LECTURE No. 11. Russian culture of the 20-30s. XNUMXth century

1. General characteristics of the era

Cultural life of the Soviet Union in the 1920-30s. contradictory: the elimination of illiteracy of the adult population, familiarization with the achievements of culture, ideological pressure, the fight against any manifestations of dissent, the persecution of religion, the expulsion of prominent cultural figures from the country and repression against those who remained.

Writers and composers who began their creative life in the revolutionary years continued to create. At the same time, there were various trends in literature and art in the country: from classical realism to modernism in its most diverse manifestations.

The revolution in October 1917 changed the direction of development of Russian art. In the first half of the 20s. artists still continued their experiments and searches, but artistic life was under increasing ideological pressure from the state. Many masters were forced to go abroad, and the rest were persecuted in the press.

From the mid 1920s. the variety of creative directions began to gradually disappear. The activities of writers, artists, composers, and artists were controlled by the political authorities. When evaluating works of literature and art, their party affiliation came to the fore. In the 1930s in the art of the USSR, the "Great style" is affirmed. Avant-garde delights turned out to be completely unnecessary for the new society. Therefore, since the beginning of the 1930s. the first signs of a return to the outwardly traditional in culture are observed.

The state ideology put forward socialist realism as the main artistic method - academic art, designed to educate people in the spirit of communist morality. In 1932, all independent associations were banned by a special government decree and a state system of creative unions was created - the Union of Artists of the USSR, the Union of Architects of the USSR, etc.

2. Education and science. Sport

Theorists of Russian Marxism in the 1920s. They established a stamp in ideology according to which a “cultural revolution” took place during this period. The population census in 1920 revealed 54 million illiterate people in the country, so the task of eliminating illiteracy was one of the main ones. Thousands of literacy schools (educational schools) were created. Along with the elimination of illiteracy, the propaganda tasks of consolidating the Bolshevik ideology were also solved. This work was supervised by the Glavpolitprosvet." The network of workers' clubs, reading rooms, and libraries was increasing. FZU schools became a new form of training for workers. Personnel were also trained in technical schools, special schools, and short-term courses.

Serious changes have been made in the system of higher and secondary specialized education in the country. During the odes of the civil war, much was done to make universities accessible to working people. Entrance exams were canceled, and everyone who wanted to enter universities was accepted.

In the 1920s a special form of higher education arose - workers' faculties (workers' faculties). Measures were taken to radically change the curricula of higher educational institutions and universities, to remove professors and teachers disloyal to the government from universities. In 1921, the Institute of Red Professors (IKP) was established in Moscow to train Marxist teachers in higher education. By the end of the 30s. in all the union republics there were higher educational institutions, and in all their capitals - universities. In terms of the number of students studying at universities and technical schools, the Soviet Union came to one of the first places in the world.

Large-scale construction unfolded during the years of the first five-year plan (1928-1933). At this time, pedagogical institutes, colleges and technical schools produced a significant number of specialists.

The center of scientific life was the Moscow Academy of Sciences, which united the best scientists within its walls. The Soviet government, in order to develop science and increase the number of scientists, initiated the creation of republican academies of sciences, as well as branch academies (medical sciences, etc.). A whole network of design and design offices was organized, through which ideas were introduced into production.

It should be noted that the state to a certain extent supported the natural and technical sciences. The humanities find themselves in a much more difficult position.

In 1929, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after V.I. V. I. Lenin (VASKHNIL, president - N. I. Vavilov). Until his death in 1936, the well-known Russian physiologist IP Pavlov continued his research. Breeder I. V. Michurin achieved great success. A prominent role in the development of world science was played by the Institute of Genetics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Plant Growing (VIR). However, many prominent scientists were soon repressed, including N. I. Vavilov, S. P. Korolev, and others. The development of promising scientific areas (genetics, etc.) was interrupted for a long time.

The Institute of History was also formed. In the 30s. 1th century the teaching of history is being developed in secondary and higher schools. On September 1934, XNUMX, the history faculties were restored at Moscow and Leningrad universities. The Moscow Institute of History, Philosophy and Literature played an important role in the training of specialists in the humanities.

The leaders of the Soviet government also took measures to develop sports: athletes were awarded orders, were given cash prizes, and were awarded the title of Honored Masters of Sports of the USSR. In the 30s. a whole galaxy of outstanding athletes appeared who began to set world records.

3. Literature. public thought. Public life. Cinema. Theatre

In 1934, the first All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers took place. Two years later, the Union of Writers of the USSR was created under the leadership of M. Gorky, and socialist realism was proclaimed the only official trend in Soviet literature. The dominance of socialist realism in subsequent years isolated Soviet art from the achievements of world culture.

Massively created various groups and associations. One of the influential literary groups, the Serapion Brothers (1921), united mainly prose writers (K. A. Fedin, V. V. Ivanov, M. M. Zoshchenko, V. A. Kaverin). The literary group "Pass" was created at the magazine "Krasnaya Nov" (M. Prishvin, V. Kataev). Members of the group advocated the preservation of the continuity of the traditions of Russian and world literature. In 1924, the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) arose. Another literary group, the Left Front of the Arts (LEF, 1922), included the poets V. V. Mayakovsky, N. N. Aseev, and S. M. Tretyakov. Some prominent writers and poets did not belong to any groups and associations.

In the early 20s. XNUMXth century poetry dominated literature. Due to the lack of paper, a form of "oral" poetry spread:

1) literary evenings;

2) concerts;

3) disputes.

There are also new stories and novels by great masters of prose - for example, A. N. Tolstoy ("Walking through the torments" (1921)). Against the backdrop of the revolutionary era, symbolist and formalist works became widespread. The problem of the hero was relegated to the background for some time, and the problems of plot, form and style came to the fore. In prose, there has been a turn towards greater concretization and individualization of images. Books of intimate, detective content began to appear, and social prose also appeared.

From the second half of the 1920s. literary works began to be filled with the same cliches, the range of plot topics was limited. Satirical novels built on adventurous social-utopian plots have become widespread. The writers closest to the authorities were provided with high fees, spacious apartments and summer cottages, and high-quality medical care. So the totalitarian regime tamed many cultural figures. A "Soviet artistic intelligentsia" began to take shape.

However, even during these years, both within the mainstream and outside it, significant works were created:

1) "Quiet Flows the Don" and the 1st part of "Virgin Soil Upturned" by M. A. Sholokhov;

2) "The Master and Margarita" by M. A. Bulgakov;

3) poems and poems by A. A. Akhmatova, P. N. Vasiliev, N. A. Klyuev, O. E. Mandelstam, M. I. Tsvetaeva;

4) novels and stories by A. M. Gorky, A. N. Tolstoy, N. A. Ostrovsky, A. A. Fadeev, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, etc.

The transition to the NEP brought to life the movement of "Smenovekhovites", which embraced part of the Russian intelligentsia (from the name of the socio-political collection of 6 articles by the authors of the cadet orientation - N. V. Ustryalova, Yu. A. Klyuchnikov and others - "Change of milestones"), which recognized the deeply Russian character of the revolution, noted the coincidence of the interests of the Soviet government and the needs of the Russian state.

The Church, as the bearer of the spiritual values ​​of the people, could not come to terms with the Bolshevik approach to culture and education of the masses, which was accompanied by the substitution of universal human values ​​for class criteria. Hence the merciless struggle against religion launched by the Soviet government in the 1920s and 1930s. All religious denominations widespread in the USSR were persecuted:

1) Orthodoxy;

2) Protestantism;

3) Catholicism;

4) Uniatism;

5) Islam;

6) Buddhism;

7) Judaism;

8) various forms of sectarianism.

Cinema still plays an important role. Talented directors, cameramen, actors created films that had an indelible impact on the minds of people ("Bright Path", "Volga-Volga", "Pig and Shepherd"). Members of the party leadership personally watched almost all the films released and were the highest censors. On the stages of many famous theaters (MKhAT, Maly Theatre), along with the classics in the 1920s. plays by new playwrights on revolutionary themes were staged.

4. Painting

The development of art was also accompanied by the struggle of various directions. The Association of Artists of the Revolution (AKhR, 1922) was the most massive art organization, which aimed to develop the Wandering traditions in the spirit of "artistic documentaryism." Members of the AHR created many beautiful paintings (works by I. A. Brodsky, E. M. Cheptsov, K. F. Yuon). The AHR, like the RAPP, claimed a monopoly in art.

Another significant association - the "Society of Easel Artists" (OST, 1925), organized by graduates of VKhUTEMAS, sought to create paintings that were modern not only in their content, but also in visual means (works by A. E. Deineka, Yu. N Pimenova and others).

The Society of Artists "4 Arts" (1924) was formed from among the former members of the associations "Blue Rose", "World of Art". An impeccable professional culture, artistry, fidelity to tradition and, at the same time, bold searches characterized the members of this group (works by P. G. Kuznetsov, K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, M. S. Saryan, and others).

The founder of Suprematism K. S. Malevich and V. Kandinsky also worked fruitfully.

The creative manner of K. S. Petrov-Vodkin (1878-1939) is peculiar. Impressions from ancient Russian icons and canvases of the Italian Renaissance, Russian Art Nouveau and French Fauvism are intricately intertwined in his paintings. The result of the quest of Petrov-Vodkin was a real masterpiece - "Bathing the Red Horse" (1912). Very important for this artist was the image of the mother. One of the most significant works on this subject was the painting "1918 in Petrograd" ("Petrograd Madonna", 1920).

The work of Marc Chagall (1887-1985), covering almost the entire XNUMXth century, has become one of the most interesting pages of both Russian and European painting. He easily mastered the traditions of different countries, eras and styles, while retaining his unique handwriting. The image of his native and surprisingly dear provincial Vitebsk became one of the themes of Chagall's work.

V. E. Tatlin (1885-1953) - the artist of the Russian avant-garde, the founder of constructivism, who called the process of his work: "construction of materials", "culture of materials", etc.

In the 1920s a number of artistic trends retained continuity with the art of Russian modern and avant-garde. On the other hand, new types of artistic activity arose: cinema, advertising, design.

Painting was tightly controlled. Paintings and sculptures of historical and revolutionary content, portraits of leaders and leaders of labor were especially valued. Many artists went into landscape painting, into other neutral themes, but even there they were obliged to strictly observe the established forms. Already in the 1920s. critics noted the picturesque "turn towards realism".

5. Architecture and sculpture

As a result of the nationalization of land and large real estate in the cities, the state became the sole customer for construction work in Soviet Russia. In the first post-revolutionary decade, his ideological dictatorship had not yet affected art. Open competitions, discussions, original projects and teaching systems in art universities made up a picture of an unprecedented creative upsurge in the late 1910s-1920s. Architecture during the 1920s characterized by an intensive search for new styles, innovative forms. In the first half of the 1s, when construction was limited, projects for various buildings (dwelling houses, labor palaces, workers' clubs, communal houses) were widely developed. The development was an architectural style based on the so-called constructivism. Neoclassicism began to revive. The most grandiose, albeit unfulfilled, plan was the construction of the Palace of Soviets in Moscow on the site of the blown up Cathedral of Christ the Savior. The palace was supposed to be crowned with a huge statue of Lenin.

A striking example of technical innovation is the Moscow radio tower, erected in 1922 according to the project of V. G. Shukhov (1853-1939). He was one of the first to use steel mesh structures of double curvature - hyperboloids, which had a great future in world construction practice. The project for the development of the capital anticipated the later urban planning ideas of the West.

In 1929-1930. a lively discussion about settling in a socialist society unfolded - a dispute between "urbanists" and "de-urbanists". The first (including A. A. and L. A. Vesnin) put forward the idea of ​​creating communal cities with hotel-type housing and the complete socialization of all forms of cultural and community services, including even the upbringing of children. Their opponents (M. Ya. Ginzburg and others) considered it possible to replace cities with a network of highways, along which residential buildings stretched in a continuous ribbon, and behind them - industrial and agricultural strips. At the same time, each family was supposed to be endowed with a typical house and a car.

In the early 30s. 1932th century in the development of Soviet architecture there was a sharp turning point. In XNUMX, all associations were merged into the Union of Architects of the USSR. Many buildings appeared, unpleasantly striking in size and abundance of decorations.

At the same time, mass construction was carried out in the country. Model projects of residential buildings, schools, and public institutions were developed. The development of the construction industry was aimed primarily at reducing the cost and speeding up work: since 1927 cinder blocks began to be used, in 1940 the first panel houses were built.

In 1935, large-scale work began on the reconstruction of Moscow (the author of the project was V. N. Semenov). By 1941, the ensemble of the Moscow center was re-formed, the system of transport arteries of the city was updated, 9 new bridges were built across the Moscow and Yauza rivers and granite embankments, three metro lines, green areas of the Gorky Central Park of Culture and Recreation were laid out.

The art of sculpture acquired special social and political significance in Russia after 1917. Soviet propaganda sought to create an image of modernity as a heroic era; a fairy tale that becomes a reality before our eyes.

For some time, Soviet sculpture still retained echoes of impressionism, modernity and avant-garde of the early 1920th century, but by the end of the 1887s. the main reference point for most sculptors was the classics. Here, for the first time, the intensely dramatic composition of ID Shadr (1941-1889) "Cobblestone - the weapon of the proletariat" was shown; the majestic, inspired by the image of the Russian Empire, the group of A. T. Matveev "October. Worker, peasant and Red Army soldier" and the statues of V. I. Mukhina (1953-1927) "Peasant woman" and "Worker and collective farm woman" (both XNUMX).

Author: Konstantinova S.V.

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