LECTURE No. 9. Culture of the second half of the golden age

1. General characteristics of the era

2nd half of the 1853th century - the time of the final approval and consolidation of national forms and traditions in Russian art. In the middle of the XIX century. Russia experienced severe upheavals: the Crimean War of 1856-1855 ended in defeat, Emperor Nicholas I died, Alexander ascended the throne //carried out the long-awaited abolition of serfdom and other reforms. Years of government 1881-XNUMX. The "Russian theme" became popular in art. Russian culture was not isolated within national boundaries, it was not separated from the culture of the rest of the world. Achievements of foreign art resonated in Russia. In turn, Russian culture, primarily literature and music, received worldwide recognition. Russian culture has taken a place of honor in the family of European cultures.

2. Education

The existing system of public education did not satisfy the social and economic development of the country. The low literacy rate of the general population and the shortage of educated professionals pointed to the need for change. Therefore, the reform of public education became an integral part of the reforms of the 1860s. The era of liberation gave a strong impetus to the cultural development of Russia, contributed to an unprecedented growth in the number of rural and urban schools.

The legacy of the serf era was the low level of literacy of the people. Even in St. Petersburg in the late 60s. 7th century the proportion of illiterates (excluding children under 44 years old) was 1871%. In Moscow, according to the 55 census, XNUMX% were illiterate.

On the issue of secondary education, there was a long discussion between supporters of the real and the classical schools. The supporters of the classical direction won the upper hand, relying on the conservative ministers of public education D. A. Tolstoy and I. D. Delyanov.

"Regulations on primary public schools" of June 14, 1864 introduced, in addition to state, zemstvo and Sunday schools. The charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums, approved on November 19, 1864, divided secondary educational institutions - gymnasiums - into classical and real ones with a 7-year term of study. Tuition fees were quite high. In 1865 there were 96 gymnasiums, in the mid-1890s. - about 600.

In 1897, the average literacy rate was 21,1%. At the same time, there were 2 times more literate people in the city than in the countryside. Literacy was more common among men (29,3%) than among women (13,1%).

On June 18, 1863, a new charter for the universities was approved. University self-government was restored. In the post-reform period, new universities opened in:

1) Odessa;

2) Warsaw;

3) Tomsk.

The universities taught such eminent scientists as:

1) A. M. Butlerov;

2) D. I. Mendeleev;

3) I. M. Sechenov;

4) S. M. Solovyov;

5) K. A. Timiryazev and others.

The university statute of August 23, 1884 effectively abolished the autonomy of the universities.

In 1858, women's gymnasiums also appeared. Prior to this, women were not allowed to enter universities. In the 1860s-70s. the first higher courses for women with a university program were organized in Moscow (Prof. V. I. Guerrier) and in St. Petersburg (Prof. K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin).

After 1881, changes again took place in the field of education. And the infamous circular of the Ministry of Public Education of June 5, 1887 ("on the cook's children") introduced a restriction on admission to the gymnasium in order to prevent "the admission of the children of coachmen, lackeys, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers, etc. of people"; tuition fees have been increased.

After permission in 1858 to discuss in the press the problems of public life and government activities, the number of periodicals and book titles increased dramatically. The "Temporary Rules", approved on May 12, 1862, even permitted the printing of critical materials in expensive editions inaccessible to the common people. But since the chief prosecutor and censor K.P. Pobedonostsev were deeply concerned about libraries and reading rooms, in 1888 the catalog of books allowed for distribution to readers was revised.

3. Science

2nd half of the XNUMXth century became a period of new outstanding discoveries of Russian science, for the development of which favorable conditions were created. Contacts between Russian scientists and colleagues from Western Europe have revived.

I. M. Sechenov 1829-1905) laid the foundations of Russian physiology. II Mechnikov (1845-1916) founded the school of microbiology and comparative pathology. K. A. Timiryazev (1843-1920), investigating the process of photosynthesis, laid the foundation for the Russian school of plant physiology.

60-70s 1869th century called the golden age of Russian chemistry. The greatest discovery of this time was the periodic law of chemical elements (1834), discovered by D. I. Mendeleev (1907-1828) and recorded by him in the form of a table. A. M. Butlerov (1886-XNUMX) developed the fundamental theory of the chemical structure.

Discoveries in the field of technology brought world fame to Russian scientists. These are the inventions of P. N. Yablochkov (1847-1894) - an arc lamp and an electric lighting system developed by him; A. N. Lodygina (1847-1923) - an electric incandescent lamp; A. F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) - the world's first patented aircraft (1881). A.F. Mozhaisky studied the flight of birds, made models, and in 1881 began building an aircraft with two steam engines with a capacity of 20 and 10 horsepower.

P. L. Chebyshev (1821-1894) made major discoveries in the field of mathematical analysis, number theory, and probability theory. He laid the foundation for the Petersburg mathematical school. A. G. Stoletov (1839-1896) played an outstanding role in the development of physics. He owns a number of studies in the field of photoelectric phenomena, subsequently used in the creation of modern electronic technology.

The discovery of world significance was the invention of the radiotelegraph. A. S. Popov (1859-1905), who dealt with this problem, could not fully realize his ideas: attempts to establish radio communications in the navy ran into skepticism and misunderstanding of the command.

The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers visited places where no European had ever set foot before. In the 2nd half of the XIX century. their efforts were focused on exploring the interior of Asia.

P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), head of the Russian Imperial Geographical Society, explored the Tien Shan, organized a number of major expeditions to Central Asia (N. M. Przhevalsky), to New Guinea (N. N. Miklukho -Maclay), etc.

World geographical science in those years largely relied on the achievements of Russian researchers. By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic, in which Russian researchers took an active part, continued at the beginning of the XNUMXth century.

S. M. Solovyov (1820-1879) and his student V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) actively worked in the field of historical science. In philosophy, original writings were created:

1) V. S. Solovyov;

2) K. N. Leontiev;

3) S. N. Trubetskoy.

In the 2nd half of the XIX century. Russian scientists have achieved significant success in various branches of knowledge. Moscow and St. Petersburg are among the world's scientific centers.

4. Literature and social thought

Fiction of the 2nd half of the 1880th century. continued the traditions of A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol. The clash of ideas, moral problems, new phenomena in public life, the path of development of Russia - these and other topics worried the heroes of the works of I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy. In the XNUMXs the first stories of A.P. Chekhov appeared. The theme of the people was central in the work of N. A. Nekrasov. Subtle lyrical works were created by A. A. Fet, F. I. Tyutchev.

In the last quarter of the XIX century. Newspapers begin to circulate widely in Russia. Nevertheless, magazines remained the main type of time-based publications. At the end of the XIX century. Newspapers also appeared in the provinces.

The book publishing business became an increasingly developing branch of entrepreneurship. Some publishers sought to give their activities an educational focus. ID Sytin (1851-1934) began with the publication of popular prints, dream books, oracles. Then he began to print primers, calendars, fiction and popular science literature - at a very low price, counting on mass demand.

At the end of the XIX century. two publishing firms (F. A. Brockhaus (Leipzig) and I. A. Efron (Petersburg)) decided to publish in Russia a German encyclopedia in Russian with a little addition of new material. However, as a result, the editors created an independent Russian encyclopedia. "Encyclopedic Dictionary" of Brockhaus and Efron, in 82 volumes, was published in 1890-1907. and became the best Russian encyclopedia.

5. Museums. Theatre. Music

The State Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow is one of the largest collections of Russian fine art, a world famous national cultural center. The museum bears the name of the founder, the Moscow merchant P. M. Tretyakov (1832-1898), who donated his art gallery to the city in 1892, as well as a small collection of his brother and a house that began to be rebuilt into a museum building. Tretyakov wanted to create a public museum of national art, giving "a complete picture of our painting." In 1881 it opened to visitors.

The main theaters of the country in the second half of the XIX century. still remained Small and Alexandria. Talented actors and actresses - P. A. Strepetova, M. N. Ermolova - performed on the stage. At the end of the 70s. XNUMXth century the theatrical activity of director K. S. Stanislavsky begins.

Painting and musical life of the 2nd half of the 1850th century. marked by the emergence of new talents that brought world fame to Russian art. Their aesthetic views were influenced by the ideas of the democratic movement of the 60s and 1863s. In 13, a group of students of the Academy of Arts, who left its walls ("revolt of XNUMX"), organized the "Artel of the Wanderers". The same ideas inspired the participants of the St. Petersburg Musical Circle:

1) M. A. Balakireva;

2) M. P. Mussorgsky;

3) N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov.

A special place in Russian music is occupied by P. I. Tchaikovsky, author:

1) operas;

2) ballets;

3) symphonic and chamber works.

In the 60s. 1836th century in St. Petersburg, a small group of composers rallied, setting out to continue the work of M. I. Glinka. Subsequently, this group, according to the apt expression of the art critic V.V. Stasov, was called the "Mighty Handful". Its main organizer and theorist was M. A. Balakirev (1910-XNUMX). In addition to him, the "Mighty Handful" included:

1) M. P. Mussorgsky;

2) N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov;

3) A. P. Borodin;

4) C. A. Cui.

The activity of the "Mighty Handful" is such a striking phenomenon in Russian culture that contemporaries spoke of it as a "musical revolution" of the 1860s and 70s. Having coped with the task with brilliance, the "Mighty Handful" finally approved the Russian national beginning in music.

P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) was not included in the "Mighty Handful". He gravitated toward pan-European musical forms, although his work undoubtedly belongs to the Russian school. Especially brightly his talent manifested itself in the symphonic poems "Romeo and Juliet", "The Tempest". Tchaikovsky's ballets ("Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty", "The Nutcracker") have become world ballet classics.

6. Painting

On November 9, 1863, a large group of graduates of the Academy of Arts refused to write competitive works on the proposed theme from Scandinavian mythology. 14 students of the history class defiantly filed a petition to withdraw from the Academy. Finding themselves without workshops and without money, the rebels united in a kind of commune - the "Artel of Artists", headed by the painter I. N. Kramskoy (1837-1887). Artel workers took orders for the performance of various works of art, lived in the same house, gathered in a common room for conversations, discussions of paintings, and reading books. This organization arranged annual exhibitions, showed them in different cities of Russia and distributed income among the members of the Partnership. Seven years later, it broke up, but by this time the "Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions", a professional and commercial association of artists who stood on close ideological positions, was born. By the mid 90s. 1917th century The partnership has lost its role. In total, up to 45, 48 exhibitions were held; the last, 1923th, was arranged in XNUMX.

The eldest of the Wanderers, who worked in the domestic genre, was G. G. Myasoedov (1834-1911). The work that brought him the greatest success is Zemstvo is having lunch (1872). The most famous painting by another Wanderer - V. M. Maksimov (1844-1911) - "The Arrival of a Sorcerer at a Peasant Wedding" (1875). The accusatory meaning of the picture is obvious (at that time it was almost a mandatory requirement for a work of art), which showed the superstition and unenlightenedness of the peasantry. VE Makovsky (1846-1920) worked almost exclusively in genre painting. In one of his best works, "On the Boulevard" (1886-1887), the artist depicted a specific place - Tverskoy Boulevard in Moscow. N. A. Yaroshenko (1846-1898) also painted quite a few canvases, but the painting "Life Everywhere" (1887-1888) brought him fame.

I.K. Aivazovsky (1817-1900), while still a student, chose the seascape as the main theme of his work. Settling in Feodosia, he created the best works, the most famous - "The Ninth Wave" (1850). Another outstanding work by Aivazovsky is The Black Sea (1881). The artist often painted from memory and could create a painting in two hours. He possessed the talents of an architect, musician, poet, and archaeologist. Antique jewels that he unearthed in the Crimea are still kept in the Hermitage.

A. K. Savrasov managed to show the beauty and subtle lyricism of a simple Russian landscape. His painting "The Rooks Have Arrived" (1871) made many contemporaries take a fresh look at their native nature.

I. I. Shishkin (1832-1898) became the singer of the Russian forest, the epic latitude of Russian nature. AI Kuindzhi (1841-1910) was attracted by the picturesque play of light and air. Russian landscape painting of the 1860th century reached its pinnacle. reached in the work of the student of A. K. Savrasov I. I. Levitan (1900-XNUMX). In the second half of the XIX century. account for the creative flowering of I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov and V. A. Serov.

7. Architecture and sculpture

In the 2nd half of the XIX century. in connection with the expansion of the use of iron and glass, the beginning of the use of concrete, architects focused on the functionality of buildings.

In the 2nd half of the XIX century. architecture and sculpture were in crisis. Realism dominated art. Architects turned to historical traditions, but in practice this led to a mixture of different styles. Such a mixture of different genres in one work is called eclecticism.

At this time, the appearance of cities is rapidly changing. Tenement houses occupied the central streets, crowding out mansions. Theaters, museums, banks, department stores and train stations rivaled temples and palaces in size and abundance of decoration.

At the same time, following the fashion of Western Europe, shopping arcades began to be built in Russia. The building of the passage animated the entire block, and along it, like along a boulevard, one could walk from one street to another. In 1889-1893. Upper trading rows were built in Moscow (architect A. N. Pomerantsev).

Similar trends were observed in the field of sculpture.

At the end of the 50s. 1862th century A competition was announced for the creation of a monument to the Millennium of Russia. It was supposed to be erected in Novgorod in 1835. M. O. Mikeshin (1896-1880) became the winner of the competition. The sculptor achieved success only by abandoning monumentality. Such is the famous monument to A. S. Pushkin on Tverskoy Boulevard in Moscow (1838) by Alexander Mikhailovich Opekushin (1923-XNUMX). The monument is small; This is a work not designed for a wide space. The poet stands, thinking, in a free pose. The sculptor managed to convey a moment of inspiration and make Pushkin's modest appearance sublime and beautiful.

Author: Konstantinova S.V.

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