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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
History of world and domestic culture. Culture of the Middle Ages (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) LECTURE No. 22. Culture of the Middle Ages 1. General characteristics of culture In the XNUMXth century, the Great Migration of Nations began - the invasion of tribes from Northern Europe and Asia into the territory of the Roman Empire. The Western Roman Empire fell; its other part - Byzantium - was to exist for some more time. The Middle Ages has come - a historical era following the Ancient World and preceding the Renaissance. The origins of medieval culture largely originate in the era of antiquity. In addition to Christianity, the Middle Ages adopted from antiquity some artistic forms, as well as handicraft skills. 2. Education and science In the VII-VIII centuries. there were schools at the monasteries, where the teachers were monks, and the students, who were very few, were the children of knights. Here they taught theology and the "seven free arts", as well as writing and counting. Later, education was expanded (but not for everyone, but only for the nobility) - they studied Latin, law, medicine, and Arabic. Universities arose from these schools (from the word universum - "community"): 1) in Bologna (Italy, 1088); 2) Cordoba (Spain, IX); 3) Oxford (1209); 4) Sorbonne in Paris (1215); 5) Vienna (1348), etc. Universities enjoyed internal self-government (they elected a rector, etc.). The general population studied here. Forms of training - a lecture (reading a specialized text and a commentary on it) or a dispute (an open dispute between the participants of the seminar), after graduation, a diploma was issued. There were also textbooks. The science of the Middle Ages was discovered by theologians of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. - the so-called "fathers of the church": 1) Augustine the Blessed; 2) Ambrose; 3) the philosopher Boethius; 4) the historians Jordan and Bede the Venerable. The center of the "Carolingian Renaissance" was the so-called academy - a scientific circle at the court of Charlemagne, created in 794 on the model of the ancient school. The theologian and poet Alcuin became the leader of the academy. In the XII-XIII centuries. science continues to evolve. Scholasticism becomes its basis - a doctrine in which reality was comprehended with the help of the logic of reason. At the same time, the scholastics were often carried away by the verbal form, behind which the content was poorly guessed, that is, they wrote and spoke in a heavy, incomprehensible language. The outstanding scientist of the Middle Ages was Thomas Aquinas (1225-1247), teacher, author of 18 works on theology and philosophy. Another famous scientist was Roger Bacon (1214-1294) - naturalist, teacher of mathematics and philosophy. 3. Worldview. Literature. Theatre The barbarians worshiped the forces of nature; magical rites played a huge role in their lives. With the emergence and development of states in Europe, the core of human life and worldview becomes the Christian religion. All life is considered only as a short segment, full of dangers for the human soul. The ideal is life without frills and vicious joys, sincere faith in God, observance of rituals, as well as such qualities of nature as humility, patience, virtue, faith, hope, etc. Unlimited power, both spiritual and material and political , - acquire the church and the clergy. If the treatises of the early Middle Ages were not addressed to specific segments of the population, then the literature of the Middle Ages was class-based. Researchers highlight: 1) peasant; 2) urban; 3) chivalric literature. Main genres: 1) novels; 2) poetry; 3) poems; 4) epic (noble); 5) stories; 6) biographies; 7) stories; 8) songs; 9) educational essays, etc. Outstanding Works: 1) the epic "Song of Roland"; 2) "Song of the Nibelungs"; 3) "Song of Side"; 4) the novel "Tristan and Isolde"; 5) a cycle of novels about King Arthur and the knight Lancelot; 6) a series of novels about Fox Renard; 7) fables; 8) novels. The number of entertainment and educational activities has increased dramatically. Preachers spoke before the cathedrals, professors and students held discussions. Theatrical religious performances were also arranged. Cathedrals were built by urban masters (and not by monastic ones, as before). The townspeople themselves were often the customers or creators of works of art to decorate the cathedrals. 4. Painting of the Middle Ages Since the barbarian tribes were constantly nomadic, their early art is mainly represented by: 1) weapons; 2) jewelry; 3) various utensils. Barbarian craftsmen preferred bright colors and expensive materials, while not the beauty of the product was valued more, but the material from which it was made. Roman painting served as a model for miniaturists. The author of a medieval miniature is not just an illustrator; he is a talented storyteller who managed to convey both the legend and its symbolic meaning in one scene. "Carolingian Renaissance" (French renaissance "revival") - this is how the researchers called the art of this era. Many Frankish monasteries had scriptoria (book-writing workshops), in which the monks rewrote ancient manuscripts and compiled new ones, both ecclesiastical and secular. Manuscripts were placed in frames made of ivory or precious metals with inserts of precious stones. In the design of books, in addition to complex ornamentation, motifs of Christian art were often used - wreaths, crosses, figurines of angels and birds. Around the end of the III century. the papyrus scroll was replaced by parchment; instead of style (sticks for writing), they began to use bird feathers. In the era of the Carolingians, the art of miniature - book illustration - reached an extraordinary flowering. There were no miniature schools, but there were centers for the production of illustrated manuscripts at monasteries (for example, a book-writing workshop in Aachen). Carolingian temples outside were decorated very modestly, but inside they shone with wall paintings - frescoes. Many researchers have noted the great importance of fine arts in a barbaric world where most people could not read. For example, in the church of St. John the Baptist (VIII century) in the city of Müster (modern Switzerland) are the oldest known frescoes. The art of the Otto Empire played a huge role in the development of the Romanesque style. The murals of the Romanesque period have practically not been preserved. They were edifying; the movements, gestures and faces of the characters were expressive; images are planar. As a rule, biblical scenes were depicted on the vaults and walls of the temple. On the western wall were scenes of the Last Judgment. In the XIII-XIV centuries. along with church books, richly illustrated with images of saints and scenes from the Holy History, have become widespread: 1) books of hours (collections of prayers); 2) novels; 3) historical chronicles. 5. Architecture After the emergence in the V-VIII centuries. The states of the Germanic tribes were converted to Christianity. Stone Christian churches began to be erected. Temples were built from massive stones, wood was used for ceilings. Churches were built on the model of Roman basilicas. In most cases, the columns were borrowed from ancient temples: the ruins served as a kind of quarry for the extraction of new building materials. Monasteries and churches remained cultural centers starting from the XNUMXth century. The temple, which had the shape of a cross in plan, symbolized the way of the cross of Christ - the path of suffering. In the X century. spread belief in the miraculous power of relics - objects associated with the life of Christ, the Mother of God, saints. More and more pilgrims sought to visit the holy places. The Ostrogoth king Theodoric was a cautious and intelligent politician, patronizing the Roman nobility and the church, science and the arts. He wanted to be known as great, and therefore, roads were laid in his capital, Ravenna, bridges, water pipes, military fortifications, palaces and temples were built, destroyed buildings were restored. In addition, the wonderful tomb of Theodoric has survived to this day. But Charlemagne made the capital of the small town of Aachen (modern Germany). The royal palace and administrative buildings were built here. The Aachen chapel (chapel) and the gates of the monastery in Lorsch (modern Germany, c. 800) have survived to this day. From the 1030th century architects gradually changed the design of the temple - it had to meet the requirements of an increasingly complex cult. In the architecture of Germany at that time, a special type of church developed - majestic and massive. Such is the cathedral in Speyer (1092-1106/XNUMX), one of the largest in Western Europe. In Romanesque art, monastic architecture occupied a leading position. The size of the churches increased, which led to the creation of new designs of vaults and supports. During the Romanesque period, secular architecture changed. Typical examples of French Romanesque architecture: 1) Church of St. Peter; 2) Church of St. Paul in the monastery of Cluny (1088-1131). Only small fragments of this building, its descriptions and drawings, have survived. In the XI-XII centuries. construction of large cathedrals began in cities on the Rhine - in Worms, Speyer, Mainz. In Germany, monuments of secular architecture of that time have also been preserved - feudal castles and fortresses. The art of Italy was formed under the influence of centuries-old cultural traditions. In Spain, there was a reconquista - a war for the liberation of the territory of the country, captured by the Arabs. Then in Spain the construction of castles-fortresses began. The kingdom of Castile became the land of castles. One of the earliest examples of Romanesque architecture is the Alcazar Royal Palace (XNUMXth century). It has survived to our time. 6. Gothic art. Sculpture The name "Gothic art" (from the word "Gothic", after the name of the Germanic tribe of the Goths) arose in the Renaissance. In various European countries, Gothic had its own characteristics, and its heyday falls on the XIII-XIV centuries. Gothic cathedrals differed significantly from the monastic churches of the Romanesque period. The Gothic cathedral is directed upwards: they began to use a new design of vaults here (the vault rests on arches, and those on pillars). The lateral pressure of the vault is transmitted to flying buttresses (outer semi-arches) and buttresses (outer supports of the building). The walls ceased to serve as a support for the vault, which made it possible to make many windows, arches, galleries in them, stained-glass windows appeared - images made up of colored glasses fastened together. Gothic art originally arose and developed in the French province of Ile-de-France. The characteristic features of the early Gothic were embodied in the main cathedral of the capital of France - Notre Dame de Paris (Notre Dame Cathedral). Outstanding works of mature Gothic architecture include the cathedrals at Reims and Amiens. Gothic cathedrals in Germany differed significantly from French ones. Sculpture also developed in the Middle Ages. On Frankish reliefs of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. Christian martyrs are depicted. From the XNUMXth century the first images of Christ, the Mother of God, saints appear. During the Romanesque period, monumental sculpture first appeared in Western Europe. Sculptural images - reliefs - were placed, as a rule, at the entrances of churches. The reliefs were usually painted - this gave them greater expressiveness and persuasiveness. Sculpture in the Romanesque period in Germany was placed, as a rule, inside temples. It began to appear on facades only at the end of the XNUMXth century. Author: Konstantinova S.V. << Back: Arab culture (Features of the culture of Arab countries. Religion. Islam. Life and customs of Muslims. Sharia. Science. Literature. Arabic language. Fine arts and calligraphy. Architecture of Islam) >> Forward: Renaissance culture (Features of Renaissance culture. Science, literature and social thought. Painting. The largest painters of the Northern Renaissance. Architecture and sculpture)
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