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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
History of world and domestic culture. Culture of Russia in the 16th century (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) LECTURE No. 4. Russian culture in the XNUMXth century 1. General characteristics of the era The process of folding a single centralized state was reflected in the development of Russian culture. Many features of the development of local cultural traditions were lost. Entire icon-painting schools disappeared, as happened, for example, with Tver icon-painting. Art of the XNUMXth century closely related to the interests of the state. In the reign of Ivan IV, the state began to directly control art. Such measures, of course, harmed art, encouraging handicraft and thoughtless repetition of "models". Second half of the XNUMXth century turned out to be unfavorable for the development of Russian culture. Due to the crises of domestic and foreign policy, as well as the disasters of the late XVI century. many cultural processes go deep and declare themselves again only in the next century. 2. Science and literacy During this period, literacy develops in Russia. Knowledge of writing and counting was required in many branches of activity. Birch bark letters from Novgorod and other centers, various written records (chronicles, stories, etc.), inscriptions on handicrafts indicate that literate people were never translated into Russia. Wealthy people kept written records of their households; from the XNUMXth century various types of accounting books have been preserved. There are guides for: 1) grammar; 2) arithmetic; 3) treatment with herbs (alphabets, herbalists, etc.). Accumulated: 1) practical observations; 2) knowledge of construction equipment (were necessary in the construction of buildings); 3) knowledge of dynamics (calculations of the flight range of stones, nuclei). The circle of geographical knowledge was expanded by Russian travelers. They left descriptions of their travels. Such are the merchants V. Poznyakov, T. Korobeinikov (holy places, 2nd half of the XNUMXth century). Russian people, penetrating to the north, to Siberia, made descriptions, "drawings" of new lands; ambassadors - article lists with information about foreign states. An overview of world history was given by "Chronographs" of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, which glorified the activities of princes, church hierarchs, canonized saints, as well as "Life" (Dmitry Donskoy, Sergius of Radonezh, Stefan of Perm, etc.). Translated literary works were in circulation; from them, as well as various collections, educated Russian people drew thoughts, sayings of Democritus, Aristotle and other philosophers and writers. 3. Life and social thought In the writings of religious freethinkers-heretics of the XNUMXth century. bold judgments are preached about the need for a "cheap" church, the meaninglessness of church sacraments and icons. The theses about the trinity of God, the immaculate conception are disputed. The equality of people, peoples, faiths is proclaimed. These reformative, humanistic ideas were strangled in the beginning and middle of the XNUMXth century. A notable feature of the XNUMXth century - the rise of journalism. The most important issues of society become the subject of wide discussion not only by church, but also by secular authors who develop ideas: 1) centralization; 2) strengthening the grand ducal and royal power; 3) the role of the church; 4) about the situation of the peasantry, etc. In the middle and 3rd quarter of the century, a whole galaxy of publicists appeared with their works. I. S. Peresvetov in the autumn of 1549 submitted proposals for reforms to the young Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible. Ermolai-Erasmus, an opponent of nonpossessors and heretics, proposes to alleviate the situation of the peasants. He expressed this idea especially vividly in his treatise "The Ruler and Surveying of the Benevolent King". Sylvester, the king's confessor, comes from the conviction of the need for "righteous acquisition" (that is, profit). These ideas are also developed on the pages of "Domostroy" (in modern terms - home economics) - a set of everyday, moral rules, teachings, which he edited. The most prominent publicists of the oprichnina era were Tsar Ivan the Terrible and his opponent, Prince Andrei Kurbsky. The prince, who fled from Russia to Lithuania from the repressions unleashed by the suspicious and cruel tsar, exposes his behavior and terrorist methods of government. The tsar, reproaching Kurbsky for treason, proceeds from the principle: the tsar is free to pardon, they say, his subjects-serfs, and to execute him too. His opponent, not accepting the royal "fierce", believes that the monarch should rule together with "wise advisers", listen to them, and not be an unlimited autocratic tyrant. They treat the state as a divine creation. True, they draw the opposite conclusions from this. Ivan - about the right to autocracy, Kurbsky - about the sovereign's duty to take care of his subjects. In "The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir" the most important ideas of the official doctrine of autocracy were substantiated, and the family of Moscow sovereigns was erected to "August Caesar". The question of the nature of power was discussed in the controversy between the Josephites and nonpossessors. Nil Sorsky (the leader of the nonpossessors) did not take part in the controversy, but his student, the former disgraced prince Vassian Patrikeyev, paid great attention to it. The second kind of academy in Moscow was the circle of Metropolitan Macarius. From his midst, in particular, came such a monumental collection of ancient Russian literature as the "Great Honored Menaion". The ideology of the Orthodox Church was developed in such journalistic works as the messages of the Elder of the Pskov-Pechora Monastery Philotheus (in the 20s), "The Tale of the Novgorod White Klobuk", the creation of which a number of researchers date back to the 1453th century. These works preach the ideas of the sinfulness of the entire Catholic faith and the role of Russia as the only center of true Christianity after the fall of Constantinople in XNUMX. 4. The appearance of printing in Russia The emergence of book printing in Russia was of great importance. The printing of books began only in the middle of the 1550th century, under Ivan the Terrible. At first it was the so-called. "non-exit printing" (from the 50s), then - with imprint data (i.e., indicating the place, year of publication, etc.). In the early 1563s. XNUMXth century The first printing house begins its activity in Moscow. In XNUMX, Ivan Fedorov began to work in Moscow. He was not only a publisher, but also an editor of books. His first editions in Moscow were books of Holy Scripture. Under unclear circumstances, Ivan Fedorov was forced to move to Lvov. In the XVI century. life basically retained its former features. But there was also something new. They began to use spices in rich houses (cinnamon, cloves, etc.), lemons, raisins, almonds; sausage eaten with buckwheat porridge. The fashion for skullcaps (tafias) spread - this was condemned by the Stoglavy Cathedral. More stone houses were built, although most of them remained wooden. Russians were fond of playing checkers and chess. Interest in narrative, fiction literature, characteristic of the 2nd half of the XNUMXth century, has declined significantly. 5. Painting In the XVI century. The themes of ancient Russian painting began to expand significantly. Much more often than before, artists turn to the plots and images of the Old Testament, to the instructive narratives of parables and, most importantly, to the legendary-historical genre. Never before has a historical theme occupied so much space in the works of icon painters. In this regard, more and more penetrate into artistic creativity: 1) genre; 2) interest in everyday life; 3) more and more often Russian realities appear in the compositions. The so-called conditionally "Hellenistic" architecture is gradually being replaced by Russian icons. At the same time, in the painting of the XVI century. there is a perceptible inclination towards abstract "philosophizing". The church and the state tightly controlled iconography, so at that time iconographic originals (collections of samples), which established the iconography of the main plot compositions, as well as individual characters, became widespread. Moscow painting of the late 15th century. marked by considerable achievements. This is due to the work of outstanding masters - Dionysius and his school. He himself and his assistants decorated with frescoes the cathedrals of the Joseph-Volokolamsk, Pafnutievo-Borovsky, Ferapontov monasteries and others. Through their efforts, the iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin was created. In the depiction of the Mother of God, who was considered the patroness of Moscow, other characters from biblical history are struck by the bright colors and decorativeness, which later became distinctive features of Russian icon painting of the 16th-17th centuries. The creations of Dionysius, a skilled master, according to the chronicler, and other artists are permeated with an atmosphere of victorious jubilation, solemnity, and confidence. They vividly reflected the main milestones of their time: 1) gaining independence from the Horde; 2) unification of Russian lands; 3) the creation of a single state headed by Moscow. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries, on the one hand, the predominance of the Moscow school of painting in Russia is determined; on the other hand, her assimilation of the traditions of local schools, which were gradually leveled under the influence of the all-Russian cultural center, which Moscow has become with its masters, ideas, aspirations. The brilliance and careful attention to detail, the elegance and subtlety of the drawing are characteristic of the icons of the so-called Stroganov school. Its representatives (Prokopiy Chirin, Nikifor Savin, and others) worked in Moscow, but often carried out orders from the Stroganovs, the rich Sol-Vychegda. Their works, bright, colorful, miniature, resemble jewelry. They had a great influence on the development of Russian art; for example, their traditions are still preserved by Palekh masters. That little of everything that painting of the late XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries gave to Russian art can be defined as: 1) skill in drawing; 2) the brightness of the colorful range; 3) a joyful feeling of being; 4) the rise of the national spirit. But at the same time, there is a certain departure from the mighty examples of Andrei Rublev and Theophan the Greek, a decrease in the heroic breath of art from the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. At the same time, the progressive development of painting prepared his future successes. 6. Architecture The most outstanding achievement of Russian architecture at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. was the construction of the buildings of the Moscow Kremlin. Old, dilapidated buildings were replaced with new ones. 1. Uspensky. 2. Arkhangelsk. 3. Cathedral of the Annunciation. 4. Temple-pillar of Ivan the Great. For ceremonial receptions, the Faceted Chamber was built. A whole complex of buildings made up the palace of the Grand Duke. Finally, new fortress walls and archers (towers) appeared. In the XVI century. built on a larger scale. Many churches and cathedrals were erected throughout the country. Some of them have taken an outstanding place in domestic and world architecture. Such, for example, is the famous Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow (now within the city). It was built (1532) on the occasion of the birth of the son of Ivan, the future Tsar of the Terrible, at the Grand Duke Vasily III. The model for the building was the old wooden hipped-roof churches. The Pokrovsky Cathedral (Church of the Intercession of the Mother of God), or St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow, the greatest monument of tent architecture, in essence, a complex of nine churches, looks just as fabulous. It was built by Russian architects - Barma and Postnik in 1555-1560. Initially, the temple was white, and it received its motley coloring only in the XNUMXth century. Masters of filigree (filigree), chased, foundry, jewelry, silk sewing achieve high perfection. The art of bass stamping and enamel flourished. Jewelers created gold items of amazing beauty and elegance (for example, the golden dish of Tsarina Maria Temryukovna, presented to her by Ivan the Terrible in 1561). In general, Russian culture of the XVI century. is of great importance. Firstly, it fully reflected the final transition from a fragmented Russia to a centralized state with its new requirements for art. Further, she was able to withstand the ideological pressure of the 2nd half of the century and prepare the consciousness of the Russian people for the significant changes and shifts that took place in the cultural development of the XNUMXth century. Author: Konstantinova S.V. << Back: Russian culture in the era of fragmentation (General features of the culture of the era of fragmentation. Culture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'. Culture of Veliky Novgorod. Creation of a special style of temple construction. Moscow principality. Painting of the XIV-XV centuries) >> Forward: Russian culture of the 17th century (General trends in Russian culture of the 17th century. Literature, education, science. Painting of the 17th century. Portrait genre. Russian architecture of the 17th century. The rise of civil architecture)
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