LECTURE No. 5. Russian culture of the XNUMXth century

1. General trends in Russian culture of the XNUMXth century

XNUMXth century in the history of Russian culture, as well as in the history of Russia in general, - the beginning of a new period. At this time, the secularization of culture takes place, a turning point in the consciousness of man and society. The Russian people in the turbulent years of the Time of Troubles, popular uprisings and wars, advances to Siberia and the Far East realized himself as a person.

2. Literature, education, science

The heyday of Russian social thought in the 1st quarter of the XNUMXth century. associated with the appearance of a number of narratives of spiritual and secular authors about the events of the Time of Troubles. The most prominent representative in the official literature of the XVII century. was a monk Simeon of Polotsk. The folk accusatory trend is "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum", written by himself. The author was the inspirer of the movement of the Old Believers and preached the ideas of ancient piety. Throughout the century, a variety of everyday stories have appeared that depict the everyday life of ordinary people.

Signs of secularization are also found in enlightenment - by the end of the century, every second or third city dweller could read and write. At the same time, literacy training ceased to be a church privilege. The men were trained. There were few literate women. They taught, first of all, the elementary alphabet according to the alphabet books. In 1634, V. Burtsev's primer was published and repeatedly republished over the course of a century. The question arose about the establishment of schools. In 1680, a school was founded at the Printing House, the main discipline in which was the Greek language; in 1687 - the Slavic-Greek-Latin School, and then the Academy, where both secular and spiritual disciplines were taught.

The range of reading has expanded significantly. From the XNUMXth century a lot of books, printed and especially handwritten, have been preserved. Among them, along with the church, there are more and more secular ones:

1) chronicles and chronographs;

2) stories and legends.

The kings and noble boyars had libraries with hundreds of books in different languages.

Many foreigners came to Russia, well-versed in various fields of scientific and technical knowledge. They lived on the outskirts of Moscow in the German settlement, which the inhabitants of the capital called Kukuy (Kokuy). They looked at them with greedy curiosity and fear: dancing, smoking, the free manner of communication between men and women were unusual for a Russian person.

Scientific knowledge also developed. Russians were famous as masters of metal processing, foundry business. Bells were cast well in Russia, their "crimson ringing" was famous throughout the country.

The Russian masters of construction equipment, the construction of wooden and stone buildings, were equally successful and reliable.

When constructing water mills and, which is especially significant and important, iron-working and other manufactories used water engines. Expanded geographical knowledge, ideas about Russia, its territory and the peoples living on it, the vast expanses of Siberia and the Far East.

3. Painting of the XNUMXth century

Throughout the XNUMXth century Russian national style develops new features and forms. The Stroganov school was further developed with its fine writing, the finest drawing of details. The refinement of performance, the colorfulness of the icons delighted contemporaries.

In the work of Simon Fedorovich Ushakov (1626-1686), the master of the Tsar's Armory, the largest Russian artist, and other masters, a desire for realism is outlined. Iosif Vladimirov wrote a kind of theoretical treatise with the rationale for realism in painting: proximity to nature, the need for art to strive for beauty and light, not to suppress, but to please a person. SF Ushakov, answering Vladimirov, his friend, pursues the same principles: realism, liveliness, accuracy, "mirror" image.

Realistic tendencies, combined with bright, cheerful motifs, were traced in the works of Russian masters and in the painting of churches. The frescoes of the churches of the Trinity in Nikitniki (authors - Vladimirov and Ushakov) in Moscow, Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl (G. Nikitin, S. Savin) and many others amaze with their colorful and rich compositions, ingenuity and optimism, folk spirit and an abundance of everyday details.

4. Portrait genre

Features of realism are also manifested in the portrait genre. If the parsunas (portraits) of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich (1600), Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky (1610) were painted in the usual icon-painting manner, then the works of the middle and 2nd half of the century speak of a desire for portrait resemblance, realistic letter. These include portraits of Tsars Alexei (S. Loputsky), Fedor (I. Bogdanov), Patriarch Nikon (I. Deterson). Realistic landscapes appear on the icons (for example, at Tikhon Filatiev, late XNUMXth century), images of buildings.

But the fine arts, mainly icon painting, also retained a traditionally conservative style, as it was under the close supervision of the state and the church, the activities of painters were controlled by the Kremlin Armory, which since the XNUMXth century. became an art center. Works for the royal court were carried out here: portraits were painted, manuscripts were decorated, furniture and toys were made.

5. Russian architecture of the XNUMXth century

In the XNUMXth century Significant changes have affected architecture. After the Time of Troubles, stone architecture began to revive. In Moscow, the walls and towers of the Kremlin are being restored; above its main gate, Spassky, a beautiful tent superstructure is erected, which gives the tower a festive and solemn look. Another new detail appears in the appearance of the tower - the chimes.

The main building material was still wood. The pinnacle of wooden architecture of the 1667th century. is a luxurious royal palace in Kolomenskoye (1668-XNUMX), dismantled "for dilapidation" a century later, under Catherine II. Contemporaries called it the eighth wonder of the world. The following principles have been widely used here:

1) square;

2) rectangular;

3) cruciform;

4) octagonal support for the main building;

5) high gable roof;

6) tent;

7) 5-chapter completion.

The Tsar's Palace in Kolomenskoye consisted of multi-frame choirs placed on basements (lower floors of economic importance). The facades of residential front rooms were richly decorated with carved architraves and various endings in the form of tents, barrels, cubed and ledge roofs.

6. Rise of civil architecture

The rise of civil architecture, clearly manifested in the late XV - early XVI centuries. in the construction of the Kremlin Palace, had a worthy continuation in the XNUMXth century. On an unprecedented scale were built:

1) palaces;

2) administrative buildings;

3) residential buildings;

4) guest yards.

The architectural appearance of these buildings reflected the desire of architects to create completely new types of buildings, to develop a new style.

The Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, built in 1635-1636, seemed to defy the building traditions of the previous century with its size and magnificent decor.

Gradually, the volume of brick construction increased - mainly the buildings of government agencies, commercial and industrial enterprises. The use of multi-colored tiles, figured bricks, and white stone details began, which gave the buildings a festive look. Traditional temple construction reached its peak. In the XNUMXth century the grandiose Rostov Kremlin was built, the design of the Joseph-Volokolamsky, Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky monasteries was completed.

The rapidly developing trade needed modern trading yards for Russian and foreign merchants. Gostiny Dvor in Arkhangelsk (1668-1684) was built according to a special plan within the boundaries of a closed courtyard. Its territory included walls with towers, various premises (storage, residential, commercial) and a church.

The residential architecture of the province reflected local traditions. Often, wooden chambers towered above the stone chambers, living in which was considered more beneficial to health. But due to frequent fires, wealthy citizens increasingly abandoned wooden superstructures. The picturesqueness of residential architecture was emphasized by the elegant asymmetry of the porches and the tinting of decorative details. At this time, the principle of regularity gradually began to prevail in architectural buildings.

At the end of the XVII century. a new style of temple architecture arises - the Moscow baroque, which was used to build small churches in the estates of Russian nobles. It was in this style that the Church of the Intercession in Fili was built. It uses a tower type of construction, a combination of red brick for the main masonry and white stone for decoration. The buildings are distinguished by elegance and a variety of decorative decoration.

Such architecture was called by researchers the Moscow, or Naryshkin, Baroque. However, although some of its details are made in the European Baroque style, there are many motifs in it that go back to the architecture of the Renaissance and Mannerism. Naryshkin buildings have amazing organicity, integrity and artistic perfection. The development of Russian art has always been distinguished by its peculiarities, which did not fit into the European framework. When the Renaissance flourished in Europe, there was still a deep Middle Ages in Russia. The architecture of the Naryshkin style became a bridge between the old and the new, between Byzantine and European.

Author: Konstantinova S.V.

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