk tales. A man who thought independently, a man of independent judgments and actions, who felt a deep connection with the history of his people, won the war. The poems of Pushkin and the novels of Tolstoy, Turgenev, the music of Glinka and Tchaikovsky acquired a new meaning. In the most difficult days of the siege of Leningrad, D. Shostakovich created the ingenious Seventh Symphony. Drama and musical theater actors, pop artists also contributed to the common cause of the fight against the enemy. Front-line theaters were very popular with soldiers and commanders. The concert activity of musicians and artists at the fronts and in the rear took on a large scale. The concerts were attended by L. A. Ruslanova, L. O. Utesov, K. I. Shulzhenko and others. The patriotic theme has become a leading one in documentary and feature films. There were about 150 cameramen on the fronts during the war years. 4. Painting and architecture The painting of the war years is significantly different from the pre-war. There were stages in its development. At the beginning of the war - basically fixing what he saw. The plans were not always successful, the paintings lacked depth in the disclosure of the topic, the power of generalization. But there has always been great sincerity, passion, admiration for people, directness and honesty of artistic vision, a desire to be extremely conscientious and accurate. Laconism, simplicity of visual means, but also a certain straightforwardness are characteristic of plot paintings of 1941-1942. A bright spot on a dark background is the figure of a woman in S. Gerasimov's painting "Mother of a Partisan" (1943). The same goal is pursued by A. Deineka in the film "Defense of Sevastopol" (1942). Although the viewer knows that Sevastopol was abandoned by our troops, but these sailors fighting to the death are perceived as winners. The oldest masters V. N. Baksheev, N. Krymov, A. N. Kuprin, I. E. Grabar also worked in the landscape genre during the war years. These years also preserved almost documentary landscapes, which eventually became a historical genre, such as "Parade on Red Square on November 7, 1941." K. F. Yuon (1942), who captured that memorable day for all Soviet people, when the soldiers went straight from the snow-covered square into battle. "Leningrad in the days of blockade and liberation" - this is the name of a series of more than three dozen autolithographs by A.F. Pakhomov (1908-1973), which he began in 1941 and completed after the war. Pakhomov himself survived the blockade, and his drawings are full of tragic feeling and admiration for the courage of his compatriots. The whole world went around his drawing "On the Neva for water", depicting wrapped girls, extracting water from the Neva with their last efforts. First of all, the portrait develops, because the artists sought to convey the heroic character of our man. At first, these were extremely modest portraits, only fixing the features of a wartime man - Belarusian partisans F.A. Modorov and Red Army soldiers V.N., Yakovlev. Later, ceremonial, solemn, sometimes even pathetic images appeared, such as, for example, the portrait of Marshal G.K. Zhukov by P. Korin (1945). P. Konchalovsky worked a lot in the portrait genre during the war years. He creates optimistic, life-loving characters in his usual decorative manner. The portraits of the intelligentsia painted during the war years by M. Saryan are of particular significance, monumentality of the image (academician I. A. Orbeli, 1943; composer A. I. Khachaturyan, 1944; poet M. Lozinsky, 1944; writer M. . Shaginyan, 1944 and others). During the war years, Saryan was also engaged in landscape and still life. It should be noted one special still life, called by him "To the Armenian soldiers, participants in the Patriotic War" (1945), depicting the fruits and flowers of Armenia: as a gift and gratitude to those who fought and conquered, and as a memory of the dead. In 1941-1945. both domestic and landscape genres are developing. A prominent place in the formation of both of them during the war years belongs to A. Plastov. Both genres are combined in his painting "The Fascist Flew" (1942): young birches, gray skies, distant fields familiar to each of us. Against the backdrop of this peaceful autumn landscape, the atrocity of the fascist pilot who killed the shepherd boy seems even more monstrous. Plastov's brushes also belong to very bright, soulful landscapes of our homeland. In the last year of the war, A. Plastov painted a beautiful picture "Harvest" (1945): a serious and tired old man and children dine at the harvested sheaves. B. Nemensky depicted a woman sitting over sleeping soldiers, and called his work "Mother" (1945). In historical painting, images of the heroes of the past appear. In the last years of the war, one of their best paintings was created by the Kukryniksy, turning to the image of antiquity - Sophia of Novgorod as a symbol of the invincibility of the Russian land ("The Flight of the Nazis from Novgorod", 1944-1946). Monumental painting, of course, had few opportunities for development during the war years. But, despite this, the art of "eternal materials", frescoes and mosaics, continued to exist. So, for example, in besieged Leningrad, mosaics for the subway were assembled using Deineka's cardboards. The authors of the most famous posters were cartoonists Moor (D. S. Orlov) and Denis (V. N. Denisov). The heroic poster of the Great Patriotic War adopted the best traditions of the revolutionary poster. In the first days of the war, the famous poster by I. M. Toidze "The Motherland Calls!" appeared on the streets. (1941). If in the initial period of the war the main character of the posters was a fighting Soviet soldier, as, for example, on the poster by A. A. Kokorekin "For the Motherland!" (1942), then with the onset of a turning point in the war in favor of the Soviet Union, tragic plots were replaced by images that inspire confidence in victory. It is difficult to talk about the architecture of this period. There was a lack of labor and materials. The war brought with it devastation, especially in the western regions close to the borders. All construction work during this period was mainly associated with the installation of evacuated equipment, the creation of buildings for the needs of industry. LECTURE No. 13. Soviet culture in the 1950s-1980s 1. Features of the culture of the period under study Features of the culture of the USSR of this period consisted in the struggle of the government with deviations from the "tasks of social construction." The pressure and control on the part of the party were so great that they oppressed the freedom of artists and scientists. Mass discussions in various branches of science of that time had a negative impact on their participants. After N. S. Khrushchev came to power, his meetings with the intelligentsia became habitual, at which the general secretary criticized the "formalists" and avant-gardists for being "incomprehensible." It should be noted that Khrushchev was poorly versed in matters of culture, and most of the "progressive" cultural figures could not openly oppose him. The development of culture took on a utilitarian character. L. I. Brezhnev spoke out against two extremes of culture: "slander" and "embellishment of reality." Works devoted to topical issues were criticized. Works in the spirit of neo-Stalinism were supported. In order to control culture in the mid-1970s. the system of state orders was introduced. Increased censorship. The acquaintance of Soviet citizens with foreign artistic culture was constantly limited. The development of culture in the 1960-80s. was contradictory. Although funds for the development of culture were constantly increasing, the achievements did not match the costs. 2. Education and science During this period, the leadership of the USSR began to pay great attention to education. In 1946, the Soviet government also significantly increased spending on science (they were 2,5 times higher than the spending of the previous year). At the same time, the Academies of Sciences of Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania were restored, and they were created in Kazakhstan, Latvia and Estonia. In the postwar period, a whole series of research institutes was organized. War and repression in the 1930s dealt a heavy blow to the intelligentsia, so in the 1940s - early 50s. in the Soviet Union there was a shortage of specialists with higher and secondary education. In the 1940s - early 50s. Soviet science and technology achieved a number of successes in the field of physics, chemistry, and precision mechanics, but they were mainly aimed at military needs. In 1949, an atomic bomb was tested in the USSR, and research was underway in the field of chemical and bacteriological weapons. Branches of science that were not directly related to defense were subjected to strict control. Indicative in this respect were the persecution of cybernetics, which was declared a science that contradicted the laws of materialism. This had a negative impact on the level of world development of the USSR. A monopoly position in the agricultural sciences was occupied by supporters of academician T. D. Lysenko, who promised to quickly increase crop yields without serious capital investments. After N. S. Khrushchev came to power, there was some emancipation of historical science. Gradually, there was a departure from the dogmas of the short course in the history of the CPSU (b), a revision of the role of Stalin in the history of the Soviet state. The personality cult of Khrushchev himself grew. During the years of the 7-year plan (1959-1965) there was a significant shift in the field of technical progress. In July 1956, the first Soviet jet passenger aircraft TU-104 took off into the sky. In 1957, a multi-stage intercontinental ballistic missile was launched. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet artificial Earth satellite was launched. The USSR became a pioneer in space exploration. On April 12, 1961, the Soviet pilot-cosmonaut Yu. A. Gagarin made the first space flight in history. In the mid 1950s-early 60s. the development of the mass media (media). Broadcasting covered the whole country. The time of the "thaw" was characterized by the rise of Soviet science and culture. Much attention was paid to secondary and higher education. In December 1958, a law was adopted, according to which, instead of 7-year education, universal compulsory 8-year education was introduced. In 1957, the world's most powerful elementary particle accelerator, the synchrophasotron, was launched in the USSR. In 1956, a major international research center, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, was established in Dubna. The works of Soviet physicists - academicians L. D. Landau, A. D. Sakharov and others - gained worldwide fame. The production of domestic computer technology began. The crisis state of school education caused attempts to reform the school (1983-1984). But unpreparedness, misunderstanding of the causes of the crisis in this area led to a quick rejection of the reform. Already in 1985-1986. she was turned around. The same problems were faced by higher education. Despite the fact that the number of universities and universities was constantly growing in the country, the country's industry and agriculture were in need of qualified personnel. The main reasons for this were: 1) irrational use of university graduates; 2) low level of their training; 3) a decrease in the prestige of a graduate. The situation in science was a little better. Soviet science did not lag behind the science of Western countries only in fundamental areas, while in the applied field, and especially in computerization, it was in the last ranks. Significant successes have been achieved by Soviet science in the fields of physics, chemistry, and space exploration. 1985-1991 in the field of education, science and culture are characterized ambiguously. In the field of education, changes began to occur from 1988. The shortage of teachers increased, as they began to go into commerce in order to secure a decent income. The interest of young people in getting an education has sharply decreased. Gradually introduced alternative education: 1) gymnasiums were created; 2) lyceums and colleges. During the second half of the 2s. in the USSR, there were practically no serious discoveries, and the leading branches of science, such as astronautics, nuclear physics, molecular biology, etc., hardly kept the level achieved in the previous period. 3. Literature The campaign against cosmopolitanism that unfolded in the late 1940s and early 50s had a negative impact on the development of literature and art. Its purpose was: 1) denigrate everything non-Soviet, non-socialist; 2) put up a barrier between the USSR and Western countries. In 1946-1948. decisions of the Party Central Committee were adopted “On the magazines “Zvezda” and “Leningrad”, “On the repertoire of drama theaters and measures to improve it”, “On the film “Big Life”, “On V. Muradeli’s opera “The Great Friendship”. Well-known people were persecuted Soviet composers, writers: S. S. Prokofiev, A. N. Khachaturyan, N. Ya. Myaskovsky, A. A. Akhmatova, M. M. Zoshchenko and others, whose work was classified as anti-Soviet. During the years of the "thaw" the standard of living of the Soviet people increased noticeably. Since 1956, a 6-hour working day has been established for adolescents aged 16-18. In 1956-1960. the transfer of all workers and employees to a 7-hour day has ended, and in underground and hazardous work - to a 6-hour working day. During the "thaw" there was a noticeable rise in literature and art, which was greatly facilitated by the rehabilitation of some cultural figures repressed under Stalin. In 1958, the CPSU Central Committee adopted a resolution “On correcting errors in the evaluation of the operas “The Great Friendship” and “Bogdan Khmelnitsky”. At the same time, it was in the sphere of culture that the relapses of Stalinism were especially clearly manifested. In 1957-1962 "meetings" of party leaders with cultural and art figures were held, at which extremely harsh assessments of such anti-Stalinist works as the novels "Not by Bread Alone" by Dudintsev, "Levers" by A. A. Yashin, "Own Opinion" by D. A. Granin, and the novel "Doctor Zhivago", which was not even published in the USSR, became the reason for the persecution of B. L. Pasternak. As part of the literary and artistic process of the "thaw", a layer of intelligentsia was formed that was in opposition to the existing regime - dissidents. The emergence of "samizdat" and "tamizdat" literature also belonged to this time. In many cities, the number of theater studios has increased dramatically. New films began to appear on the screens. It is necessary to name the films of T. E. Abuladze. The penetration of Western cultural products, especially video films, into the country has increased significantly. The prestige of the journals Novy Mir (editor A.T. Tvardovsky), Yunost (editor V.P. Kataev) was constantly growing. A real shock for millions of Soviet people was the publication of a short story by A. I. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. It should be noted that Khrushchev supported the publication of this book and even publicly approved its nomination for the Lenin Prize. However, the A.I. Solzhenitsyn was not awarded, and Khrushchev himself did not return to this issue. 4. Public thought. Standard of living In the second half of the 2s. dissident movement begins to grow in the country. It became widespread among the intelligentsia of large cities. The concept of "dissidence" included various manifestations. Cultural figures who tried to openly express their doubts became dangerous for the country's leadership; very often they were imprisoned or expelled from the USSR. In 1960, writers A. D. Sinyavsky and Yu. M. Daniel were convicted for publishing their works in the West. In 1965 AI Solzhenitsyn was deprived of his Soviet citizenship and forcibly expelled from the USSR. Film director A. A. Tarkovsky, director Yu. P. Lyubimov, writer V. A. Nekrasov, poet I. A. Brodsky, cellist M. L. Rostropovich and others ended up abroad. The ideology of neo-Stalinism was also opposed by the "village" prose of V. P. Astafiev and B. A. Mozhaev. A special place in the culture of those years was occupied by books and films by V. M. Shukshin. Another specific feature of the culture of the 1960s and 1970s was the so-called. "recording revolution". Recordings of songs, as well as satirical speeches, played at home, were practically uncontrollable and became widespread. The recognized leaders were the bards V. S. Vysotsky, B. Sh. Okudzhava, A. A. Galich and others. Elements of a special, youth pop culture appear and are fixed. Since the mid 1970s. inflation started. Scarcity had a profound effect on the mass consciousness. At the same time, official propaganda waged an intensified struggle against "materialism". In the 1970s-1980s. among the writers, one should single out F. A. Iskander, poets I. A. Brodsky, N. M. Korzhavin, A. A. Galich, directors A. A. Tarkovsky, Yu. P. Lyubimov, A. A. German, T. E. Abuladze, S. N. Paradzhanov, the Mikhalkov brothers and others. Great changes took place in literature and art. A significant phenomenon was the return to Soviet people of the works of the authors of the "Russian Diaspora": philosophers N. A. Berdyaev and V. D. Solovyov, writers D. S. Merezhkovsky, M. A. Aldanov, I. A. Bunin and V. D. Nabokov , poets N. S. Gumilyov and I. A. Brodsky and many others. Many works of the Nobel Prize winner in literature A. Solzhenitsyn began to appear, primarily the Gulag Archipelago and the historical epic The Red Wheel. The so-called "informal" press began to appear. 5. Painting In 1947, the Academy of Arts of the USSR was established, and already in the 1950s. in the field of fine arts, a rigid educational and production system was established. The future artist had to go through a number of mandatory stages: 1) art school; 2) school or institute. He completed his studies with a large thematic painting and then became a member of the Union of Artists. The state was the main customer and buyer of his works. The main style was the so-called socialist realism (socialist realism), or Sots Art. In Soviet painting of the late 1950s - early 60s. the "severe style" was established. The source of inspiration for the masters of the "severe style" was the life of ordinary people, which they conveyed in a sublimely poetic spirit. The images in the paintings "Our everyday life" (1960) by P.F. Nikonov and "Rafters" (1961) by N.A. Andronov are generalized and laconic. Some masters, in contrast to the topics imposed by socialist realism, turned to other genres: 1) a portrait; 2) landscape; 3) still life. N. S. Khrushchev criticized abstract and formalist artists at exhibitions. In particular, the sculptor E. Neizvestny, having no idea either about his works or about the author himself. The meeting of E. N. Neizvestny and N. S. Khrushchev went down in history. The artist - the combat commander of the Patriotic War - took off his shirt in front of the head of state, showed terrible scars from wounds on his back. Khrushchev was amazed and embarrassed. 6. In circles of creative intelligentsia In the circles of the creative intelligentsia - writers, artists, filmmakers (later they were called "sixties") - opposition to official art was formed. Already in the late 1950s. there was a group of artists passionate about European and American surrealism. They fully declared themselves in the 2nd half of the 60s and in the 70s. XNUMXth century Each artist developed his own, easily recognizable set of images-signs. Vladimir Borisovich Yankilevsky (born in 1938) graduated from the art studio at the Moscow Polygraphic Institute. His works - "Atmosphere of Kafka" (1969), a series of engravings "Mutations" (1970s) and others - are rebuses composed of various icons that evoke associations with tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. Later, Yankilevsky began to create three-dimensional objects. Ilya Iosifovich Kabakov (born in 1933) chose a different pictorial "dictionary" for his works: pictures for children's books, stands, wall newspapers, posters. However, in the artist's compositions, they lose their usual functions, and the viewer is invited to come up with another purpose for them. The son of E. L. Kropivnitsky, Lev Evgenyevich Kropivnitsky (1922-1994) and V. I. Nemukhin (born in 1925) used the techniques of abstract expressionism in their work. In addition, Lev Kropivnitsky illustrated books. In the same years, a talented artist and friend of V. S. Vysotsky M. M. Shemyakin was expelled from the country. Masters of different generations, who until now only dreamed of freedom of expression, now enthusiastically indulged in experiments in the spirit of modern Western artistic trends. Soviet artists who worked outside the framework of official art became famous in the West, as their works were acquired mainly by foreigners. Western critics called these masters "nonconformists" (from the English "dissenters"). At the exhibition in 1962 in the Moscow Manege, N. S. Khrushchev subjected the "nonconformists" to harsh criticism. After the exhibition, the "nonconformists" went underground: they staged shows of their work in private apartments, sometimes in clubs and cafes. The next major performance of the "nonconformists" was an exhibition on a wasteland in the Moscow district of Belyaevo (1974). The city authorities, in the presence of foreign journalists, dispersed it with the help of bulldozers (it went down in history under the name "Bulldozer Exhibition"). The event received international publicity, and two weeks later, with the permission of the authorities, a new outdoor exhibition was held in Izmailovo. Since then, at official exhibitions until the mid-1980s. a greater variety of themes, traditions, and manners of performance was allowed. In the 1970-80s. among the "non-conformists" forms of avant-garde art, such as actions, performances, became more and more popular. Here the artist did not represent any work, but himself as the bearer of the idea. In the 1980-90s. Russian art developed in parallel with Western art. Private galleries (M. A. Gelman, A. Salakhova, and others) sprang up to support "non-traditional" forms of art. 7. Architecture and sculpture Similar processes took place in architecture. So, in the 1950s. the party leadership condemned "decoration" and "excessive luxury." A course was taken for the mass construction of residential buildings. Asceticism and simplicity became standards. The dominating position among architectural forms was occupied by a parallelepiped, among building materials - concrete (the Kremlin Palace of Congresses, the Taganka Theater). And in the 1970s and 80s. a variety of shapes, styles, materials became popular. Titanium and glass structures appear, the historical style is especially fond of architects. LECTURE No. 14. Culture of Russia 1991-2003 1. General characteristics of the period The culture of the period under study is characterized by the following features: 1) a wide variety of styles, genres and trends; 2) the state ceases to dictate the canons, style and subjects in art; 3) restrictions in science and teaching are removed; 4) new myths are born in culture; 5) culture is losing its main customer, and its funding is sharply reduced; 6) mass art comes to the fore; 7) in the 1990s. there was a return of a number of names - the Russians learned about such layers of culture as the culture of the Silver Age (the work of the poets O. E. Mandelstam, A. A. Akhmatova, M. N. Tsvetaeva, N. S. Gumilyov, etc.) and the Russian Diaspora ( V. D. Nabokov, M. A. Allanov and others) 2. Education and science Science and education found themselves in difficult conditions. Interestingly, the main place in state policy is given to secondary education. It is regulated by the law on education, adopted in 1992. At the same time, the content of education has changed qualitatively: it has become person-oriented and correlated with world standards. Secondary and higher schools are experiencing difficulties due to a lack of material resources, a decrease in the level of teaching, and the unwillingness of power structures and political leaders to provide normal funding. The unpreparedness of the majority of educational institutions to operate in a market economy, to earn money on their own, also had an effect. But higher education is now in great demand and is actively developing: universities are opening, new promising specialties are emerging. Thus, by the middle of 2001, there were about 600 state and 250 non-state universities in Russia. A characteristic feature is the paid - commercial - form of education. As for science, post-Soviet science adapted extremely poorly to a market economy. commonplace in the 1990s. became the so-called "brain drain" abroad - many scientists have chosen better working conditions. Nevertheless, a large number of scientists remained in Russia, they work and achieve good results with modest funding. Priority in funding is given to scientists working in the natural sciences (fundamental and applied industries). Funds-sponsors play an important role (domestic - for example, the Potanin Foundation, foreign - the Ford Foundation, the Soros Foundation). Scientists in the humanities, who have received the opportunity to freely communicate with foreign colleagues, today are not shackled by the former ideological uniformity. They more objectively reveal the history of the Fatherland, its culture and contribution to the development of world civilization. 3. Literature, cinema, theater. mass media Literature continues to evolve. New names appear: 1) A. S. Petrushevskaya (new style - "gray on gray"); 2) V. G. Sorokin (naturalism); 3) V. O. Pelevin (modernism); 4) B. Sh. Akunin (detective genre). The Russian reader discovers and rereads the masterpieces of world literature - the works of G. G. Marquez, P. Coelho and others. In the late 1990s domestic cinema begins to develop. The paintings of N. S. Mikhalkov and S. V. Bodrov compare favorably. As for the actors, many of them work on television, in the theater. Theatrical art is in great demand today. Musicals are popular. The theater of O. Tabakov "Snuffbox" is world famous. New theaters are constantly opening (there are more than 200 in Moscow alone), art exhibitions, music festivals, etc. are being held. Circus art is developing. In a different situation are archives and museums, which, in order to survive, provide paid services to the population and legal entities (for example, rent out premises for presentations and exhibitions). Among the museums, the St. Petersburg Wax Museum is especially popular. In general, the lack of funds deprives libraries of the opportunity to increase their funds, museums to replenish their collections, publishing houses to publish serious literature, etc. Russian show business is actively developing, trying to get as close as possible to American and European standards. A real boom in the 1990s. survived the media - there are many new newspapers, magazines, TV channels. A special place among them is occupied by the channel "Culture", which introduces the phenomena and events of Russian and world culture. The lack of advertising is one of the advantages of this channel. The ways of broadcasting culture are changing globally - the Internet has appeared and has become a massive worldwide network. 4. Painting, architecture and sculpture Russian painting and sculpture find themselves in difficult conditions today. The official portrait painter of the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin, Nikas Safronov, made a large number of portraits of the President, as well as figures of world culture (for example, the portrait of Sophia Loren, stylized as "Gioconda" by L. da Vinci). The portrait painter A. M. Shilov ("Dance with Cupid") is actively working. Widely known among artists is V. Vysotsky's friend, who lives in America, M. M. Shemyakin (a series of paintings "Masquerade", scenes from the life of the XNUMXth century). The sculptural works and projects of Zurab Tsereteli, including the monument to Peter the Great (2002), are popular all over the world. There is an upswing in the construction industry. But the construction of residential buildings according to individual projects, as well as multi-apartment residential buildings according to design non-standard projects, comes to the fore. LECTURE No. 15. Culture of the primitive era 1. General characteristics of the period The culture of the primitive era is the foundation of all subsequent culture of mankind. Many phenomena of the life of modern society originate in the deep antiquity of the primitive era: 1) language; 2) writing; 3) art; 4) religion; 5) mythology; 6) science; 7) morality, etc. Some modern problems are entirely or partially solved on the basis of the study of the primitive era: the history of the emergence of man, the origin of races, peoples, the emergence of mythology, religion, art, etc. It should be noted that the primitive era has not gone irrevocably into the past. It still continues to exist in local areas: 1) the Amazon jungle; 2) in the central regions of Africa; 3) on the islands of Oceania; 4) in the interior of Australia. The primitive era covers a huge period from the appearance of man to the emergence of the first class societies and states, as well as writing. The human race has existed for about 2,5 million years. Homo sapiense (reasonable man) is only about 40 thousand years old. 2. Material culture Man has been using tools for more than 2 million years. This opened up wide opportunities for him: 1) use of natural resources; 2) adaptation to the environment; 3) collective hunting; 4) protection from enemies. During the Neolithic period: 1) tools are being improved; 2) methods of stone processing (sawing, drilling, grinding); 3) bows, arrows, pottery appear. Along with hunting, fishing, gathering, agriculture and cattle breeding are spreading. These two great achievements of the primitive economy made man a man. The most important prerequisite for the decomposition of primitive society was the transition to the use of metals. 3. The emergence of art. Mythology With the advent of art, a qualitative leap took place in the development of human society. Primitive art has become a new phenomenon. The starting point of human artistic creativity could be: his aesthetic needs, sexual instinct, mythological thinking, religious practice, the need to consolidate and transfer the accumulated experience, the need for entertainment, etc. Biological and cultural development has helped man to use symbols. No living being, except man, has this ability. Mythology occupies an important place in primitive culture. It, being the main form of a person's worldview at an early stage of development, shows how he realizes himself, the world around him and his place in this world. Literature was also formed on the basis of various forms of verbal creativity. From mythology, such forms of social consciousness emerged as: 1) art; 2) political ideology, etc. In ancient times, man did not yet distinguish himself from the environment. He transferred his own properties, feelings to natural objects, endowed them with souls and spirits. The most important feature of the myth is that by replacing some symbols in the myth with others, it makes the described objects more accessible for understanding. As studies have shown, in the early stages of development, myths were primitive and brief. Later, mythology turned into an extended system of myths connected with each other, forming branched cycles. This is how it turned out: 1) antique; 2) Old Slavonic; 3) Scandinavian mythology, etc. Scientists distinguish several types of myths: 1) anthropogonic; 2) solar; 3) lunar; 4) astral; 5) zooanthropomorphic; 6) cosmogonic; 7) theogonic, etc. One of the most common forms of primitive beliefs was the cult of ancestors - the veneration of the spirits of deceased relatives. It was believed that these spirits, evil and good, can influence people's lives. There were many ways in which people tried to propitiate the spirits of their ancestors and neutralize their evil will. Varieties of primitive beliefs are: 1) animism; 2) totemism; 3) fetishism. The development of agriculture in the late period of the primitive era required the ordering of the calendar, and consequently, astronomical observations. Irrigation work led to the formation of the technique of geometric calculations, the development of exchange - to the improvement of counting systems. Ultimately, all this led to the accumulation of mathematical knowledge. Diseases, epidemics, wars forced the use and improvement of primitive medicine. Land and sea movements served as an incentive for the development of geography and cartography. And with the advent of the smelting of ore metals, the foundations of chemistry were born. 4. Visual arts In the primitive era, all types of fine arts were formed: 1) graphics (drawings, silhouettes); 2) painting (images in color, made with mineral paints); 3) sculpture (figures carved from stone or molded from clay); 4) decorative art (carving on wood, stone, bone; reliefs, ornaments). The origins of such types of artistic creativity go back to ancient times, such as: 1) music; 2) singing; 3) dance; 4) theatrical performances. The first works of primitive art that have come down to us belong to the Upper Paleolithic, their age is about 40 thousand years. Among them, a special place is occupied by the so-called "Venuses" - images, apparently associated with the cult of the mother ancestress. Generalized expressive images of animals were found: a mammoth, a horse, a deer, a bear, a bison, scenes of hunting for them. At the end of the XIX century. primitive cave painting was discovered (Altamir cave in Spain). Later, researchers discovered dozens of similar caves in Spain, France, and also in Russia (Kapova Cave, South Urals). The early period of development of rock art was characterized by: 1) primitive drawings; 2) unclear signs; 3) wavy lines; 4) handprints. Towards the end of the first period, uncertain contour drawings of animals appear, which begin to fill in with paint. The second period is characterized by a transition from a contour, planar image to the transfer of volume and individual details. In the third period, cave art reached its greatest heights. The paintings are striking in their: 1) scale and realism; 2) the perfection of the transfer of volumes; 3) proportions of figures; 4) perspective; 5) movement; 6) the use of polychromy. Later, a simplification of the image is observed, the figures become symbols. 5. The emergence of writing The emergence of writing was of great importance. Modern letter-sound systems of writing were preceded by its various forms, one of the first being pictographic writing, consisting of individual specific images. With the onset of the Mesolithic era, the image begins to dominate the person. Color and volume give way to movement. If Paleolithic cave painting consists of many figures that are compositionally unrelated to each other, then multi-figure rock art reproduces hunting scenes, honey gathering, ritual actions, dances, battles, etc. In the Neolithic era, art undergoes profound qualitative changes. Culture ceases to be unified, it acquires distinct features and original character in different territories. 6. Further development of abstract thinking, accumulation of rational knowledge With the development of abstract thinking, language, mythology, religion, the accumulation of rational knowledge, a person had a need to embody complex images in art: the sun, earth, fire, water. An ornament consisting of stylized abstract motifs is gaining popularity: a cross, a circle, a spiral, a triangle, a square, etc. At the same time, there is a desire to decorate all the objects that a person used. Ornament or individual symbols covered ancient ceramics - the most common type of decorative art. The man adorned himself: 1) body coloring; 2) necklaces; 3) beads; 4) bracelets. Among the most mysterious phenomena of primitive art is a group of megalithic monuments: 1) menhirs; 2) dolmens; 3) cromlechs. Megalithic structures were the prototype of monumental architecture. Already on the threshold of the emergence of the first civilizations, cyclopean or raw fortifications, temples, tombs appeared, which in turn was associated with the stratification of society into classes, the separation of the nobility, the complication of religious ideas and religious practice. The accumulated archaeological data make it possible to trace the emergence and development of other types of primitive artistic creativity: 1) music; 2) dance; 3) theatrical performance; 4) applied arts. Found tubular bones with drilled holes on the sides, drilled horns, animal skulls with traces of numerous blows are examples of the first wind and percussion musical instruments. Dance also occupied an important place in the system of primitive art. The dances were: 1) ritual; 2) military; 3) hunting; 4) male; 5) women's, etc. Dance is closely intertwined with theatrical performance. With a great deal of confidence, one can also guess about the existence in this era of the most accessible type of creativity - oral folk: 1) songs; 2) stories; 3) fairy tales; 4) myths; 5) epics. Primitive art became the beginning of a figurative reflection of the surrounding world, a means of its knowledge, as well as the formation of the inner world of the person himself. The study of the monuments of primitive art allows us to trace the evolution of styles, forms, means and methods of artistic creativity, to understand the patterns of formation and development of the entire world artistic culture. LECTURE No. 16. Culture of China 1. Features of Chinese culture Chinese civilization is one of the most ancient in the world. According to the Chinese themselves, the history of their country begins at the end of the XNUMXrd millennium BC. e. Chinese culture has acquired a unique character: it is rational and practical. China is characterized by some dogmatism. A new thought could develop only in the form of comments on the old sayings of the sages. Chinese culture has greatly influenced the development of neighboring countries (Japan, Korea and the states of Southeast Asia). Knowledge of Chinese art, literature and music has long been considered the main virtue of an educated Asian. 2. Education and science. Religion. National holidays Knowledge and learning were treated with great respect in China. Knowledge usually meant postulates from the sphere of the humanities. As for other sciences (mathematics, astronomy, medicine, etc.), the observational data accumulated over many hundreds of years were generalized, but not theoretically comprehended. These areas of knowledge were not prestigious. What are the achievements of the Chinese in the field of exact and technical sciences connected with? Mathematics originated in China in ancient times. Chinese mathematicians wrote essays on calculations using a pole in a circle. From the 12th century BC e. the Chinese knew the properties of a right triangle, in the 4st century. n. e. a treatise was created summarizing the mathematical knowledge accumulated in China over several centuries. Astronomy developed. Already in the II millennium BC. e. the ancient inhabitants of China divided the year into XNUMX months, the month - into XNUMX weeks. Chinese doctors have made a great contribution to world medicine. Of the technical inventions, the water mill should be mentioned. Knowledge of writing is based on sources, many of which were compiled in the early periods of Chinese history. It is known that already in the XV century. BC e. In China, there was a developed system of hieroglyphic writing (more than 2000 hieroglyphs). The great invention was the manufacture of paper, the production of which began in 105 AD. e. It was cooked from tree bark, rags, hemp. The author of this largest discovery in the history of mankind was the official Tsai Lun. Myth-making in China dates back to ancient times. The place of numerous revered gods in Chinese culture is occupied by legendary sages and cultural heroes like Huangdi. Later philosophical teachings - Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism - undoubtedly enriched Chinese culture. It is characteristic that all the religious systems of China had much in common: they all had a cult of obedience, reverence for elders and ancestors, and the idea of a passive, contemplative attitude towards reality. These ideas defined the Chinese national psychology. Buddhism, which came to China in the XNUMXst-XNUMXnd centuries, also had a very significant impact on Chinese culture. A lot is connected with Buddhism in the history of culture. For example, the legend about the origin of tea and tea drinking. In the future, Buddhism, like Taoism, will give way to Confucianism, which developed criteria for evaluating the actions of each Chinese. The Chinese love for ceremonies is widely known. In imperial China, all significant events in the life of a person, family and society were arranged with a complex ceremonial ritual. Among the holidays with the most ancient history, the following stand out: 1) spring festival (New Year); 2) a festival of lanterns; 3) dragon boat festival; 4) Mid-Autumn Festival; 3. Literature Chinese literature has its roots in deep antiquity. The oldest Chinese literary monument is the poetic anthology Shijing (Book of Songs). Chinese literature is quite unusual in its genre diversity. Known for example: 1) rhyming prose "fu"; 2) "shi" verses; 3) verses "tsy"; 4) novels. During the Han Dynasty, the main Chinese historical work, Sim Qian's Historical Notes, was written. This work contains a detailed description of prominent personalities and events. Buddhism introduced China to artistic prose. The apogee of the cultural development of the country is considered to be the times of the Sui, Tang and Song dynasties. It was during these years that versification literally permeated the entire educated Chinese society. Poems were given to friends, relatives, patrons. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, novels became widespread. During these years, 4 famous Chinese classical novels were written: 1) "Three Kingdoms" by Luo Guanzhong; 2) "River Backwaters" by Shi Naian; 3) Chen'en's Journey to the West; 4) "Dream in the Red Chamber" by Cao Xue-qin. These novels had a huge impact on Chinese culture and were later translated into many languages around the world. 4. Chinese fiction of the 1920s and 30s Early 1920th century was marked by the growth of the national self-consciousness of the Chinese, which contributed to the overthrow of the imperial system in the country. The New Youth magazine, which appeared in these years, criticized traditional Chinese culture and called for the speedy introduction of Western norms. Chinese fiction of the 30s and XNUMXs characterized by the influence of socialist and communist ideas, harsh satire on the existing order. The path of Chinese literature after 1949 (the creation of the People's Republic of China) is associated with the development of such problems as: 1) changes in the countryside; 2) the emancipation of the broad masses of the peasantry; 3) the national liberation struggle of the Chinese people. At the same time, the progressive movement of literature and art in the early 1950s. repeatedly hampered by various ideological campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party (for example, the discussion about the evaluation of the novel "Dream in the Red Chamber"). A significant number of well-known writers suffered. The 10th anniversary of the "cultural revolution" (1966-1976) caused even more damage to Chinese literature. During these years, the publication of fiction and the vast majority of magazines completely ceased. 5. Theatre. Music The role of the Chinese theater was significant, all performances in which were accompanied by music. Back in the 80st century BC e. more than 5 types of national musical instruments were known in China. In the process of long development, XNUMX main types of traditional music have gradually formed: 1) songs; 2) dance music; 3) music of song tales; 4) music of local operas; 5) instrumental music. Each emperor of China kept a staff of musicians and dancers at court. In China, professional music was considered a deed unworthy of a noble person, and even court musicians were representatives of the lower social strata. At the beginning of the XX century. Chinese music has been significantly influenced by European music. Significant changes in society, the influence of leftist ideas contributed to the emergence of works in folk style, reflecting popular moods. In order to enrich the cultural life of the people, major music festivals, such as the "Shanghai Spring", were regularly held in many cities of the country. The Chinese theater united: 1) dance; 2) singing; 3) speech; 4) action; 5) acrobatics. Already in ancient China, there were various types of spectacles: 1) circus; 2) acrobatic dances; 3) theaters of puppets and shadows. In the cities of medieval China, there were permanent theater buildings. Actors in China were considered the lowest class and had to abide by many rules and prohibitions. The theatrical arts of China include: 1) more than 300 traditional genres; 2) over 60 types of shadow and puppet theaters; 3) European opera; 4) dance drama (ballet). Since there are practically no theatrical props on the stage, conditional gestures are used. Action is not limited in time or space. 6. Dance. Ballet. Cinema Ballet, which has deep historical roots in folk dance art, has become a new type of theatrical art in China. From the early 1950s to the mid 1960s. a number of ballet performances on historical and contemporary themes were created, and in the 1980s. Over 100 new productions have already been staged. One of the most famous is the ballet "Flowers on the Silk Road", which tells about the friendship of the Chinese people of the Tang Dynasty era with the peoples of other countries. In the 1950s European ballet penetrated the Chinese stage. Cinema in China appeared in the 1920s, but it achieved its most significant success after 1949. Chinese films have recently become more and more popular in the world and receive awards at international film festivals. In addition to feature films, filmed: 1) documentary; 2) popular science; 3) animated films. 7. Painting Guohua is a traditional genre of Chinese painting. Paintings are written in black or gray ink with a brush on paper or silk. The master, using just a few strokes of black ink of various thicknesses, creates the general outlines of the landscape and human figures, without writing out the details. Landscapes were and remain the main theme of "guohua": mountains and rivers, flowers and birds. Pictures as a whole and their individual details, as a rule, have their own interpretation. For example, a pine tree often depicted on canvases symbolizes stamina and longevity, a willow - femininity, modesty and sophistication, an orchid - simplicity and nobility, etc. For Chinese artists, there was no linear perspective, and the mountains, which were present in abundance in their paintings, were perceived as a symbol. Buddhism, especially Chan Buddhism, played a large role in the flowering of classical Chinese painting. Applied arts, the flourishing of painting and sculpture are associated by many researchers with Buddhism: many statues of various deities and saints were placed in Buddhist temples. Painting was especially developed (in ink on paper, silk), as well as the art of frescoes. Buddhist, like Taoist, monasteries have been one of the centers of Chinese culture for many centuries. Generations of poets, artists, scientists and philosophers spent time here, looked for inspiration and created. In the archives and libraries of the monasteries, priceless treasures of written culture were accumulated, translators, compilers, and scribes worked. It was the Chinese Buddhist monks who invented the art of woodcutting, that is, typography - the reproduction of text using matrices (boards with mirror hieroglyphs carved on them). The genres of Western fine arts have also become widespread in China: 1) oil; 2) engraving; 3) watercolor. Simultaneously with painting, calligraphy, which was considered the pinnacle of all arts, developed in China. The Chinese appreciate in their writing the strength, expressiveness and elegance of lines, the compositional harmony of the combination of graphic elements. This type of art reached a special flowering in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, when the four highest qualities of calligraphy were established: 1) style full of energy and vitality; 2) severity, strength; 3) balance; 4) aesthetic quality. 8. Architecture. Arts and Crafts Already in the II millennium BC. e. Jade and bone carving was developed. Green jade was a cult object in China, it was revered as an "eternal stone" that keeps the memory of ancestors. The value of jade was so great that it played the role of gold and silver - coins were made from it, the purity of golden sand was estimated from it. Jade products are mainly produced in Beijing and Shanghai. Ivory carving is developed in Beijing, Guangzhou and Shanghai. The most important center for the production of products using cloisonne enamel is Beijing. Embroiderers usually know dozens of work techniques that allow you to subtly convey the texture of the object, the transitions and shades of colors, the volume of the depicted object, as well as spatial perspective. Interesting and unusual architecture of China. Already in the 2st millennium BC. e. the Chinese built buildings of 3-XNUMX or more floors with a multi-tiered roof. Typical was a building consisting of supports in the form of wooden pillars with a tiled roof, which had raised edges and a clearly marked cornice - a pagoda. This type of building was the main one in China for many centuries. In the III century. BC e. Over 700 imperial palaces were built in China. The central hall of one of them accommodated more than 10 people. The time when a single centralized state was formed in the country (221-207 BC) was marked by the construction of the main part of the Great Wall of China, which has partially survived to this day. It is known that it was built by more than 2 million prisoners, many of whom were punished for dissent. The length of the wall is more than 4 thousand km. LECTURE No. 17. Culture of India 1. Features of Indian culture India is one of the oldest countries in the world that laid the foundations of the global civilization of mankind. The achievements of Indian culture and science had a significant impact on the Arab and Iranian peoples, as well as on Europe. The heyday of Hindu culture falls on the Middle Ages. 2. Literature. The science. Religion Indian literature has about 40 centuries of existence. It is so heterogeneous and was created in so many languages that it is extremely difficult to describe it. The most ancient is the Vedic literature. For a long time the Vedas had the character of oral art. Epic literature appears in the first half of the XNUMXst millennium BC. e. The most ancient epic work is the Mahabharata (Great India). No less famous is another epic - "Ramayana" ("Wanderings of Rama"). A prominent representative of Bengali literature is Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) - poet and writer, musician and artist. The pinnacle of recognition of Tagore's poetic work was the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Literature for 1913 for his collection of poems A Handful of Songs. One of Tagore's patriotic songs "The Soul of the People" became the national anthem of India. Indian science has made great strides. Ancient Indian scientists developed the decimal system of counting and introduced the concept of zero. With minor errors, they determined the distance from the Earth to the Moon and the Sun, calculated the radius of the Earth, and made many astronomical and scientific discoveries. Already at the time of Indian civilization (XNUMXrd millennium BC), they planned cities, built monumental structures, knew writing, used a system of measures and weights. All the major religions of the world are represented in India: 1) Hinduism; 2) Islam; 3) Christianity; 4) Buddhism; 5) Judaism; 6) Zoroastrianism. India also has its own (national) religions, such as Jainism and Sikhism. Hinduism is the most widespread in the country, which is practiced by more than 80% of the population. It is followed by Islam (about 12%), then - Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, etc. The peaceful coexistence of different religions in India has created a unique atmosphere of identity in the culture of this country. The religious views of the Indians on the world are vividly and succinctly expressed in their fine arts. 3. Music. Dance. Theatre. Movie The classical music of India has its own specifics. There is no European harmony in it. Indian religious music has never been written down. This is what determines the boundlessness, which provides the performer with a unique opportunity to improvise. Classical Indian music is performed on Indian national instruments. These primarily include wines and sitars, as well as a large number of different drums. Indian classical dance has its roots in ancient times. It is filled with specific content. Each movement of the legs, arms, eyes, eyebrows and other parts of the body has its own meaning, so Indian dance can be read, and it is often accompanied by dance recitative. Indian theater is one of the oldest theaters in the world: its theory and practice were developed around the XNUMXnd century BC. BC e. Indian cinema is a unique phenomenon that has no analogues in world cinema. Indian cinema is original. It is a natural continuation of the musical-dance drama and requires special training of actors who can professionally dance and sing. It is always national: the action of any film is always connected with India and its people. 4. Painting One of the most brilliant pages in the history of the development of Indian culture is painting. Painting as a direction of art took shape in the process of illustrating the Hindu teachings. These are primarily illustrations for legends. Especially many illustrations are dedicated to the folk deity - Krishna, one of the incarnations of the god Vishnu. In Indian miniatures, there is almost always a contrast between a multi-colored foreground and a simple one-color (red or blue) background. The artistic thought of the Indians depicted mythological creatures. Each of them was preserved and dissolved in the other, as a result of which a completely new unprecedented creature arose, whimsically combining the elements of its progenitors. Such is Hanuman (half-man and half-monkey). Another of the most important characters is Ganesha. He is depicted with a human body and an elephant head. The originality of Indian art lies in the originality of thinking - religious and artistic. 5. Architecture The architecture of ancient India was predominantly wooden and has not been preserved. Destroying many ancient Hindu and Jain temples, the padishahs of the Mughal dynasty (XVI century) erected mosques, madrasas, mausoleums and fortresses, many of which are masterpieces of world culture to this day. The next fateful stage was the beginning of the 200th century. colonization of India by Great Britain, which ended with the complete enslavement of the country. During more than 1950 years of British domination, many European cultural and political traditions were introduced into Indian life, which largely define the face of today's India. Only in January XNUMX, India was proclaimed a Republic and finally gained freedom. Indian religions created in art a unique atmosphere of movement, incompleteness. A vivid example of the classical embodiment in art of the contradictory interaction between the finite and the infinite, the material and the spiritual, with the clear dominance of the infinite and the spiritual, is a sample of a cult Buddhist structure - a stupa. All its components are imbued with this principle, ranging from a square base design to a hemispherical top. "Umbrellas" at the end of the pole, the steps of ascent to nirvana, are also considered symbols of power. The stupa was decorated with reliefs and sculptures of Buddha, scenes from the lives of saints. One of the oldest surviving stupas built during the Mauryan Empire is the Sanchi Stupa (III-II centuries BC). 6. Sculpture Architectural and sculptural relief in ancient India was characterized by attention to detail. To make the image clearer and more understandable, the artist neglected perspective. It is interesting that the sculpture is most often semicircular, that is, it does not have a back or grows back into the wall. Occasionally found in India and round sculpture. Back in the XNUMXst century BC e. cave temples began to be carved into the rocks. These are Buddhist temples - chaityas. In early Buddhist art, the figure of the Buddha himself is almost never found. Its image is replaced depending on the content of the depicted lotus flower, then the sacred tree behind the fence, then the wheel with spokes, then the stupa, then the feet (footprints of the Buddha). Only after the Buddhist teaching became widespread among the people and the sacred path of the Buddha became well known to everyone, it became possible to depict him in a human form. 29th-XNUMXth centuries were the heyday of the ancient art of India. At this time, the north of India was united into the powerful state of the Guptas. Remarkable examples of paintings from this period have been preserved in Buddhist cave temples and monasteries in Ajanta. XNUMX caves were created there, the walls, ceilings and columns of which are painted with scenes from Buddhist traditions and legends and decorated with sculpture and carvings. Later, a type of temple in the form of a tower appears. These temples had an elongated oval shape, on their top there was an umbrella in the form of a lotus or a rectangular pyramid. The main crowd of believers made a detour of the temple from the outside. In the courtyard of the temples, as well as on the walls, there were sculptures. When the famous Russian traveler, Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin in the XNUMXth century. visited India, he saw there the sanctuaries of another religion widespread in this country - Islam: these were mosques, as well as mausoleums, which were not in ancient India. This new Indo-Muslim architecture enriched Indian art and made it even more diverse in form and content. However, the Muslim conquest dealt a severe blow to the development of Hindu architecture. Many magnificent Hindu temples were destroyed, and no new significant buildings were erected. LECTURE No. 18. Culture of Ancient Egypt 1. Periodization and general characteristics of the culture of Ancient Egypt The civilization of Ancient Egypt is one of the oldest in the world. She gave mankind great monuments of architecture, fine arts, writing. The history of the culture of Ancient Egypt is usually divided into the following periods: 1) pre-dynastic period (IV millennium, 33-30 centuries BC); 2) the ancient kingdom (XXX-XXIII centuries BC); 3) the middle kingdom (XXI-XVIII centuries BC); 4) new kingdom (XVI-XI centuries BC); 5) late time (XI-332 BC). For a long time, Egyptian culture developed in isolation. In the traditional world of the Eastern kingdoms, there were practically no changes. The rules and canons of artistic creativity that had developed in ancient times remained almost unchanged. The inviolability and greatness of the king's power were emphasized once and for all by established methods. The funeral cult was of great importance in the religion of Ancient Egypt. However, even within the framework of such a strict adherence to traditions and canons, ancient Egyptian art was not devoid of movement. The characteristic features of the ancient Egyptian culture were the consciousness of power, the desire to preserve and increase it, the thirst for immortality. Art as a whole had a monumental character that overwhelmed the viewer. 2. Religion The polytheism that existed in Egypt did not contribute to the centralization of the state. Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (XIV century BC) tried to carry out religious reforms in order to establish monotheism. The most important feature of the religion and culture of ancient Egypt was the protest against death. The Egyptians believed in the immortality of the soul - this was the main doctrine of the Egyptian religion, and the passionate desire for immortality determined the whole worldview of the Egyptians. The desire for immortality became the basis for the emergence of the funeral cult, which played an extremely important role in the history of Ancient Egypt. The main condition of the afterlife, the Egyptians considered the preservation of the body of the deceased. This concern led to the emergence of the art of making mummies. In order to prolong life after death, it was important to take care of the construction of a tomb for the body. 3. Education and science. Literature The emergence of Egyptian writing is attributed to the XXX century. BC e. Despite the complexity of hieroglyphic writing, already in the most ancient period, not only priests, scribes and nobles, but also builders were literate. In the III millennium BC. e. at the court of the pharaoh, schools appeared in which future scribes were trained. Science was an important part of Egyptian culture: without scientific knowledge, it was impossible to manage the economy, construction, military affairs, and government. Mathematics developed under the influence of practical needs. The Egyptians learned to accurately determine the timing of sowing, ripening and harvesting grain. They created an accurate calendar based on observations of the heavenly bodies. Medicine has made significant progress. The development of medical science was facilitated by the custom of mummification of corpses, thanks to which priests and doctors could study the anatomy of the human body and its internal organs. The achievement of ancient Egyptian medicine can be considered the doctrine of blood circulation and the heart as its main organ. The Egyptians established a connection between brain damage and dysfunction of body parts. Already in the most ancient period, the specialization of doctors was developed: for example, doctors differed "uterine", ophthalmic, dental. To II millennium BC. e. include the oldest geographical maps that have come down to us. Historical knowledge was also accumulated. In Egypt, for a long time they kept a list of kings indicating the exact dates of the reign and a detailed description of the events that took place during the years of their reign. The civilization of Ancient Egypt left mankind a rich literary heritage. The most characteristic feature of ancient Egyptian literature is its inextricable connection with religion and the indispensable traditional character of ancient stories. Most of the literary works were the art form of myths. Literature performed the function of explaining questions about the origin of the world, the meaning of life and death, natural phenomena, etc. Many of these works, along with a reflection of reality, also contain elements of fantasy. 4. Music, painting The musical culture of Egypt is one of the most ancient in the world. Music accompanied all religious ceremonies, mass celebrations and, thus, was closely connected with dance and literature. She was credited with magical powers. Musicians enjoyed great respect in society, they were considered relatives of the pharaohs. Played on: 1) lyre; 2) drum; 3) double flute; 4) harp. Painting was also very common in ancient Egypt. Most of the murals of antiquity have not been preserved, but many samples of the Middle Kingdom have come down. The crypts of this period were painted with frescoes inside. They depicted scenes from the life, life of people, nature on the banks of the Nile. The servants were portrayed as very small. In the tombs of kings and nobles, the so-called "ushebti" were found - numerous figurines of slaves, musicians, cooks in free, uninhibited poses, distinguished by emotionality and movement. Over time, the plots become more diverse, the scenes become more dynamic. The color scheme becomes softer and richer. Wall images of the New Kingdom have undergone significant changes. In temple reliefs and murals, dynamic, complex compositions were replaced by smooth, unhurried subjects. We see the rapidly racing chariots of the great conqueror Thutmose III, stories of great travels, scenes of hunting and magnificent feasts. The color of the paintings is enriched with warm pink, golden undertones that convey shades of human skin. 5. Architecture An important feature of ancient Egyptian culture was the construction of pyramids. The search for new architectural forms to exalt royal power led to the appearance of such structures as the pyramids. In the XXVIII century. BC e. The architect of Pharaoh Djoser, Imhotep, created a building directed upwards from seven decreasing steps placed one on top of the other (the number 7 is sacred, the height is 70 m). The followers of Imhotep, developing further his ideas, came to the creation of pyramids of the so-called classical type, with smooth edges, which struck the imagination of contemporaries and distant descendants. The period of the New Kingdom is especially interesting for its architecture. The pharaohs of the XVIII dynasty conquered large territories (Sudan, Palestine, part of Turkey, etc.), since significant resources were concentrated there: gold, resins. Countless riches allowed the rulers of Egypt to decorate the country and the capital - Thebes - with magnificent temples. Of particular importance is the cult of the supreme deity Amun-Ra. The main type of architectural structure in the period of the New Kingdom is the temple. In the capital of Egypt, Thebes, two famous temple complexes were created in Karnak and Luxor, dedicated to the cult of Amun-Ra. If the tombs of the pharaohs turned into secret burial places, then the construction of mortuary temples became all the more important for the glorification of the kings. A special place among the mortuary temples is occupied by the temple of Queen Hatshepsut (XV century BC). The emerging trends in the visual arts led to its extraordinary rise, which went down in history under the name of the Amarna period (beginning of the XNUMXth century BC). This was preceded by serious upheavals in the political and religious life of Egypt (see the beginning of the lecture, Akhenaten's reform). The works of art found in the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamen are also made in the traditions of the Amarna style. At the end of the XIII-XI centuries. BC e. begins a period of protracted decline. The construction of large structures is being stopped, the skills of plastic and painting masters are being lost. 6. Sculpture The architecture of Egypt was inextricably linked with sculpture, and sculpture was associated primarily with ideas about the afterlife. The man was depicted in static poses. The sculptors sought to create an impression of monumentality. The statues are painted in traditional colors. 1. Men's - in red-brown. 2. Women's - in yellow. Inlaid with precious stones and metals was used. Next to the pyramid of Pharaoh Khafre stands an amazing statue of the so-called Great Sphinx, a fantastic creature with the body of a lion and the portrait head of a king. The basis of this structure is a limestone rock, skillfully processed by craftsmen. The dimensions of the statue are huge: length 57 m, height 20 m. The task of the sphinx is to guard the road of Ascension, along which the sarcophagus with the body of the pharaoh was dragged. The portrait features of the sphinx coincide with those of the pharaoh Khafre. The statues of Prince Rakhotep and his wife Nofret can serve as classical examples of the sculpture of the Old Kingdom. During the heyday of the Middle Kingdom, a new direction was formed in the plastic art of Egypt. Masters begin to pay more attention to the individual characteristics of the individual. With the help of carefully worked out details, they strive to show the character of a person, his age, mood. The new style of harmony and beauty is also manifested in the fine arts and sculpture of the New Kingdom. So, the throne portraits of Hatshepsut depict a female pharaoh in full royal attire and even with an artificial beard - such is the canon. But there are other images of the queen, where she appears in all the charm of feminine softness and beauty. The most significant achievements of the Amarna period are associated with the development of a new style of plastic forms, with a new interpretation of the image of a person. Art followed the path of rapprochement with real life, the path of revealing the true inner world of man. The pinnacle of the plastic art of the period under review is the portrait busts of Akhenaten's beautiful wife, Queen Nefertiti. The beautiful head of Nefertiti on a long and flexible neck is topped with a royal crown. The impression is enhanced by the warm flesh tones of the coating, combined with a luxurious necklace and a bright blue crown of the queen. Not only in the interpretation of images, but also in the plot outline of the depicted, a lot of new things appear. Everyday and even intimate scenes appear in the reliefs and wall paintings of Akhetaton. The pharaoh is depicted surrounded by a family with his beloved wife and playing children. LECTURE No. 19. Antiquity culture (Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome) 1. Features of ancient culture Antique culture in the history of mankind is a unique phenomenon, a role model and a standard of creative perfection. Some researchers define it as a "Greek miracle". Greek culture was formed on the basis of the Aegean and Crete-Mycenaean cultures and became the cradle of modern European culture. The special geographical position of Greece is the intersection of busy maritime trade routes; city-states with their democracy; a special way of thinking (contemplation plus a high level of logic) is the content and originality of Greek culture. Ancient Greece went far beyond national boundaries, creating an art that was understandable to both the Hellenes and all other peoples. Ancient Rome means not only the city of Rome, but also all the countries and peoples conquered by it as part of the Roman state. Roman art was created by both the Romans and: 1) the ancient Egyptians; 2) Greeks; 3) Syrians; 4) inhabitants of Gaul; 5) ancient Germany and other peoples. Ancient Rome gave humanity an example of an enriched cultural environment: comfortable cities with paved roads, magnificent bridges, buildings of libraries, archives, palaces with solid furniture - all that is characteristic of a modern civilized society. The periodization of ancient culture is very complex. 2. Religion In ancient culture, there is a desire to express their understanding of the world. Aesthetic categories are being developed that express important assessments and aspects of the Greek worldview. 1. Harmony. 2. Symmetry. 3. Beauty. The ancient religion is characterized by polytheism - polytheism. The first deities in Rome include the patrons of the hearth: the penates, lares - the deified souls of the ancestors and the goddess Vesta, whose priestesses (Vestals) maintained an unquenchable fire in her temple. More individualized gods gradually emerged. For example, among the ancient Greeks - Zeus the Thunderer, the supreme god; god of war Ares; the god of the water element Poseidon; goddess of love Aphrodite. Among the Romans, Jupiter, Mars, Neptune, Venus corresponded to these gods. Numerous priestly colleges (vestals, augurs) maintained respect for the gods and observance of customs and traditions. The cult was headed by a college of pontiffs headed by the great pontiff. 3. Theatre. Music Theater played an important role in the life of the ancient Romans. It could express their feelings and emotions. The theater not only reflected the life of the ancient Greeks and Romans, but also served as a manifestation of their interest in politics. Ancient Greece left 3 names of the authors of the tragedy: 1) Aeschylus; 2) Sophocles; 3) Euripides; 4) Aristophanes is a comedian. The state took care of the poor citizens, giving them money to visit the theater. The fate of the theater in the Hellenistic era is interesting. The first work of the creator of the "new comedy" - the comedy of manners Menander (342-291 BC) is dedicated to the life of ordinary Athenian families with their worries. Greek drama and theater arose from rural festivities in honor of Dionysus, the god of winemaking, accompanied by songs, dances and performances with the participation of mummers. Later, a special performer stood out from the choir - an actor. Improvisation was replaced by a precise fixation of the role of the actor and the choir. The folk theater had organizational features - it consisted of 3 parts: 1) orchestras (stages); 2) seats for spectators; 3) skins (dressing room). In the early era, the decorations were massive wooden structures, later - painted decorations. The content of Greek tragedy required the use of theatrical machines. The most common were a retractable platform and a device that allowed the gods and other actors to rise into the air and descend. Women's roles have always been played by men. Greek actors wore masks on their faces, which were replaced even during the performance of one role. To increase their height, the actors of the tragedy used koturny - platform shoes. In the Hellenistic era, the art of the actor became a profession. The origins of Roman drama and theater go back to rural harvest festivals. Permanent theater buildings in Rome until the middle of the XNUMXst century. BC e. did not have. In comedy, the action usually took place on a city street. The architecture of the Roman theater had a number of features that distinguished it from the Greek. Seats for spectators were arranged in one or more tiers in the form of a semicircle. Circus performances and gladiator fights held in the Colosseum were very popular. Music was also of great importance in antiquity. The Greeks believed that the harmony in music creates the mood of a person. Singing and playing musical instruments made up a significant part of the competitions of various policies. Music among the Greeks was closely associated with poetry and dance. The great Greek tragedians - Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides - were not only brilliant playwrights, but also composers. The main musical instruments of the ancient Greeks: 1) lira; 2) cithara; 3) harp. A distinctive musical culture existed in Rome as well. Descriptions of ancient triumphal, wedding, funeral and drinking songs, the performance of which was accompanied by playing a musical instrument, have been preserved. Noble, wealthy Romans kept orchestras from slaves. 4. Enlightenment The education of free-born citizens in Ancient Greece was aimed at training slave owners who knew how to keep slaves in subjection and protect their state from external enemies. Depending on the conditions of development, various systems of education developed, of which the most famous were two: 1) spartan; 2) Athenian. In Sparta (Laconica), boys who reached the age of 7 were placed in a closed educational institution, where they stayed until adulthood. Education was directed mainly to physical training. Teaching reading and writing was not included in the compulsory education program. Conversations were conducted with the children on political topics, and they tried to develop a short but meaningful ("laconic") speech. Athenian education was much more versatile and set as its task a combination of moral, aesthetic and physical principles. Until the age of 7, boys were brought up at home; then they attended grammar schools, where they learned to read, write and count, and later learned to sing, play musical instruments and memorize Homer's poems. From the age of 12-13, the boys moved to the palestra, where they received physical education. The richest young men then attended the gymnasium, where they studied philosophy, politics and literature. The girls were brought up in the family, accustomed to housekeeping and the management of slaves. Roman education as a system developed during the period of the republic. With the development of cities, schools arose in which boys were taught to read, write, and count. Aristocrats gave their children their initial education at home. Much attention in the system of education was given to the physical training of youth. In the era of the Empire, education becomes more and more formal. 5. Science In antiquity, scientific knowledge also actively developed. Among the sciences stand out: 1) geography (Eratosthenes); 2) physics (Democritus); 3) philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Democritus, etc.). Under the auspices of the state, the famous library and scientific school in Alexandria is being formed - the Alexandria Museion - the prototype of the new European academies of sciences. The state took care of the replenishment of the local library. The natural science knowledge of Rome was formed on the basis of the development of centuries-old production, the experience of the Romans themselves and the assimilation of the culture of other peoples of the Mediterranean. Known works: 1) 3 books "On Agriculture" by M. T. Varron; 2) "About agriculture" by Cato the Elder; 3) Columella "On Agriculture"; 4) Virgil's poem "Georgics"; 5) "Ten Books on Architecture" by Vitruvius. The territorial growth of the Roman Empire contributed to the expansion of geographical knowledge: a large geographical map and geographical works appeared. Medicine also developed. Mathematics among the Romans was narrowly applied in nature and was content with rough calculations. 6. Literature Literature developed rapidly. Period VI-IV centuries. BC e. called "Greek Classics". The development of lyrical poetry, which grew out of drinking and wedding songs, testifies to the attention to the person, the world of his feelings and experiences. The great Greek poetess Sappho sings beauty and love in her poems. But this was not the case in Homer's poems. Literature seeks to reflect the weaknesses and vices of man: a special prose genre is born - a fable. "Father of the fable" Aesop wisely and mercilessly denounces the dark sides of the human soul. The literature of the Roman people began to take shape in the 280rd century BC. BC e. Along with cult poetry, secular poetry also existed in Rome. The most ancient literary monument of Latin prose is the speech against Pyrrhus delivered in the Senate by Appius Claudius the Blind in 254 BC. e. The Roman author, whose works are known to us, descendants, in full, was the playwright Plautus (c. 184-106 BC). An example of oratory was the speeches of Mark Tullius Cicero (43-99 BC). Along with prose literature, Latin poetry also achieved great success in the work of Lucretius Cara (c. 55-XNUMX BC), the author of the philosophical poem On the Nature of Things. Gaius Valerius Catullus (c. 84-54 BC) was an outstanding lyric poet. He became famous as the author of original lyric poems addressed to the beloved woman Lesbia. The largest literary works were created by the poets Virgil (70-19 BC) and Horace (65-8 BC). The creator of the classical Roman elegy was Tibull (c. 50-19 BC). Publius Ovid Nason (43 BC - 17 AD) became famous for his love lyrics, the book "The Science of Love". His "Metamorphoses" ("Transformations") and "Heroids" ("Messages") are a poetic treatment of Greek and Roman myths. Of particular importance is the "Satyricon" by Petronius (XNUMXst century), one of the first ancient novels, in which an accusatory picture of the life of a depraved Italian province is given. 7. Painting The era of especially high classics (450-400 BC) did not tolerate models with flaws - everything in a person must be perfect. The reign of Emperor Nero, one of the most cruel rulers in Roman history, was the heyday of portraiture. The evolution of his image can be traced in a whole series of portraits. Later portraits represent Nero as a complex, contradictory nature. The artists of Ancient Rome for the first time paid close attention to the inner world of a person and reflected it in the portrait genre, creating works that had no equal in antiquity. Very few names of Roman artists have survived to this day. The painting of the era of the republic is characterized by portraits that are very close to the original. They convey all the smallest features of the human face, additionally endowing it with the features of old age, the end of life. The leading character of the portrait was an elderly strong-willed patrician, who, according to Roman laws, had the "right of life and death" of all his household members. In the middle of the XNUMXst c. in the visual arts, the genre of still life (from the French "dead nature") began to take shape, showing inanimate objects. The Romans depicted both butcher shops, in which the carcasses of dead animals hang, and symbolic works: for example, a golden table against a background of scarlet drapery. Emperor Trajan refused lush hairstyles, rich chiaroscuro. The art of his time is committed to the ideal of apparent simplicity: here grandeur and power appear, previously absent in works of art. With the onset of the era of "soldier emperors", the masters stopped depicting lush hair, almost removed their mustaches and beards. The era of geometry in Greece (IX-VIII centuries BC) has long been underestimated by scientists; she was considered poor in decorating things. The murals were dominated by the geometric style, named after the clear, logical forms of the main decorative techniques: 1) rhombus; 2) square; 3) rectangle; 4) circle; 5) zigzag; 6) line. However, each vessel contains a lot of information about the world, encrypted in its shape and painting. 8. Architecture The Greeks create a city in which a thoughtful and clear system of architectural forms is formed - an order (from the Latin ordo - "order", system), which then becomes the basis of Greek and new European architecture. The Romans for the first time began to build "typical" cities, the prototype of which were the Roman military camps. Two perpendicular streets were laid, at the intersection of which the city center was erected. The urban planning was subject to a strictly thought-out scheme. The Romans invented concrete - the most important building material, with the help of which they fixed the buildings under construction. The first Greek orders are Doric and Ionic (the names are associated with the places of their origin). Later, the Corinthian order appears, close to the Ionic. In the 60th century BC e. the formation of the main types of temples is being completed. The architects chose the order for the temples depending on the gender, spirit and Olympic authority of the deity. There were exhibitions and discussions. In the 4s. XNUMXth century BC e. The temple of Zeus at Olympia was rebuilt - the most important pan-Hellenic sanctuary, where the Olympic Games were held every XNUMX years. The history of Rome is divided into two stages. 1. The first - the era of the republic - which came at the end of the VI century. BC e. 2. The second stage - the imperial one - began during the reign of Octavian Augustus and lasted until the XNUMXth century. n. e. Another attraction of Rome: the market square - the forum. On one side it adjoined the impressive building of the state archive - the Tabularium. Temples towered in the square, among them the round Temple of Vesta. Columns also rose here, to which rosters were attached - the prows of defeated enemy ships (rostral columns), and a "sacred road" passed along which benches stood. The extensive forum was surrounded by a 2-storey colonnade. There was a large amphitheater, designed for 20 thousand spectators, it greatly exceeded the needs of the inhabitants of the city. Interesting buildings of Roman houses - "domuses". These were rectangular structures that stretched along the courtyard, and faced the street with blank end walls. The main room was an atrium (lat. atrium - "entrance") with a hole in the center of the roof, under which there was a pool for collecting water. In general, the atrium served as a "pillar of the world", connecting every Roman house with heaven and the underworld. In the atrium there was a cabinet for storing wax masks of ancestors and images of good patron spirits - lares and penates. Inside the houses were painted. The beautifully preserved frescoes show what the typical living environment of a Roman was like. Nero decided to give Rome a new look. By decree of the emperor, several city blocks were secretly burned, on the site of which the emperor erected the famous Golden House. Several of its halls have been preserved, some of the halls have an unusual shape (for example, octagonal). In the 70-80s. 50st century n. e. the grandiose Flavian amphitheater was built, called the Colosseum (from the Latin collosseo "huge"). It was built on the site of the destroyed Golden House of Nero and belonged to a new architectural type of buildings. The Roman Colosseum was a huge bowl with stepped rows of seats, enclosed from the outside by an annular wall. It accommodated about 4 thousand spectators. There were XNUMX tiers of seats inside. On sunny days, a huge canvas canopy - velarium - was pulled over the Colosseum. Various performances were given in the amphitheatres: sea battles, battles of people with exotic animals, gladiator fights. The Romans practically did not stage tragedies, and even comedies were not successful. The second masterpiece of architecture of the Flavian era is the famous Triumphal Arch of Titus. The arch was erected in honor of the ruler in 81, after his death. She immortalized the campaign of Titus in 70 to Jerusalem. The ashes of Titus were buried in the attic. So they buried only people with special charisma (Greek "divine gift"), i.e., endowed with exceptional personal qualities. Other citizens rested along the roads outside the city gates of Rome. Under Trojan, the Roman Empire reached the height of its power. This emperor was considered the best of all in Roman history. The most famous monument of Troyan in Rome is his forum. Roman architecture in the XNUMXrd century the terms (baths) of Caracalla are especially grandiose. The baths for the Romans were something like a club, where the ancient tradition of ritual ablutions was gradually overgrown with complexes for entertainment and occupations with palestras and gymnasiums, libraries, and rooms for music lessons. The Baths of Caracalla occupied a colossal area with lawns, had halls of hot, warm and cold water. 9. Sculpture. vase painting In ancient sculpture of the archaic period, anthropomorphic (human-like) statues of gods are still common. And the characters of the statues of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. BC e. not only gods, but also young men - kuros and girls - bark, participants in religious processions. Individual statues resemble columns - the arms are closely pressed to the body, the feet are on the same level. The male and female figures have almost the same proportions: thin waists and broad shoulders, with the only difference that the male statues very often appear naked, and the female statues are in robes. By the end of the VI - the beginning of the V century. BC e. the proportions of the figures become more natural, and their movements more free. The body forms become stronger, more real, and the smile disappears from the faces. The sculptors Phidias, Miron, Polikleitos worked in Ancient Athens. Much of their work has come down to us in Roman marble copies. The further development of sculpture is associated with an increase in interest in the inner world of man. The masculinity and severity of the images of the classics are being replaced by sculpture, where the authors manage to convey the subtle and rich spiritual world by plastic means. Here, the famous ancient master Praxiteles (c. 390-330 BC) showed himself magnificently. A native of the island of Paros, Skopas (XNUMXth century BC), conveys the intensity of emotions, sometimes a tragic breakdown. The sculptor Lysippus, working in bronze, set himself other tasks. Another important element of the art of antiquity is painted vases. Their shapes and sizes varied greatly. There were different types of vessels, such as: 1) crater; 2) pelika; 3) amphora; 4) nefora; 5) hydria; 6) kanfar; 7) claf; 8) kylix; 9) lenif; 10) lutfor; 11) oinochoa; 12) psykter; 13) skyphos; 14) stamnos. In Attica, 30th century BC e. - the area of Athens - black-figure style vessels were popular: black figures were located on a light background. However, they introduced a number of innovations, such as varnish. The potter and the vase painter put their signatures on the vases. But for about XNUMX years. XNUMXth century BC e. the red-figure style became fashionable: the figures became light, and the background dark. LECTURE No. 20. Culture of Japan 1. Features of Japanese culture The periodization of Japanese history and art is very difficult to understand. Periods (especially starting from the XNUMXth century) were distinguished by the dynasties of military rulers (shoguns). The traditional art of Japan is very original, its philosophical and aesthetic principles differ from Western ones. Their formation was influenced by the special attitude of the Japanese to the beauty of their native nature, which since ancient times was perceived as a perfection created by God. Worshiping the beauty of nature, the Japanese tried to live in harmony with it and respect its greatness. 2. Literature The Japanese literary tradition is considered one of the most ancient. Early written works date back to the XNUMXth century. Their appearance is associated with the borrowing of Chinese hieroglyphic writing. Japanese literature has long been influenced by Chinese literature. The first written monuments of Japanese literature are collections of Japanese myths and legends about the deeds of gods and legendary heroes. XNUMXth century considered the heyday of court literature (prose and poetry). At this time, such literary genres as the legend and the "diary" were formed. In the period of Kamakura and Muromachi, when the military class and samurai played a leading role in Japanese society, military chronicles gained great fame and popularity. The plots of military chronicles served as the basis for many plays in the style of noh, kabuki and jeruri. The classic genre of Japanese poetry is considered to be poems called "short verse", consisting of 5 lines (31 syllables - distribution along lines 5-7-5-7-7). This is "high" poetry in Japanese, which enjoyed special patronage of the imperial court. At the court, special poetry competitions were organized, the best poems were combined into imperial collections. In the XNUMXth century legends, parables and stories that arose in oral form gained great popularity. Then the author's prose is formed. The main genre for a long time was gesaku - genre entertaining stories, the main content of which was funny stories from the surrounding life. Literature in the genre of gesaku was divided into several areas: 1) "witty stories", the main theme of which was mainly entertaining and often cynical stories, including stories from the life of "fun neighborhoods"; 2) "comic books"; 3) "books of human passions" - sentimental, but very realistic stories about the ladies from the "quarters of pleasure" and their fans. The gesaku style did not survive the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, in the new Japanese literature of the late XNUMXth and early XNUMXth centuries. there has been a sharp turning point caused by the influence and popularity of Western literature. 3. Religion The aesthetic principles of Japanese art were formed under the influence of three most important religious and philosophical doctrines that determined the traditional worldview of the inhabitants of the Land of the Rising Sun: 1) Shinto; 2) Confucianism; 3) Buddhism. The veneration of nature as a divine principle took shape in the ancient national religion of the Japanese - Shinto. Initially, each clan had its own patron deities; however, the official Shinto pantheon was formed from the patron deities of the ascendant Yamato clan. In honor of the Shinto deities, numerous temples were built, located, as a rule, in forest thickets and in the mountains. Each temple was surrounded by a garden with a small pond and mossy stones; the temple was surrounded by sacred gates, and the road to it was decorated with numerous stone lanterns. Confucianism, like Buddhism, came to Japan from China. Confucianism is usually understood as the traditional ancient Chinese religious and philosophical doctrine, which elevated ethical principles to the category of universal laws. According to Confucian canons, the governing principle of the universe is the sky. The plenipotentiary representative of Heaven on earth is the emperor, on whose righteousness the welfare of the state depends. Citizens are required to honor the emperor, strictly observe laws and rituals, and observe moral principles. The ideal person, from the Confucian point of view, is an enlightened and noble husband, who cares about the interests of his state and is devoted to his emperor. Buddhism played an important role in the development of traditional Japanese art. At the heart of Buddhist philosophy is the idea that the so-called real world (samsara) is in fact a human illusion that appeared due to a misunderstanding of the essence of things. This leads to a chain of multiple rebirths, each of which represents torment and suffering. Buddhist philosophy also states that a person can, through the right efforts, be freed from these sufferings and get out of the cycle of samsara. Zen Buddhism and related arts are a special topic. Zen Buddhism began to take hold in Japan in the XNUMXth century, and the founder of the Ashikaga shogunate (Muromachi) took Zen Buddhism under his patronage. According to Zen concepts, the state of enlightenment (satori) is achieved through direct experience - meditation, spiritual practice and communication with spiritual teachers. Zen Buddhism was especially close to the samurai class. Zen ideas inspired such arts as: 1) theater but; 2) the art of decorating flowers (ikebana); 3) tea ceremony, architecture. Traditional Japanese aesthetics, combining Shinto, Confucian and Buddhist ideals, has developed specific principles, the understanding of which is the key to Japanese art. The most important of these principles are: 1) furyuu (exalted taste, education and development of the mind, especially this principle applied to landscape painting, garden art, architecture, tea ceremony and flower decoration); 2) mono-but aware; 3) wabi; 4) sabi; 5) yugen. The tradition of Japanese performing arts has 5 main theatrical genres: 1) bugaku; 2) but; 3) kegen; 4) bunraku; 5) kabuki. All of these five traditions still exist today. Despite significant differences, they are united by common aesthetic principles that underlie Japanese traditional art. 4. Theater A special aesthetic function is performed in the theater by the magnificent, luxurious attire of the actors; masks that express the subtlest shades of human feelings with deep psychologism. In dramas, the main emphasis was on psychological images. The comprehension of the acting skills of the theater began from early childhood and improved throughout life. Theater but also from the audience required training and education. The repertoire is very varied; Currently, about 240 plays of various content are known. It is noteworthy that in classical theatre, all roles, including women's, are performed only by men. The tradition of kabuki theater is tied to urban culture. Kabuki was a favorite spectacle of city dwellers of all strata and levels of wealth and suited the tastes of this public. The emergence of kabuki theater dates back to the very beginning of the 1629th century. Both the appearance and the demeanor of the troupe shocked the audience, so the dances they performed were called kabuku, which means "to deviate", "shock". Initially, the kabuki theater was predominantly female, but the government, dissatisfied with the frivolous behavior of the actresses, in 1652 banned the participation of women in the theater. Young men began to replace women in kabuki, but since XNUMX, the shogunate banned male kabuki for the same reasons. Since then, only adult males have been allowed to participate in kabuki theatrical productions, and performances have become subject to strict censorship. In parallel with the tradition of kabuki, the tradition of Japanese puppet theater, jeruri, also developed. Each doll, which is approximately 1/2 to 2/3 of a person's height, is controlled by 3 people at once; dolls have movable eyes, eyelids, eyebrows, mouth, arms and legs. The puppeteers are dressed in black clothes, two assistants even have black caps on their faces. The reciter not only reads the text, but also "voices" all the puppets at once. 5. Painting The religious currents of Japan influenced the development of Japanese art. The legendary history of Japan, the exploits of gods and heroes have become the plot basis for many works of Japanese fine art. An idealized natural landscape served as an expression of Confucian aesthetic principles in painting, causing the viewer to strive for perfection and impeccability. Zen ideas also inspired art, including monochrome ink painting on paper. Buddhist painting became widespread, focusing on the canonical images of the Buddhist pantheon. The objects of Buddhist art include calligraphic inscriptions. Traditional Japanese painting is characterized by a wide variety of styles, forms and techniques. Picturesque works could have the form of hanging scrolls, scrolls of a horizontal format, unfolding as they are viewed, could be in the form of separate album sheets, they adorned fans, screens, walls. The basis of all styles of painting are two main directions: 1) continental (coming from China); 2) Japanese. Until about the XNUMXth century in Japanese painting dominated by the Chinese direction. In the Middle Ages, the namban direction was popular - literally "southern barbarian" - as the Japanese called Europeans. Namban artists imitated Western painting. From the beginning of the XVIII century. in Japan, the bundzing style, literally "enlightened painting" ("Japanese Impressionism"), comes into fashion. This genre influenced the artist Katsushika Hokusai. Ukiyo-e is one of the most popular styles of Japanese art. It appeared in the 1st half of the 2th century, and in the XNUMXnd half of the XNUMXth century. fell into disrepair. Usually, ukiyo-e is understood as popular and widespread genre works - painting and, in particular, engraving. The term ukiyo-e means "the world of sorrow" - this is how the world of samsara is called. In the XNUMXth century these ideas have been somewhat rethought. The world of transient pleasures also began to be called ukiyo-e, only it was written with a different hieroglyph with the same sound, literally meaning "floating past." The ukiyo-e artists focused on the inhabitants of this fickle world of fleeting pleasures: 1) beautiful ladies; 2) famous geishas and courtesans; 3) kabuki theater actors; 4) erotic scenes; 5) holidays and fireworks; 6) flowers and birds. Late 1753th-early 1806th centuries considered the golden age of ukiyo-e. During these years, such masters as Kitagawa Utamaro (XNUMX-XNUMX), and others worked. In the first thirty years of the XNUMXth century. one of ukiyo-e's favorite subjects is the landscape. Katsushiku Hokusai is considered the unsurpassed master of Japanese landscape engraving. It should also be noted that in Japan, ukiyo-e has long been considered a "low" genre, so a huge number of works have been lost. It is noteworthy that foreigners helped the Japanese themselves to look at ukiyo-e as full-fledged works of art. Ukiyo-e aesthetics had a huge impact on the development of impressionism, especially on artists such as E. Degas, C. Monet, and especially on W. Van Gogh. 6. Architecture, sculpture. Arts and Crafts Japan since the XNUMXth century built Buddhist temples. Open for viewing, they served as a decoration of the area; their high multi-tiered roofs organically fit into the relief, harmoniously blending with the surrounding landscape. The structure of the actual temple complex usually included pagodas, a bell tower, a sermon hall, a library (repository of manuscripts), a meditation hall, a dwelling room for monks and a refectory. Grandiose castles with high towers, decorated with multi-tiered roofs, became a characteristic feature of Japanese architecture of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. Large, well-fortified strongholds were the capitals of specific samurai leaders. Castles gradually overgrown with entire cities. Such castles were very different from earlier fortifications, mountain castles on remote mountain peaks. The heart of the castle was the main wooden tower, erected on a stone foundation. Stone walls were built around this tower with adjoining outbuildings and courtyards, and protective ditches were dug. The owner of the castle and his inner circle lived in the main tower, there were several types of towers: 1) single; 2) double; 3) and sometimes 3-4 towers of different sizes towered on one platform. Each castle had, as a rule, several gates. For the needs of the defense of the castle, a whole system of ditches, trenches, canals, ponds, water gates and secret water pipes was used, supplying the castle with water from underground sources. In some courtyards, traditional gardens could be laid out. Strictly thought-out composition of small Japanese gardens, miniature models of the Universe set the hosts for rest and reflection in their solitude. Household items in Japan played the role of ritual attributes. Masters sought to give them an impeccable appearance. For example, many bowls for the tea ceremony were valued unusually highly for "the seal of otherworldly beauty", containing the whole universe. The same fully applies to many other works of art: 1) netsuke figurines; 2) inro boxes; 3) lacquer products; 4) an elegant short-sleeve kimono with an exquisite and whimsical decor; 5) screens; 6) fans; 7) lanterns; 8) traditional Japanese weapons. LECTURE No. 21. Culture of the Arab countries 1. Features of the culture of the Arab countries The geography of the modern Arab world is surprisingly diverse. The Arabian Peninsula was divided between Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman and other states. Iraq became the successor to the civilizations of Mesopotamia; Syria, Lebanon and Jordan occupy the territories of ancient Syria. Egypt inherited the possessions of ancient Egypt along the Nile. On the North African coast of the Mediterranean Sea, which received the name Maghreb (Arab, "west") from medieval Arab geographers, the states of Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco are located. The history and culture of the Arab countries is also closely connected with Iran and Turkey. Arab medieval culture has developed in those countries that have undergone Arabization (adopted Islam), where the classical Arabic language dominated for a long time as the state language. The greatest flourishing of Arab culture fell on the VIII-XI centuries: 1) successfully developed poetry; 2) the famous fairy tales "A Thousand and One Nights" were compiled; translated many works of ancient authors. During this period, the Arabs made a significant contribution to the world mathematical science, the development of medicine, philosophy. They created a kind of architectural monuments. 2. Religion. Islam Islam was the basis of the religious life of the inhabitants of the East. Islam (Arabic, "submission") is the youngest of the world's religions. In the modern world, Islam is the second world religion in terms of the number of followers. It is a monotheistic religion, and in almost all Muslim-majority countries, Islam is the state religion. But Islam is not only a religion. This is a system of relationships between a person and society, which determines the way of life of a Muslim. Islam originated in Arabia in the XNUMXth century and was founded by Muhammad. This religion developed under the influence of Christianity and Judaism. As a result of the Arab conquests, it spread in the Near and Middle East, in some countries of the Far East, Asia and Africa. The ideal form of Islamic statehood is an egalitarian secular theocracy. All believers, regardless of their social status, were equal before the divine law; imam or mullah - the head of the common prayer, which can be led by any Muslim who knows the Koran. Only the Koran has legislative power, while the executive power - religious and secular - belongs to God and is exercised through the caliph. The main directions of Islam: 1) Sunnism; 2) Shiism; 3) Wahhabism. Reformers of the 2nd half of the XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries. (for example, al-Afghani) understood the reformation as the cleansing of Islam from distortions and accretions through a return to the early Muslim community. In the XX century. largely as a reaction to the influence of the West, ideologies based on Islamic values (pan-Islamism, fundamentalism) emerge in Muslim countries. 3. Life and customs of Muslims. Sharia The main source of Muslim doctrine is the Koran (Arabic, "reading aloud"). The second source of Muslim doctrine - the Sunnah - examples from the life of Muhammad as an example of solving religious socio-political problems. The Sunnah is made up of hadiths that tell about the statements of Muhammad on a particular issue. Through revelation, signs and names, a person can only partially comprehend the meaning of the divine in the world, and a Muslim is obliged to believe in this. Each religious group in Islam was united in a separate community (ummah). In addition to sermons, prayers, spells, edifying stories and parables, the Koran contains ritual and legal regulations that regulate various aspects of the life of Muslim society. In accordance with these instructions, family, legal, property relations of Muslims are built. The most important part of Islam is Sharia - a set of norms of morality, law, cultural and other principles that regulate the entire public and personal life of a Muslim. The traditional norms of behavior of Eastern society were combined with traditional thinking and mythology, an important part of which was represented by angels and demons, or jinn. Muslims were very afraid of the evil eye, they believed in the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. Great importance in the Arab East was attached to dreams. Divination was also widespread. 4. Science. Literature. Arabic language Ever since the XNUMXth century. how applied sciences to religious disciplines develop: 1) grammar; 2) mathematics; 3) astronomy. Their development took place in the process of close contacts between Muslims and other Eastern cultures: 1) Syrian; 2) Persian; 3) Indian. The main scientific achievements of Arab scientists date back to the Middle Ages. The contribution of the Arabs to mathematical science was significant. Abu-l-Wafa deduced the sine theorem of trigonometry, calculated the table of sines, introduced the concept of secant and cosecant. The poet and scientist Omar Khayyam wrote Algebra. He also dealt successfully with the problem of irrational and real numbers. In 1079 he introduced a calendar more accurate than the modern Gregorian. Arab medieval medicine was glorified by Ibn Sina - Avicenna (980-1037), the author of the encyclopedia of theoretical and clinical medicine. Abu Bakr, a famous Baghdad surgeon, gave a classic description of smallpox and measles, applied vaccinations. Arab philosophy largely developed on the basis of the ancient heritage. Historical thought also developed. If in the VII-VIII centuries. in Arabic, no historical writings proper had yet been written, and there were many legends about Muhammad, the campaigns and conquests of the Arabs, then in the XNUMXth century. major works on history are being compiled. The most famous historian of the XIV-XV centuries. was Ibn Khaldun, the first of the Arab historians who tried to create a theory of history. As the main factor determining the historical process, he singled out the natural conditions of the country. Arabic literature also enjoyed the attention of scholars. At the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. Arabic grammar was compiled, which formed the basis of all subsequent grammars. Arabic writing is regarded as the greatest cultural value. The centers of medieval Arabic science were the cities of Baghdad and Basra. The scientific life of Baghdad was especially lively, where the House of Science was created - a kind of association of the academy, observatory, library. Already in the X century. in many cities, secondary and higher Muslim schools appeared - madrasahs. In the X-XIII centuries. in Europe, the sign decimal system for writing numbers, called "Arabic numerals", became known from Arabic writings. Enduring world fame was brought to Omar Khayyam (1048-1122), a Persian poet, scientist, by his poems: 1) philosophical; 2) hedonic; 3) free-thinking rubai. In the X-XV centuries. Gradually, the world-famous collection of Arab folk tales "A Thousand and One Nights" was gradually formed. These are tales about Ali Baba, Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor, and others. Orientalists believe that the heyday of Arabic poetry, literature, and culture as a whole falls on the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries: during this period, the rapidly developing Arab world was at the head of world civilization . From the XNUMXth century the level of cultural life is declining. Persecution of Christians and Jews begins, which was expressed in their physical extermination, secular culture is oppressed, and pressure on the natural sciences increases. Public burning of books became common practice. 5. Visual arts and calligraphy Islam, advocating strict monotheism, from ancient times fought against the tribal cults of the Arabians. In order to destroy the memory of tribal idols, sculpture was forbidden in Islam, images of living beings were not approved. As a result, painting also did not receive significant development in Arab culture, being limited to ornaments. From the XNUMXth century began to develop the art of miniatures, including books. The handwritten book was valued in Muslim society as a shrine and a treasure. With all the differences in artistic techniques and subjects, book illustrations of that time have much in common. Conventionality in the depiction of the scene and characters in miniatures is combined with a mastery of line and color, and a lot of details. The poses of the actors are expressive. Most popular images: 1) scenes of royal receptions; 2) peers; 3) hunting; 4) battles. Court painters often served at the same time as court historians who accompanied the Sultan on military campaigns. The artist did not seek to reproduce earthly reality. The true world had to be comprehended speculatively, through the reading of the Qur'an, the recitation of prayers, the inscription and contemplation of sacred inscriptions from the Qur'an, hadiths, the names of Allah and Muhammad. The sacred word of the Quran accompanied a Muslim throughout his life. In the Muslim medieval culture of the East and West, the degree of mastery of the "beauty of writing", or calligraphy, became an indicator of the intellectuality and education of a person. Various handwritings were developed. At the heart of the 6 styles of writing was the system of "statutory writing" - a system of proportions that determined the ratio of vertical and horizontal elements of letters, as well as letters in a word and a line. A reed pen - "kalam" served as a writing tool, the method of sharpening of which depended on the chosen style and traditions of the school. The materials for writing were papyrus, parchment and paper, the production of which was established in Samarkand (Central Asia) in the 60s. XNUMXth century The sheets were covered with a starch paste and polished with a crystal egg, which made the paper dense and durable, and the letters and patterns applied in colored ink were clear, bright and shiny. In general, fine art was carpeted, its characteristic features were flowery and patterned. The combination of bright colors, however, was always strictly geometric, rational and subject to Muslim symbols. 6. Architecture of Islam It should be noted that medieval Arab architecture developed on the basis of the processing of Greek, Roman and Iranian traditions by the Arabs. From the XNUMXth century buildings begin to be decorated with floral and geometric ornaments, which included stylized inscriptions - Arabic script. Such an ornament - the Europeans called it an arabesque - was built on the principle of endless development and rhythmic repetition of the pattern. The main place in the construction of cities was occupied by religious buildings - mosques. They were a square courtyard surrounded by galleries on pillars or columns. Over time, mosques began to differ in their purpose. A small mosque served as a place of individual prayer. The cathedral, or Friday, mosque was intended for collective prayers performed by the entire community on Friday at noon. The main temple of the city became known as the Great Mosque. Distinctive features of any mosque from the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth century. became the mihrab and minbar. From the XNUMXth century The most important element of the cathedral mosque was the minaret - a high tower from which the call to prayer was proclaimed. The Arab world also gave birth to such a unique phenomenon as Moorish art. Moorish art is a conventional name for an artistic style (a mixture of Arabic and Gothic styles) that developed in North Africa and Andalusia (Southern Spain) in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. Most clearly, the Moorish style manifested itself in architecture. The pearl of Moorish architecture of the XIII-XIV centuries. - Alhambra (Granada in Spain). The massive walls of the fortress, towers and gates, secret passages hide and protect the palace. The composition is based on a system of courtyards (Courtyard of Myrtles, Courtyard of Lions) located at different levels. Distinctive features are fragile, frost-like carved stone patterns and inscriptions on the walls, thin twisted columns, wrought iron window bars and multi-colored stained-glass windows. LECTURE No. 22. Culture of the Middle Ages 1. General characteristics of culture In the XNUMXth century, the Great Migration of Nations began - the invasion of tribes from Northern Europe and Asia into the territory of the Roman Empire. The Western Roman Empire fell; its other part - Byzantium - was to exist for some more time. The Middle Ages has come - a historical era following the Ancient World and preceding the Renaissance. The origins of medieval culture largely originate in the era of antiquity. In addition to Christianity, the Middle Ages adopted from antiquity some artistic forms, as well as handicraft skills. 2. Education and science In the VII-VIII centuries. there were schools at the monasteries, where the teachers were monks, and the students, who were very few, were the children of knights. Here they taught theology and the "seven free arts", as well as writing and counting. Later, education was expanded (but not for everyone, but only for the nobility) - they studied Latin, law, medicine, and Arabic. Universities arose from these schools (from the word universum - "community"): 1) in Bologna (Italy, 1088); 2) Cordoba (Spain, IX); 3) Oxford (1209); 4) Sorbonne in Paris (1215); 5) Vienna (1348), etc. Universities enjoyed internal self-government (they elected a rector, etc.). The general population studied here. Forms of training - a lecture (reading a specialized text and a commentary on it) or a dispute (an open dispute between the participants of the seminar), after graduation, a diploma was issued. There were also textbooks. The science of the Middle Ages was discovered by theologians of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. - the so-called "fathers of the church": 1) Augustine the Blessed; 2) Ambrose; 3) the philosopher Boethius; 4) the historians Jordan and Bede the Venerable. The center of the "Carolingian Renaissance" was the so-called academy - a scientific circle at the court of Charlemagne, created in 794 on the model of the ancient school. The theologian and poet Alcuin became the leader of the academy. In the XII-XIII centuries. science continues to evolve. Scholasticism becomes its basis - a doctrine in which reality was comprehended with the help of the logic of reason. At the same time, the scholastics were often carried away by the verbal form, behind which the content was poorly guessed, that is, they wrote and spoke in a heavy, incomprehensible language. The outstanding scientist of the Middle Ages was Thomas Aquinas (1225-1247), teacher, author of 18 works on theology and philosophy. Another famous scientist was Roger Bacon (1214-1294) - naturalist, teacher of mathematics and philosophy. 3. Worldview. Literature. Theatre The barbarians worshiped the forces of nature; magical rites played a huge role in their lives. With the emergence and development of states in Europe, the core of human life and worldview becomes the Christian religion. All life is considered only as a short segment, full of dangers for the human soul. The ideal is life without frills and vicious joys, sincere faith in God, observance of rituals, as well as such qualities of nature as humility, patience, virtue, faith, hope, etc. Unlimited power, both spiritual and material and political , - acquire the church and the clergy. If the treatises of the early Middle Ages were not addressed to specific segments of the population, then the literature of the Middle Ages was class-based. Researchers highlight: 1) peasant; 2) urban; 3) chivalric literature. Main genres: 1) novels; 2) poetry; 3) poems; 4) epic (noble); 5) stories; 6) biographies; 7) stories; 8) songs; 9) educational essays, etc. Outstanding Works: 1) the epic "Song of Roland"; 2) "Song of the Nibelungs"; 3) "Song of Side"; 4) the novel "Tristan and Isolde"; 5) a cycle of novels about King Arthur and the knight Lancelot; 6) a series of novels about Fox Renard; 7) fables; 8) novels. The number of entertainment and educational activities has increased dramatically. Preachers spoke before the cathedrals, professors and students held discussions. Theatrical religious performances were also arranged. Cathedrals were built by urban masters (and not by monastic ones, as before). The townspeople themselves were often the customers or creators of works of art to decorate the cathedrals. 4. Painting of the Middle Ages Since the barbarian tribes were constantly nomadic, their early art is mainly represented by: 1) weapons; 2) jewelry; 3) various utensils. Barbarian craftsmen preferred bright colors and expensive materials, while not the beauty of the product was valued more, but the material from which it was made. Roman painting served as a model for miniaturists. The author of a medieval miniature is not just an illustrator; he is a talented storyteller who managed to convey both the legend and its symbolic meaning in one scene. "Carolingian Renaissance" (French renaissance "revival") - this is how the researchers called the art of this era. Many Frankish monasteries had scriptoria (book-writing workshops), in which the monks rewrote ancient manuscripts and compiled new ones, both ecclesiastical and secular. Manuscripts were placed in frames made of ivory or precious metals with inserts of precious stones. In the design of books, in addition to complex ornamentation, motifs of Christian art were often used - wreaths, crosses, figurines of angels and birds. Around the end of the III century. the papyrus scroll was replaced by parchment; instead of style (sticks for writing), they began to use bird feathers. In the era of the Carolingians, the art of miniature - book illustration - reached an extraordinary flowering. There were no miniature schools, but there were centers for the production of illustrated manuscripts at monasteries (for example, a book-writing workshop in Aachen). Carolingian temples outside were decorated very modestly, but inside they shone with wall paintings - frescoes. Many researchers have noted the great importance of fine arts in a barbaric world where most people could not read. For example, in the church of St. John the Baptist (VIII century) in the city of Müster (modern Switzerland) are the oldest known frescoes. The art of the Otto Empire played a huge role in the development of the Romanesque style. The murals of the Romanesque period have practically not been preserved. They were edifying; the movements, gestures and faces of the characters were expressive; images are planar. As a rule, biblical scenes were depicted on the vaults and walls of the temple. On the western wall were scenes of the Last Judgment. In the XIII-XIV centuries. along with church books, richly illustrated with images of saints and scenes from the Holy History, have become widespread: 1) books of hours (collections of prayers); 2) novels; 3) historical chronicles. 5. Architecture After the emergence in the V-VIII centuries. The states of the Germanic tribes were converted to Christianity. Stone Christian churches began to be erected. Temples were built from massive stones, wood was used for ceilings. Churches were built on the model of Roman basilicas. In most cases, the columns were borrowed from ancient temples: the ruins served as a kind of quarry for the extraction of new building materials. Monasteries and churches remained cultural centers starting from the XNUMXth century. The temple, which had the shape of a cross in plan, symbolized the way of the cross of Christ - the path of suffering. In the X century. spread belief in the miraculous power of relics - objects associated with the life of Christ, the Mother of God, saints. More and more pilgrims sought to visit the holy places. The Ostrogoth king Theodoric was a cautious and intelligent politician, patronizing the Roman nobility and the church, science and the arts. He wanted to be known as great, and therefore, roads were laid in his capital, Ravenna, bridges, water pipes, military fortifications, palaces and temples were built, destroyed buildings were restored. In addition, the wonderful tomb of Theodoric has survived to this day. But Charlemagne made the capital of the small town of Aachen (modern Germany). The royal palace and administrative buildings were built here. The Aachen chapel (chapel) and the gates of the monastery in Lorsch (modern Germany, c. 800) have survived to this day. From the 1030th century architects gradually changed the design of the temple - it had to meet the requirements of an increasingly complex cult. In the architecture of Germany at that time, a special type of church developed - majestic and massive. Such is the cathedral in Speyer (1092-1106/XNUMX), one of the largest in Western Europe. In Romanesque art, monastic architecture occupied a leading position. The size of the churches increased, which led to the creation of new designs of vaults and supports. During the Romanesque period, secular architecture changed. Typical examples of French Romanesque architecture: 1) Church of St. Peter; 2) Church of St. Paul in the monastery of Cluny (1088-1131). Only small fragments of this building, its descriptions and drawings, have survived. In the XI-XII centuries. construction of large cathedrals began in cities on the Rhine - in Worms, Speyer, Mainz. In Germany, monuments of secular architecture of that time have also been preserved - feudal castles and fortresses. The art of Italy was formed under the influence of centuries-old cultural traditions. In Spain, there was a reconquista - a war for the liberation of the territory of the country, captured by the Arabs. Then in Spain the construction of castles-fortresses began. The kingdom of Castile became the land of castles. One of the earliest examples of Romanesque architecture is the Alcazar Royal Palace (XNUMXth century). It has survived to our time. 6. Gothic art. Sculpture The name "Gothic art" (from the word "Gothic", after the name of the Germanic tribe of the Goths) arose in the Renaissance. In various European countries, Gothic had its own characteristics, and its heyday falls on the XIII-XIV centuries. Gothic cathedrals differed significantly from the monastic churches of the Romanesque period. The Gothic cathedral is directed upwards: they began to use a new design of vaults here (the vault rests on arches, and those on pillars). The lateral pressure of the vault is transmitted to flying buttresses (outer semi-arches) and buttresses (outer supports of the building). The walls ceased to serve as a support for the vault, which made it possible to make many windows, arches, galleries in them, stained-glass windows appeared - images made up of colored glasses fastened together. Gothic art originally arose and developed in the French province of Ile-de-France. The characteristic features of the early Gothic were embodied in the main cathedral of the capital of France - Notre Dame de Paris (Notre Dame Cathedral). Outstanding works of mature Gothic architecture include the cathedrals at Reims and Amiens. Gothic cathedrals in Germany differed significantly from French ones. Sculpture also developed in the Middle Ages. On Frankish reliefs of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. Christian martyrs are depicted. From the XNUMXth century the first images of Christ, the Mother of God, saints appear. During the Romanesque period, monumental sculpture first appeared in Western Europe. Sculptural images - reliefs - were placed, as a rule, at the entrances of churches. The reliefs were usually painted - this gave them greater expressiveness and persuasiveness. Sculpture in the Romanesque period in Germany was placed, as a rule, inside temples. It began to appear on facades only at the end of the XNUMXth century. LECTURE No. 23. Culture of the Renaissance 1. Features of the culture of the Renaissance Renaissance (French renaissance - "renaissance") is a phenomenon of cultural development in a number of countries of Central and Western Europe. Chronologically, the Renaissance covers the period of the XIV-XVI centuries. At the same time, until the end of the XV century. The Renaissance remained largely an Italian phenomenon. The term "Renaissance" was first introduced in the XNUMXth century. famous Italian artist, architect and art historian Giorgio Vasari. The Renaissance is an era of great economic and social transformations in the life of many European states, an era of humanism and enlightenment. During this historical period, in various areas of the life of human society, favorable conditions arise for an unprecedented rise in culture. The development of science and technology, the great geographic discoveries, the shifting of trade routes and the emergence of new trade and industrial centers significantly expanded and changed man's understanding of the world around him. Ideas about the person himself are changing. The most important feature of the Renaissance worldview was individualism. Another characteristic feature of the new worldview was the awakening of national self-consciousness. People have a feeling of patriotism, the concept of the fatherland is formed. Another interesting feature: the phenomenon of the Northern Renaissance in the countries of Central and Northern Europe. In the Netherlands, the Middle Ages still influenced the way of life of people, so the urban culture of the Netherlands gave a different kind of Renaissance. A characteristic feature of the North was the deepening of culture into the inner world of man. The masters were attracted by the psychological depth and personal characteristics of a person. 2. Science, literature and social thought During the Renaissance, great discoveries were made in: 1) astronomy (N. Copernicus, J. Bruno, I. Kepler, G. Galileo); 2) medicine (F. Paracelsus and others); 3) mathematics (J. Cardano and others); 4) geography; 5) geology; 6) zoology; 7) botany, etc. Works on history appeared (Bruni, Machiavelli, and others). In the Renaissance, languages are finally formed: 1) Italian; 2) French; 3) English; 4) German. There is literature in these languages, Latin in the XNUMXth century. gradually ceases to be a living language. Invention by I. Gutenberg in the middle of the XNUMXth century. printing, the appearance of newspapers made it possible for more people to get in touch with the printed word. The nature and content of the new era was expressed in many ways by fiction. The first sprouts of humanistic ideology found their expression in the work of Dante. Major writers of the Italian Renaissance: 1) Dante Alighieri (1265-1321); 2) Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375); 3) Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374). By the nature of creativity, themes, genres, all these authors are completely different. In the history of world literature, each of these names is associated with a specific work: Dante - with the Divine Comedy, Boccaccio - with the Decameron, Petrarch - with poems dedicated to Laura. A prominent writer of the Renaissance was Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) - a politician of the late Renaissance. The largest figure of the European Renaissance was Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536) - writer, philologist, philosopher, theologian, author of works on pedagogy, translator from Greek and Latin. The most vividly advanced ideas of the French Renaissance were embodied in the works of Rabelais, Ronsard and other writers who attached great importance to literature and art in the affirmation of humanistic ideals. The work of outstanding Spanish humanists of the era, such as M. Cervantes (1547-1616), Lope de Bega (1562-1635) and others, was characterized by a deep national-historical content, patriotism, and a high appreciation of human dignity. England also saw the greatest upsurge of literary creativity. Suffice it to mention the name of the brilliant playwright and poet W. Shakespeare (1564-1616). Already during the High Renaissance, European literature was in decline. Great humanistic ideas, realism and democracy began to perish under the onslaught of the Reformation, which opposed the "paganism" of the culture of the Renaissance. 3. Painting The brightest page of the Italian Renaissance was the fine arts, especially painting and sculpture. The average level of Italian art of this era was very high. In the art of the Italian Renaissance, wall painting dominated. It was carried out in the fresco technique - they painted on wet plaster with paints (Italian fresco - "fresh"). Proto-Renaissance (XIII - early XIV centuries) - the threshold of the Renaissance - gave the world Giotto da Bondone (1266 / 76-1337) - the founder of European painting, the founder of realism. The early Renaissance (end of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries) was represented by a galaxy of brilliant artists: 1) Masaccio (1401-1426); 2) Donatello (1386-1466); 3) Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) and dozens of other outstanding artists, whose paintings adorn the museums of the world. Late XNUMXth and early XNUMXth centuries called the High Renaissance. Characteristic features of the realism of the Italian Renaissance: 1) classical clarity; 2) the humanity of the images; 3) their plastic strength; 4) harmonic expressiveness. The High Renaissance illuminates the work of two great titans, brilliant artists - Leonardo da Vinci and Rafael Santi. The greatest Renaissance painter was Titian Vecellio (1476/77-1576). Titian's brushes belong to creations on mythological and Christian subjects, works in the portrait genre. His paintings: "Reclining Venus", "Danae", "Venus in front of a mirror", "Penitent Mary Magdalene", "St. Sebastian", "Pieta". 4. Major painters of the Northern Renaissance The major painters of the Northern Renaissance of this era were: 1) Jan van Eyck; 2) Hieronymus Bosch; 3) Pieter Brueghel the Elder. The most prominent representatives of the fine arts of Germany were: 1) Albrecht Durer; 2) Lucas Cranach senior; 3) Hans Holbein Jr. French artists of this period are inferior in the brilliance of skill to their Dutch and German counterparts, but their works have their own characteristics. The largest French painter of the XV century. was Jean Fouquet (c. 1420-1477/1481). He worked in all types of painting: 1) in a portrait; 2) in miniature; 3) in easel painting. The most striking and original figure of the Spanish Renaissance is El Greco (1541-1616). The image of a man by the Spanish artist is endowed with spirituality. Religious, mythological, genre paintings, portraits, landscapes combine unusual techniques of the artist's visual language. Coloring is based on the technique of contrasting bright colors. The heroes of El Greco have unnaturally elongated figures, elongated pale faces, convulsive gestures, the scale of figures and objects is often changed. At the end of the Renaissance, a new trend emerged in the visual arts - mannerism (Italian manierismo - "pretentiousness"), characterized by intense images, sophisticated form, and complicated solutions. Mannerism is spreading in all kinds of art and becomes a harbinger of a new style - baroque. 5. Architecture and sculpture 5. Architecture occupies one of the leading places in the artistic culture of the Renaissance. Characteristic features of architecture during this period are: 1) an increase in the scale of civil, secular construction; 2) a change in the nature of monumental, cult architecture - striving for breadth. Renaissance architecture is different: 1) simplicity of volumes, forms and rhythm; 2) calm and static; 3) the symmetry of the composition; 4) dividing the building into floors by horizontal rods; 5) a clear order of placement of window openings and architectural details. The new era inscribed great names in the world history of architecture: 1) F. Brunelleschi; 2) L. Alberti; 3) D. Bramante; 4) Michelangelo Buonarotti; 5) F. Delorme and others. In the development of Renaissance architecture, an important place belongs to the construction of palace architecture - the palazzo. In France, the Renaissance in architecture can be divided into two phases: 1) the first - the early period (1500-1540) - the castles of the king and the French nobility: Chambord, Blois, Chateaubriand, etc.; 2) the second - mature (1540-1570). The most significant building of this period is the royal palace of the Louvre, created by the architect P. Lesko (1515-1578). In Spain, Renaissance architecture spans the entire XNUMXth century. The largest work is the royal castle of Escorial (author - Herrera). Sculpture flourished. Donatello and Michelangelo Buonarroti became outstanding masters in this area. LECTURE No. 24. Culture of the Modern Era 1. Features of the culture of the New Age Since the beginning of the XIX century. there is a sharp change in the human environment - the urban lifestyle begins to prevail over the rural. In the XNUMXth century a turbulent process begins. The mindset of a person is changing. 2. Science and technology The transition from manufactory to factory production, the invention of the steam engine revolutionized the industry. Making machines required more and more metal. Iron ore was now smelted not on charcoal, but on coal. To speed up melting, hot air was injected into the furnace. The English engineer Bessemer invented a rotary furnace for smelting - a converter. Machine-building factories were equipped with a variety of machine tools. The chemical industry appeared, producing: 1) sulfuric acid; 2) soda; 3) dyes, etc. In 1846, Howe invented the first sewing machine, improved in 1851 by Singer. The printing industry developed. They learned how to make cheap grades of paper from wood pulp. The advent of mechanical machines made it possible to put printing production on stream. There was a revolution in the means of transport and communication. In the XVIII century. stagecoaches traveled from city to city - multi-seat closed carriages drawn by horses. In the 1825th century railway transport is included in people's lives. The first railway was built by George Stephenson in England in 17. Locomotives improved, the speed of movement increased, the American Westinghouse invented brakes driven by compressed air. Steam engines also appeared in the navy. On August 1807, 1819, a "test trip" was scheduled for Fulton's steamship Clermont. Sea navigation ceased to depend on the wind. The steamer, which crossed the Atlantic Ocean in 26, spent 70 days on the road (Christopher Columbus crossed it in XNUMX days). In 1803-1804. American engineer Evans rolled the first steam car through the streets of Philadelphia. In 1803, there were already 26 steam cars in London, and in all of England their number reached 100. The emergence of new modes of transport made it necessary to improve roads. In the construction of highways, steam road rollers were successfully used. Steam engines have found their application in agriculture. In the 40s. 1870th century in England, easily moving cars appeared on the fields - locomobiles. Threshers worked on the energy generated by their engines. By XNUMX, there were already steam plows in England. The rapid development of maritime transport and trade caused the construction of canals. The largest of them was the Suez Canal, which was built in 1859 by the Frenchman F. Lesseps. The telegraph apparatus created in the USA by the inventor Morse became widespread. In 1826 The first railway suspension bridge was built. In 1783, the Montgolfier brothers (France) created a flying machine that was lighter than the air it displaced. At the beginning of the XIX century. the bicycle was invented. Its prototype was an ordinary scooter. The Frenchman Dinet slightly changed the model and called his car a bicycle, i.e. "fast-footed". The practical application of "running cars" was found in England - rural postmen delivered correspondence to them. There were other innovations in human life as well. Migration of the population increased the volume of correspondence. The Englishman R. Hill simplified the process of sending correspondence - he introduced a single tariff for postage, regardless of distance. He also introduced the first postage stamps, which were glued to the envelope. 3. Spiritual life of a person With the development of civilization, the spiritual life of a person changed, interest in the history of one's family, a kind, increased. But only rich people could order picturesque portraits. At this time, a photograph appears. In 1839, Louis Daguerre, a Parisian artist and physicist, created the first method of photography. Technological progress has made significant changes in military equipment. Firearms were widely used. In 1803, the English General X. Shrapnel created a type of explosive projectile, which received the same name "shrapnel". In 1862, the Swede Alfred Nobel set up the production of dynamite. One of the features of industrial civilization was a sharp increase in human interest in the world around us. The foundation for a powerful upsurge of science at the beginning of modern times was laid by two great scientists - the Englishman I. Newton (1642-1727) and the German G. Leibniz (1646-1716). A revolution in science was made by the book of the English scientist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) on the origin of man. The method of long-term storage of products was invented by L. Pasteur (pasteurization). 4. Literature. public thought. Music. Fashion Man has ceased to be the measure of all things, as it was in the Age of Enlightenment. The movement for gender equality was actively developing. The influence of religion on man has weakened. In an effort to spread Catholicism, the church begins missionary activities in Europe, sends its representatives to distant countries to preach Christianity among pagan peoples. The main focus of missionary activity was directed to: 1) Africa; 2) East Indies; 3) Western Asia; 4) America. Revolutions in Western Europe and America contributed to the design in the XIX century. main ideological directions: 1) conservatism; 2) liberalism; 3) socialism. The great French bourgeois revolution ended the Age of Enlightenment. Writers, artists, musicians, poets witnessed grandiose historical events, revolutionary upheavals. Many of them enthusiastically welcomed the changes, admired the proclamation of the ideas of Equality, Brotherhood, Freedom. But the time has come for disappointment. Tragic notes of doubt about the possibility of transforming the world on the principles of reason sounded in philosophy and art. Attempts to get away from reality and at the same time comprehend it caused the emergence of a new worldview system - romanticism. In the 30s. XNUMXth century serious changes in society will create conditions for the emergence of another creative direction - critical realism. Romanticism brought to art not only new themes and new heroes, musical forms also change. Talented composers gained worldwide fame: the Austrian F. Schubert (1797-1828), the Pole F. Chopin (1810-1849). Romantic musical traditions were further developed in the work of Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901): the operas Don Carlos, La Traviata, Aida, Rigoletto brought him worldwide fame. Fashion has also changed. The Great French Revolution seriously influenced it. Elegant France began to wear wooden clogs and braces. In 1792, the red cap became the symbol of the Jacobins. Dresses were sewn from light fabrics, in cut they resembled a shirt extended downwards with a large neckline and short sleeves. In the middle of the XIX century. women's fashion includes crinolines (a gathered wedge-shaped skirt, the shape of which was supported by thin steel hoops). 5. Painting, architecture and sculpture In the visual arts, the ideas of romanticism and critical realism are spreading. In the heavy atmosphere of Spain at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. the work of Francisco Goya (1746-1828) was formed. Theodore Gericault (1791-1824), Eugene Delacroix and Honore Daumier (1808-1879) showed interest in the inner world of a person, his experiences. Realistic traditions in the visual arts are strongly associated with the name of Gustave Courbet (1819-1877). There have been changes in urban planning, construction equipment - metal, glass, concrete are widely used. The houses are getting taller, the streets are straighter and wider. For heating houses, fireplaces are used - stoves with a wide mouth and a straight pipe. The fireplaces were heated with coal or wood. At the end of the XVIII century. an oil lamp with glass came into everyday life, which from the middle of the 50th century. changed to kerosene. Since the end of the XNUMXs. XNUMXth century gas lighting came into use. New factories, banks, apartment buildings, railway stations, libraries, exhibition halls are being built. In the middle of the XIX century. in the design of facades and interiors, classical architectural forms of rococo and classicism were often used. Classicism was developed at the beginning of the century during the period of the Napoleonic Empire. It is characterized by classical architectural forms: columns, pediments. Classical compositions are necessarily symmetrical. In France, classicism was called the "style of the empire", as it is laconic and monumental. LECTURE No. 25. Culture of the XNUMXth century 1. General characteristics of culture Culture of the XNUMXth century characterized by versatility and versatility. New types of art appear - body art, graffiti, etc. Modern ways of broadcasting culture - television, the World Wide Web - the Internet are spreading. There are mass migrations of inhabitants of the entire globe, and there is a worldwide integration of culture. At the same time, two trends are evident - the unification of culture and the development of national traditions. 2. Education and science In the modern world, there are different education systems - from traditional (with a wide range of disciplines studied and classical teaching methods) to specialized (with a certain set of subjects and innovative methods). Private schools are very popular in the West. In the field of higher education, the most prestigious universities stand out: 1) Oxford; 2) Harvard; 3) Sorbonne and others. There is a demand on the labor market for new professions - a programmer, a trade specialist and others, which requires their training and education. New branches of science are developing: 1) astronautics; 2) genetics; 3) chemistry; 4) plastic surgery; 5) organ transplant; 6) cloning, etc. 3. Museums. Movie Great changes have taken place in the field of cinema. The real idol of millions of people has become such a Hollywood star as Marilyn Monroe. In the second half of the century, pop culture was born, home video appeared, the "tape recorder revolution" took place. The idols of the youth of the whole world are Elvis Presley, the group "Beatles". 4. Painting Painting of the XX century is very diverse and is represented by the following main areas: 1) avant-garde (impressionism, modernism, cubism, fauvism); 2) realism; 3) pop art; 4) public art, etc. The term "pop art" (English "popular, public art") was born in England in the mid-1950s. At the first exhibitions of representatives of this trend, the main motifs and origins of pop art were discovered, such as comics with their seriality and simplified drawings, catchy and bright commercial advertising. In expositions of pop art, any object familiar to the viewer could be exhibited in the most unthinkable combination. The artist used recognizable concepts, objects. A natural tin can with tomato sauce (author E. Warhol) has become a kind of visiting card of pop art. Pop art immediately became famous across the ocean and very soon became a symbol of American art. The term "poor art" was introduced in 1967 by the Italian critic D. Celant. The works of the masters of this trend outwardly resemble abstract sculptures, but here the main emphasis is not on forms, but on materials. The viewer sees the image, and the master plays with the purely physical qualities of things. At an exhibition of hyper-realists ("super-realists"), the viewer may be confused: the paintings painted with paint look exactly like large-format photographs. Initially, this trend was called photorealism. The term "hyperrealism" appeared only some time later (for the first time - in an article by S. Dali). Body art (eng. "art of the body") is an artistic practice in which the human body serves as the material. At the origins of body art was Yves Klein, who exhibited in the 1950s. his "anthropes" - canvases with prints of the bodies of the sitters painted by him. A person in the context of this art is deprived not only of individuality, but also of the status of a living being. 5. Architecture After 1945, the United States became the world leader of the avant-garde in architecture, where in the 1920s and 30s. the most prominent European architects of the pre-war period, such as V. Gropius and L. Roe, emigrated. However, already in the first decade after World War II, original schools of architecture in Italy, the Scandinavian countries, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan competed with the international style of architects from the United States. The main direction in the development of European architecture of those years was urban planning. The destruction of World War II (Rotterdam, Le Havre, Hannover and other cities) gave architects the opportunity to create a fundamentally new type of city. Restoration work was carried out according to a single plan: with the delimitation of residential, industrial and public areas, pedestrian and transport zones in cities. The exception is Le Havre, restored in 1945-1950. under the leadership of O. Perret (1874-1954) according to the traditional urban planning scheme of the XNUMXth century. In the mid 1950s. construction equipment was undergoing a real revolution. The possibilities of modern materials were increasingly used: 1) thin-walled concrete; 2) aluminum; 3) plastics; 4) synthetic films, etc. Since the mid 1950s. the architecture of the West is a motley, diverse world. Representatives of the trend that originated in England - brutalism (Italian brutale - "rough"), considering the main content of architecture to be construction, flaunted the constructive basis of the structure. In 1954, the authorities of Sydney, Australia's largest city, offered a prize for the design of the Opera House building, for which a cape in Sydney Harbor was chosen. More than 200 specialists from different countries took part in the competition, and the victory was won by the then little-known Dane Jorn Ution (born in 1918). In 1966, Ution, having experienced a number of technical and financial setbacks, abandoned the project. But the building was still completed thanks to the ingenuity of Australian engineers and a public lottery that raised about $100 million for construction. On October 20, 1973, the theater was inaugurated. 6. Sculpture Sculpture develops in a deeply individual manner, many masters continue to embody the experience of the great masters of antiquity. The work of Alberto Giacometti (1901-1966) was widely known. His exorbitantly elongated, thin, fragile figures are devoid of strength and passion. These are ghost people, bled dry by tragic time ("Walking Man", 1960). A special role in the art of the XX century. played by the so-called vitalists (from the Latin vitalis - "vital") - artists who, in conditional, symbolic, and sometimes abstract images, sought to convey the rhythm and poetry of life. The most striking examples are the works of the English sculptor Henry Moore and the Romanian master Constantin Brancusi (Brancusi, 1876-1957). To the limit, the generalized forms of the sculptures of the latter are distinguished by clarity and quivering purity ("The Asleep Muse", 1909, "Table of Silence" - dedicated to the victims of the First World War). The appeal to sculpture was also natural for the Cubists. In the statues of Osip Zadkine (1890-1967), a native of Russia, the form lives its own life. The figures are composed of multidirectional surfaces: sometimes convex, sometimes concave. Author: Konstantinova S.V.
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