LECTURE No. 8. The golden age of Russian culture. 1st half

1. General characteristics of the culture of this period

The fate of Russia in the first half of the XNUMXth century was ambiguous. These years began with the victory in the Patriotic War, and ended with the unsuccessful Crimean War.

The first half of the 1th century, the time of Pushkin, is called the Golden Age of Russian culture. Its beginning coincided with the era of classicism in Russian literature and art. After the defeat of the Decembrists, a new upsurge in the social movement began. This gave hope that Russia would gradually cope with its difficulties. The country achieved the most impressive successes in these years in the field of science and especially culture. The first half of the century gave Russia and the world Pushkin and Lermontov, Griboyedov and Gogol, Belinsky and Herzen, Glinka and Dargomyzhsky, Bryullov, Ivanov and Fedotov.

2. Development of education, literature and science

During the period of transformations of the beginning of the XIX century. the public education system was reformed. In 1803, six educational districts headed by trustees and four categories of educational institutions were created. According to the Charter of 1804, the universities became centers for the training of pedagogical personnel, carried out the methodological guidance of schools in the educational district. In 1802, Dorpat University was restored, in 1804 universities were founded in Vilna, Kazan, and Kharkov. Universities enjoyed significant self-government rights.

At the beginning of the century, closed educational institutions for nobles appeared - lyceums (in Yaroslavl, Odessa, Tsarskoye Selo), higher educational institutions were opened (Commercial Institute, Institute of Communications).

As early as the beginning of the 1813th century. N. M. Karamzin wrote about "the love of reading in Russia." In 66 there were 64 printing houses in Russia. The number of periodicals by the middle of the century had grown from 200 titles to XNUMX.

Relying on the achievements of European science, Russian scientists have achieved major successes. The centers of scientific thought were:

1) Academy of Sciences;

2) universities;

3) scientific societies.

Mathematics achieved outstanding successes:

1) N. I. Lobachevsky (creator of non-Euclidean geometry);

2) P. V. Chebyshev;

3) astronomer V. Ya. Struve;

4) chemist N. N. Zinin.

The level of development of world science corresponded to the discoveries and inventions of Professor V. V. Petrov (electrochemistry and electrometallurgy), Academician B. S. Jacobi (electroplating), P. L. Schilling (electromagnetic telegraph), P. P. Anosov (metallurgy). New ideas in medicine and physiology were put forward by N. I. Pirogov. Among the historians of this period, Professor of Moscow University T. N. Granovsky stands out.

In 1811, Russian sailors led by Captain V. M. Golovkin (1776-1831) explored the Kuril Islands. F. P. Litke (1797-1882) explored the Arctic Ocean, the shores of Kamchatka and America, founded the Russian Geographical Society. In 1819, Russia sent an expedition to the southern polar seas on two sloops led by F. F. Bellingshausen (1778-1852). Major geographical discoveries in the Russian Far East are associated with the name of G. I. Nevelsky (1813-1876).

In 1819, persecution began at the universities, and theological departments were established in them. The rigid "cast-iron" charter of 1828 for lower and secondary educational institutions determined that children of "people of lower status" should study in parish schools, children of merchants, artisans and other orozhans in district schools, and children of nobles and officials in gymnasiums. In 1835, the universities were deprived of the status of scientific centers, as well as internal autonomy. To train qualified personnel, technical higher educational institutions were opened:

1) Moscow vocational school;

2) Architectural school;

3) Medical and Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg;

4) Lazarevsky Institute of Oriental Languages ​​in Moscow;

5) Spiritual, military schools and academies.

Social thought in Russia at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. developed in the tradition of the Enlightenment. Ideas spread:

1) Montesquieu;

2) Diderot;

3) Voltaire;

4) Rousseau.

However, only a small part of society considered it necessary to reform autocratic rule and abolish serfdom. The bulk of the nobility and bureaucracy were conservative.

1st half of the 1815th century became the time of the formation of the Russian literary language. Russian scientific terminology expanded - verbal departments were opened at universities. "Freed the language from the alien yoke" N. M. Karamzin. The followers of Karamzin created the association "Arzamas" (1818-XNUMX).

3. Literature and social thought

In the literature of the 1st half of the XIX century. different artistic directions coexisted:

1) classicism;

2) sentimentalism;

3) pre-romanticism;

4) romanticism;

5) realism.

At this time, A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol create their works.

The significance of literature in Russia in the first half of the century was enormous. In scientific and literary societies, in circles of students and teachers, secular salons, topical political problems were discussed.

An important stage in the development of national identity was the Patriotic War of 1812. At the same time, after the war, religious sentiments intensified in society. Fearing the influence of the European revolutionary movement, the government increased political control within the country.

In 1814-1815. the first secret organizations arose in the army, whose task was to change the existing system. In 1816, on the initiative of the brothers Muravyov, S. P. Trubetskoy, the brothers Muravyov-Apostles and I. D. Yakushkin, the Union of Salvation was created. The Union had about 200 members. At the congress held in January 1821, opinions on the Union's program of action were divided. The leadership announced the dissolution of the Welfare Union. But immediately after that, the conspiratorial Northern and Southern Societies arose simultaneously.

In 1824, the Southern Society adopted a program document ("Russian Truth" by P. I. Pestel). The Northern Society adopted the "Constitution" of Nikita Muravyov. In 1824, during the negotiations, it was decided to convene a congress at the beginning of 1826 to unite the two societies. But in November 1825, Alexander I suddenly died in Taganrog, and after the issue of succession to the throne was clarified, the oath to the new emperor Nikolai Pavlovich was scheduled for December 14, 1825. The leaders of the Northern Society, K. F. Ryleev and A. A. Bestuzhev, decided to act.

Nicholas I became aware of the conspiracy. Of the 579 people involved in the investigation, 289 were found guilty. K. F. Ryleev, P. I. Pestel, S. I. Muravyov-Apostol, M. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P. G. Kakhovsky were hanged on July 13, 1826.

A. I. Herzen called the period that came after the defeat of the Decembrists "the time of external slavery." The censorship charter of 1826 forbade everything that "weakens respect" for the authorities.

In the 30s. XNUMXth century is being developed:

1) the genre of the story (A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, V. F. Odoevsky);

2) historical novel (A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol).

In poetry, the authors of the so-called Pushkin galaxy stand out.

Early 1th century - the time of the formation of Russian journalism. The number of newspapers and magazines increased significantly, their circulation increased, although even the most popular publications were printed in no more than 500 copies. Among Russian magazines, Vestnik Evropy, founded by N. M. Karamzin, was especially popular.

In the second half of the 2s - early 20s. 30th century Numerous secret circles were formed in Russia. Their members discussed political and philosophical problems, tried to comprehend the events of December 14, 1825, and read forbidden literature. Circles were created at Moscow University: V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. V. Stankevich, and others. Most of them were dispersed by the police.

The ever-increasing censorship was primarily directed against periodicals, which played a large role in the ideological struggle. In 1836, the magazine "Telescope" published one of the "Philosophical Letters" by P. Ya. Chaadaev (1794-1856), a bright and original thinker.

S. S. Uvarov, who became the Minister of Public Education, proposed introducing a "truly Russian" education, which was based on three inseparable principles: Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality. The theory of "official nationality" by S. S. Uvarov became the basis of the ideology of the Nikolaev era.

In the 1830s and 40s the main directions of social thought are formed, proceeding from the need for transformations in Russia. Their representatives called themselves:

1) Slavophiles;

2) Westerners;

3) revolutionaries.

4. Theater

Theater began to play an increasingly prominent role in public life. The centers of theatrical life were the Maly Theater in Moscow (since 1824) and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg (since 1832). Theaters existed in many cities of Russia. In 1825, the Bolshoi Opera and Ballet Theater began operating in Moscow. Both "Woe from Wit" by A. S. Griboyedov and "The Inspector General" by N. V. Gogol were staged. Composers such as A. A. Alyabyev, A. L. Gurilev, A. E. Varlamov wrote songs and romances based on poems by Russian poets.

The formation of the Russian national school in music is associated with the name of M. I. Glinka (1804-1857), the author of romances, symphonic works, classical operas A Life for the Tsar (1836), Ruslan and Lyudmila (1842). A. S. Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869) was an innovator in music. He created the opera-ballet The Triumph of Bacchus, the operas Mermaid and The Stone Guest.

Although foreign troupes and serf theaters continued to play a large role in the theatrical life of Russia, some Russian landowners became theater entrepreneurs. Their theaters were turned into public ones. In the same years, Glinka's opera A Life for the Tsar was staged at the Bolshoi Theater (subsequently it was performed on the Soviet stage under the name Ivan Susanin).

The brightness of musical colors, the ingenious lightness of technique and classical simplicity are also distinguished by another opera by Glinka - Ruslan and Lyudmila, which was coldly received by the public. Pushkin's plot also formed the basis of the opera "Mermaid" by A. S. Dargomyzhsky. This opera also met with a cold reception from the public, accustomed to the music of Italian composers.

5. Painting

The beginning of the XNUMXth century is called the golden age of Russian painting. At this time, Russian artists reached such a level of skill that put their works on a par with the best examples of European art. The primacy remained with the historical genre.

A well-known portrait painter of this time was O. A. Kiprensky (1782-1836). His painting attracts with warm golden tones in the spirit of the Dutch artist Rembrandt. Around 1808-1809 Kiprensky wrote "Portrait of a Boy A. A. Chelishchev". The artist seemed to predict the extraordinary fate of his hero: at the age of 15 he already participated in the Patriotic War of 1812 and reached Paris. The female images of Kiprensky have great depth.

V. A. Tropinin (1776-1857) was born into a family of serfs, Count Morkov. A strong character and love for art helped him defend his right to do what he loves. In 1823, under pressure from the public, the count gave Tropinin his freedom. In the same year, the artist presented to the academy the works "Portrait of the Artist Skotnikov" (1821), "The Old Beggar Man" and "The Lacemaker" (both in 1823). Having received freedom, the artist settled in Moscow. In the period from the 20s to the 40s. 1827th century the master was unusually popular and wrote many works. Among them are a portrait of Pushkin (1846) - very simple and "homely", "Self-portrait with a palette against the backdrop of the Kremlin" (XNUMX), etc.

The famous artist S. F. Shchedrin (1791-1830) was one of the first to discover the unusual color effect of the moonlit path, which became very popular in Russian painting in the middle and second half of the 2th century. His work anticipated the discoveries of the French Impressionist painters. K. P. Bryullov (1799-1852) managed to find the golden mean between classicism that dominated academic painting and new romantic trends.

The first major work of 18-year-old Alexander Ivanov (1806-1858) on a plot from Homer's Iliad - "Priam asking Achilles for the body of Hector" (1824) - showed that he perfectly mastered the academic style of painting. In the painting "The Appearance of Christ to Mary Magdalene" (1834-1836), the classical posing and gestures of the heroes are combined with the Christian enlightenment of their faces, a sense of miracle. For this picture, Ivanov received the title of academician. For more than 20 years, the author has been working on the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People".

6. Architecture and sculpture

In XNUMXth century architecture dominated by classicism. Buildings built in this style are distinguished by a clear and calm rhythm, correct proportions; they clearly comply with such laws of architectural composition as:

1) symmetry;

2) underlining the center;

3) the general harmony of parts and the whole.

There were significant differences in the architecture of St. Petersburg and Moscow. Even in the middle of the XVIII century. Petersburg was a city of architectural masterpieces, immersed in the greenery of estates and was in many ways similar to Moscow. Then the regular building of the city began along the avenues that cut through it, rays diverging from the Admiralty. St. Petersburg classicism is not the architecture of individual buildings, but of entire ensembles that amaze with their unity and harmony. Work on streamlining the center of the new capital began with the construction of the Admiralty building according to the project of A. D. Zakharov (1761-1811).

Construction was of fundamental importance at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. the Exchange building on the track of Vasilyevsky Island. The new building united the rest of the ensembles in this part of the city. The design of the Exchange and the design of the arrow were entrusted to the French architect Thomas de Thomon.

Nevsky Prospekt, the main thoroughfare of St. Petersburg, has acquired the form of a single ensemble since its construction in 1810-1811. Kazan Cathedral. It was built on the model of St. Peter in Rome by the architect A. N. Voronikhin (1759-1814). In 1806, A. N. Voronikhin received an order to rebuild the buildings of the Mining Cadet Corps (since 1833 - the Mining Institute). Having preserved the existing buildings, Voronikhin united them with a common facade - strict, devoid of decorative details. The building is decorated with a series of sculptural works based on ancient scenes, symbolizing the purpose of this institution. They were made by sculptors V. I. Demut-Malinovsky (1779-1846) and S. Pimenov (1784-1833).

For forty years, from 1818 to 1858, St. Isaac's Cathedral was built in St. Petersburg - the largest building erected in Russia in the first half of the 1th century. The project was developed by the French architect O. Montferrand (1786-1858).

The triumphal motifs of the Alexander Column were embodied in the sculptural decoration of the arch of the General Staff Building, which engulfed Palace Square from the south. At the same time, the building of the General Staff, built according to the project of K. I. Rossi, seemed to repeat the solemn major motifs of the Admiralty, located obliquely from it. Thus, the ensemble of Palace Square was connected with the ensemble of Admiralteisky Prospekt.

The final work on the formation of St. Petersburg ensembles is associated with the work of K. I. Rossi (1775-1849). Buildings were built according to his design.

1. Senate and Synod.

2. Alexandria Theatre.

3. Mikhailovsky Palace (now the Russian Museum).

Not limited to the construction of individual buildings, the famous maestro rebuilt the streets and squares adjacent to them. These works acquired such a scope that it seemed that Rossi was close to realizing his dream - to turn the whole city into a work of art. However, the architect did not take into account the daily needs of the people living in the city, and his creations began to turn into grandiose decorations.

Manifestations of Moscow classicism were characteristic of individual buildings. Even the fire of 1812 did not eliminate the diversity of Moscow streets, the picturesque randomness of buildings.

In 1813, the Commission for the Restoration of Moscow was organized, which was engaged in the restructuring of the city for thirty years. In the same year, O. I. Bove (1784-1834) returned to Moscow from the people's militia, having received the post of architect.

In the first decades of the XIX century. Moscow has taken on a new look. And in this, along with Osip Bove, Domenico Gilardi (1785-1845) played an important role. The first major work of the architect was the restoration of Moscow University after the fire of 1812. Gilardi kept the composition of the building built by M. F. Kazakov, but changed the facade.

At the same time, the architect Stasov continued his work. His most famous buildings were two St. Petersburg churches - the Transfiguration and Trinity Cathedrals. For the Transfiguration Cathedral (1827-1829), the architect chose a simple and expressive cube shape. When designing the Trinity Cathedral (1828-1835), the master could not deviate from the forms of the old churches of the 6th century. As a result, he erected a cruciform building, completing each of the ledges of the cross with a 1-column portico and crowning it with a small dome on a smooth drum. Stasov occupied a special place in Russian architecture of the first half of the XNUMXth century, showing that a bright architectural solution does not depend on the purpose of the building.

In 1839-1852. According to the project of the German architect Leo Klenze, the building of the New Hermitage was built in St. Petersburg. The calm balance of its parts, decoration in the modern Greek style, powerful granite atlantes at the entrance - all this created an impressive image of the museum - a repository of masterpieces of world art.

K. A. Ton (1794-1881) in his work tried to revive the traditions of ancient Russian architecture. He built 5-domed churches with narrow rounded windows, used Russian and Byzantine decor. All this was subject to the strict proportions and symmetry of classicism, which Tone could not refuse. Nicholas I liked Ton's works. In 1838-1849. under his leadership, the Grand Kremlin Palace was built. In 1839, on the banks of the Moskva River, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was laid to commemorate the deliverance of Russia from the Napoleonic invasion.

Sculpture also flourished. A monument to Minin and Pozharsky was erected on Red Square - the work of I.P. Martos (1754-1835). Following the traditions of classicism, the sculptor dressed his heroes in antique clothes.

In the 40-50s. 1805th century Nevsky Prospekt was adorned with bronze sculptures by PK Klodt (1867-XNUMX) "Horse Tamers", installed on the foundations of the Anichkov Bridge across the Fontanka. The monument to Nicholas I on St. Isaac's Square in St. Petersburg also belongs to Klodt.

Author: Konstantinova S.V.

<< Back: Russian culture 1725-1800 (General characteristics of the culture of the era of “palace coups” and Catherine’s reign. Education. Science. Literature and social thought. Theatre. Painting. Architecture, sculpture)

>> Forward: Culture of the second half of the Golden Age (General characteristics of the era. Education. Science. Literature and social thought. Museums. Theater. Music. Painting. Architecture and sculpture)

We recommend interesting articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets:

▪ Database. Lecture notes

▪ Criminal process. Lecture notes

▪ Budget law. Crib

See other articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets.

Read and write useful comments on this article.

<< Back

Latest news of science and technology, new electronics:

The existence of an entropy rule for quantum entanglement has been proven 09.05.2024

Quantum mechanics continues to amaze us with its mysterious phenomena and unexpected discoveries. Recently, Bartosz Regula from the RIKEN Center for Quantum Computing and Ludovico Lamy from the University of Amsterdam presented a new discovery that concerns quantum entanglement and its relation to entropy. Quantum entanglement plays an important role in modern quantum information science and technology. However, the complexity of its structure makes understanding and managing it challenging. Regulus and Lamy's discovery shows that quantum entanglement follows an entropy rule similar to that for classical systems. This discovery opens new perspectives in the field of quantum information science and technology, deepening our understanding of quantum entanglement and its connection to thermodynamics. The results of the study indicate the possibility of reversibility of entanglement transformations, which could greatly simplify their use in various quantum technologies. Opening a new rule ... >>

Mini air conditioner Sony Reon Pocket 5 09.05.2024

Summer is a time for relaxation and travel, but often the heat can turn this time into an unbearable torment. Meet a new product from Sony - the Reon Pocket 5 mini-air conditioner, which promises to make summer more comfortable for its users. Sony has introduced a unique device - the Reon Pocket 5 mini-conditioner, which provides body cooling on hot days. With it, users can enjoy coolness anytime, anywhere by simply wearing it around their neck. This mini air conditioner is equipped with automatic adjustment of operating modes, as well as temperature and humidity sensors. Thanks to innovative technologies, Reon Pocket 5 adjusts its operation depending on the user's activity and environmental conditions. Users can easily adjust the temperature using a dedicated mobile app connected via Bluetooth. Additionally, specially designed T-shirts and shorts are available for convenience, to which a mini air conditioner can be attached. The device can oh ... >>

Energy from space for Starship 08.05.2024

Producing solar energy in space is becoming more feasible with the advent of new technologies and the development of space programs. The head of the startup Virtus Solis shared his vision of using SpaceX's Starship to create orbital power plants capable of powering the Earth. Startup Virtus Solis has unveiled an ambitious project to create orbital power plants using SpaceX's Starship. This idea could significantly change the field of solar energy production, making it more accessible and cheaper. The core of the startup's plan is to reduce the cost of launching satellites into space using Starship. This technological breakthrough is expected to make solar energy production in space more competitive with traditional energy sources. Virtual Solis plans to build large photovoltaic panels in orbit, using Starship to deliver the necessary equipment. However, one of the key challenges ... >>

Random news from the Archive Titanic is being eaten by bacteria 16.07.2018 In 15-20 years, there will be no trace of the infamous ship. The voracious micro-organisms that feed on rusty iron at the bottom of the sea are called extremophile bacteria. Extremophiles got their name because of the ability to live and breed in the most difficult conditions. They tolerate high and low temperatures, high and variable salinity, huge pressure, lack of oxygen and lack of light. These are the conditions at the bottom of the Atlantic. In 1991, rust samples were taken from the sunken ship. A decade later, in 2010, scientists discovered metal eaters on them. After more in-depth research, they came to the conclusion that the legendary Titanic had 15-20 years left before it completely disappeared. “Due to the fact that the Titanic is at a depth of 3800 meters, it cannot be saved,” Professor Henrietta Mann from Dalhousie University in Halifax (Canada) sadly states. “I only hope that our study will at least contribute to deepening knowledge about bacteria. There are oil platforms in the ocean, steel pipes and other structures that can "melt" just like the Titanic. It would be good to know how to protect them."

Other interesting news:

▪ Concave image sensor developed

▪ Pharmacist robot

▪ Human-mouse hybrid

▪ Economic technology of carbon capture by algae

▪ Unlock your gadget with your ear

News feed of science and technology, new electronics

Interesting materials of the Free Technical Library:

▪ section of the site Intercoms. Article selection

▪ article In the liver to sit. Popular expression

▪ article What physical law helped to convict speculators of illegal insider trading? Detailed answer

▪ article Microtractor-station wagon. Personal transport

▪ article Portable bridge for measuring R and C on two transistors. Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering

▪ article Mushrooms from the ball. Focus Secret

Leave your comment on this article:

All languages ​​of this page

Arabic	Hebrew	Polish
Bengali	Hindi	Portuguese
Chinese	Italian	Spanish
English	Japanese	Turkish
French	Korean	Ukrainian
German	Malay	Vietnamese

Home page | Library | Articles | Website map | Site Reviews

www.diagram.com.ua
2000-2024