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Table of contents

1. Educational psychology as a science (Subject, tasks and structure of educational psychology. History of educational psychology as an independent field of knowledge. Research methods of educational psychology)
2. Education as an object of study of pedagogical psychology (The structure of the education system. The educational process as a unity of educational and pedagogical activities. Personal-activity approach as a psychological basis for organizing the educational process)
3. Psychology of educational activity (General characteristics of educational activity. Correlation between the concepts of educational activity, teaching, learning and learning. Types of learning, their development in ontogenesis. Psychological factors for the success of learning. Features of learning during preschool childhood. Psychological readiness of the child to study at school. Junior student , teenagers and high school students as subjects of learning activities Formation of learning motivation, its types Features of learning tasks Psychological requirements for learning tasks Learning activities as a means of solving learning problems Types of learning activities Self-control and self-assessment of the student Assimilation is the main product of learning activities Psychological characteristics of assimilation)
4. Psychology of education (General concept of education, its difference from education. Basic theories of education. Means and methods of education. Institutes of education. Education in preschool childhood.
5. Psychology of pedagogical activity (The teacher as a subject of pedagogical activity. Psychological requirements for the personality of the teacher. Professional abilities of the teacher. Person and pedagogical activity: the problem of compliance. General characteristics of pedagogical activity. Motivation of pedagogical activity. External and internal motives. Pedagogical skills. Individual style of the teacher's activity. Psychological analysis of the lesson as a means of developing pedagogical abilities and the formation of pedagogical skills.Psychological improvement of pedagogical activity)
6. Educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication (Educational process as interaction. Main lines of interaction. Influence of cooperation on educational activities. Development of educational cooperation. Psychological features of pedagogical communication. Psychology of pedagogical assessment. Difficulties in pedagogical communication)
7. Psychological service in the education system (Structure, tasks and functions of the psychological service in the education system. Qualification requirements, rights, duties and ethical position of a psychologist in an educational institution)

Topic 1. PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

1.1. Subject, tasks and structure of educational psychology

Educational psychology is an independent branch of psychological science, most closely related to such branches as developmental psychology and labor psychology. Both of these sciences are close due to the common object of study, which is a person in the process of his development, but their subjects are different. The subject of pedagogical psychology is not just the mental development of a person, as in developmental psychology, but the role in this process of training and education, that is, certain types of activity. This is what brings pedagogical psychology closer to the psychology of labor, the subject of which is the development of the human psyche under the influence of labor activity. One of the types of the latter is pedagogical activity, which directly affects the development of the psyche of both the student and the teacher himself.

The subject of pedagogical psychology is also the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person's assimilation of sociocultural experience and the changes in the level of intellectual and personal development caused by this assimilation. In particular, pedagogical psychology studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, the features of the formation of active independent creative thinking in students, the impact of training and education on mental development, the conditions for the formation of mental neoplasms, the psychological characteristics of the personality and the activities of the teacher. The main problems of pedagogical psychology have always been the following.

1. The relationship of conscious organized pedagogical influence on the child with his psychological development. There is still no unequivocal answer to the question of whether training and upbringing lead to development, whether any training contributes to development, how the biological maturation of the organism is connected with the training and development of the child, whether training affects maturation, and if so, to what extent.

2. A combination of age patterns and individual characteristics of development and methods of education and upbringing that are optimal for age categories and specific children. Each age of the child opens up its own opportunities for his intellectual and personal growth, but the older the children become, the more individual differences accumulate between them, and the general age patterns have more and more exceptions. The developmental opportunities of children of the same age are not at all the same, and as the latter grow older, the problem of the optimal use of these opportunities becomes more and more acute.

3. Finding and the most effective use of sensitive periods in the development of the child's psyche. The sensitive period is the period of the greatest sensitivity of the psyche to certain kinds of influences. For example, a sensitive period for mastering a child’s native speech is the age of up to about three years, and if a child has not learned to understand human speech before the age of 4, he will no longer be able to master it in full. The sensitive period for mastering written speech (reading and writing) begins at 4-4,5 years, and it is not possible to judge the timing of its completion with an accuracy of up to a year. Psychologists still do not know all the sensitive periods in the development of the intellect and personality of the child, their beginning, duration and end, moreover, many of these periods are individually unique, come at different times and proceed in different ways. Difficulties associated with a practical pedagogical solution to this problem also lie in accurately determining the signs of the onset of a sensitive period, as well as the complexes of a child's psychological qualities that can form and develop within a particular sensitive period. Psychologists need to learn how to predict the onset of various sensitive periods of development.

4. Psychological readiness of children for conscious upbringing and education. Not a single psychological property and quality of a person arises suddenly from nothing - their appearance in an open form is preceded by a long period of hidden, latent transformation. With regard to most of the psychological properties and characteristics of the child, very little is known about these periods. How they begin and how long they last, what is the ratio of hidden and open periods in the development of each mental function is another of the complex problems of educational psychology. Solving it, it is necessary to determine in what sense the term "readiness for training and education" should be used and understood: does this mean that the child has certain inclinations or already developed abilities, does it mean the current level of development of the psyche, or should one also take into account the zone of the nearest development. A considerable difficulty is also the search for valid and reliable methods of psychodiagnostics of readiness for training and education.

5. Pedagogical neglect. A child’s developmental lag behind peers can be due to various reasons, and it is necessary to be able to distinguish genuine mental retardation from pedagogical neglect caused by the fact that at earlier stages of development the child was poorly taught and educated and he did not receive from the surrounding adults that conceptual apparatus that is characteristic for the appropriate age. A pedagogically neglected child needs to create favorable psychological conditions so that he can eliminate his developmental lag.

It is necessary to find the true criteria for distinguishing between pedagogical neglect and various forms of genuine mental retardation (mental retardation, oligophrenia, etc.) in order to eliminate errors and prevent pedagogically neglected but correctable children from entering special educational institutions for the mentally retarded.

6. Ensuring an individual approach to learning. An individual approach is understood as the application to each child of such programs and methods of education and upbringing that are best suited to his individual characteristics, primarily to his existing abilities and inclinations.

Nowadays, the directions of the most active research are: psychological mechanisms for managing learning (N. F. Talyzina, L. N. Landa, etc.) and the educational process as a whole (V. S. Lazarev); educational motivation (A. K. Markova, Yu. M. Orlov, etc.); personal characteristics of students and teachers (A. A. Leontiev, V. A. Kan-Kalik); educational and pedagogical cooperation (G. A. Tsukerman and others). Thus, the subject of educational psychology is complex, multifaceted and heterogeneous.

At the present stage of development, the subject of educational psychology includes more and more different tasks that life poses for this science. The rejection of a single ideology for the entire education system, the variety of educational programs offered, the new life requirements for the intellect and personality of a citizen make educational psychology turn to ever new areas of research. The most important and urgent tasks of pedagogical psychology are as follows:

› revealing the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and upbringing influence on the psyche of the trainee;

› determination of the mechanisms and patterns of mastering social experience by students, its structuring, preservation in individual consciousness and use in various situations;

› determination of the relationship between the level of mental development of the student and the optimal forms and methods of teaching and upbringing for him;

› definition of criteria for knowledge assimilation, psychological foundations for diagnosing the level and quality of assimilation;

› study of the psychological foundations of the teacher's activity, his individual psychological and professional qualities;

› determination of the features of the organization and management of educational activities of students in order to optimally influence their intellectual, personal development and educational and cognitive activity;

› development of psychological foundations for further improvement of the educational process at all levels of the educational system.

The subject of each branch of scientific knowledge also determines its thematic structure, that is, the sections included in this science. Traditionally, there are three sections in the structure of educational psychology: 1) the psychology of learning; 2) the psychology of education; 3) the psychology of pedagogical activity and the personality of the teacher. However, such a classification excludes from consideration the personality and activity of the student himself. Indeed, the word "training" refers to the impact on the student by the teacher in order to assimilate knowledge and develop skills, i.e., the teacher is considered as an active party, the subject of activity, and the student - as an object of influence. The concept of "education" also means the impact on the educated person in order to form in him certain psychological properties and qualities that are desirable for the educator, that is, the child again finds himself in the role of an object that needs to be influenced in a certain way, and only a separate issue in this topic considered self-education.

Within the framework of a more progressive approach (I. A. Zimnyaya and others), both the teacher and the student are considered as active participants in the educational process. Each of them is a subject that actively carries out its activities: the student - educational, the teacher - pedagogical. Both of these activities have a significant impact on the psychological development of their subjects and cannot be carried out in isolation from each other. Important and integral parts of each of them are communication and cooperation of subjects: teachers with students, students among themselves, teachers among themselves, etc. It is the unity of educational and pedagogical activity that constitutes the educational process as a whole. Education in this case is organically included in the educational process through its content, forms and methods of implementation. If we consider the structure of educational psychology from this position, then four sections can be distinguished in it:

1) the psychology of the educational process as a unity of educational and pedagogical activities;

2) the psychology of educational activity and its subject - the student;

3) the psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject - the teacher;

4) the psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.

In this manual, we will rely mainly on this classification, but we will also consider the section "Psychology of Education" that actually fell out of it in order to reflect all modern basic approaches to the thematic structure of educational psychology.

1.2. History of educational psychology as an independent field of knowledge

Educational psychology, like many other scientific disciplines, has gone through a difficult path of development. The development of any science is inevitably influenced by major social and historical events (revolutions, wars, etc.), which largely determine the content and direction of scientific thought. The beginning of the development of pedagogical theory was laid by the fundamental work of J. A. Comenius "The Great Didactics", which was published in 1657. But only at the end of the XNUMXth century. pedagogical psychology began to take shape as an independent science. The entire path of its formation can be represented by three long stages.

The first stage - from the middle of the XVII century. (the publication of the "Great Didactics" by Ya. A. Comenius) until the end of the 1592th century. - can be called general didactic with "a felt need to psychologize pedagogy" in the words of I. Pestalozzi. The largest representatives of pedagogical science of this period are Jan Amos Comenius (1670-1746), Johann Pestalozzi (1827-1712), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1778-1776), Johann Herbart (1841-1790), Adolf Diesterweg (1866-1824), Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky (1870-1849) - already considered those problems that are still in the area of ​​​​interest of pedagogical psychology: the relationship of development with training and education, the creative activity of the student, the child's abilities and their development, the role of the teacher's personality, the psychological characteristics of the organization of education and many others. However, these were only the first attempts at a scientific understanding of this process, and the actual psychological aspects of the listed problems were far from fully disclosed by these researchers. Insufficient psychology of this period of development of pedagogical theory is criticized in detail and reasonably by P.F. Kapterev (1922-1885) in the book "Didactic Essays. Theory of Education", first published in 1. As P.F. Kapterev notes, "... didactics Comenius is characterized by very significant shortcomings: this is the didactics of the method, presented in the form of some kind of external mechanical tool; in this didactics there is still no question of developing the abilities of students by teaching ... Comenius's didactics lacks psychology.

Analyzing the role of I. Pestalozzi in the development of ideas about the student as an active side of the educational process, P.F. Kapterev states: "Pestalozzi understood all learning as a matter of creativity of the student himself, all knowledge as the development of activity from within, as acts of amateur activity, self-development."[2] ] And at the same time, “the exaggeration of the influence of the method in teaching and a certain inclination towards the mechanization of school methods and methods of teaching are obvious. The living personality of the teacher as a prominent factor in the school has not yet been understood. In general, the psychological side of the educational process, its foundations, particular ways and forms, was developed by Pestalozzi quite insufficient."[3]

Assessing the contribution of I. Herbart to the development of educational psychology, P.F. Kapterev emphasizes that "... Herbart's didactics has significant advantages: it provides a psychological analysis of the pedagogical method, it seriously raises the extremely important question of the interest of learning, it inextricably links learning and The shortcomings of Herbart's didactics include its one-sided intellectualism and the insufficient development of certain issues, for example, about the interests of students.

A. Diesterweg owns the thesis about the leading role of the teacher, the teacher in the educational process. He was the first to consider the educational process as a unity of the student, the teacher, the subject being studied and the learning conditions. In his opinion, self-improvement, taking into account the characteristics of the student and the energy of the teacher's actions become the key and basis for educative education. As P.F. Kapterev notes, "... many of Diesterweg's didactic provisions, due to their clarity, certainty, conciseness, and together with pedagogical practicality and sensibility, despite the lack of depth and novelty, entered didactics textbooks, became the provisions of everyday pedagogical practice."[ 5]

The crowning achievement of this "prerequisite" general didactic period was the work of K. D. Ushinsky "Man as an object of education. Experience of pedagogical anthropology" (1868-1869), which puts the child at the center of education and training, and K. D. Ushinsky attached decisive importance to education. Psychological and pedagogical problems of the development of memory, attention, thinking, speech in the learning process act as subjects of special analysis and development tasks. According to K. D. Ushinsky, the development of a child’s speech, hearing, associated with the development of his thinking, is a condition for the formation of his ideas, concepts, and personality as a whole.

P. F. Kapterev himself is rightfully considered the founder of educational psychology, since this concept itself entered scientific circulation with the appearance in 1877 of his book "Pedagogical Psychology". In this work, the modern concept of education is introduced into scientific use as a combination of education and upbringing, the connection between the activities of the teacher and students, and the pedagogical problems of teacher work and teacher training are considered. The educational process itself was considered by P.F. Kapterev from a psychological position: the second part of the book "Didactic Essays. Theory of Education" is called "The Educational Process - Its Psychology". According to P. F. Kapterev, the educational process is "an expression of the internal self-activity of the human body",[6] the development, first of all, of abilities. P. F. Kapterev is credited with the most complete and fundamental analysis of the works of the great didactics and representatives of the so-called experimental didactics - in fact, experimental psychology in teaching.

The second stage in the development of educational psychology has chronological boundaries from the end of the 1903th century to the end of the 1926th century. (the publication of the work of P.F. Kapterev "Pedagogical psychology") until the middle of the 7th century. During this period, it began to take shape as an independent branch, based on the achievements of the pedagogical thought of previous centuries and the results of psychological and psychophysical experimental studies. Pedagogical psychology developed and took shape simultaneously with the intensive development of experimental psychology and the development of specific pedagogical systems. Following the work of P. F. Kapterev, the works of the American psychologist E. Thorndike (in XNUMX) and the Soviet psychologist L. S. Vygotsky (in XNUMX), also entitled "Pedagogical Psychology", appeared. L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that educational psychology is a product of the last few years, a new science that is part of applied psychology and at the same time an independent branch.[XNUMX] At this time, many works appeared devoted to the actual psychological problems of learning and learning: the features of memorization, the development of speech, intelligence, the features of developing skills (A. P. Nechaev, A. Binet and B. Henri, G. Ebbinghaus, J. Piaget, J. Dewey, S. Frenet and others). Of great importance in the development of educational psychology were experimental studies of the characteristics of learning (J. Watson, E. Tolman, K. Hull, B. Skinner), the development of children's speech (J. Piaget, L. S. Vygotsky, P. P. Blonsky, Sh . and K. Buhler, etc.), as well as the development of special pedagogical systems (Waldorf school, M. Montessori school, etc.).

The development of test psychology and psychodiagnostics also played a special role here. Thanks to the research of A. Binet, B. Henri, T. Simon in France and J. Cattell in America, effective mechanisms have been developed not only for monitoring the knowledge and skills of students, but also for managing the preparation of curricula, the educational process as a whole. In Europe, during this period, psychological laboratories were formed at schools and they experimentally studied the typological characteristics of schoolchildren, their physical and mental abilities, as well as methods of teaching academic disciplines.

An important phenomenon at this stage was the formation of a special psychological and pedagogical direction - pedology. In this science, on the basis of a combination of psychophysiological, anatomical, psychological and sociological measurements, the characteristics of the child's behavior were determined in order to diagnose his development. Thus, the second stage in the development of educational psychology is characterized by the increasing introduction of objective methods of measurement, which brought it closer to the natural sciences.

The third stage in the development of educational psychology (from the middle of the 1954th century) is distinguished on the basis of the creation of a number of psychological theories of learning proper. So, in 1960, B. Skinner, along with J. Watson, put forward the idea of ​​programmed learning, and in the 1950s. LN Landa formulated the theory of its algorithmization. Then a holistic system of problem-based learning began to be developed, based, on the one hand, on the point of view of J. Dewey that learning should go through problem solving, and on the other hand, on the provisions of S. L. Rubinshtein and others about the problematic nature of thinking, his phases, about the nature of the emergence of thought in a problem situation. In the XNUMXs the first publications of P. Ya. Galperin, and later - N. F. Talyzina, appeared, in which the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions was presented. In the same period, in the works of D. B. Elkonin and V. V. Davydov, a theory of developmental education was developed, embodied in practice in the experimental system of L. V. Zankov.

In the same period, S. L. Rubinshtein in "Fundamentals of Psychology" gave a detailed description of learning as the assimilation of knowledge. Psychological problems of assimilation were further developed from different positions by L. B. Itelson, E. N. Kabanova-Meller, N. A. Menchinskaya, D. N. Bogoyavlensky. Broad theoretical generalizations in this area are reflected in the works of I. Lingart "The Process and Structure of Human Learning" (1970) and I. I. Ilyasov "The Structure of the Learning Process" (1986).

A fundamentally new direction in educational psychology in the 1960s-1970s. became a suggestopedia based on the teacher's control of the unconscious students' mental processes of perception and memory. Within its framework, a method was developed for activating the reserve capabilities of the individual (G. A. Kitaygorodskaya), group cohesion and group dynamics in the process of such training (A. V. Petrovsky, L. A. Karpenko).

All these diverse theories of recent years actually pursued one goal - the search for psychological methods that best meet the requirements of society for a system of education and teaching. Therefore, within the framework of these areas, many common problems have emerged: the activation of forms of education, pedagogical communication, educational and pedagogical cooperation, management of the assimilation of knowledge, etc.

Today, the prerequisites for the transition of educational psychology to a new stage of development are being formed in connection with the widespread introduction of computer technology. Informatization of the education system turns the student into a free user and creator of new information technologies, provides him with freedom of action in the information space. At the same time, the role of the teacher also changes significantly: among his functions, the organization of independent activities of students in the search for knowledge is becoming increasingly important. The presentation of the finished material and teaching actions according to a given model are less and less meeting the requirements of today.

1.3. Research Methods of Educational Psychology

Among the many methods of psychological and pedagogical research in educational psychology, the most widely used are:

› study of products of students' activities;

› survey in the form of conversation and questioning;

› observation;

› experiment;

› testing;

› sociometric method of studying relationships in a team.

Study of products of activity consists in interpreting the content and technique of performing material and spiritual objects created by man. These items can be written works, compositions, music, drawings, products. According to their content and style of execution, the researcher can judge the level of sensorimotor, intellectual and personal development of the author, the mental states he experiences during the manufacture of the product, the life problems that concern him. Teachers in their practice most often use this method in the form of analysis of student essays, presentations, abstracts, oral presentations, drawings, tests in academic subjects. The most valuable information for teachers obtained with the help of such an analysis is the conclusions about the level of assimilation of the studied material by students, their attitude to the subject, about the functioning of cognitive mental processes (primarily attention, memory and thinking) of students during the creation of the studied product. Based on the results of studying the products of students' activities, certain conclusions can also be drawn about the teacher: what methodological methods he uses in teaching the subject, what requirements he imposes on students, what criteria for the success of their activities he applies.

Interview It is used in educational psychology in two of its varieties: conversation and questioning. The conversation is an oral free survey, the main questions for which the researcher prepares in advance, but in general the course of the conversation is determined, rather, by the answers of the interviewee. They can generate new questions from the researcher, which are asked immediately in the course of the conversation. The researcher must provide the subject with the opportunity to state everything that he considers necessary on this issue, it cannot be interrupted, interrupted, it is undesirable to correct it. As a rule, the speaker does not tell the subject about her goals. It is necessary to record the answers of the subject in such a way as not to attract his attention and not create additional emotional stress in him (preferably by audio recording). The conversation can be both an independent and auxiliary method of research, when the information obtained in it is then used in the further study of the subjects by other methods.

Questioning is carried out in writing, all questions included in the text of the questionnaire are prepared in advance. The questionnaire is considered the most operational type of survey, allowing you to collect large amounts of data in a short time. At the beginning of the questionnaire, there should be an appeal to the respondents with an explanation of the objectives of the survey (if the knowledge of the respondents about the purpose of the survey can affect the final results, the true goals should not be disclosed). The main part of the questionnaire contains questions reflecting the information of interest to the researcher.

In their form, the questions of the questionnaire can be closed and open. Answering a closed question, the subject must choose an answer from the list provided. There are three types of closed questions: 1) dichotomous, to which only two mutually exclusive answers are given ("yes" and "no", "agree" and "disagree", "true" and "false"); 2) alternative, in which there are at least three such mutually exclusive options ("yes", "don't know" and "no" or "strongly agree", "rather agree", "rather disagree" and "completely disagree" and etc.); 3) menu questions in which you can choose more than one answer, since these options are not mutually exclusive; the question-menu can be semi-closed when the proposed list of answer options contains the option "other" with a request to indicate your answer option.

Open-ended questions suggest that the respondent should formulate the answer on their own, and the amount of space left for the answer suggests how long and detailed this answer should be. In any case, the questions of the questionnaire and the proposed answers should be formulated in such a way that the respondents understand them correctly and can adequately express their answer in words. Questions must be composed taking into account the vocabulary and way of thinking of the subjects, scientific terminology should not be abused: all words used in the text of the questionnaire should be understandable to the least educated of the respondents. In addition, the wording of the questions should not reveal the researcher's own opinions, values, and attitudes: the respondent should not be allowed to feel that any of his answers may cause judgment.

Observation in educational psychology is used, as a rule, to study the style of activity of students and teachers. When collecting information by observation, it is important to observe two main conditions: 1) the subject must not know that he is being observed; 2) the observer has no right to interfere with the activity of the subject, i.e., all the activity of the latter should proceed as naturally as possible. It is necessary to conduct observation according to a pre-compiled program and record those manifestations of the activity of the subjects that correspond to its goals and objectives. The data obtained should be recorded in ways that would not attract the attention of the subjects. Video filming is best suited for this purpose, since with its help the observed facts can be analyzed repeatedly; in addition, thus increasing the reliability of the conclusions. As a rule, non-participant observation is used in educational psychology, which is conducted "from outside", but under certain conditions, the researcher can also conduct participant observation - in this case, he enters the observed group as an equal member and, on an equal basis with the others, performs group-wide activities, continuing to conduct observation. and record its results without the rest of the group noticing. The advantage of participant observation is that the researcher can learn from his own experience what mental experiences are characteristic of the observed, but at the same time he must maintain objectivity. The main drawback of this method is the following: the researcher has to distribute attention between the performance of the common activity for the group and the observation itself, as a result of which the risk of losing some of the information received, which may be important for the study, increases.

An experiment compares favorably with observation in that within its framework the researcher himself creates the conditions under which the phenomenon under study arises. There are two main types of psychological experiment: laboratory and natural. A laboratory experiment is carried out in an artificial situation - in a specially equipped room, with the help of instruments and other devices. With its help, psychophysical functions of a person, features of cognitive processes are usually studied. In educational psychology, a natural experiment is much more often used, which is carried out in the everyday conditions of life and activity of the subjects. Subjects may be aware of the fact of the experiment, but the researcher may not inform them of this if their awareness is capable of influencing the result. According to its tasks, an experiment in psychology can be ascertaining and formative. In the ascertaining experiment, certain facts are only established, while the forming experiment involves a targeted impact on the object under study in order to transform it.

It is through a natural formative experiment that the introduction of new curricula is carried out: at first they are used in individual schools, then they are distributed to entire regions, and only after making sure that the level of knowledge of students studying according to the new program is significantly higher than that of those studying according to the old method , introduce a new program in the entire education system. At the same time, students who studied according to the old program, with whose indicators the results of those who studied according to the new one were compared, perform the function of a control group, on the basis of which the results of the experiment are compared with the results under normal conditions. The experimental and control groups should be as similar as possible in all significant indicators (gender, age, social, intellectual, etc.) so that it can be confidently stated that all the differences between them in the area of ​​interest to the researcher are due precisely to the experiment.

The test is produces the activity of the subject in an artificial situation: the test is an organized system of stimuli to which the subject must respond in a certain way. In the strict sense of the word, testing is a psychodiagnostic procedure. The tests that are most fully and systematically used in the education system are described in A. Anastazi's work "Psychological Testing". The author notes that all existing types of tests are used in education, however, among all standardized tests, most of all achievement tests that give "the final assessment of the achievements of the individual upon completion of training, in which the main interest is focused on what the individual can do by now."[ 8] It is these tests that are now becoming more and more widespread in the Russian education system, making up, in particular, a significant share of tasks in the Unified State Examination (USE). The content of these tests can be correlated in certain parts with educational standards. They are considered as a means of objective assessment and a tool for optimizing curricula. As a rule, achievement tests are holistic "batteries", covering all curricula for holistic educational systems. These tests include tasks in which students must demonstrate their knowledge and skills in the subject. The most common types of tasks are:

› choice of two answers - "true" and "false";

› choosing the only correct answer from the proposed list of options;

› selection of several correct answers from the proposed list of options;

› inserting a missing word;

› comparison of elements that make up two rows (for example, the names of scientists and the concepts introduced by them);

› restoring the sequence of elements;

› grouping of elements into categories.

All tasks in achievement tests either have the same level of complexity and are evaluated by the same number of points, or are arranged in order of increasing complexity, and then the assessment of the performance of each task in points depends on the level of its complexity.

In addition, the education system uses various psychodiagnostic methods aimed at studying the child's psychological readiness for school, school motivation, school maturity, problems of student adaptation, his relationship with teachers and comrades, professional orientation.

Sociometry - an empirical method for studying intragroup relationships, developed by the American social psychologist and psychotherapist J. Moreno. This method is widely used in pedagogical practice for the formation and regrouping of educational teams, the definition of intra-group interaction. The study is carried out as follows: the members of the group are asked a question, the answer to which implies the choice among the comrades in the group of partners for any joint activity. Usually schoolchildren are asked questions related to educational activities (“Which classmate would you like to prepare for the exam together with?”), extracurricular activities (“Which classmate would you like to prepare an amateur performance number together with?”) And personal relationships (“ Which classmate would you invite to your birthday party?"). When processing the results for each given question, the number of choices received by each member of the group is counted, and the reciprocity of the choices made and received is established. Based on this, conclusions are drawn about the status of each member in the team, whether he has stable friendly ties, the existence of separate stable groups in the team, the presence of clear leaders and isolated members in the group. Such information expands the teacher's ability to interact with the student team, having it, the teacher is able to significantly increase the effectiveness of pedagogical, and especially educational, impact on students.

Topic 2. EDUCATION AS AN OBJECT OF STUDY OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

2.1. The structure of the education system. The educational process as a unity of educational and pedagogical activities

Education is a social institution, one of the substructures of society. The content of education reflects the state of society and the transition from one state to another. Currently, this is a transition from the industrial society of the twentieth century. to the post-industrial information society of the XXI century. The development and functioning of education are conditioned by all factors and conditions of the existence of society: economic, political, social, cultural, etc.

The very word "education" in Russian comes from the root "obraz", which originally gave it the meaning of "creating a person in the image and likeness". Man was created "in the image and likeness of God", and the understanding of this image, following it was interpreted (and is now interpreted in the Christian religion) as education. Since the Renaissance, when a person himself becomes a value, education is considered as a way of his development, entry into the world, creating his image, face, personality. In other languages, words translated into Russian as "education" do not have the root morpheme "image", but conceptually they include all aspects of the interaction of participants in the educational process.

Education as a social institution is a complex system that has been formed and continues to be formed by the state. The state determines the structure of the entire system as a whole, the principles of its functioning and directions for further development. The principles of state policy in the field of education are reflected in the Law of the Russian Federation dated July 10, 1992 No. 3266-1 "On Education" (hereinafter referred to as the Law on Education). This law establishes the basic principles that the education system should:

1) be humanistic in nature with the priority of universal human values, human life and health, free development of the individual, education of citizenship, diligence, respect for human rights and freedoms, love for the environment, homeland, family;

2) maintain a single cultural and educational space throughout the country, i.e. not only educate students, but also protect and develop national cultures, regional cultural traditions and characteristics;

3) create conditions for the general accessibility of education, adaptation of the education system to the levels and characteristics of the development and training of students and pupils;

4) be secular (i.e. not religious) in both state and municipal educational institutions (this does not apply to non-state institutions);

5) support freedom and pluralism in education, be attentive to different opinions and approaches (the creation and operation of organizational structures of political parties, socio-political and religious movements and organizations are not allowed in educational institutions and educational authorities);

6) have a democratic, state-public nature of education management and allow autonomy (independence) of educational institutions.[9]

The main system-forming, meaning-forming component of the educational system is the goal of education, i.e., the answer to the question of what kind of person society needs at this stage of its historical development. In each country, starting from ancient times, education as a system was formed in accordance with the specific socio-historical conditions that characterized a certain period in the development of society. The purpose of education determines all other components of its system: state educational standards of educational programs, a network of educational institutions, educational authorities.

Educational programs determine the content of education at each of its specific levels in a given educational institution. The educational program of any educational institution consists of approximately 70% of the mandatory minimum, formed on the basis of the federal component of the educational standard and mandatory for all citizens of Russia. Approximately 30% of the educational program is created on the basis of the national-regional component of the educational standard. This part of the program is mandatory only for Russian citizens living in a particular region.

All educational programs in the Russian Federation are divided into general educational and professional. General educational programs are aimed at forming a common culture of the new generation, its adaptation to life in society and creating the basis for a conscious choice and development of professional programs. General educational programs include programs of preschool education, primary general education (grades 1-4), basic general education (grades 5-9) and secondary general education (grades 10-11). Professional programs are designed to train specialists of appropriate qualifications by consistently improving the professional and general educational levels of students. Professional educational programs include primary, secondary, higher and postgraduate professional education. Both for general education and for professional educational programs, the mandatory minimum content is determined by the state educational standards (SES). In addition to the main educational programs, additional programs can be implemented in an educational institution - electives, circles, courses, etc.

Educational institutions carry out the educational process, i.e., implement educational programs and (or) provide maintenance and education of students, pupils. According to their organizational and legal forms, educational institutions can be state, municipal, non-state (private, institutions of public and religious organizations). Educational institutions work with students of different ages, levels of training and abilities, and according to these indicators, the following types of educational institutions are distinguished:

› preschool;

› general education (primary, basic and secondary general education);

› professional (primary, secondary, higher and postgraduate professional education);

› additional education (children and adults);

› special (correctional) for students with developmental disabilities;

› institutions for orphans and children left without parental care;

› other institutions carrying out the educational process.

Within each type, types of educational institutions can be distinguished, for example, among general educational institutions, schools, lyceums, gymnasiums, schools with in-depth study of individual subjects are distinguished. Institutions of secondary vocational education are represented by schools, technical schools and colleges, and institutions of higher education are represented by universities, institutes, and academies.

Education authorities control at three levels.

1. The federal level includes education management bodies of national importance: the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, the Federal Agency for Education, the Higher Attestation Commission and other federal bodies related to the education system. Their jurisdiction includes issues of a strategic nature, such as the formation and implementation of federal policy in the field of education, the development and implementation of federal and international programs for the development of education, the establishment of federal components of state educational standards, the development and approval of model regulations on educational institutions, the establishment of the procedure for their creation, reorganization and liquidation, establishment of the procedure for licensing, attestation and state accreditation of educational institutions, establishment of the procedure for attestation of teaching staff of state and municipal educational institutions.

2. The level of subjects of the Russian Federation includes their ministries and (or) departments of education. These bodies determine the specifics of the implementation of federal laws and regulations in their regions. They are in charge of the formation of the legislation of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation in the field of education, the development and implementation of regional programs for the development of education, the establishment of national and regional components of state educational standards, the determination of the procedure for the creation, reorganization, liquidation and financing of educational institutions, the formation of the budget of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation in terms of education costs etc.

3. The local level includes district and city educational authorities under local administrations. These bodies directly manage the day-to-day activities of municipal educational institutions.

Forms of education. There are two forms of education in the Russian Federation. In accordance with the Law on Education, the development of an educational program is allowed either directly in an educational institution in full-time, part-time (evening) or correspondence form, or in the form of family education, self-education, external study.

The first form is characterized by the fact that in the course of education there is always a connection between the student and the teacher, who is responsible for the level and quality of the education received by the student.

In the second form, the student only takes exams in certain parts of the educational program, while the teachers do not monitor the process of his preparation and are not responsible for this, all responsibility for the quality of mastering the educational program lies with the student's parents and himself. These two forms are fundamentally different, but their combination is permitted by law: any child studying at school, from any class, can be transferred to the second form of education for a period of one or two years or more. For this, only the desire of the parents and the execution of the relevant documents are necessary.

Within the framework of this entire system, the following structural elements of the educational process function: 1) educational information determined by educational programs; 2) means of its transmission and reception (methods of teaching and learning); 3) students and teachers.

Thus, education as a system can be considered in three dimensions,[10] which are:

› social scale of consideration, i.e. education in the world, country, society, region and organization, state, public and private education, secular and clerical education, etc.;

› level of education (pre-school, school, secondary vocational, higher vocational with different levels, advanced training institutions, postgraduate, doctoral studies);

› profile of education: general, special, professional, additional.

All of the listed indicators, being socio-economic and general pedagogical, upon careful consideration, reveal the actual psychological and pedagogical aspects. They consist in answers to the questions: how the student himself or his parents, having presented the hierarchy of the levels of the education system, can make the right choice; how within each educational structure the specificity of its levels is reflected for the student; how the previous level of training in one structure can provide a comfortable continuation of education in another, etc. At the same time, the process of determining the quality of education by studying the education of students includes the solution of psychological and pedagogical problems proper.

The educational system functions and develops in the educational process of teaching and educating a person. Even at the end of the XIX century. P.F. Kapterev noted that the educational process is something more than just the transfer of information from one generation to another: "The essence of the educational process from the inside is the self-development of the body; the transfer of the most important cultural acquisitions and teaching by the older generation to the younger is only the outer side of this process that covers its very essence."[11] Such a definition emphasizes that throughout the educational process, its main tasks are the development and self-development of a person as a person in the process of learning. Education as a process does not stop throughout the entire conscious life of a person, continuously changing in terms of goals, content, and forms. At present, the main characteristic of the education process is its continuity. This is a direct consequence of the features of the new information society: the amount of information necessary for an individual to fully function as a professional and a member of society is constantly increasing, and previously learned information becomes outdated faster, therefore, in any field of activity, one has to constantly improve one's skills, assimilating new information.

Considering education as a process involves, firstly, the distinction between its two sides: teaching and learning. Education refers to the activity of the teacher to transfer knowledge and life experience to students, to form their skills and abilities. The concept of "teaching" implies the activity of the student himself, his actions aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills, development of abilities, self-improvement. Thus, the process of education proceeds as a unity of the activity of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and the student (learning activity). Secondly, from the side of the teacher, the educational process almost always represents the unity of training and education. Thirdly, the very process of such educative learning from the perspective of the student includes the acquisition of knowledge, practical actions, the fulfillment of educational tasks, as well as personal and communicative training, which contributes to its comprehensive development.

The word "education" is also understood as the result of the educational process, when the phrases "get an education", "received education" are used. Education as a result can be considered in two ways.[12] The first is the image of the result that should be obtained by the educational system and fixed in the form of an educational standard. Modern educational standards include requirements for the qualities of a person completing a certain course of study, for his knowledge and skills. The second plane of existence of the result of education is the person himself, who has been trained in a certain educational system. His experience as a set of formed intellectual, personal, behavioral qualities, knowledge and skills allows him to adequately act on this basis in various life situations. In this sense, education is the result of education. For example, a school forms the general education of a graduate, and a graduate of a higher educational institution is characterized by a special professional education. A broad and systematic education as a result lays in the person who received it the basis of self-confidence and competitiveness in changing conditions of life.

2.2. Personal-activity approach as a psychological basis for the organization of the educational process

As noted above, the educational process is implemented in the unity of two activities - educational and pedagogical, so it can be considered from two positions - the position of the teacher and the position of the student. Each of them is a unique, unique personality and at the same time the subject of his own activity, that is, he plans, organizes and carries out this activity and at the same time is formed in it as a person. Accordingly, the personal-activity approach (LAP) implies taking into account these features of both the teacher and the student.

The personal component of the LDP assumes that both the student himself and his personal characteristics - motives, goals, psychological make-up, i.e. the student himself as a person, are placed at the center of the learning process. The teacher determines the educational goal of each lesson and directs the entire educational process to the development of the student's personality based precisely on the interests, knowledge and skills of students. In accordance with this, when implementing the LDP, it is necessary to formulate aloud the goal of each lesson from the perspective of each student and the entire student team as a whole, for example: "Today each of you will learn ..." or "In today's lesson, we will understand ..." . Thanks to such formulations, the student is able at the end of each lesson to answer the question posed to himself: what did he learn in this lesson from what he did not know or could not do before it began. With such a formulation of educational work, all methodological decisions of the lesson being conducted are determined by the personality of the student - his needs, motives, abilities, intellectual development and other psychological characteristics.

LDP implies that in the process of teaching any academic subject, the national, gender, age, status and individual psychological characteristics of the student are taken into account as much as possible. This accounting is carried out through the content and form of training tasks, through the nature of communication with the student. In the conditions of LDP, all questions, tasks and comments addressed to the student should stimulate his intellectual activity, support and guide his learning activities without excessive fixation of attention on mistakes and unsuccessful actions. Thus, not only the account of the currently existing psychological characteristics of the student is carried out, but also the formation and further development of his psyche, including cognitive processes, personal qualities, and activity characteristics.

The activity component of the LDP implies that, as noted at the beginning of the section, the teacher and the student are the subjects of pedagogical and educational activities, respectively. This means that each of them carries out its own activity and at the same time develops thanks to it. In Russian psychology, A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein made the greatest contribution to the development of a general theory of activity. According to their approaches, activity is an active purposeful interaction of a person with the outside world, including other people and himself, caused by a certain need. The need is understood as a state of need for something, but the activity itself does not determine the need. In order to carry out purposeful activity, it is necessary to know which forms of it will lead to the satisfaction of the need that has arisen. Any activity is objective: the object of a specific activity is what it is aimed at transforming. For example, the subject of the teacher's activity is the transfer of social experience to students and the organization of assimilation by students of the reported information, and the subject of the student's activity is the development of this experience. It is in the subject of activity that the experienced need finds its certainty, and thus the motives of activity are formed - the incentive components of the need, showing the subject how to satisfy it. Due to the presence of a motive, a person acquires the ability to take active actions to satisfy his need.

The motives of any activity can be internal and external in relation to it. Internal motives reflect the content of the activity, for example, the student carries out his educational activities for the reason that he is interested in this subject, or because he is aware of the importance of the acquired knowledge. External motives force him to perform a certain activity, but they are not connected with its content: the student can do this primarily because of the pressure exerted on him by his parents.

Motives give the subject of activity the opportunity to set conscious goals and take certain actions to achieve them. The goal is an imaginary image of the desired result of the action being performed. Figuratively speaking, if the goal is what the subject wants to achieve, then the motive is the answer to the question why the subject achieves this goal. The action is a component of any activity and, like the goal, is realized by its subject. Each action is carried out in certain ways, which are called operations and depend on the conditions in which the action has to be performed. Operations are not realized by the subject performing the action.

From the position of a teacher, LDP means the organization and management of a student's purposeful learning activities in the general context of his life - the orientation of interests, life plans, value orientations, and his understanding of the meaning of learning. Implementing LDP, the teacher will have to reconsider the usual interpretation of the learning process mainly as the communication of knowledge and the formation of skills and abilities. The learning process should be reoriented towards setting and solving specific learning tasks by the students themselves. For a teacher implementing LDP, the primary task is to form in students their own internal need for the development of generalized methods and techniques of educational activities, the assimilation of new knowledge, the formation of more advanced skills in all types of activities. The teacher needs to move from treating the student as an object of influence to subject-subject, equal-partner cooperation with him. The informing-controlling function of the teacher is increasingly giving way to the coordinating function. The teacher becomes for the student a person who causes genuine interest both in the subject and in himself as a communication partner. Communication with students is considered by him as cooperation in solving educational problems. As a result of such interaction, the teacher and the class form a single collective subject of educational activity.

From the standpoint of the student, the LDP presupposes, first of all, the freedom of the student to choose the methods of his teaching. For the student, the psychological manifestations of the implementation of the LDP teacher are, firstly, ensuring the safety of the student's personal manifestations, creating conditions for his self-actualization and personal growth. Secondly, this approach forms the activity of the student, his readiness for learning activities, for solving problematic tasks through equal partnership, subject-subject trusting relationships with the teacher. Thirdly, LDP ensures the unity of the student's internal and external motives for learning activity: the main internal motive becomes cognitive, and the main external motive is the motive for achieving success. Fourth, as a result of the implementation of this approach, the student's internal acceptance of the learning task is formed and satisfaction arises from its solution in cooperation with other students. This is the basis for developing feelings of competence, belonging to a group, self-confidence. LDP from the point of view of the student also means the assimilation of new forms, methods, rules and means of socio-professional and communicative activity, i.e. the development of not only the professional competence of the student, but also his personality as a whole.

Thus, the personal-activity approach in education means that, first of all, the main task of education is set and solved in the educational process - the creation of conditions for the development of a harmonious, morally perfect, socially active, professionally competent and self-developing personality. The personality is at the center of education, and, accordingly, it becomes anthropocentric in terms of purpose, content and forms of organization.

Topic 3. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES

3.1. General characteristics of educational activity. Correlation between the concepts of educational activity, teaching, teaching and learning

The concept of "learning activity" is rather ambiguous. With its broad interpretation, this term replaces the concepts of learning and teaching. According to the periodization of the age development of D. B. Elkonin, educational activity is the leading one in primary school age. However, it continues to be one of the main types of activity in subsequent age periods - adolescence, senior school and student. In this sense, educational activity can be defined as the subject's activity in mastering generalized methods of solving life problems and self-development, carried out by solving educational problems specially set by the teacher. Initially, learning activities are carried out on the basis of external control and evaluation by the teacher, but gradually they turn into self-control and self-esteem of the student.

Educational activity, like any other, is motivated, purposeful, objective, has its own means of implementation, its own specific product and result. Among all other types of activity, educational activity is distinguished by the fact that its subject and subject coincide: it is aimed at the student himself - his improvement, development, formation as a person thanks to his conscious, purposeful development of social experience. The activity of the student is focused on the development of deep systemic knowledge, the development of generalized methods of action and the ability to adequately and creatively apply them in a variety of situations.

There are three main characteristics of educational activity that distinguish it from other forms of human activity: 1) it is specifically aimed at mastering educational material and solving educational problems; 2) generalized methods of action and scientific concepts are mastered in it (in contrast to everyday concepts, which are assimilated outside of activities specially aimed at this); 3) the development of the general method of action is ahead of the practical solution of problems in time.

In addition, learning activity differs from other types of human activity in that in it the subject deliberately pursues the goal of achieving changes in himself, and the Czech theoretician of learning I. Lingart singles out as its main distinguishing feature the dependence of changes in the mental properties and behavior of the student on the result of his own actions.

The actual activity characteristics of educational activity include its subject, means and methods of implementation, product and result. The subject of learning activity, that is, what it is aimed at, is primarily the assimilation of knowledge, mastery of generalized methods of action, the development of techniques and methods of action, their programs and algorithms, in the process of which the student himself develops. According to D. B. Elkonin, learning activity is not identical with assimilation. Assimilation is its main content and is determined by the structure and level of its development. At the same time, assimilation mediates changes in the intellectual and personal development of the subject.

The means of educational activity, with the help of which it is carried out, are represented by three types: 1) mental logical operations that provide cognitive and research activity - comparison, classification, analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, induction, deduction. Without them, no mental activity is possible at all; 2) sign systems, in the form of which knowledge is fixed and individual experience is reproduced. These include language, alphabet, number system used in various spheres of life and scientific disciplines symbolism; 3) the so-called background, i.e. the knowledge already available to the student, through the inclusion of new knowledge in which the individual experience of the student is structured.

Ways of learning activity can be diverse, including reproductive, problem-creative, research and cognitive actions, but they are all divided into two categories: mental actions and motor skills. The most complete and detailed description of the method is presented by the theory of the phased formation of mental actions (P. Ya. Galperin, N. F. Talyzina). According to this theory, the objective action and the thought that expresses it constitute final, initially different, but genetically related links in a single process of gradual transformation of a material action into an ideal one, its internalization, i.e., the transition from outside to inside. The action is functionally connected with the object to which it is directed, includes the purpose of transforming the given object and the means of such transformation. All this taken together constitutes the performing part of the action being formed.

In addition to the performing part, the action includes the orienting basis of the action (OOD). A correct DTE provides the subject with a correct picture of the circumstances in which an action should be performed, drawing up an action plan adequate to these circumstances, using the necessary forms of action control and applying appropriate methods for correcting errors. Thus, the level and quality of the performance of the formed action depend on the OOD. The orienting operations that are part of the OOD can be active when the action is at the stage of initial orientation in it and is being built in its entirety, and passive when it is the turn to perform an already established, formed action. OOD is a psychological mechanism for regulating performing and control operations that are included in the action in the process of its formation and with the help of which the correctness of the process of developing the action is assessed.

The formation of OOD is determined according to three criteria: the degree of its completeness (complete - incomplete), the degree of generalization (generalized - specific) and the way students receive it (independently - in finished form). Complete OOD assumes that the student has accurate and sufficient information about all the components of the action being formed. Generalization of OOD is characterized by the breadth of the class of objects to which this action is applicable in practice. Self-development of OOD gives the student the most accurate orientation in the performance of an action that quickly passes to the level of automatism. The combination of each of the three components determines the type of DTE.

Theoretically, there can be eight types of DTEs, but in reality, three types are most common. In accordance with them, three types of teaching are distinguished. The first type is present when performing an action by trial and error, when the task of teaching a certain action is not specifically set. At the same time, the assimilation of the action occurs with errors, insufficient understanding of the material, inability to highlight the most significant features and issues. The second type involves the formulation of the task of special training in action and a reasonable study of its external aspects before the start of practical implementation. Here the type of OOD is set by the teacher, while the student himself is not able to orient himself in the newly performed action. The assimilation of knowledge in this case occurs more confidently, with a complete understanding of the content of the material and a clear distinction between essential and non-essential features. The third type is characterized by the fact that the student, having encountered an action new to him, is able to compose and implement its orienting basis himself. With this type of teaching, a quick, effective and error-free assimilation of an action is ensured, which involves the formation of all its basic qualities.

According to the theory of P. Ya. Galperin, the process of mastering knowledge and forming actions goes through six stages: 1) motivation (attracting the attention of the student, awakening his interest and desire to acquire relevant knowledge); 2) understanding of the OOD; 3) performance of an action in a material (materialized) form; 4) performing an action in terms of loud speech; 5) performing an action in terms of speech to oneself; 6) performance of an action in terms of inner speech (in the mind). The orienting basis of a given mental action is explained to the student at the very beginning of its formation, then the action itself is performed based on the OOD, and first in the external plan with real objects. After reaching a certain level of mastery in the external execution of an action, the student begins to perform it by speaking aloud, then speaking to himself, and ultimately completely in his mind. This is mental action in the proper sense of the word.

Along with mental actions, students develop perception, voluntary attention and speech, as well as a system of concepts related to the action being performed. The action as a result of its formation on the basis of this theory can be transferred to the mental plane either in its entirety, or only in its indicative part (understanding of the action). In the latter case, the performing part of the action remains external, changes along with the internal OOD, and turns into a motor skill that accompanies the mental action.

A skill in psychology is defined in different ways, but the main essence of all its definitions is that it is a performance of an action strengthened and brought to perfection as a result of repeated purposeful exercises. The skill is characterized by the absence of directional control from the side of consciousness, optimal execution time, quality. It is a multi-level motor system: it always has a leading and background levels, leading auxiliary links, automatisms of different ranks. The process of skill formation is no less complicated.

N. A. Bernshtein distinguishes two periods in the construction of any skill.

The first period - skill establishment - includes four phases:

1) establishment of the leading sensorimotor level;

2) determining the composition of movements by observing and analyzing the movements of another person;

3) identification of adequate corrections as "self-perception of these movements from within";

4) switching background corrections to lower levels, i.e., the process of automation.

The second period - skill stabilization - also breaks down into phases:

1) triggering different levels together;

2) standardization of movements;

3) stabilization, providing resistance to various interferences, "unbreakability".[13]

Almost the same periods of skill formation are established by L. B. Itelson, considering the actual psychological side of its formation [14].

As a skill is formed, the number of errors made during the performance of an action decreases, the speed of performing individual operations increases, and their stable sequence is established; the subject's attention is transferred from the process of performing an action to its result, consciousness loses its focus on the form of performing the action, the degree of physical and emotional stress and fatigue decreases, and the actions themselves are gradually reduced due to the loss of some intermediate operations.

The product of educational activity is the structured and actualized knowledge that has appeared in the student, which becomes the basis for the ability to solve problems that require its application. The result of educational activity is not knowledge itself, but a change in the level of development of the student caused by its assimilation: the emergence of new life values, life meanings, a change in attitude to learning. The subject may be tempted to continue this activity or may begin to avoid it. These variants of attitude to learning ultimately determine the level of intellectual and personal development.

Along with the concept of "learning activity" in pedagogy and psychology, the terms "training", "teaching" and "learning" are widely used. These concepts are often confused, replacing one with another, although their content is different. Teaching (the word itself comes from the verb "to teach", that is, to teach someone else) is understood as the teacher's active work in transferring knowledge, skills, abilities and life experience to students. When using the word "learning" refers to the student's own activity and efforts to develop their abilities and acquire knowledge, skills and abilities. Both learning and learning are processes that unfold over time. To denote the result of these processes, the term "learning" is used, which comes from the perfective verb "to learn". This concept characterizes the fact that the subject acquires new mental properties and qualities as a result of learning, teaching and other types of activity. It should be noted that both training, and teaching, and educational activities in general, in some cases, may not have a visible result, acting in the form of learning. Learning differs from learning also in that it is usually an organized and consciously controlled process, while learning can occur spontaneously and be the result of any activity, not just learning. Teaching and learning are almost always conscious processes, and learning can also occur unconsciously: a person may not be aware for some time that he has learned something, although this actually happened. These are the main reasons for breeding the discussed concepts and their parallel use.

3.2. Types of learning, their development in ontogenesis. Psychological factors of learning success

The process of development of the organism and the psyche is not in all cases associated with learning: for example, it does not include the processes and results that characterize the biological maturation of the organism, unfold and proceed according to biological, including genetic, laws. Nevertheless, learning directly depends on maturation, always relies on a certain level of biological maturity of the organism and cannot be realized without it. For example, a child is not able to speak on his own until he develops phonemic hearing, the vocal apparatus and the parts of the brain responsible for speech. Children under the age of 14 are not allowed to engage in sports such as boxing and weightlifting, that is, until the age until their skeleton is completely ossified and there is sufficient muscle mass. P. Teilhard-de-Chardin noted that "... without a long period of maturation, no profound change in nature can occur."[15]

Man has five kinds of learning. Three of them are also characteristic of animals and unite man with all other living beings with a developed central nervous system.

1. Learning by the mechanism of imprinting. The word "imprinting" in translation from English literally means "imprinting". Both in humans and in animals, this mechanism is leading in the first time after birth and is a rapid automatic adaptation of the body to living conditions using innate forms of behavior - unconditioned reflexes. Through imprinting, instincts are formed that are genetically programmed and hardly amenable to change. The mechanism of imprinting is better understood in higher animals. The famous Swiss ethologist K. Lorenz studied it using the example of ducklings that had just hatched from eggs, which have an innate unconditioned reflex of following the first moving object that came into their field of vision. Under normal conditions, the mother duck becomes such an object, and the following of the chicks ensures their safety and further learning. In the last minutes before the ducklings were born, K. Lorenz isolated the mother duck from the eggs and himself turned out to be the first moving object they saw, which they began to follow. Young mammals imprint the appearance of their fellows and are guided by it in the search for breeding partners. In humans, the mechanism of imprinting is leading only in the first hours and days of life, when other types of learning have not yet begun to form. For example, as soon as a newborn touches his mother's breast with his lips for the first time, his congenital sucking reflex is immediately triggered, and in the future, this whole situation as a whole - a certain position during feeding, the smell of the mother, touching the lips of the nipple - causes this reflex in the child, providing him with nutrition. . Thus, elementary learning is necessary even to turn on genetically programmed instincts.

2. Conditioned reflex learning. The name of this type of learning speaks for itself: within its framework, life experience is acquired through the formation of conditioned reflexes. The beginning of his research was laid by the works of the outstanding Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov. As a result of the formation of a conditioned reflex, the body develops a reaction to a biologically indifferent stimulus that did not cause such a reaction before. Classical examples of the formation of conditioned reflexes in the studies of I.P. Pavlov: when feeding a laboratory dog, a light bulb was lit next to the bowl, and after a while, unconditioned food reflexes in this dog began to appear only at the sight of a lit light bulb, even in the absence of food. Also, on the basis of food reflexes, a conditioned reflex was developed in laboratory mice: they were fed accompanied by the ringing of a bell, and after several such situations, they began to run only to the ringing of this bell, without even having received food.

Conditioned reflexes can be developed in a child during the first days of life. In one of the maternity hospitals in Moscow, an experiment was carried out, consisting in the fact that as soon as each child turned his head to the right, a light bulb was lit next to him. In the first days of life, children already have an orienting reflex "What is it?", which is expressed in turning the head towards a source of light or sound. By the end of the first day of the experiment, a significant increase in the children's head turns to the right side was recorded. Then the light bulb on the right side of each child was turned off, and the reflex quickly faded away. A day later, with the same children, the experiment was continued: light bulbs were turned on when they turned their heads to the left, and the conditioned reflex, expressed in an increase in turning their heads to the left, formed in them as quickly as in the first case. As a result of constant association in the memory of a stimulus with the satisfaction of a biological need, the body learns to respond to it, and the stimulus begins to perform a signaling function.

3. Operant learning. In this case, individual experience is acquired by "trial and error". The task or situation faced by the individual gives rise to a variety of behavioral reactions in him, with the help of which he tries to solve this problem. Each of the solution options is consistently tested in practice and the result achieved is automatically evaluated. That reaction or combination of reactions that leads to the best result, providing the best adaptation to the situation, stands out from the rest and is fixed in the experience. Subsequently, when faced with a similar situation, this reaction will be used in the first place. The child begins to use learning by trial and error already in infancy, when he learns to manipulate objects. This type of learning is used by a person mainly in the field of practical actions: handling objects, physical exercises.

The other two types of learning available to man are ranked among the highest, since they are not found or almost never found in other living beings.

4. Vicarious learning is carried out by direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately adopts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is especially significant in infancy and early childhood, when, not yet mastering the symbolic function of speech, the child gains experience mainly through imitation. To imitate the actions of adults, repeating them after them, the child begins already in infancy, and by the beginning of early childhood, delayed imitation occurs when the child depicts those actions that he observed some time ago. In the third year of life, sexual self-identification begins to be realized through imitation: the child imitates more the parent of the same gender.

5. Verbal learning gives a person the opportunity to gain new experience through language and verbal communication. Thanks to him, a person can transfer to other people who speak speech and receive from them the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities. To do this, they must be expressed in words understandable to the student, and the meaning of incomprehensible words needs to be clarified. Speaking more broadly, not only verbal speech, but also other sign systems, one of which is language, serve as a means of verbal learning. Sign systems also include symbols used in mathematics, physics, chemistry, graphic symbols used in technology, art and other fields of activity. The assimilation of language and other symbolic systems, the acquisition of the ability to operate with them, frees a person from the need for a real collision with the object of study and its knowledge with the help of the senses. Learning becomes possible in an abstract, abstract form on the basis of higher mental functions - consciousness, thinking and speech. Verbal learning in its simplest forms becomes possible for a child from the moment when he begins to demonstrate an understanding of what the adults around him are saying, that is, even before reaching the age of one. But the full possibilities of verbal learning begin to be used by the child only when he speaks himself and demonstrates the desire to find out the meaning of words incomprehensible to him.

The learning process is implemented through the following intellectual mechanisms: the formation of associations (establishing links between individual knowledge or parts of experience), imitation (mainly in the field of skills formation), distinction and generalization (in the field of concept formation), insight ("guesses", i.e., the direct perception of any new information in what is already known from past experience), creativity (the basis for creating new knowledge, objects, skills and abilities).

The success of learning depends on many factors, including psychological ones. These factors fall into three areas: the student, the teacher, and the learning material. Of the psychological factors that determine the success of learning, the student includes: his motivation for learning, the arbitrariness of cognitive processes, the development of volitional qualities of the personality (perseverance, purposefulness, responsibility, discipline, consciousness, accuracy), etc. An important role is played by the development of communicative qualities and skills of the student : the ability to interact with people, especially with teachers and classmates, the ability to ask for help if necessary and to help others in case of difficulties.

The teacher is concerned with such circumstances that determine the success of learning as the presence of the psychological qualities necessary for the implementation of pedagogical activities: enthusiasm for the subject being taught, the ability to convey this enthusiasm to students, the use of teaching methods appropriate for the age and intellectual development of students, as well as other professionally important qualities (for more details see 5.1, 5.2). One of the most important factors in the success of learning related to the teacher is the system of rewards used by him for success in learning activities and punishments for failures in it. Incentives should correspond to the real success of the student and reflect the efforts made by him as much as possible. Encouragement should be more tangible for those academic successes, the achievement of which was difficult and depended more on the student's efforts than on his abilities. Punishments should play a stimulating role, affect and actualize the student's need for self-improvement, strengthen his motivation to achieve success, and not to avoid failure (for more details, see 6.4).

Finally, learning material is also a source of important factors for learning success. The main ones are the content of the material, the simultaneous combination of its accessibility to the understanding of the student and a sufficient level of complexity. Accessibility ensures the most complete assimilation of the material by students, and complexity ensures their further mental development. Accessibility and complexity should be reasonably combined: too simple material will not have any noticeable effect on mental development, and too complex material will not be understood by students and fully assimilated, they will not be able to use it in practice, and, as a result, it will also not leave a stable , a noticeable trace in their psyche. The optimal complexity from a psychological point of view is such educational material, which is at the highest level of difficulty currently available to the student for mastering. Studying on such material, the subject of educational activity not only experiences the greatest personal satisfaction from success, but also develops best intellectually. Another important point is the connection between the degree of difficulty of the material and the student's interest in it, the personal significance of this material for him. Material that is closely related to the needs of the student and his knowledge and skills, which he himself considers valuable, other things being equal, is perceived as less difficult. At the same time, extremely light material that does not require a certain degree of mental effort does not arouse interest. Overcoming difficulties in educational activities should regularly cause the student to feel a sense of success, therefore, a positive attitude and interest in educational activities are formed in conditions of real overcoming of difficulties, which means that these difficulties themselves should be within the student's power.

3.3. Features of learning during preschool childhood

The acquisition of new experience by a person begins from the first days of his life, but in different age periods this process occurs in different ways. In developmental and educational psychology, the names of age periods according to the levels of education are accepted: junior preschool (3-5 years old), senior preschool (5-7 years old), junior school (7-10 years old), secondary school, or teenage (10-15 years old). ), senior school, or early youth (15-17 years old), and student, or youthful (17-22-23 years old). Each age is characterized by three main indicators: 1) a certain social situation of development, i.e., the form of relations that the child enters into with adults in a given period; 2) the leading type of activity; 3) basic mental neoplasms, that is, mental and social changes that first appear at a given age stage and determine the main lines of mental development during this period.

The period of preschool childhood is highlighted by us especially, since learning at this time is already in full swing, but educational activity has not yet been formed. This is the main qualitative difference between this period and the period of schooling.

From the first days of life, the child accumulates experience due to the action of the mechanisms of imprinting and conditioned reflex learning. With physical development, operant learning begins to play an increasingly important role, and through communication with adults, vicarious and verbal learning begins to develop. By the time a child reaches the age of 2, all five types of learning are already available to him and act together, which ensures rapid progress in his development, especially noticeable at an early age. Before a year and a half or two years, all types of learning in a child exist independently of each other and of speech, and speech is used only as a means of emotional communication.

The task of learning in infancy and early childhood is to combine different forms of learning, which is necessary because different types of learning involve and develop different analyzers, and the experience gained with the help of several senses at once is more versatile and rich. If all four types of learning are used in education, which are socially influenced (that is, everything except imprinting), then the child will simultaneously develop perception, motor skills, attention, memory, thinking and speech.

For the physical development of an infant (from birth to 1 year), systematic exercises are needed, bright multi-colored toys that he can manipulate in various ways: pick up, move, turn, produce visual and auditory effects. With the help of these actions, the baby actively learns the world around him. He begins to form voluntary movements and cognitive interests. In the second half of life, children begin to reproduce and repeat the movements of adults, thereby demonstrating their readiness for vicarious learning with repeated independent exercises. This is especially important for further speech development. The child begins to develop speech hearing, which includes phonemic hearing, morphemic hearing, learning the rules for combining sounds and words. For the development of speech hearing, you should talk with the baby as much as possible from the first days, and at the same time he should see the face and hands of the speaker well, since additional information is transmitted through facial expressions and gestures about what is indicated with the help of words. The success of assimilation and understanding of speech increases significantly if, along with proper verbal communication with an adult and during it, the child has the opportunity to actively manipulate objects called by an adult, independently explore them, study them carefully.

The main acquisition of the child by the end of infancy is upright walking. It provides the release of the hands, which have the opportunity to perform even more diverse movements. For the development of the movements of the arms and legs of the child and his accelerated preparation for upright posture, coordination of hand and foot movements is of great importance. It is important that the child can simultaneously lean on objects with his feet and grab them with his hands, first lying down, and then sitting and moving along the surface. This will prepare the coordinated movements of his arms and legs and the corresponding muscle groups. In addition, in the second half of life, the perception, memory and motor activity of the child reach such a level that he is able to solve elementary tasks in a visual-active plan. The development of visual-effective thinking begins. It can be accelerated by setting the baby tasks for visual and motor search for familiar and attractive objects.

In early childhood (from 1 to 3 years old), the child's intellect improves, visual-active thinking develops, and the transition from it to visual-figurative thinking begins. To speed up this process, children should be given as many tasks for imagination as possible, and their desire for creativity and activity should be encouraged. At this age, the child is most receptive to the assimilation of speech, since the formation of the prerequisites for mastering it is being completed - speech hearing and the ability to understand. Passive perception and response to adult speech are replaced by active mastery of speech. The development of a child's speech in the initial period of active use of it is based on operant and vicarious learning, outwardly expressed as imitation of the speech of adults. Therefore, it is necessary to speak with the child somewhat more slowly than usual, clearly pronouncing all the words and expressions, to use facial expressions and gestures more widely, since it is easier for the child to catch the meaning of the spoken words from them. In the process of speech development, the child imitates the members of his family most of all, therefore, the more often and more correctly they talk to him, the faster he learns speech. Parents sometimes begin to worry that their child speaks little for his age, but if he understands the words addressed to him well, there is no reason for concern. In the third year of life, children often demonstrate a significant increase in their own speech activity, catching up with their peers. There are significant individual differences in the nature and pace of the child's assimilation of active speech, which nevertheless remain the norm and should not cause concern.

Young children are characterized by increased curiosity, and its support by adults leads to the rapid intellectual development of the child, to the acquisition of the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities in the process of playing communication with the elders. Among the toys of the child, analogues of real objects should appear, with the help of which children, imitating adults, could join the world of human relations. There should be plenty of dolls depicting people and animals, cubes from which you can create various designs, household items, toy furniture, kitchen utensils, garden tools, tools. It is at this age that the child learns the generally accepted methods of acting with objects and the purpose of these objects, and also begins to master instrumental and correlative actions with the help of toys. In order to use one object as an instrument of influence on another, the child must learn to adapt the movements of his hand to the device of the instrument used. This process takes time, and learning here is mainly operant, but both vicarious, when an adult shows the child a way to hold a tool and actions with it, and verbal, when a direct display is replaced by a verbal explanation (but at an early age this does not happen so often) .

Preschool age (from 3 to 7 years) makes a great contribution to the cognitive development of children, and the degree of their readiness for school education depends on how thoughtful their education and upbringing in the family during this period is. During this period, the child builds an adequate image of reality due to the assimilation of sensory standards, i.e., the properties of objects distinguished by perception and fixed in the language in the form of concepts (sizes, shapes, colors, temperatures, textures, etc.). Geometric figures (triangle, circle, square, etc.) can serve as such reference samples when perceiving the shape of objects, when perceiving magnitude - gradations of measures (length, area, volume), when perceiving color - the natural spectrum and various shades of its primary colors . In parallel with the development of perception, the process of developing the child’s memory takes place in several directions at once: memorization becomes arbitrary and mediated, memorization and recall techniques are formed, repetition aloud is replaced by repetition to oneself. The limit of the development of the memory of a preschooler is set by his intellectual capabilities. The main feature of the development of thinking in preschool age is the transition from the external plan of action to the internal one. This is possible because speech begins to be included in the setting of the task by the preschooler, verbal reasoning is used. Visual-figurative thinking and creative imagination make it possible to draw up a plan for solving a problem and follow it.

The development of speech in preschool age follows the line of its connection with thinking. The main ways of developing the speech of preschoolers are the formation of concepts, the logic of reasoning, the semantic enrichment of the word, the differentiation and generalization of verbal meanings. The main task of adults during this period of speech development is to enrich the child's vocabulary, to assimilate the idea of ​​the ambiguity of the words used and their semantic shades. The child needs to develop the ability to tell and reason aloud, encouraging him to actively use speech. This is facilitated by intellectual word games, reading stories and fairy tales, tasks for inventing them. During these years, it is already possible to start learning a foreign language, as a preschooler acquires the ability to learn the general structure of the language and its laws.

It is advisable for preschoolers to begin teaching the perception and generation of written speech, that is, reading and writing. After the child learns the letters and learns to read by syllables, it is necessary to teach him how to properly stress. On this basis, there is further learning to read in whole words as a result of the formation of word reproduction with a focus on the stressed vowel sound. In fact, learning to read is divided into two stages, qualitatively different from each other. The first of them is analytical (the intellectual operation of analysis consists in the mental division of an object into its component parts), in which children master the reading of individual parts of words, the mechanism for reading syllables and combining them into words. The second stage is synthetic (the intellectual operation of synthesis is the opposite of analysis and consists in combining parts into a whole), which involves learning to read whole words, phrases and sentences, mastering intonations, and comprehending a coherent text. Although a child is now required to be able to read at least one syllable when entering school, in principle it is possible to ensure that by this moment the child already has the skills of synthetic reading. What is needed for this is described in section 3.4 when describing the preparation of the child for school.

A child can also be taught to write as early as 5 years of age, first in block letters, and then in ordinary written letters. At the same time, the main goal of teaching a preschooler to write is not his ability to write letters, but the development of written speech as a special form of expressing the need to speak out, the need for communication. But education at this age in any case should be based on the personal interest of the child, be attractive to him. The teaching and learning of preschoolers should remain within the framework of their leading activity - the game. The educational material should be directly related to the needs of the preschooler, since he is not yet able to ask himself why he needs this material, and, accordingly, quickly forgets what does not currently meet his needs and what he constantly does not use. .

3.4. Psychological readiness of the child to study at school

The formation and improvement of the cognitive processes and personal qualities of the child in preschool childhood provide not only his development, but also preparation for learning at school.

The opinions of most researchers on the problem of children's readiness for schooling agree that it includes at least two components: information-cognitive and personal. The information-cognitive component is related to the fact that by the time a child enters school, he should already have a certain amount of knowledge and skills. The requirements for the knowledge and skills of a child entering school increase with each new generation of schoolchildren. Even 20 years ago, not all children entering school could read at least syllable by syllable. This was not specifically required, since in the first grade, training began with learning the alphabet from the primer, and the formation of reading skills was thus ensured for all students. Moreover, in scientific periodicals there were discussions on the topic of whether it is harmful to teach a child to read before school. Those who posed the question in this way gave two main arguments: firstly, a child who can read will not be interested in studying in the first grade, he will get bored in the classroom and begin to interfere with his comrades and the teacher, and secondly, parents who do not have special pedagogical knowledge may use "inappropriate" methods of teaching reading that come into conflict with the school methodology that the child will inevitably encounter, and the difference in methods will make it difficult for the teacher to work with such a child. Now this question has been removed by itself: the ability to read at least syllable by syllable is a mandatory requirement for admission to school. It has already been said above that, in principle, a preschooler can be taught to read not only by syllables, but also in a synthetic way, that is, together. To do this, in teaching reading, it is necessary to distinguish the following stages.

1. Development of attention to the grammatical features of words (prepositions, word endings, their order in a sentence) and clarification of their role in the connection of words in a sentence.

2. Learning to predict when reading, that is, the ability to guess about the possible semantic and verbal continuation of the text.

3. Learning to read words together, reducing unstressed vowels in them.

4. Teaching the selection and continuous reading of the so-called phonetic word (word with auxiliary words and particles adjacent to it).

5. Formation of the ability to combine words into phrases, read them without re-reading.

6. Teaching the actual reading of a sentence - reading with intonational division into semantic groups expressing a single semantic whole (such groups are called syntagmas).

In addition to the ability to read, a child entering school is required to know about the world around him, allowing him to navigate in everyday life. R. S. Nemov proposes the following list of questions to assess the general orientation and stock of everyday knowledge of children entering school.[16]

1. What is your name? (Calling a surname instead of a given name is not a mistake.).

2. How old are you?

3. What are your parents' names? (Calling nicknames is not considered a mistake.).

4. What is the name of the city where you live?

5. What is the name of the street where you live?

6. What is your house and apartment number?

7. What animals do you know? Which are wild and which are domestic? (An answer that names at least two wild and two domestic animals is counted.).

8. At what time of the year do leaves appear and at what time of the year do leaves fall from trees?

9. What is the name of the time of day when you wake up, have dinner and get ready for bed?

10. Name the items of clothing and cutlery that you use. (An answer is counted in which at least three items of clothing and three cutlery are named.).

In addition to the information reflected in these questions, the future first grader should list the names of the days of the week and months of the year in order, be able to sort the proposed pictures into groups denoting abstract concepts (furniture, clothes, shoes, animals, birds, etc.).

The skills of a child entering school are tested using various methods. One of the most popular and widely used is the Kern-Jirasek test. It consists of three tasks. The first of them is to draw a person (male figure). Attention is drawn to whether all the details of the appearance are present, whether there are clothes, as drawn and connected to the body of the limb. The second task is to copy the phrase written in written letters. A child entering school does not yet know how to write in written letters, but the way he copies them reveals the features of fine motor skills, as well as the ability to follow the model and accept the learning task as a task that needs to be completed. The criteria for the severity of these properties in a child are the following signs: the evenness of writing a phrase, the emphasis on a capital letter, the absence of gaps in letters, the separation of words by spaces, the presence of a dot at the end. The third task is to draw a group of points located in a certain way. By the way this is done, one can judge the concentration and stability of attention.

In addition to the knowledge and skills actually available to the child, information and cognitive readiness also reflects the level of development of his cognitive processes. By entering school, a child needs to have voluntary attention, but in fact, as a rule, by this moment it exists only in its infancy: voluntary concentration tires the child very quickly, the stability of voluntary attention is still very low, so the teacher has to rely more on the involuntary attention of first graders . The memory of children entering school is already functioning well, they are able to remember a fairly large amount of information, but memorization itself occurs mainly mechanically. The development of thinking by the time of entering school should be at the level of free operation with images and the beginning of the formation of abstract concepts. Of course, visual-effective thinking should also be involved, an indicator of its development is the success of the child's practical actions with objects. Speech by this time should be used by the child not only for communication, but also for managing other cognitive processes: he must understand and accept verbal instructions calling for concentration, paying attention, remembering, imagining, thinking, and also learning to give himself such instructions himself.

The second component of readiness for school is personal. Some authors unjustifiably narrow its semantic field, calling it motivational and thus excluding from consideration other personal qualities of the child necessary for learning at school. Motives and the motivational sphere play an important role among them. The child should strive to acquire new knowledge and develop new skills, achieve academic success and have a moderately high level of aspirations.

In addition, the claim to the new status of a schoolchild, a person engaged in a serious matter - study, elevates the child in his own eyes, because schoolchildren seem to him "big".

Motivation determines the performance of the student as the main prerequisite for all his achievements. But the motives of a child entering school are by no means always characterized by the required degree of maturity. For example, adults during this period of a child's life often ask him if he wants to go to school and what he likes there. The answers to this last question may be: "Briefcase", "Change", "You can play with the guys." Such motives indicate that the child does not yet fully understand the essence of the teaching and focuses mainly on the external attributes of the school. Of course, all children go through a passion and a period of pride in school paraphernalia and through its demonstration to all acquaintances, but those of them who have a high degree of maturity in their motives for teaching will quickly bypass this stage.

Some children, when asked if they want to go to school, answer in the negative. Most often this happens due to the fact that they are anxious about the difficulties that await them there. Usually such an attitude is transmitted to children from parents who overly express their concern about the future academic success and failure of their children. The behavior of older brothers and sisters who are already in school and experiencing certain difficulties can play a role. Watching this, the child himself may begin to be afraid of school.

In addition to motives, strong-willed qualities are also essential: patience, perseverance, purposefulness, discipline, accuracy, etc. Without these qualities, it is impossible to make educational success any sustainable. We must not lose sight of the development of communicative qualities - sociability, responsiveness, the ability to help others and ask for help yourself. The lag in the development of these qualities will make it difficult for the child to establish contact with comrades, especially if before school he had no such experience at all, for example, he did not attend kindergarten. In kindergarten, the child has time to get used to the situation when he is not the center of attention, as in the family, but one of the many equal members of the team. For "home" children, being in a large group of peers can be a stressful situation and make it difficult for them to adapt to school.

So, all components of a child's readiness for school are important and none of them can be neglected. A lag in the development of any of them can cause a child to have serious difficulties in learning and (or) relationships in the classroom, which give rise to a whole range of psychological problems called psychogenic school maladaptation (PSD). A child with this syndrome develops a persistent aversion to school. A first-grader usually formulates it like this: “study is not interesting”, “the guys are bad”, and “the teacher is evil”. PSDD can occur not only in the first grade, but also in the fifth, when moving from primary to secondary, and in any other grade, for example, when changing teachers: if a student has a good relationship with a previous teacher, he may simply not accept a new one. In order to overcome PDD, a student needs the help of not only parents, but also the teacher himself and often a teacher-psychologist.

3.5. Junior schoolchild, teenager and high school student as subjects of educational activity

The child becomes the subject of educational activity from the moment of entering the school. Readiness for schooling (see 3.4) determines how the younger student will master this type of activity. It is the readiness for full-fledged educational activity, its formation and formation as a leader that characterizes the younger student. For him, a comprehensive readiness for school means an attitude towards it as an entry into a new world, the joy of discovery, readiness for new duties, responsibility to the school, teacher and class. At the heart of the educational motivation of a younger student is an interest in new information.

In elementary school, the child develops the basic elements of learning activities: learning motivation, the necessary learning skills, self-control and self-assessment. Theoretical thinking is developing, which ensures the assimilation of scientific concepts. Within the framework of educational activity, a student, under the guidance of a teacher, masters the content of developed forms of social consciousness: scientific concepts, artistic images, moral values, and legal norms. Under the influence of educational activity, the main mental neoplasms of primary school age are formed: reflection, the ability to act in the mind and plan one's activities. The younger student accepts the authority of the teacher, masters various forms of educational cooperation. In his educational activity, private activities are formed: reading, writing, visual and other creative activities, working on a computer.

The younger student, as a subject of educational activity, develops and forms within its framework, mastering new ways of mental actions and operations: analysis, synthesis, generalization, classification, etc. It is in educational activity that the main relations of the younger student with society are carried out and the main qualities are formed in it. his personality (self-awareness and self-esteem, motivation to achieve success, diligence, independence, ideas about morality, creative and other abilities) and cognitive processes (arbitrariness, productivity), as well as his attitude towards himself, the world, society, people around him. This general attitude is manifested through the child's attitude to learning, the teacher, comrades, and the school as a whole. The hierarchy of authorities changes in the junior schoolchild: along with the parents, the teacher becomes a significant figure, and in most cases his authority is even higher, since he organizes the leading educational activity for junior schoolchildren, is the source of the knowledge gained. Therefore, in disputes between a junior schoolchild and his parents, one of the main arguments on his part is a reference to the teacher's point of view ("And the teacher said so!").

The younger student, having a new position in life, faces a number of difficulties. At the very beginning of schooling for most children, the main difficulty is the need for volitional self-regulation of behavior: it is very difficult for them to sit the whole lesson in one place and listen carefully to the teacher all the time, to comply with all disciplinary requirements. In addition, the daily regimen is undergoing significant changes: the child now has to get up early, and when he returns home, he has to devote time to doing homework. It is necessary to adapt children to work at school and at home as soon as possible, to teach them how to use their energy rationally. The task of parents is to organize a new daily routine for the child, and the curriculum should be designed in such a way as to constantly maintain the child's interest in learning and involve his involuntary attention more than arbitrary. Younger students still do not know how to rationally organize their work, in this they need the help of adults. Over time, other difficulties arise: the initial joy of getting to know the school can be replaced by apathy and indifference. This is usually the result of the child's repeated failure to overcome the challenges of the curriculum. It is especially important for the teacher during this period not to lose each student from the field of his attention.

By the end of elementary school, the student is already beginning to show himself not only as a subject of teaching. He enters into active interpersonal interaction, he has his own opinions and points of view that differ from the positions of significant adults. These are internal indicators of his transition to adolescence, and the external criterion is the transition from primary to secondary school.

A teenager as a subject of educational activity is characterized by the fact that for him it ceases to be the leading one, although it remains the main one, occupying most of his time.

For a teenager, social activity becomes the leading one, carried out within the framework of other types of activity: organizational, cultural, sports, labor, informal communication. In all these activities, a teenager seeks to establish himself as a person, to become a socially significant person. He assumes different social roles, learns to build communication in different teams, taking into account the norms of relationships adopted in them. Educational activity becomes for a teenager one of the types of ongoing activity that can ensure his self-affirmation and individualization. A teenager manifests himself in studies, chooses some means and methods of its implementation and rejects others, prefers some subjects and ignores others, behaves in a certain way at school, trying to attract the attention of his peers in the first place, achieves a more equal position in relations with teachers . Thus, he asserts himself, his subjective exclusivity and individuality, striving to stand out in some way.

Learning motivation in a teenager is already a unity of cognitive motives and motives for achieving success. Educational activity is included in his general activity aimed at entering society, mastering norms, values ​​and ways of behavior. Therefore, the content of educational material for adolescents must necessarily reflect the general context of modernity: world culture, socio-economic and life-domestic relations. If a teenager does not feel the connection of the subject being taught with real life, he is likely to doubt its necessity for himself personally and will not make noticeable efforts to master it.

The attitude of a teenager to the grades received and, in general, to academic performance is also changing: if in elementary school academic performance was the main criterion for the success of a peer and the value of his personality, then in the middle classes, students are already able to evaluate each other's personal qualities and their own, regardless of academic performance. Academic performance itself can decrease both in "favorite" and "unloved" subjects, not only due to a change in the emotional attitude to grades and a decrease in their subjective significance, but also because adolescents have many new hobbies that compete with their studies and leave them on her less and less time.

Adolescents also change their attitude to the authority of adults. By itself, the position of an adult as a teacher now does not at all mean unconditional acceptance of his authority. In a teenager, authority must be earned, although the authority of adults remains a real factor in his life for a long time, because he remains a schoolchild who is dependent on his parents, and his personal qualities have not yet been sufficiently developed to allow him to live and act independently.

Already in the middle of middle school age, most adolescents are faced with the problem of making a decision about the form of continuing their education, since the profile specialization of classes today begins, as a rule, from the eighth grade. Therefore, by this age, adolescents need to decide on the preference for academic subjects of a particular cycle (physical and mathematical, natural sciences or humanitarian). This implies a sufficient formation of a system of stable interests and preferences by the age of 13. In addition to educational interests, adolescents already differ markedly from each other in terms of value orientations. They can be more guided by the values ​​of learning, work, social employment, interpersonal relationships, material well-being, spiritual development, etc. These orientations determine the adolescent's decisions about the further form of his education. When focusing mainly on the values ​​of the teaching, the adolescent passes into the status of a senior student.

A high school student as a subject of educational activity is specific in that he has already made a certain choice to continue his studies. Its social situation of development is characterized not only by a new team that arises during the transition to high school or a secondary specialized educational institution, but also mainly by a focus on the future: the choice of a profession, a further way of life. Accordingly, in the upper grades, the most important activity for the student is the search for value orientations, associated with the desire for autonomy, the right to be oneself, a person who is different from those around him, even those closest to him.

A high school student consciously thinks about the choice of a profession and, as a rule, tends to make a decision about it himself. This life circumstance to the greatest extent determines the nature of his educational activity: it becomes educational and professional. This is manifested in the choice of an educational institution, classes with in-depth training in the necessary subjects, preference and ignoring the subjects of a particular cycle. The latter is no longer determined by whether an object is “liked” or “not liked”, as in adolescence, but by whether it is “needed” or “not needed”. First of all, high school students pay attention to those subjects in which they will have to take exams when entering the chosen university. Their educational motivation is changing, since the educational activity itself at school is no longer important in itself, but as a means of implementing life plans for the future.

The main internal motive of educational activity for the majority of high school students is result orientation - obtaining specific necessary knowledge; the orientation of the teaching to the development of knowledge in general, regardless of their need, characterizes very few at this age. Accordingly, the attitude towards academic achievement is changing again: it also acts as such a means. For a high school student, the mark obtained in the “necessary” subject is an indicator of the level of knowledge he has and can play a role in further admission to the university, so high school students again begin to pay special attention to the marks they receive.

The main subjects of educational activity of high school students are the organization and systematization of their individual experience through its expansion, addition, introduction of new information, as well as the development of independence and a creative approach to solving educational problems. In general, we can say that a high school student does not study for the sake of learning itself, but for something more significant, only expected in the future.

The authority of a teacher for a high school student acquires somewhat different properties than for a teenager: a high school student may consider that he is already an adult, "outgrown" the school and its requirements, the authority of the school may generally fall to a minimum. But this does not determine for him the level of authority of each subject teacher as a specialist and personality. Any teacher can be an authoritative person for a high school student, whose opinion is valuable to him.

On the basis of the high school student's desire for independence, he forms a complete structure of self-consciousness, develops personal reflection, realizes life prospects, and forms a level of claims. The correct organization of educational and professional activities largely determines the formation of a school graduate as a subject of future labor activity.

3.6. Formation of educational motivation, its types

Learning motivation is a particular type of motivation included in learning activities and determining the student's need for knowledge. What kind of motivation will be formed in a student depends on a number of factors, among which are the following:

› building an educational system (existing levels of education, opportunities and prospects for transition from one level to another, opportunities to receive education in a particular specialty);

› functioning of a specific educational institution (school, lyceum or gymnasium), teaching staff; psychological atmosphere for teachers and students;

› organization of the educational process (building a schedule of classes, dividing the academic year into segments - quarters or semesters, forms of intermediate and final control of students' knowledge);

› subjective features of the student (age, gender, intellectual development, self-esteem, abilities, features of interaction with other students);

› subjective features of the teacher (first of all, the attitude towards the student and teaching, as well as other features - see 5.1);

› the specifics of the subject (fields of knowledge reflected by it, subjective difficulty for the student, features of teaching methods).

Learning motivation, like any other, is systemic. It is characterized by direction, stability and dynamism. Learning activity, like any other, is motivated by a hierarchy of motives, which can be dominated by either internal motives due to the content of this activity and its implementation, or external motives related to the student's need to take a certain place in the system of social relations (successfully graduate from school, earn a positive attitude). those around you to receive some kind of reward). With age, the development and interaction of the student's needs and motives occur, which leads to changes in their hierarchy. The formation of learning motivation is not just a strengthening of a positive or negative attitude towards learning, but the complication of the structure of the motivational sphere behind this phenomenon: the emergence of new, more mature motives, the emergence of other, sometimes contradictory, relationships between them. Accordingly, when analyzing the motivation of educational activity, it is necessary not only to determine the dominant motive, but also to take into account the entire structure of the motivational sphere of the individual.

Educational motivation begins to take shape in early school age. Initially, it is based on an interest in new knowledge (see 3.5). In the general psychological sense, interest is the emotional experience of a cognitive need. In everyday everyday speech and in professional pedagogical communication, the term "interest" is often replaced by the concept of motivation, which in this case acts as a synonym: "He has no interest in learning", "It is necessary to develop cognitive interests", etc. Such a shift in concepts due to the fact that in the theory of learning it was interest that was the first object of study.

The most important prerequisites for the formation of a student's interest in learning are his understanding of the meaning of educational activity, awareness of its importance for himself personally. Interest in the content of educational material and in the educational activity itself can be formed only on the condition that the student has the opportunity to show mental independence and initiative in learning. The more active the teaching methods, the easier it is to interest the student, while the presentation of the finished material without setting certain problems for the students does not arouse their interest, although it does not interfere with the understanding of the content of the training. It follows that the main means of cultivating a sustainable interest in learning is the use by the teacher of such questions and tasks that would require active search activity from students. An important role in this is played by the creation of problem situations, the collision of students with difficulties that they cannot resolve with the help of the available stock of knowledge. In this case, students themselves are convinced of the need to acquire new knowledge or apply already acquired knowledge in new ways.

Only the work that requires a certain degree of tension is interesting. Too light material that does not require the application of mental effort does not arouse interest. But, as already noted in subsection 3.2, the difficulty of the educational material or educational task should be within the student's strength, overcome by his own efforts or with the help of a teacher, while it is important that the student regularly repeat situations of success. Only in this case, the difficulty leads to an increase in interest in learning.

The novelty of the educational material and its diversity, as well as the variety of teaching methods, are also important for the formation of interest. The means of ensuring these properties of the educational material and the educational process are not only the introduction of new information into them, the acquaintance of students with ever new objects of study, but also the discovery of new sides in objects already known to students, showing them the new and unexpected in the usual and everyday. This is also achieved by the fact that different subjects consider the same objects from different angles. However, knowledge of the new must be based on existing knowledge. The comprehensive use of previously acquired knowledge is one of the main conditions for showing interest in learning, it is important for students to feel their need throughout the entire period of study. Otherwise, there is a great risk not only of forgetting them, but also of forming an indifferent attitude towards this knowledge among students, the emergence of doubts about their necessity.

Significant factors in the emergence of interest in educational material are the emotional coloring of his teaching, the living word of the teacher. If the teacher demonstrates his own interest in the subject, finds vivid, convincing examples, skillfully uses the intonational coloring of the material, the subjective difficulty in mastering even the most difficult subject decreases, and interest in it increases.

The success of educational activity largely depends on the predominance of a certain motivational orientation. In pedagogical psychology, four types of motivational orientations of educational activity are distinguished: 1) on the process (the student enjoys the very process of solving educational problems, he likes to look for different ways to solve them); 2) on the result (the most important thing for the student is the acquired and acquired knowledge and skills); 3) to be assessed by the teacher (the main thing is to receive a high or at least a positive assessment at the moment, which is not at all a direct reflection of the actual level of knowledge); 4) to avoid trouble (teaching is carried out mainly formally, only in order not to receive low marks, not to be expelled, not to conflict with the teacher and the administration of the educational institution).

Studies have established a positive relationship between motivational orientations and the success of learning. The greatest success is ensured by the orientation towards the process and the result, somewhat less - by the orientation towards evaluation. The weakest connection with the success of the exercise has an orientation to avoid trouble. It is easy to see that the basis of the process and result orientations are the internal motives of learning activity, and the assessment and avoidance of troubles are based on external motives. It can be seen from this that learning activity is most effectively motivated by an internal motive: the desire to improve the results of one's activities, the thirst for knowledge, the awareness of the need to assimilate it, the desire to broaden one's horizons, deepen and systematize knowledge. Among the external motives of educational activity, the motives for achieving success, the need for communication and dominance have the greatest motivating force. Guided by such a complex of motives, the student is able to persistently and enthusiastically, regardless of fatigue and time, work on educational material (more precisely, on solving educational problems) and at the same time resist other stimuli and other distractions.

A high degree of connection between the level of intellectual development of students and their learning motivation was noted: an initially high level of mental development is, on the one hand, an important condition for the realization of the level of motivation that the child had initially, and on the other hand, a condition for the further formation of positive motivation in the process of learning activities. The relationship with the level of personal development is not so obvious and unambiguous: of course, a high level of personal development necessarily implies that a person has a need for self-improvement, but this need can also be satisfied outside of systematic educational activities taking place within the framework of the "official" educational process.

As noted above, learning motivation has several constant characteristics, including stability and dynamism. Motivation dynamism is understood as the feature disclosed above, consisting in the change in the structure of his educational motivation with the age of the student. The stability of learning motivation is the ability to maintain the required level of mental activity with a wide variety of factors affecting the state of the student. This ability ensures the relative duration and high productivity of educational activities not only in normal, but also in extreme conditions. For example, during the Great Patriotic War, schools lacked the most elementary educational equipment, there were almost no normal notebooks, ink, and there was not enough fuel to heat the classrooms. However, even under these conditions, the educational process continued: full-fledged lessons were held, schoolchildren actively worked in classes and prepared homework, and none of them referred to the difficulties that everyone experienced. Such a high stability of their educational motivation was given by the awareness of the importance of the activities performed for the whole country, schoolchildren regarded their educational work as a contribution to achieving victory, i.e., in the structure of their educational motivation, along with internal motives, broad social motives also occupied a large place.

Nowadays, even in the absence of such great difficulties, there is often a fluctuation in the stability of students' learning motivation depending on their psychophysical state (fatigue), the duration of the school day (by the end of the day with the accumulation of fatigue, the stability of motivation falls), relations with a particular teacher (in the lessons of more respected and authoritative teachers and motivation is more stable) and other factors. Studies have shown that the greatest stability of the motivational structure is given by the dominance of internal motivation, in which motivational orientations to the process and to the result occupy the first and second places in the hierarchy of motives, respectively. The main psychological determinants of the sustainability of learning motivation include:

1) the initial type of motivational structure (which particular motives of educational activity dominate in a given person);

2) the personal significance of the subject content of the activity (how important the subject considers the learning process and the result obtained in it, what meaning he sees in learning, how he relates to it);

3) the type of educational task that the student is faced with (the more he is interested in tasks of this kind, the more stable his motivation will be when performing them).

3.7. Features of educational tasks. Psychological requirements for learning tasks

The main component of educational activity is a learning task, on the basis of which the student prepares to solve life problems. The educational task is offered to him in the form of a specific task in a specific educational situation, the totality of which is the educational process. The main difference between the educational task and all other tasks that life puts before a person is that the goal of solving it is not to change the objects with which the subject acts, but to change the subject himself. A student solves a learning problem not just for the sake of solving it, but in order to develop himself on this basis.

The learning task is a systemic education, in which there are two mandatory components: 1) the subject of the task in the initial state; 2) a model of the required state of the subject of the problem, i.e. "given and sought", "known and unknown", "condition and requirement". This applies not only to tasks in mathematics, physics, and chemistry, traditionally understood by the word "task", in the wording of which the condition and question are clearly distinguished, but also to all other tasks in various subjects. For example, if a student is given the task of memorizing a poem, then the initial state of the subject of this task is the printed text of the poem itself, which is perceived and comprehended by the student only when reading, and the requirement is to store this text in memory, and then reproduce and comprehend it without direct perception. The same applies to memorizing a certain topic in biology, history and other similar subjects - with the difference that in this case it is not necessary to reproduce the material verbatim. On the contrary, the student's ability to retell the given in his own words, without distorting the meaning, is an indicator of his assimilation of this material. Asking an essay on literature on any topic, the teacher gives a condition that consists in the formulation of this topic, and the "sought" is the disclosure of this briefly formulated topic in a fairly lengthy text. In all these cases, the learning task appears as a complex system of information about some phenomenon, object or process, in which only part of the information is clearly defined, while the other part is unknown and can be found only on the basis of solving the problem by searching for new knowledge, transformation, proof. etc.

Any learning task includes the following parts.[17]

1. Subject area - the class of objects in question. What these objects will be depends on the subject for which the task is given. These can be natural phenomena (in biology, geography), abstract numbers and symbols (in mathematics), real persons and their actions and deeds (in history, social science), fictional characters (in literature), lexical and grammatical units (in native and foreign languages), etc.

2. Relations connecting objects included in the subject area. For example, in traditionally understood problems in mathematics, such relationships are stated in the condition of the problem. In any case, it is these relations between objects that give the student the subject of the task in the initial state.

3. Requirement - the goal of solving the problem, what exactly needs to be found. The requirement is usually presented either at the beginning of the task (for example, "Insert the missing letters", "Choose the correct answer"), or after the presentation of the subject of the problem (a question in mathematics problems).

4. Method of solution - a set of actions and operations that must be performed on the condition of the problem in order to obtain its solution. Many tasks have several ways of solving, and which one will be chosen by the student depends on many psychological characteristics of the latter.

Solving problems in various ways expands the possibilities for improving educational activities and the development of its subject itself. When solving problems in one way, the goal of the student is only to find the correct answer. Seeing several possible solutions, he is faced with the choice of the most rational, concise and economical of them. To justify such a choice, it is necessary to use all theoretical knowledge in this field, recall all known methods and techniques for solving and, if necessary, create new ones. At the same time, the student accumulates experience in applying knowledge, which contributes to the development of logical search techniques, the development of creative thinking, and the improvement of research abilities.

To solve the problem, the student must have a certain set of tools that are not included in the problem itself. The means of solving the problem can be:

1) material (tools, machines, devices, models, reagents, preparations, materials for the manufacture of real objects and their models);

2) materialized (texts, diagrams, formulas, tables, graphs, diagrams, illustrations);

3) ideal (knowledge used in solving the problem, recorded in verbal (verbal) form).

The educational task has a number of features that distinguish it from the task of life. One of these features has already been mentioned above: the solution of a learning problem is aimed not at changing the problem itself, but at changing the subject that solves it. As a result of solving educational problems, the student masters generalized methods of action, and this mastery is the main goal of their solution.

The second feature of the learning task is that it is usually ambiguous and not always strictly defined: the student can put into it a slightly different meaning than the teacher, set himself, when solving it, somewhat different from the teacher's goals, not fully realize what exactly is required of him and what role the solution of this or that task plays for its development, although this may be obvious to the teacher. This happens for various reasons: because of the inability to understand the requirements of the task, the mixing of various relationships (the student to the subject, to the teacher and to the specific task). Often it depends on the specifics of the subject's learning motivation.

The third feature of the educational task is that, presenting it to students, the teacher sets certain goals for himself and for them. To achieve any goal, in many cases, it is necessary to solve not one, but several tasks. In turn, the solution of one task can contribute to the achievement of several different learning goals. Consequently, the achievement of any educational goal requires a set of tasks organized in a certain way, in which each of them occupies a logically assigned place. Actually, each subject, each section, topic, task pursues its own goals for the mental development of the student, and the entire educational program, as noted in subsection 2.1, is built primarily on the basis of certain educational goals. Therefore, all components of learning can be called learning tasks, only of a different scale, and then smaller, private learning tasks will be part of larger ones (Fig. 2).

Rice. one

From such a hierarchical organization of educational tasks follows a number of psychological requirements for them, formulated by E. I. Mashbits.[18]

1. Initially, not one particular learning task should be constructed, but the entire set of tasks as a whole. When constructing this set, first of all, it is necessary to proceed from the general goals of education. These goals determine the goals of studying each academic subject, they, in turn, determine the goals of studying each section of the subject, topic and completing each task. In other words, in the process of constructing a set of learning tasks, it is necessary to go in the direction from the general to the particular.

2. When designing a system of tasks, one must strive to ensure that it ensures the achievement of not only immediate, but also distant educational goals. Unfortunately, in school practice, the focus is on achieving immediate goals, and at best, it is their teachers who formulate them to students. Ideally, when designing and solving learning problems, the student should clearly understand the hierarchy of all learning goals, both immediate and distant. The ascent to the latter goes consistently, purposefully, by generalizing the already mastered means of the training system.

3. Educational tasks should ensure the assimilation of the system of means necessary and sufficient for the successful implementation of educational activities. In practice, as a rule, some elements of this system are used, which ensures the solution of problems of only one class and is insufficient for solving another class of problems.

4. The learning task should be constructed in such a way that the appropriate means of activity, the assimilation of which is provided for in the process of solving problems, act as a direct product of learning. This means that students should be able to directly perceive the fact that they have mastered certain knowledge, skills and abilities as a result of solving the educational tasks proposed by the teacher. The implementation of this requirement implies that the formulation of the task and the teacher's assistance in solving it should be aimed at students' awareness of their actions - reflection. This helps them to generalize their actions for the further solution of educational problems. E. I. Mashbits notes that, although scientists pay great attention to the issues of reflection, in practice the teacher does not have the means to regulate students' reflection in solving problems. In order for students, when solving educational problems, to consciously perform and control their actions, they must have clear ideas about the structure and means of their solution. They receive information about this from the teacher in the form of a coherent system of orientation.

3.8. Learning actions as a means of solving learning problems. Types of learning activities

Morphological units of any kind of activity are actions. The largest Russian researcher of the psychological theory of activity, A. N. Leontiev, defined the composition of activity "in no other way than in the form of an action or a chain of actions that are subordinate to particular goals that can stand out from the general goal."[19] As shown in subsection 2.2, activity as a whole is determined by a motive, and each action is determined by its goal. At the same time, goals can be correlated with motives in different ways. A. N. Leontiev explained this as follows: the motive of activity can shift to the goal of the action, and then the action turns into an independent activity. The following can be cited as an example of such a shift of a motive to a goal and the transformation of a goal into an independent motive: a student may have different attitudes towards the process of solving a learning problem. If all he cares about is that he needs to solve the problem faster in order to free himself and do more attractive things, solving the problem remains just an action. If the student is interested at least in evaluating the teacher or solving the problem, since he is interested in finding a solution and obtaining a result in and of itself, then these actions “transfer” into activity, in this case, the activity of learning. Thus, any activity, including educational, consists of actions and is carried out only through them, while the actions themselves can exist outside of activity.

The purpose of the action being performed is present in consciousness (as opposed to the motive, which may not be aware of the subject), and usually the subject is fully aware of this purpose. Conscious actions that make up learning activity, as the student masters them, move to the level of operations - ways to perform more complex actions. Since the actions that the student has already mastered are repeated many times in his future activity, they, according to the laws of skill formation, gradually cease to be consciously controlled by him and become ways to perform actions of a higher level. This can be demonstrated by examples of learning to read, write, and a foreign language.

When a child learns to read, he first remembers the names and outlines of the letters and it is these that he recognizes when reading. Then he begins to merge them into separate syllables, but is not yet able to immediately read the whole word. When the child begins to read whole words, he is faced with the task of understanding the meaning of what he has read, and this becomes his conscious goal. He reads individual letters and syllables already automatically, does not expend conscious effort on recognizing each letter, and their reading turns into an operation - a way of reading the whole word and sentence.

An even clearer example is the mastery of writing. In the first grade, it begins with writing letter elements - sticks, hooks, loops. Then the child begins to write letters as a whole, learns to connect them in writing, but when writing the first words, the goal is not yet to write the word as such, but to correctly derive each letter and the connections between them. At the same time, the child spends a lot of physical strength: not only the muscles of the hand are tense, but the whole arm, the muscles of the back, often the legs and even the head. Only gradually the main physical load passes to the fingers holding the handle. Gradually, the child brings to automatism the skill of writing letters, his handwriting is formed. By the end of the first grade, a dictation appears among the types of work in the lesson, and a presentation in the second grade. Writing from dictation or from memory already implies an understanding of the meaning of what is written. It is the fixation of thoughts on paper that becomes the conscious goal of the student when writing. He no longer follows the writing of individual letters and does not even notice how he writes them - their writing has become an operation.

When mastering a foreign language, at first sufficient effort is required to master the pronunciation of unusual sounds that are absent in the native language, for example, guttural, nasal. When they are pronounced, the correct movements of the lips and tongue are purposeful, they are consciously controlled according to the method of implementation, they require the effort of the student's will. As this action is practiced, the uttered sound is included in the syllable, then in the meaningful word, and finally in the meaningful phrase. The action of his pronunciation is automated, ceases to be controlled by consciousness.

In all these cases, consciousness becomes directed to higher levels of activity. Management of operations is carried out at the level of "background automatism". The process of transition of actions into operations is a manifestation of skill automation (see 3.1). Such operations, which were previously independent actions, are called conscious. Along with them, there are operations in activity that have never been recognized by the subject as independent actions. For example, a child, mastering his native language, verbal speech, intuitively compares the ways of grammatical registration of his statements with the norms of adult speech communication. The child is not aware of these actions, which is why they cannot be defined as such. Therefore, they are operations and from the very beginning are formed unconsciously as a result of imitation. Such actions can be formed either through the internalization of external objective conscious actions that arise in development and learning, or represent the operational composition of mental processes: perception, memory, imagination, thinking. These operations include primarily intellectual mental operations: comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization.

Learning activities can be classified in different ways. For example, in the process of solving each educational task, the following sequence of actions can be distinguished.

1. Goal-setting actions. Before starting to solve a problem, the student must accept it as a task to be completed. At the same time, it is important to correctly understand what exactly should be the result of solving the problem, to realize why and for what purpose it is being solved. Asking such questions, finding answers to them, and subordinating one's behavior to this decision is a complex set of actions.

2. Planning activities. Taking for himself the goal of solving a learning problem, the student is faced with the need to select appropriate actions to solve it, to establish their sequence. At this stage, it is important to understand what should be the result of each individual action and how these intermediate results can be used in the further course of the solution.

3. Performing actions. They represent external actions (subjective and auxiliary, verbal and non-verbal), as well as internal (mental) actions to implement the plan for solving the problem. These actions are also classified according to various criteria:

a) transformative and exploratory actions. This difference is based on what kind of transformations the objects under study are subjected to and what is the scale of these objects. Transformative actions are understood as direct manipulations on a specific object in order to identify its properties, while the student may already know the general patterns and principles of the functioning of objects of this class (for example, solving a mathematical problem based on previously studied rules, laws and formulas). Research actions are aimed at revealing general patterns that were not previously known to the student, and this disclosure can occur purely theoretically, on the basis of an explanation or on specific examples, the analysis of which is subject to the goal of understanding a new generalized method of action;

b) in relation to cognitive processes, among educational actions, perceptual, mnemonic and mental actions are distinguished. Perceptual actions embody the process of perception and include identification, identification, highlighting the figure against the background, separating the main from the secondary. Mnemic actions are carried out on the basis of the memory process, among them one can single out memorization, information filtering, its structuring, preservation, reproduction. Mental actions include, first of all, logical operations - comparison, analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, classification, etc. All these operations are different ways of revealing the existing connections and relationships between objects and within them. According to S. L. Rubinshtein, “thinking correlates, compares each thought that has arisen in the process of thinking with the task, the solution of which is directed by the thought process, and its conditions. Verification, criticism, and control that is carried out in this way characterize thinking as a conscious process.” [20] Each complex intellectual learning action includes a large number of often non-differentiable perceptual, mnemonic and mental operations. Due to the fact that they are not specifically singled out in the general group of learning activities, the teacher sometimes cannot accurately diagnose the nature of the student's difficulty in solving the learning task;

c) reproductive and productive activities. Reproductive actions include reproducing actions carried out according to specified criteria, in a template way. The actions of goal-setting, transformation, creation of a new one, performed according to independently formed criteria, are considered as productive. There are also actions that, depending on the conditions, can be both. The reproductive or productivity of many educational activities is determined by how they are carried out: according to the programs and criteria set by the teacher, previously worked out in a stereotypical way or according to independently formed criteria, own programs, a new way, a new combination of means. For example, writing an essay on literature is a productive action, since success in revealing its topic can be achieved in different ways, but if the student is not able to formulate his own thoughts on the topic and "fills the volume" with quotations from critical articles, this action acquires a greater degree of reproduction. . On the other hand, a certain degree of productivity can be introduced into a reproductive action such as solving an equation if the student sets out to solve it in a way that has not yet been studied in the lessons, and for him this will be creativity. It follows from this that within the framework of educational activity, a teacher-managed program of different correlations between the productivity and reproducibility of students' educational actions can be created.

4. Actions of self-control and self-assessment of the student. When solving a problem, each intermediate result obtained, and even more so the final one, is compared with the goal. Thus, it is estimated how close the decision process has come to achieving the goal. The actions of control and evaluation of the student are internalized actions of the teacher, therefore the psychological mechanism of their formation is special (for details, see 3.9).

An analysis of the actions and operations included in the learning activity makes it possible to present it as a process of managing their development, during which each of these actions acts as an independent subject of mastery and control for the student.

3.9. Self-control and self-assessment of the student

In the general structure of educational activity, a significant place is given to the actions of control (self-control) and evaluation (self-assessment) of the student. This is due to the fact that any other educational action becomes arbitrary and regulated only if there is monitoring and evaluation in the structure of activity. Control over the execution of an action within the framework of any type of activity is carried out using a feedback mechanism. The very setting of the goal of the action assumes that the subject has an idea of ​​what specific result should be obtained when it is performed. The goal is defined by many researchers precisely as "a mental image of the desired result of an action." Performing an action, the subject receives information about the achieved result through his sensations and perception. Receiving such information is called feedback. P. K. Anokhin distinguished two types of feedback, depending on whether it carries information about what result: intermediate or final. The first kind of feedback is called phased, the second - sanctioning.[21] Due to the existence of feedback, the subject has the opportunity to compare the mental image of the desired result of the action with what actually happens when this action is carried out. The result of such a comparison - what was supposed to be obtained, and what is obtained - becomes the basis for making one of three possible solutions:

1) about the continuation of the action, if this is information about the intermediate result and it matches what was expected to be received at this stage of the action;

2) about the end of the action, if this is information about the final result and it matches the expected or is close enough to the expected to consider the execution of the action successful;

3) about the correction of the action, if the information about the result obtained (intermediate or final) does not agree with the expected.

Thus, the process of monitoring the implementation of an action includes three mandatory components: 1) the image of the desired result of the action; 2) the process of comparing this image with the actual result; 3) making a decision to continue, correct or terminate the action. These three components represent the structure of the subject's internal control over its implementation.

In educational activities, the control function is initially completely assigned to the teacher, since the child, who has just begun to master this activity, still does not know the standards that need to be guided and with which his real results will be compared. As each type of learning activity is mastered, the student himself forms his standard results in his mind, and this process is based on mastering the standards presented by the teacher. The process of external control passes into the process of internal control, i.e. self-control, by means of internalization by the student of the teacher's ideas about the criteria for the success of the implementation of educational actions. This transition is prepared by the questions of the teacher, fixing the most important, the main.

P. P. Blonsky outlined four stages of the manifestation of self-control in the assimilation of educational material.[22]

1. Lack of any self-control. The student goes through this stage during the initial familiarization with the material. He has not yet mastered the material, in his mind there has not yet been a picture of the standard mastery of it. He has not yet figured out which questions in the material are the main ones, which ones are secondary, what are the logical connections between its parts. Since the desired image of the result of the action to master this material has not yet been formed, self-control at this stage is impossible.

2. Complete self-control. This stage unfolds during the preparation by the student of homework on this material. He forms ideas about what are the criteria for the reference mastery of the material, the manifestation of the knowledge gained and the skills that have been formed. Following these criteria, the student checks the completeness and correctness of his reproduction and understanding of the material being assimilated, but is not always sure of this completeness and correctness to the end.

3. Selective self-control. Usually, after considering several topics that make up a single section of the course, students' knowledge is monitored: independent work, a repetitive and generalizing lesson, tests, etc. When preparing for this type of work, the student does not restore the learned material in memory in full, but checks only his understanding of the main issues, the orientation in which serves as a criterion for his assimilation of this section.

4. Lack of visible self-control. If the studied material is used to further gain knowledge, then possession of it is implied, as it were, by itself. The student must be fully confident that he knows this material, and must not make a conscious effort to control it. For example, knowledge of the multiplication table in the future begins to be used in the study of multiplication and division of multi-digit numbers by a "column", and when mastering this skill, the data contained in the student's memory from the multiplication table are applied automatically, as a rule, he does not doubt his knowledge of these data.

I. A. Zimnyaya gives as an example the passage of four stages of self-control by students when mastering foreign speaking. Each stage corresponds to a certain level of formation of auditory control. At each of these levels, the speaker's attitude to the error, the interpretation of his intended actions and the nature of the verbal reaction to the erroneous action are evaluated.[23]

The first two levels are characterized by the external controlling influence of the teacher, which determines the formation of internal auditory feedback, and the next two are characterized by the absence of such an influence when correcting errors. These levels are, as it were, transitional from the stage of consciously controlled performance of a speech action in a foreign language to the stage of unconscious control over one's own foreign language speech, speech automatism.

Similarly to self-control, the formation of substantive self-assessment in the structure of activity also takes place. The student does not immediately form an adequate idea of ​​the result of his action as a success or failure, in addition, success can be assessed by a different number of points: the grades "excellent", "good" and "satisfactory" are all considered positive. In elementary school, students have not yet fully mastered the criteria that the teacher is guided by when evaluating their activities, so they must not only point out mistakes made, but also emphasize successfully completed actions. Thus, the students are laid guidelines that they need to be guided in the future in order to achieve academic success. In the process of interiorizing the teacher's attitudes towards the grades given, the students themselves begin to navigate the assessment criteria and build reasonable assumptions about what grade their knowledge and skills currently deserve. If in grades 2-3 most students always expect to receive high grades and are upset when their expectations do not match the results obtained, then sixth graders can already hear such phrases as, for example: “Four” will suit me today, because I "five" don't know. This indicates that the student who expresses such an idea has already mastered the criteria for grading the teacher in the subject, knows what level of knowledge of the material deserves which score, and can assess the level of his own knowledge.

The student's assessment of his own academic success makes a significant contribution to his overall self-esteem. This shows the connection between the activity and the personal: the process of evaluation turns into a personal property. This once again testifies to the internal continuity of the two components of the personal-activity approach to education.

3.10. Assimilation is the main product of educational activity. Psychological characteristics of assimilation

Assimilation is the basic concept of all theories of learning (learning activity), regardless of whether it is singled out as an independent process or is identified with learning. Assimilation can be interpreted from different positions. Firstly, assimilation is a mechanism for the formation of a person's individual experience through the "appropriation of experience" of the socio-historical, carried out throughout a person's life as a result of observation, generalization and decision-making and proceeding in various conditions - spontaneously or in special conditions of educational systems. Secondly, assimilation is a complex intellectual activity of a person, including all cognitive processes that ensure the reception, semantic processing, preservation and reproduction of the received material. Thirdly, assimilation is the result of learning, learning activities, their main goal.

In general, assimilation can be defined as the process of receiving, comprehending and storing the acquired knowledge and applying it to solve practical and theoretical problems. The main criteria for assimilation are the ability to use knowledge in the form of the ability to solve new problems on its basis, the possibility of exteriorizing knowledge, that is, their embodiment in external, practical, objective actions.

All researchers of assimilation note that this is a heterogeneous process that includes several components, steps or phases. Thus, V. A. Krutetsky didactically interpreted the psychological components of assimilation,[24] identified by N. D. Levitov.

1. Positive attitude of students. It is expressed in their attention, interest in the content of the lesson. The positive emotional state experienced in the lesson contributes to the unloading of voluntary attention, which reduces the fatigue of students. If they do not have a positive attitude towards the content of the lesson, their emotional state will not facilitate the assimilation of the material and may even significantly complicate it.

2. The process of direct sensory familiarization with the material. In this component of assimilation, an important role is played by the visibility of the material itself and the observation of students. Much depends on how the teacher will present the material, how he will present it, emphasize the most important issues with his voice, indicate to students what needs to be written down, drawn, drawn. It is in the power of the teacher to make any educational material visual, taking care of the connection between subject, visual (including symbolic) and verbal visibility.

3. Thinking as a process of active processing of the received material. With the logical analysis of the studied material, there is a comprehension and understanding of all connections and relationships, new material is included in the student's already existing experience. Interdisciplinary connections are established, the student sees how to apply the studied material in practice.

4. The process of storing and storing the received and processed information. Numerous studies in this area show that the effectiveness of these processes depends on the setting for the conditions of memorization (time, purpose, nature of use in practice) and the student's involvement in his own active activity. So, in terms of setting the importance, significance of the educational material, focusing on the fact that it can be used in life, and at the same time, when comparing it with other previously learned information, it will be retained in memory longer and stronger than if memorization relied only on the understanding of the need to learn the given in order to answer the questions posed by the teacher.

All these psychological components of assimilation are interdependent and are themselves formed in the course of educational activity. Stages, stages of assimilation are correlated with them. S. L. Rubinshtein singled out the following stages of assimilation: 1) initial acquaintance with the material, or its perception in the broadest sense of the word; 2) its comprehension; 3) special work to consolidate it; 4) mastering the material in the sense of being able to operate with it in various conditions, applying it in practice.[25] It should be especially noted that both among the components and among the stages of assimilation, the comprehension of the material comes before its memorization. This shows that the memorization of the material in itself does not mean its true assimilation. The main indicator of the student's assimilation of the material for the teacher is whether the student is able to state the essence of the issue being studied in his own words, without distorting the general meaning. This is possible only if the memorization of the material was preceded by its logical interpretation, including the understanding of the scientific terminology used in it. If the material was memorized mechanically, without proper comprehension, the student, when answering, reproduces the text of the textbook, but is not able to look at the issue under consideration from any other point of view.

A younger student can already reproduce a text whose meaning is incomprehensible, therefore, from the very first days of schooling, the teacher must ensure that students are not limited only to mechanical memorization, but wherever possible, use semantic memorization. The fundamental principle of the organization of assimilation is the position of S. L. Rubinshtein that not only repetition, but also free reproduction of educational material should be constantly carried out: "Clarifying, formulating his thought, a person forms it; at the same time, he firmly imprints it." 26] Two conclusions follow from this: students' own presentation should be specially provided for in the organization of educational activities, and it is especially important to prepare the first independent reproduction by students of the material being studied.

The application of knowledge in practice as an indicator of assimilation is not only the result of learning, but also a way of mastering knowledge, consolidating it, and forming strong skills. At this stage of assimilation, mastering the material is no longer aimed at teaching, but at practical life goals.

Assimilation is characterized by several basic properties. The first and most important of them is strength, which is determined by the independence of the use of acquired knowledge and developed skills from the difference in situations and conditions for their application. In general, the strength of assimilation significantly depends on the consistency, semantic organization of the educational material, its personal significance and the emotional attitude that this material evokes in the student. If the educational material itself, its perception, memorization cause a feeling of joy, satisfaction, then this creates the psychological prerequisites for the strength of assimilation. It is better to assimilate what is included in the activity and aimed at use in future practice.

The second characteristic of assimilation is controllability. Assimilation management can be carried out along the path of the phased formation of mental actions (see 3.1), implemented in the traditional way, through problem-based learning and its other forms. Assimilation is personally conditioned by those relationships that develop in the student in the process of learning to the educational material, the teacher, the teaching itself, and at the same time influences the formation of the student's personality. This mutual influence is realized due to the effect of the action of the training itself on the mental development of the personality, the formation of its mental neoplasms: new motives, goals, strategies for assimilation, evaluation, character, worldview, etc.

The psychological characteristics of the nature of assimilation essentially depend on the age of the students. As they grow up and master learning activities to the full extent, students begin to use more and more means of learning and the ratio of reproductive and productive actions changes in the process of assimilation. Younger schoolchildren still demonstrate their dependence on the structure of educational material, they always retain the structure of the original when they reproduce, they are not yet able to recombine information. The senior student already has all the opportunities for this, and if they are not realized, then the reasons for this are in the wrong organization of education, in attaching too much importance to reproductive actions to the detriment of productive ones.

Assimilation is also characterized by the ease of updating knowledge and their completeness and consistency. In general, all the characteristics of assimilation are evidenced by the actions taken on the basis of the assimilated information.

Topic 4. PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

4.1. The general concept of education, its difference from training

Upbringing is, along with teaching, a process in which the child learns social experience. Unlike training associated with the development of cognitive processes, abilities, the acquisition of knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities, education is aimed at shaping a person as a person, his attitude to the world, society, people, to himself. Common to training and education are the basic mechanisms for acquiring social experience by a person, and specific, distinguishing them from each other, are the results of these processes. Learning outcomes are knowledge, skills, and upbringing - the properties and qualities of the individual, the forms of her social behavior. Education is a process of purposeful influence, the goals of which are the assimilation by the child of the social experience necessary for life in society and the formation of a system of values ​​accepted in society. At the same time, education in one way or another includes elements of education. Before requiring the child to master the norms of behavior, the adult tells him about them and about the need to adhere to them, that is, transfers the child knowledge about these norms. Then, by monitoring the child's compliance with these norms, reminding him of them and setting an example with his own behavior, he helps the child develop behavioral skills.

Although in the above definition the child acts as the educatee, in reality the process of upbringing is carried out continuously, throughout the life of a person, and each individual throughout the life path is both an object and a subject of upbringing. As soon as self-consciousness begins to emerge in a child, he is already able to take some steps towards self-education, but the main educational influence on him is exerted by adults. At the same time, the educational process significantly affects the personal development of not only the pupil, but also the educator himself, who also discovers and develops the qualities necessary for the successful implementation of the educational process. In this sense, we can say that parents learn something from their children, and teachers learn from students, since various pedagogical situations make not only the child, but also his educator change and develop. By raising our children, we educate ourselves. But regardless of the upbringing of the younger generation, every adult is able to continue to engage in self-education, although not all people do this consciously and purposefully.

Philosophy, sociology, pedagogy, and pedagogical anthropology deal with the scientific substantiation of education, in addition to psychology. But without psychology, the main problems of education not only cannot be solved, but even correctly posed, since their understanding depends on knowledge of the psychology of the individual, human relationships, and the psychology of various social communities.

In the process of education, the following stages can be distinguished:

1) the formation of the pupils' need for the development of one or another quality;

2) mastering by pupils of knowledge about personal qualities;

3) the formation of skills, habits and habits of behavior.

All these stages can be implemented only when pupils are included in various forms and types of active activity. To solve the problems at each of these stages, the teacher organizes some business and makes efforts to include pupils in it. Only by including children in their own activities can the educator achieve a successful solution to the problems at these stages.

Education is a purposeful process. Its main tasks are the formation and development of the child as a person with those useful qualities that are necessary for life in society. The goals of education are not set once and for all and are not permanent in any society. Changes in the development of society set new goals for education in the form of requirements for the personality of a person. But there are also such personal qualities that remain in demand in any society, having become enduring universal human values. These are decency, humanity, spirituality (the priority of high moral ideals over momentary needs and inclinations, the constant desire for moral self-improvement), freedom (the desire for internal and external independence), responsibility (willingness to take on obligations). The general goal of modern education is to make children highly moral, spiritually rich, internally free and responsible individuals. Education becomes effective when the teacher specifically highlights his goal, which he strives for. The greatest efficiency is achieved when the goal of education is known and understood by the pupil and he agrees with it, accepts it.

The process of education is multifactorial. In its implementation, it is necessary to take into account and use a huge number of objective and subjective factors. A person is exposed to many multidirectional influences and accumulates not only positive, but also negative experience that needs to be adjusted. Multifactoriality explains the effect of the ambiguity of the results of education. Very often it turns out that under the same conditions the results of educational influences can vary greatly. It depends primarily on what experience has been accumulated by the personality of the pupil at the given moment, what features of character, attitudes, values ​​have already been laid down in him. For example, such a character trait as anxiety, which is already formed in preschool childhood, has a strong influence on how the child will perceive criticism from the teacher and his indications of his mistakes. For someone, harsh words and intonations will have a stimulating effect, encourage further self-improvement, and for a more anxious and vulnerable child, they will become humiliating and will not cause anything on his part, except for the desire to continue to avoid communication with this teacher.

From this example alone, it can be seen that the teacher's personality plays a huge role in education: his pedagogical skills, character traits, personal qualities, and value orientations. Education, as well as pedagogical activity in general, is an art.

Another feature of education, which distinguishes it from training, is that education almost never gives an instant effect. You can learn to do something or learn some knowledge the first time, while the results of education are not so clearly tangible and do not reveal themselves so quickly. There may be a long period between the beginning of pedagogical influence and the steady manifestation of upbringing; it is impossible to count on quick successes in the matter of upbringing.

In addition, education, unlike training, must necessarily be continuous. One event aimed at educating a certain quality almost never leads to the desired result. If the process of upbringing is irregular and proceeds from case to case, then the educator constantly has to reinforce what the child has already mastered and then forgotten. At the same time, the teacher cannot deepen and develop his influence, develop new stable habits in the child.

Successful education can only be carried out if certain principles are constantly adhered to. Pupils must feel consistency in the actions of the teacher-educator. Different educators choose different principles as central and fundamental: it depends on their worldview, communication style, character traits, but in any case, the principles of each educator should form a certain system. But there are principles that are included in the educational system of most experienced teachers, although with varying degrees of importance attached to them. Among them are the following:

1) the formation of a personal style of the student's relationship with peers and the teacher. Psychological and pedagogical studies of the last decades have shown that in education it is not so much the knowledge of the general age-related psychological characteristics of children that matters, but the consideration of their personal qualities, on which the basic value orientations, life plans, ideals, the general orientation of the personality, the dominant motives of behavior depend on. . That is why the development of personal qualities is the main task of education;

2) promotion of a system of immediate, medium and distant goals of education. To be included in an active activity, a child needs to form a stable motivation for it: only under this condition will he put his whole soul into this activity. Most often, in order to form a motive, it is not enough to set one goal for the child, even explaining the need to achieve it. The most effective is the alignment of several goals, each of which has its own scale and its own time period for implementation. All these goals must be interconnected: the achievement of one goal must be a prerequisite for the possibility of achieving another. Short-term goals follow from the middle ones, and the middle ones are justified and supported by the far ones. Such a construction of goals allows you to select and change near-term goals depending on the nature, personality and age characteristics of the pupils.

3. Creation of a positive emotional background and an atmosphere of emotional upsurge. In the educational process, the confrontation of the educator with the pupils is unacceptable. The educator should fight not with the bad qualities that the child has, but for the good qualities that he will still have. It is unacceptable to focus the attention of pupils on their mistakes and shortcomings. Even if pupils have significant mistakes and constantly display qualities that are interpreted as shortcomings, it is necessary to identify and maintain their individual positive aspects, forming in children a sense of repeated success. Thus, a positive emotional background is created, a calm and confident atmosphere in the group, and the craving of children for independent activity increases.

4. Education through interaction. Personal qualities of the child are manifested primarily in his communication and interaction with other people. Most opportunities for this are provided by communication with peers, where everyone takes an equal position and can boldly develop their own style of behavior, correct and shape it. Activation of interaction contributes to the acceleration of the process of formation of personal qualities. At the same time, group and pair forms of work are used more widely, humane relations are formed in the team.

5. Education through creativity. Personal qualities are brought up only in activity, but this activity can be different. Creative activity brings up in the child the ability and desire to create something fundamentally new, and reproductive activity teaches to exactly carry out the prescribed program of action. The latter still prevails in the curricula for most school subjects, so the main drawback of the traditional education system is the inability to educate a creatively thinking person who is ready to solve complex and non-standard life problems. To overcome this shortcoming, it is necessary to actively involve children in creative activities and purposefully develop their creative abilities.

4.2. Basic theories of education

Theories of education are concepts that explain the origin, formation and change of personality, its behavior under the influence of education. The psychological theories of personality development, social and developmental psychology serve as the scientific basis for such theories.

Among the main psychological approaches to the upbringing and development of the personality since the XNUMXth century. two opposite ones are distinguished: biologization and sociologization. According to the biologization approach, the personal qualities of a person are mainly transmitted through the mechanisms of heredity and change little under the influence of living conditions. Heredity determines the entire course of human development: both its pace - fast or slow, and its limit - whether a person will be gifted, whether he will achieve much or turn out to be mediocrity. The environment in which the child is brought up becomes only a condition for such an initially predetermined development, only manifesting what is already given to the child from birth. Proponents of this approach transferred to psychology from embryology the main biogenetic law formulated in the XNUMXth century. German biologist E. Haeckel: ontogenesis (individual development) is a brief repetition of phylogenesis (historical development of the species). Initially, this law concerned only the period of intrauterine development, but the theory of recapitulation extended it to the subsequent life of the child, the stages of which were compared with the eras of the cultural and historical development of mankind. According to this theory, a child in the first half of his life is at the stage of a mammal, in the second half of the year he reaches the stage of the highest mammal - a monkey, in early childhood he is at the level of development of the most ancient and ancient people, in preschool - in a primitive communal state. Starting from entering school, he learns human culture: in the elementary grades - in the spirit of the ancient and Old Testament world, in adolescence - in the spirit of medieval fanaticism, and only in his youth rises to the level of culture of the New Age. Thus, according to the theory under consideration, the level of a child's development actually depends only on the speed of deployment of innate maturation programs and is in no way combined with the educational impact on his personality.

This theory represents a pessimistic view of the possibilities of educating a personality. On the basis of this approach, beliefs were subsequently formed about the initial superiority of some nations, classes, races over others and, accordingly, about the need to apply more progressive and complex methods of education and upbringing to children from the "higher" strata than to children from the "lower", about the impossibility of representatives of the "lower" races and classes to compete on an equal footing with representatives of the "higher" ones, etc. Today, this theory has few supporters.

The opposite approach to the upbringing and development of the psyche is manifested in the sociological direction. Its origins lie in the views of the English philosopher of the 1980th century. John Locke, who believed that a child is born with a soul as pure as a white wax board - tabula rasa. On this board, the educator can write anything, and the child, not burdened by heredity, will grow up the way close adults want to see him. According to these views, through training and education, any mental functions can be formed and developed to any level, regardless of biological characteristics. Sociologising ideas were in tune with the ideology that prevailed in our country until the mid-XNUMXs, so they can be found in many pedagogical and psychological works of those years.

It is obvious that both approaches - both biologization and sociology - suffer from one-sidedness, downplaying or denying the importance of one of the two factors of development. In general, the supporters of the sociological approach are still closer to the truth, but a number of counterarguments can also be put forward against it. Firstly, some personality traits, such as temperament, cannot be brought up, since they directly depend on the genotype and are determined by it: in particular, temperament is due to the innate properties of the human nervous system. Secondly, from psychiatry and pathopsychology, facts are known that testify to the connection of morbid conditions of the body with changes in human psychology, as well as to the transmission through the mechanisms of heredity, if not the mental illnesses themselves, then at least a predisposition to them. Consequently, not everything in a person depends only on upbringing, much is determined by the state of the organism.

The phenotypic value of any trait in a particular person, the volume, nature and features of this trait are the result of the interaction of the genotype with the environment. It is not a specific expression of the phenotype that is inherited, but an individual form, the type of reaction of a given genotype to a given environment, so the implementation of the genotype essentially depends on non-genetic factors. The content of the human psyche is derived from the entire history of the individual.

Other theories are intermediate, compromise versions of these two extremes. They are characterized by the simultaneous recognition of the dependence of the development and functioning of the individual on both biological and social factors and assign a significant role to education. In all these theories, the issues of upbringing are solved in a differentiated way, with the identification and independent consideration of individual groups of psychological qualities of a person and a discussion of the possibilities of their purposeful upbringing. There is a group of theories, the subject of research of which is the character of a person. In theories of another type, questions of the formation and development of the interests and needs of the child are discussed.

A special class of theories are those in which personality traits are the subject of consideration and education. They mainly come from a general psychological theory of personality, called trait theory, which represents personality as a set of certain traits that are more or less closely related to each other. Among these features are basic and secondary. Basic features arise and form in a child during early childhood, and the question of the possibility of their upbringing is raised only in relation to this period of life. It is believed that, once formed, these personality traits practically do not change in the future, and the older the child becomes, the less opportunities he has to develop the corresponding personality traits. If we are talking about secondary traits that arise and form later, and even more so - about the highest traits of a spiritual and ideological nature, acting in the form of moral and social attitudes, then more solid hopes are associated with their upbringing. It is argued that such traits can be cultivated in a person throughout his life, but this requires special practice. Everything related to the actual personality traits: a person's worldview, moral and ethical values, is not directly determined by heredity. These qualities are the intermediate and final result of the development of personality in time and space of its existence. The interactions of the genotype with the environment, which are significant for the formation of individual characteristics of the psyche, are specific for any person, therefore, neither one nor the other can be discounted.

However, neither of the two main approaches in its pure form, nor theories built by combining them and finding compromises, take into account such a factor as the activity of the individual himself in self-education. After all, the older and more experienced a person is, the more he becomes able to make decisions about the paths of his development and follow these decisions. The role of the activity of the individual himself is put at the forefront of the question of education by a functional approach. This approach proclaims that the formation of each mental function is determined by how often and how intensively it is used in the life of an individual, that is, according to it, the lifestyle of a developing person plays the main role in the development of the psyche. This is especially clearly seen in the example of abilities: abilities for a certain activity can develop only if it is regularly systematically practiced. If such studies are carried out occasionally, abilities will not develop even to the level to which they could develop thanks to natural inclinations. The same is observed in the formation of moral qualities: kindness, generosity, willingness to help, adherence to principles, courage. These traits can develop only when a person regularly finds himself in situations that require their manifestation, only then these qualities will become a habit with him. Thus, there are three main factors in the development of the psyche, which are given different meanings in various theories of education: 1) genotype (heredity); 2) external environment; 3) the individual's own activity in self-development and self-education.

4.3. Means and methods of education

The means and methods of education are understood as the methods of organized and unorganized influence of the educator on the educated person in order to develop certain qualities and forms of behavior in him. Actually, the word "method" means the method of implementation, the concept of "means" means that with which this method is carried out in practice. Almost everything in the surrounding world can be attributed to the means of education: nature, art, traditions, words (oral and written), various activities, etc.

It is possible to classify methods of education for various reasons, and there are many such classifications. In the 1960s generally accepted was the classification of methods of education, consisting of only two categories: 1) methods aimed at the mind of the child; 2) methods aimed at his behavior. In the 1970s a significant part of theorists of pedagogy and pedagogical psychology accepted the classification of methods of education on the basis of three main areas of activity of the educator: 1) methods of purposeful formation of personality traits; 2) methods of stimulating the natural self-development of the individual; 3) methods of correction of personality development. In the early 1980s the concept of an activity approach to education took shape and Leningrad teachers T.E. Konnikova and G. I. Shchukina proposed a classification of upbringing methods according to the criterion of their relationship to the child's activities.[27] In their system, three groups of upbringing methods were considered: 1) methods of forming a positive experience of behavior in the process of activity; 2) methods of formation of public consciousness; 3) methods of activity stimulation.

The well-known modern Moscow teacher-innovator and scientist V. A. Karakovsky proposed a classification, the criterion of which is the means of education used, and identified six groups of methods: 1) education with a word; 2) upbringing by deed; 3) upbringing by the situation; 4) education by playing; 5) education by communication; 6) relationship education.[28]

RS Nemov offers several classifications of upbringing methods: they are divided into direct and indirect, conscious and unconscious, cognitive, emotional and behavioral.[29] Direct methods of education include the direct personal impact of one person on another, carried out in direct communication with each other. Indirect methods contain influences implemented by any means, without personal contacts between the educator and the educated person (through reading books, references to the opinion of an authoritative person, etc.).

According to the involvement of the consciousness of the educator and the educated in the process of education, the methods are divided into conscious and unconscious. Conscious methods are characterized by the fact that the educator consciously sets a certain goal for himself, and the educated person knows about it and accepts it. When using unconscious methods of influence, the educator accepts educational influences without conscious control on his part, and also without deliberate influence on the part of the educator.

Cognitive educational influences are aimed at the system of human knowledge, its transformation. The very knowledge of a person about the world not only forms him as a person (the educational function of learning), but also has a decisive influence on his behavior. In modern conditions, the importance of this area of ​​educational influences is increasing significantly. Emotional educational influences are designed to cause and maintain certain emotional states in the educated person, which make it easier or more difficult for him to accept other psychological influences. Positive emotions make the educator open in relation to the subject carrying out the educational impact. Negative emotions, on the contrary, fence off the educator from the educator, block the educational impact. Behavioral educational influences are directly directed at a person's actions, force him to act in a certain way and provide appropriate positive or negative reinforcements for the actions taken. In this case, the educated person first performs a certain act and only then realizes its usefulness or harmfulness, while when using other methods, changes first occur in the inner world of the personality, and only then are projected onto behavior. Since knowledge, emotions and actions of a person are interconnected, through any of them it is possible to influence the personality as a whole. This allows the educator, with a lack of opportunities, to focus on any selected educational influences, achieving the desired result.

Each of the considered means of education has its strengths and weaknesses. For example, the advantage of the direct educational influence of one person on another is that the psychological mechanisms of infection, imitation and suggestion are used. In this case, the educator can do without words, it is enough for him to demonstrate a pattern of behavior and ensure its full and correct acceptance by the educatee. This means is also the only one possible at the early stages of child development, when the child does not yet understand the speech addressed to him, but it is of great importance at subsequent age stages. In pedagogy, it is called upbringing by personal example. The disadvantage of this means of education is the personal and temporal limitations of its use: the educator can only convey to the educatee what he himself has, and only in those moments when he is in direct personal contact with him.

Indirect educational influence through books, media and other information transmission systems can be versatile and arbitrarily long, it can be saved and repeatedly reproduced, prompting a person to turn again and again to material sources of educational influences (reread the book, watch the movie again). But such upbringing, in comparison with direct influence, has fewer resources of living emotional force. In addition, a limitation of its application is that it is applicable only to children who already speak, who can read and understand the moral meaning of what is said and read.

The advantage of a conscious educational impact is that it is manageable, with pre-foreseen and, therefore, controllable results. However, it is also limited in its application to children of early preschool age, who have not yet formed reflection. Unconscious educational influence takes place earlier than conscious, but its advantages and disadvantages are difficult to assess in practice due to insufficient controllability by consciousness.

None of the considered classifications gives an unambiguous answer to the question of what is common to all methods of education. All methods are aimed at the life experience and attitudes of children, which are manifested not only in the actions they take, but also in their comprehension, determination of their position, awareness of their successes and mistakes. On the basis of such a definition of the direction of methods, N.F. Golovanova identifies four groups of methods of education.[30]

1. Methods of forming the social experience of children. Social experience is acquired by the child both within the framework of the educational process and outside it. Education is designed to streamline, as far as possible, the influence of external factors of socialization and create favorable conditions for the self-development of the child's personality. This group of methods includes, for example, a pedagogical requirement. It can be individual (come from an individual educator) and collective (come from a team, community). According to their strength, the requirements are divided into weak (reminder, request, advice, hint, reprimand), medium (instruction, installation, warning, prohibition) and strong (threat, alternative order). The demand immediately includes the child in activity, but the greatest inner strength for the children themselves is not those demands that an adult imposes on them from positions of their power and authority, but those that the children themselves establish for themselves together with adults. Making effective demands is a true pedagogical art.

Exercise also belongs to the methods of forming social experience. The result of constant exercise is the development of sustainable skills and habits. In this way, self-service skills, hygiene habits, and etiquette are formed. The exercise should be accessible to the child, in proportion to his strength, he must understand why he needs the habit or skill developed by the exercise. When exercising children, the teacher must organize control over all their actions and, if necessary, provide them with assistance. When performing the exercise, the child must cope with the fear caused by the fact that he will not succeed.

Assignment is one of the most effective ways to organize children's activities. When receiving an instruction, the child enters a system of "responsible dependencies" that is very important in the educational sense. Any assignment has two sides: a measure of authority (you were entrusted, you were asked, this is expected of you, no one but you will do this, success depends on you) and a measure of responsibility (you need an effort of will, you need to postpone your studies and bring assignment to the end). If any of these parties is not well organized, the assignment will not "work", its educational effect will be negligible or even cause the child to be unwilling to carry out the assignment. When accepting an assignment, the child each time assumes a role corresponding to the given content of the action, and through these roles, children form a diverse experience of activity and social relations. Therefore, any assignment must have a social meaning understandable to children, that is, it must be clear to them for whom, for the benefit of whom they are performing it. The long-term fulfillment by children of an assignment requires the educator to organize a situation of "primary success" so that they have a positive emotional experience in performing responsible affairs.

This also includes such an effective educational method as an example. Its action is based on the natural psychological mechanism of imitation. The younger the child, the less consciously and selectively he imitates, for the baby this is the easiest way to adapt to life. As the child grows older, adults begin to consciously present him with positive examples with the aim that the child himself turns to the proposed image, wants to be like that, have such character traits and act like that. The example-ideal directs the child's activity: those qualities that he likes in the hero, he wants to have himself. An example for conscious imitation can be the educating adult himself, a peer present nearby, an artistic character or a real outstanding person. We also have to use negative examples, showing children the consequences of bad deeds, but the proportion of negative examples in education should be many times less than positive ones.

True, real life for a child is modeled by the educational method of a situation of free choice. For the development of a child’s social experience, it is extremely important that he be able to act not only at the request and direct instructions of an adult, within the framework of his specific assignment, where everything is determined, not only focusing on an example-model, but also able to independently, having mobilized his knowledge, feelings, will, habits, value orientations, make a decision. In a situation of free choice in personal terms, the child undergoes serious changes. Choosing a solution, he must mentally review his past experience, remember how he acted in a similar situation before and what were the consequences. At the same time, he is looking to the future, predicting: what will happen if I do this? The adoption of the final decision causes the strongest emotional experience, since the child, not yet realizing it, takes responsibility for his choice. The educational effect of a situation of free choice is sometimes so strong and effective that it determines the direction of the child's moral life for a long time and steadily.

2. Methods for understanding by children their social experience, motivation of activity and behavior. These are mainly verbal methods: story, lecture, conversation, discussion. With their help, events and phenomena are described that sometimes have not yet been encountered by children in life, concepts, ideas, their own opinion and assessment of what is happening are formed. The story is the most common method in working with preschoolers and younger students. It looks like a teacher's monologue, built on the principle of narration, description or explanation. At the same time, it is important not to derive moralizing from the story directly, but to provide the children with the opportunity to evaluate what they heard and draw conclusions.

The lecture is also a teacher's monologue, but of a significantly larger volume and at a higher level of theoretical generalization. It is used in work with teenagers and high school students, as well as in work with parents. In the content of the lecture, as a rule, several questions are singled out, the consistent consideration of which gives the listeners an idea of ​​the problem. When preparing a lecture, information taken from books and other literature should be adapted for oral speech, since written verbal constructions are poorly perceived by ear. For greater persuasiveness of the lecture, the lecturer needs to announce his own point of view on the issue under discussion.

The conversation, unlike the methods described above, consists in the dialogue of the educator with the pupils (or with one of them). In a conversation, the norms and rules of behavior can be explained, ideas about the main values ​​of life can be formed, and children's own views and judgments can be developed. For a conversation, it is necessary to choose in advance a topic so relevant that the children have their own inner need to discuss it. Knowing the topic some time before the planned conversation, the children also update their life experience related to it. The teacher should try to find very precise words, build the logic of the conversation so that in a short time the children can comprehend a certain area of ​​their social experience.

Discussion (dispute) involves a dispute, a clash of points of view, views, opinions and assessments, upholding one's convictions. It requires deep special preparation of participants: a very sensitive topic is chosen, an authoritative and erudite presenter is identified, questions are developed that would encourage participants to argue. The argument itself and the preparation for it take away the enormous intellectual and emotional energy of the participants. Discussions are necessary because they defend one's own opinion.

3. Methods of self-determination of the child's personality. Personally oriented pedagogy puts forward the task for the educator to help the child become the subject of his own life. At the age of 6-7 years, the child begins to need and develops the ability to reflect - knowledge about himself, about his psychological characteristics. The children themselves do not yet know how to help them understand themselves, and they are waiting for the help of an educator who helps them in taking the first steps on the path of self-knowledge. On the basis of properly organized self-knowledge and understanding by the child of the immediate goal in working on oneself, one can already use the elementary methods of self-education available to younger students, for example, "Step Forward": for every day, the child plans for himself some good deed that is useful and necessary for others, and not only to himself, and sums up at the end of the day. At the same time, it is necessary that the surrounding adults suggest to him the necessary useful things that would require the manifestation of willpower and character. This method allows the child to develop an important habit - to plan his day in advance, to find the time and place for each business, thus forming useful organizational and work culture skills. Akin to the "Step Forward", but more ambitious in terms of implementation time, the method is the "Assignment to Oneself", when, with the help of adults, the student determines his affairs for a specific period (week, month), which will help him become better, acquire some missing quality. It is necessary to help the child choose a regularly repeated task for this and record the progress of the task daily, and then summarize in the presence of all participants. Another version of the "Assignment to myself" is "My secret", when the child sets himself the goal of doing some business, performing an act as if "in secret", without discussing it with either adults or comrades. You can write down such a "secret" task for yourself and hide the note in a secluded place, and after a certain period of time you can get it and find out if you managed to achieve your plan. All these methods gradually transfer the life of the child to the rails of self-government.

4. Methods of stimulation and correction of actions and relations of children in the educational process. These methods help children, together with adults, find new reserves of their activities, change their behavior, believe in their strengths and capabilities, and realize the value of their personality. One of the most effective methods of this group is the competition. It often helps to increase the activity of children in activities that have already become familiar to them and have begun to bother. The child always tends to compare his results with the results of his peers. The competition creates strong emotional stimuli, is able to show completely unexpected abilities of children that could not be revealed in the usual environment, unites children, develops a spirit of collectivism, strengthens friendship, but only with methodologically correct organization.

Correction methods also include two eternal antipodes in education - encouragement and punishment. Encouragement is designed to approve the correct actions and deeds of children, to support their desire to act in this way, to assert themselves in the correct line of behavior. The psychological mechanism of the educational impact of encouragement consists in the child experiencing joy, happiness, satisfaction with himself, with the work done. Therefore, the specific form of encouragement is not as important as it is to produce it on time, to make it clear to the child that his efforts are noticed and not in vain. Then the child will forever remember what he was praised for, and will continue to adhere to this line of behavior. Punishment is intended, first of all, to point out to the child his mistake, to help him realize it, admit his guilt, and correct the mistake. Punishment should force the child to do inner work to overcome himself. As with rewards, it is not the form of the punishment itself that matters, but how the child experiences it.

The considered methods of education do not exhaust all their diversity, there are many other methods of influencing the personality, but the classifications of methods given and analyzed here help to understand the general characteristics of their system.

4.4. educational institutes

Educational institutions in pedagogy and psychology are those public organizations and structures, specific groups of people in which the child receives social experience and which are called upon to have an educational impact on his personality. For a child, the main institutions of his upbringing are the family and the school, it is on them that the greatest moral and only on them - the legal responsibility for the personality of the educated person, his behavior and actions. But in fact, in modern conditions, education is not limited to family and school. Their influence is often balanced and even "outweighed" by the influence of other social institutions: out-of-school and extra-family organizations (including public, political, religious ones), informal communities, mass media, and culture.

The family as an institution of education occupies a very special position due to the fact that the child is in it for a significant part of his life, is its emotional center, and what he receives from the family remains with him for life. No one, except for family members: mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, brothers, sisters, puts the child at the center of his life, does not give him so much emotional warmth and does not take care of him. The family provides the child with the necessary minimum of communication, without which he could not become a person, a person in the full sense of the word. However, the family can potentially cause great harm to the development of the child, since its educational impact does not go beyond the individual capabilities of family members, their own level of development, intellectual and cultural preparedness, living conditions, and these conditions are far from always favorable. For example, the phenomenon of pedagogical neglect of children in almost 100% of cases has its roots in the family, whose adult members did not pay due attention to the development of the child, and as a result, he did not receive from his environment the necessary information and the educational impact that his peers receive in prosperous families.

Of all human relationships, the deepest and most enduring are the relationships between family members. They include four main types of relationships: 1) psycho-physiological - relationships of biological kinship and sexual relations; 2) psychological - personal relationships of family members among themselves, depending on their personal characteristics (openness, trust, mutual care, moral and emotional support); 3) social - the distribution of roles in the family, material relations, authority, leadership, subordination; 4) cultural - due to the traditions and customs of the culture within which this family exists. All this complex system of relationships has an impact on family education of children. Within each type of relationship, there can be both agreement and disagreement, which positively or negatively affect education.

In connection with the special educational role of the family, the question arises of how to do so in order to maximize the positive effects of the family on the upbringing of the child and minimize the negative ones. The most common causes of anomalies in the upbringing of children are systematic violations of the ethics of intra-family relations by spouses, lack of mutual trust, attention and care, respect, psychological support and protection. The reasons for this kind of anomaly can be different, but basically boil down to two: it is either an ambiguous understanding of the spouses' family roles of husband and wife, excessive demands on each other, or incompatibility of moral positions, a divergence of points of view on honor, morality, conscience, duty, duties before the family, responsibility for the family. To eliminate the negative impact of these factors on the upbringing of children, spouses need to move to a more mature level of relationships: to accept the spouse as he is, with all the advantages and disadvantages, not to set himself the task of necessarily remaking the spouse in his own way, to seek and strengthen similarities in every possible way in views and positions, especially on issues of education.

To achieve educational goals in the family, parents resort to a variety of means of influence: they encourage and punish the child, they strive to become a model for him. In principle, it has been proven that rewards as a means of accelerating the personal development of a child are more effective than prohibitions and punishments. Of course, punishments are necessary, but they should be resorted to only when the parents have exhausted all other ways to change the child's behavior. If, nevertheless, there is a need for punishment, then it will be most effective if it follows immediately the misconduct that deserves it and at the same time the child is reasonably explained why his misconduct deserves punishment. It has been established that a child is more likely to compromise if he understands why he should act this way and not otherwise. A child who is punished often and unnecessarily severely is alienated from his parents, begins to demonstrate increased aggressiveness. Punishment should not pursue the goal of humiliating and suppressing the child, but pointing him to his mistake, realizing this mistake, admitting his guilt, stimulating the child to personal activity, to work to overcome himself. The child should not be afraid of punishment as such: if the parents have normal, close, friendly relations with him, the greatest punishment for him will be the very fact that he made them upset and worry.

A certain specificity of upbringing takes place in families of different composition. Usually, with the advent of a second child, the attention of parents is focused on him to a greater extent, and the older one also has some educational responsibilities (of course, feasible for him by age) and the share of responsibility increases. The participation of brothers and sisters in his upbringing affects the youngest child in different ways. For example, girls who have older brothers in many cases have more pronounced character traits traditionally attributed to men, are more ambitious and aggressive than girls who were raised only by older sisters. At the same time, the role of older brothers and sisters in the formation of sex-role representations in younger children is different. A more pronounced dependence in this case is observed in boys: the influence of older brothers on them affects the formation of purely masculine traits and interests more strongly than the influence of older sisters on the formation of female interests and traits in girls. Another important factor in the family upbringing of children is the participation in this process of ancestral generations (grandparents, great-grandparents, great-grandfathers). They continue to exert a certain influence on their children - the parents of the child, share their educational experience with them, enrich and diversify the emotional life of the child.

Specific conditions of upbringing are formed in the so-called incomplete families, where one of the parents is absent, in the overwhelming majority of cases - the father. The absence of a father affects the upbringing of boys and girls differently. If a mother alone raises her son and none of the men is constantly present in his life, he does not have an example of male behavior, an object to follow, and therefore the risk of the formation of effeminate features in his psyche and behavior increases. A daughter who grows up in an incomplete family does not see an example of a woman building strong, long-term and trusting relationships with men, which can lead to further difficulties in creating and maintaining her own family.

The school as an institution of education turns out to be effective due to the fact that in it a developing child aged 6-7 to 16-17 years old spends a significant part of his time and there many people of different status in relation to him - teachers and peers. Each new person with whom a child meets at school carries something new for him, and in this sense, the school provides ample opportunities to exert a variety of educational influences on children. At school, education is also carried out through school subjects. For example, the natural science cycle of academic disciplines contributes to the formation of a holistic picture of the world, a common worldview, just like humanitarian subjects. Literature, history, social science present children with living examples of human behavior, interaction, give food for thought on the motives and consequences of various human actions. In addition, education at school is realized through special events: class hours, extracurricular forms of work, excursions, etc.

Officially, educational functions in the school are assigned to class teachers, so they need to know the individual characteristics of the students of the class entrusted to them, the characteristics of the class as a team in development, the characteristics of the family education of each student. The educational work of the class teacher includes the organization of extracurricular activities for children, work with subject teachers, individual work with each student and with the team as a whole. Its tasks include the formation of positive relationships between children, students with teachers, educating students in the field of establishing positive relationships with people.

The official duties of the class teacher are as follows:

› organization in this class of an educational process that is optimal for the development of the positive potential of the personality of students within the framework of the activities of the general school team;

› assisting the student in solving acute problems (preferably in person, it is possible with the participation of a psychologist);

› establishing contacts with parents and assisting them in raising children (personally, through a psychologist, social pedagogue).

At school, the process of education is carried out inextricably linked with learning. There are at least four types of the relationship between training and education:

1) upbringing, inseparable from learning, in the process of which it is carried out (through the content, forms, methods, teaching aids);

2) upbringing within the framework of the educational process in a certain institution outside of training, but in parallel with it in accordance with its tasks (circles, social work, labor education), reinforcing its effect;

3) upbringing outside the educational process, but in accordance with its goals and values ​​(family, public and religious organizations);

4) upbringing outside the educational process and any institutions (in informal companies, clubs), accompanied by spontaneous learning and learning.

School education also has weaknesses. First of all, it is the impersonality and low possibilities of an individual approach. For teachers, unlike family members, all children are in an equal position, all of them are given (or not given) approximately equal attention. This shortcoming is corrected by a well-thought-out combination and complementarity of family and school education.

In school, as well as outside it, there is an independent institution of education - a group of peers. The thesis that the full development of the personality is possible only in a team and through a team has long been a dogma in Russian pedagogy and psychology. Starting with the works of the outstanding Soviet teacher A. S. Makarenko, it was argued that first of all it is necessary to create an educational team, and then through it to educate each individual. In practice, A. S. Makarenko really proved that a developed children's team plays an important role in the re-education of the personality of a delinquent child who has obvious deviations in psychology and behavior and is significantly behind normal, well-mannered children. But in the 1930-1950s. Makarenko's practice of collectivist education, which justified itself in children's colonies, was transferred without any changes to a normal school and began to be applied to ordinary children, turning into a general, "only correct" and universal theory and practice of education. According to the tradition that has developed since then, the importance of the team in the upbringing of the individual has been elevated to the absolute for many years.

The role of the team is actually largely positive: the child has many opportunities to demonstrate their personal qualities and establish positive relationships, since in the team of peers all children are in an equal position and can take on different social roles when communicating. The team gives children the opportunity to put into practice the social attitudes and moral norms of relationships with other people that are emerging in them. A psychological community of each child with other members of the team is formed, a feeling of "we", group patriotism arises, common values ​​are formed, emotional attachments are strengthened, a sense of personal responsibility for comrades and the team as a whole appears.

However, each specific collective in its existence is potentially capable of discovering more disadvantages than advantages. Firstly, in practice it may turn out that an individual does not need the educational influences of the team he actually belongs to, since he is much superior to it and in terms of development is higher than most of its members. In this case, the team may recognize this member as a leader, but it often happens that, on the contrary, the team suppresses a particularly gifted person, unwittingly hindering its development, not accepting, and even aggressively rejecting it because of misunderstanding and envy. For example, many high achievers in school, who are superior in development to most of their classmates, deserve the contemptuous nickname "nerd", and are treated even worse than obvious lazy people and violators of discipline. Secondly, practice shows that among the really existing teams there are very few highly developed children's teams. But in any case, the collective unifies individuals by its influence, acts equally on all the individuals that make it up, making uniform demands on them. This leads to the socio-psychological phenomenon of deindividualization, or depersonalization. And if the members of the collective retain their differences from each other, then this is not due to, but rather in spite of the influence of the collective on them. The phenomenon of deindividualization is also observed in an underdeveloped team, which is able to influence a person not only positively, but also negatively. Therefore, it is impossible, as it was proclaimed earlier, to always and unconditionally put the interests of the collective above the interests of the individual. In relations between them, equality must be maintained: not only an individual must have certain duties and responsibilities to the team, but the team must also have clear responsibilities to each person included in it. Not only the collective has the right to demand something from its member, but each of its members has the right to make demands on the collective. Each individual should be left with the right to leave a team that does not suit her in some way. In addition, it is necessary to abandon the unconditional acceptance of the principle that a full-fledged personality cannot be formed outside a real team.

A wide and varied educational impact is also carried out through the media. The advantage of the media as a means of educational influence is that they can use the best examples and achievements of pedagogy and culture as a source of educational influences, which can be replicated in the required quantity and re-reproduced as many times as necessary. When preparing literature for children, films, radio and television programs, you can carefully consider their content in advance, weigh and evaluate the possible educational impact. These tools can be used with due effect by any teacher, regardless of their own individuality, life and professional experience. However, this institution of education also has disadvantages: firstly, its influences are designed mainly for the average person and may not reach every child, and secondly, the content of information itself cannot be controlled by teachers and therefore can affect children not only useful, but also harmful and even dangerous influence.

Literature and art separately act as sources of moral, aesthetic, social and economic education, designed to deepen the understanding of the basic vital moral categories of good and evil and form a deeper understanding of the various processes taking place in society. They are also one of the main sources of formation of the general culture of man.

Finally, the personality is nurtured through numerous personal contacts, formal and informal relationships. Most of all, the child's upbringing is affected by his meetings and contacts with different people in different social groups. Such groups that carry an educational influence on a person, but of which this person is not a real member, are called referential in relation to it. The personality shares the attitudes and values ​​adopted in the reference group, is guided by the norms of behavior established in it, but does not really enter into it, but only focuses on it.

4.5. Early childhood education

Education as an influence on the formation of personal qualities actually comes from the first months of a child's life, although personality traits as such at this age are not yet outwardly visible. The poverty of the psychological and behavioral reactions of the infant sometimes creates the illusion that at this age nothing significant happens to the child. However, this is not so: each mental property, before manifesting itself in external behavior, passes through a latent period of its development. Initially, internal changes accumulate, and this accumulation must reach a certain stage in order to pass into external manifestations. It is known that in different countries and regions, among different peoples, the practice of dealing with babies varies significantly. These differences relate to nutrition, physical care, emotional interaction, and much more. But with any kind of customary physical care for infants in any people, in any country and region, people with different personal qualities grow out of them. Consequently, it is apparently not this practice in itself that is significant for upbringing, but the social attitudes of parents, their personal attitude to raising children and their communication with them.

Education really begins with communication. The nature of the mother-child relationship in the first months of life largely determines his subsequent personal development. Many personal properties are transmitted to the child from the mother, but this happens not through the mechanism of biological heredity, but through the manifestation of these qualities by the mother both within the framework of communication with the child and outside it. Already in the second half of life, a special quality of personality begins to manifest in an infant, which persists throughout his subsequent life - attachment to people. The baby begins to show his sympathies and preferences quite early. A person who has become the object of the strongest infantile affection is able to exert a stronger educational influence on him: in his presence, the child is calmer, less likely to experience fear, and behave more actively. Children are psychologically more attached to those people who react emotionally positively to them. In dealing with a baby, it is important to observe the "golden rule": do everything on time, without delay and without looking ahead, and never do for the child what he is already able to do for himself.

In early childhood (the period from 1 to 3 years), the child first manifests externally defined personality traits. Self-awareness is born: by the age of two, the child already recognizes himself in the mirror and in photographs. By the age of one, it is clear from his behavior that he distinguishes his name from the words spoken by adults around him and reacts to it, and as he masters speech, he begins to call himself - first by name, as others call him, and by the age of three all children already actively use the pronoun "I". This is an indicator of self-awareness as a separate individual. At this age, the first self-assessment already appears, which is not yet differentiated and is definitely positive: "I am good." Such an assessment of oneself becomes the basis for the further formation of the child's need to achieve success. But in principle, a young child evaluates himself in the same way as adults evaluate him: when he realizes that his behavior meets the requirements of adults, he rejoices, and when he realizes the discrepancy, he is upset. Consequently, it is the adult who forms the self-esteem of the child during this period. It is especially important for parents to ensure that the assessments they give to their children are correct, true and reflect the real capabilities of the child. In accordance with their assessments, the child develops not only self-esteem, but also the level of aspirations, which is reflected in the degree of complexity of the tasks for which he undertakes, hoping to succeed. Children who have not experienced frequent failures usually have a normal level of claims, are brought up in an atmosphere of goodwill and tolerance. In overprotected children, deprived of behavioral freedom and independence, the level of claims is often underestimated. A child who grew up in an atmosphere of strictness, brought up exclusively by alternating rewards and punishments, may have a moderately high level of claims. Finally, a child who has experienced many successes early, is capricious, often has an overestimated level of claims.

The higher the level of claims, the earlier the child has a need for independence, the more often you can hear from him the statement "I myself!". Inextricably with independence, he develops a motive for achieving success. If the practice of upbringing is such that adults pay special attention to the success of the child and, if possible, do not react to his failures, then the child develops and consolidates precisely the need to achieve success. Then he takes on a new business with pleasure, certainly tries to do it well and earn praise. If an adult in the process of education ignores the successes of the child and often punishes him for failures, then the child develops the opposite motive - to avoid failures. Such a child undertakes to perform certain tasks qualitatively only under the threat of punishment for non-fulfillment, and although as a result he can succeed, he does not internally strive for this. Success is stimulated by encouragement, causes positive emotions, and, trying to experience them again, the child again tries to succeed. This is the cyclic psychological mechanism of action of rewards.

The experience of successes and failures and the reaction of adults to them is the psychological basis for the education of discipline, as well as physical and hygienic education in the early years. Discipline implies the ability of a child to control his desires, to subordinate momentary impulses to given requirements, to achieve more serious, significant and distant goals. Discipline is based on three abilities that develop in a child during early childhood: arbitrary self-regulation of behavior, awareness of the relative importance of motives and goals, and their conscious subordination. Voluntary self-regulation is associated with the child's ability to master the word, with the help of which he learns to control his cognitive processes, and then behavior. But first, the child learns to use words to influence the behavior of others and gradually moves from this to influencing his own behavior. By the end of early childhood, it is already possible to achieve at least some degree of arbitrariness in the regulation of one's own perception and memory within the limits of the child's age capabilities.

Physical education at an early age is necessary not only to improve the health, strength and endurance of children, but also for their intellectual development. The fact is that a variety of voluntary and automated movements mastered by a child in the process of physical education are a component of a wide variety of abilities that cannot develop without subtle and precise movements. This applies to technical, creative, artistic, visual, musical abilities and many others. In addition, the improvement of movements involves the development of the ability to voluntarily control them.

Early childhood is a sensitive period for the formation of elementary hygiene skills in children - using the potty, washing, brushing teeth, etc. The development of these skills also disciplines the child, contributes to the formation of a number of other useful qualities in him, in particular accuracy, which is then transferred to others. activities.

After the child reaches the age of 3 and overcomes the corresponding age crisis, his upbringing proceeds along three main lines: 1) strengthening emotional self-regulation; 2) moral education; 3) further formation of the business qualities of the individual. The emotional processes of a preschooler become more stable, but they are still rich and intense. Based on the assimilation of the experience of adults' reactions to their actions, the preschooler already becomes capable of emotional anticipation of their consequences, can assess whether what he did deserves reward or punishment, and expect it with appropriate emotions. External manifestations of emotions become less violent compared to early childhood. New emotions appear, expressing empathy for another person. On this basis, moral education begins.

A preschooler begins to learn moral and ethical norms first through imitation. At the same time, adults have to explain to him what can and cannot be done, what it means to do well and what is bad, since the child does not yet have moral selectivity and is equally likely to imitate good and bad patterns of behavior. Only after some time does the child move from purely external imitation to the emergence of an internal need to comply with moral norms - when he accumulates his own practical experience in following these norms and sees that their observance by the children and adults around him leads to a positive result, namely, strengthening interpersonal relationships, establishing contact, encouragement from an adult, raising status in a peer group. Of course, if adults do not care about the moral education of the child, he will not learn either moral norms or rules of conduct. The degree of their assimilation by a preschooler completely depends on what efforts adults make to this. It is important to note that along with the verbal explanations of adults, the example that they set to the child with their own behavior also plays a huge role.

Having mastered the moral rules and norms, preschoolers begin to monitor whether those around them, especially their peers, observe them. The view of adults in children at this age is not yet so critical, since for preschoolers the position of an adult seems obvious: they still do not know how to separate words from actions, therefore, if an adult prescribes norms of behavior for them, for them this by itself means that he is in any case of rights. Preschoolers often talk to each other, informing adults about non-compliance with the norms and rules of behavior by their comrades. At the same time, they are not guided by the desire that a comrade be punished. For them, the act of informing an adult about the violation of the rules by another child is just a demonstration of their own knowledge of these norms and rules and the desire to once again verify the correctness of their ideas. At the same time, they are still not very concerned about what will happen to a comrade whose misdeed is revealed: everything outweighs the desire to earn the praise and approval of an adult.

From the desire for recognition and approval from the surrounding adults, the business qualities of the child's personality grow: the need to achieve success, purposefulness, a sense of self-confidence, independence, and many others. The formation of such important personality traits as responsibility and a sense of duty is associated with this desire. The motive for achieving success, in turn, develops into a desire for self-affirmation. In the role-playing games of children, it is realized in the fact that the child seeks to take on the main role, lead others, is not afraid to enter the competition and strives to win it. Preschoolers begin to consciously attach great importance to the grades given to them by adults, and not just wait for these grades, but actively seek them, trying to get praise. This indicates that the child has already entered a period of development that is sensitive to the formation of vitally useful personal properties, which in the future should ensure the success of his educational, labor and other activities.

Already at an early age, children can observe different reactions to success and failure, obviously related to self-esteem. The child perceives the results of his activity as depending on his abilities. At the age of three, most children already have the simplest idea of ​​their own capabilities. However, at this age, children are not yet able to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between their abilities and their efforts. At the age of four, the child already assesses his capabilities more realistically, ideas about them are determined by comparing the results of his activities with the results of the activities of other people. The scale for such a comparison is given by information about successes and failures in solving problems of varying degrees of complexity and information about the sustainability of successes. Further, in the process of individual development, the child forms an idea of ​​the efforts made (whether it was "easy" or "difficult" for him), after which the idea of ​​abilities arises and is concretized, but the ability as a concept and the cause of one's own successes and failures is recognized by the child from about six years.

It has already been mentioned above that by the age of 3, a child usually has a relatively stable level of claims, but it is still far from adequate, as a rule, is overestimated, and even by the age of 5-6 it does not become closer to reality by itself. A necessary condition for the formation of an adequate level of claims (due to the fact that the child's assessments are based on the assessments of an adult and repeat them) is the child's regular receipt of information from an adult about his successes and failures, about what results he achieved in solving problems, and if parents constantly take care of this, then already at 4-4,5 years old children begin to show reasonable caution when choosing tasks.

The ability for self-awareness in a preschooler goes beyond the present and concerns the evaluation of both the past and the future. Preschoolers often ask questions like: "What was I like when I was little?" or "What will I be when I grow up?" Adults' answers to these questions contain a powerful educational influence that can make a child strive to become a person with certain valuable qualities: strong, kind, courageous, smart, etc.

4.6. Education of a younger student

The younger schoolchild, who at this age acquires reflection and the ability to plan his activities, is brought up not only through conversations and examples from adults, but also within the framework of various types of his own activity, which becomes systematic, substantive and purposeful. The main activities that have an educational impact on younger students are learning, play, communication and work.

Teaching is a powerful means of education due to the fact that it involves the communication and interaction of the child with the teacher and comrades, whose personalities have an impact on the personality of the student. Consequently, in educational activity, not only learning takes place, but also education. In the process of learning, not only knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired, but also the formation and consolidation of certain personality traits, inclinations, abilities, interests, needs, character traits.

In the initial period of learning, the main content of educational work is associated with the formation in the child of the need for knowledge, cognitive interests, the desire to know the truth, the desire for continuous self-education and self-development. The foundation of these qualities is laid even before school on the basis of the natural curiosity of children, which must be supported and developed in every possible way. It is necessary to answer thoroughly, accessible and honestly the questions that interest the child, and teach him to find answers to them himself. During primary school age, learning motivation forms the unity of two basic needs: the need for knowledge and the need to achieve success. Schoolchildren begin to realize the vital importance of these needs and the dynamics of their functioning. In particular, they begin to distinguish between ability and effort, and realize that their success is more dependent on effort.

Actually, the success of schoolchildren is assessed primarily by the teacher, and it is his point of view that is the determining factor in the awareness of children of primary school age of their personal qualities. Schoolchildren in grades 3-4 are able to distinguish when grades are deserved and when they do not correspond to real success. It has been established, for example, that the easier the task, for the successful solution of which the student receives praise from the teacher, the more reason he believes that the teacher low estimates his abilities. And vice versa, the more difficult the task, the failure to solve which will cause the teacher's censure, the sooner the student will conclude that the teacher highly appreciates his abilities. In other words, the student understands that a lack of ability can be compensated for by effort, and that with highly developed ability, not much effort can be made. The next step in understanding the essence of efforts and abilities is the student's conclusion that it is necessary to evaluate and praise people not so much for their abilities, but for their efforts. Awareness of this fact becomes a strong incentive for self-improvement and a powerful motivational basis for self-education.

If the failure is attributed to the fact that the student did not make the necessary effort to solve the problem, it causes much less frustration, because it does not make the child doubt his abilities. This is typical for those children who are dominated by the motivation to achieve success. In particular, studies have shown that satisfaction with the success of such children is greater, the more effort they put into achieving them.

The correct upbringing of the desire to achieve success depends on the style of communication between children and adults raising them (both parents and teachers), on the nature of their relationships that develop in situations where it is possible to achieve success in some activity. It has been shown that the motivation to avoid failure is more often formed in children whose parents differ in the following features: firstly, they are more concerned about whether their child corresponds to social norms, whether his success is worse than that of his peers, rather than the progress of the child relative to himself. and the consistency of the results it achieves with the efforts made. Secondly, the parents of such children take less into account their desires, establish strict control over them, less often encourage children to work independently, provide them with help not in the form of advice, but by interfering in their activities and imposing their opinion. Thirdly, these parents often complain about their children's lack of abilities, reproach them for insufficient effort, and explain the successes achieved mainly by the ease of the tasks performed, very rarely praise their children for their achievements, and they are often dissatisfied with their failures.

The game among younger schoolchildren also serves as a means of forming and developing many useful personal qualities that cannot yet develop in more "serious" types of activity. In this regard, the game of younger schoolchildren can be considered a preparatory stage of development and a transitional moment for including the child in more effective types of activity from an educational point of view - teaching, communication and work. The game for younger schoolchildren, as well as for preschoolers, serves as a means of satisfying the various needs of the child and developing his motivational sphere. In the game, new interests, new motives for the child's activity appear and are fixed.

The transition from play activity to work activity at this age is difficult to distinguish, since one type of activity can imperceptibly pass into another, for example, a design game - into the creation of real useful objects, i.e., into labor. If the educator notices that the child does not show the required useful personality traits in teaching, communication or work, first of all, care should be taken to organize such games where the corresponding qualities could manifest and develop. Thus, the child begins to show leadership and organizational qualities primarily in collective plot-role-playing games, seeking to obtain more significant and action-packed roles. If this does not happen, then it is very difficult to begin the formation of these qualities in him in more mature activities. And vice versa, if a child discovers important personality traits in learning, communication and work, then they must be used in games, creating new, more complex game situations that advance his development.

The games themselves of younger schoolchildren, in comparison with the games of preschoolers, acquire more advanced forms, turn into educational ones. Their content is enriched by the individual experience acquired by children. Games are increasingly using the knowledge acquired by schoolchildren, especially in the field of science and work at school. Both individual and group games are becoming more and more intellectualized. At this age, it is important that the child is provided with a sufficient number of educational games at school and at home and has time to practice them. Elements of the game are introduced into teaching, especially in the first grade.

The communication of younger schoolchildren also reaches a new level in comparison with preschool childhood and carries a powerful educational potential. When a child enters school, the relationship with other people changes significantly. First of all, the time allotted for communication increases significantly: the student spends most of the day in contact with other people. The content of communication is changing, it includes topics not related to the game, special business communication is highlighted both with adults and with peers. In the first grades of school, children communicate more with the teacher, show more interest in him than in peers, since the authority of the teacher is the highest for them. But by the end of elementary school, the authority and significance of the figure of the teacher is no longer so indisputable, children have a growing interest in communicating with peers, which further, in adolescence and senior school age, intensifies. Along with these external changes in the nature of communication, it is also restructured internally, its themes and motives change. If in the first and second grades, the preference of children when choosing communication partners among their comrades was determined mainly by the teacher's assessments, then by the third and fourth grades, students are already able to independently assess the personal qualities and behaviors of communication partners.

The appearance in a child of grades that do not depend on the opinion of the teacher means that he develops his own internal position - a conscious attitude towards himself, towards people around him, events and deeds. The fact of the formation of such a position is internally manifested in the fact that a fairly stable system of moral norms stands out in the mind of the child, which he tries to follow always and everywhere, regardless of the circumstances and the point of view of surrounding adults. The Swiss psychologist J. Piaget found that during the early school years, children, thanks to constant broad communication, move in their ideas about morality from moral realism to moral relativism.

Moral realism in the understanding of J. Piaget is a firm and categorical understanding of good and evil, dividing everything that exists into only two categories - good and bad - and not seeing halftones in moral assessments. This point of view is reflected primarily in those samples of literature, cinema and other types of art on which a preschool child is brought up: in children's fairy tales, films, books, almost all characters are clearly divided into positive and negative, and negative characters have almost no attractive features. neither in appearance nor in behavior, unless they pretend to be positive. All the actions of the main positive character usually do not cause condemnation, and even if they are in conflict with generally accepted moral standards, this is most often due simply to their ignorance. In real life, such an unambiguous division into good and evil, positive and negative, is impossible.

By the end of primary school age, the child first manifests moral relativism, based on the conviction that everyone has the right to a fair and respectful attitude towards himself, everyone has advantages and disadvantages, and the same quality can turn out to be both in specific situations. and others, and in every act of a person one can see morally justified and condemned. This approach is also reflected in what kind of literature children now prefer: they are more interested in works in which the characters follow the path of self-education and self-improvement, and do inner work. The differences between the positions of children who are at the level of moral realism and moral relativism are obvious.

Labor for younger schoolchildren, in comparison with the preschool period, is moving to a qualitatively new level. A child should have some elementary, but constant household duties from the age of 4-5. Accuracy, responsibility, diligence and many other useful qualities are brought up in domestic work. It is needed not only for the child to help parents around the house, but also for successful learning. The main types of work that educate and develop a child as a person are equipment and cleaning the house, housekeeping, participating with parents in solving financial issues, cooking, caring for plants and animals, etc. In rural areas, this also agricultural work. Caring for your own home develops a sense of ownership in a child, forms his organization, and improves his practical thinking. Each child in the house should have his own place for studies, games and recreation, in the equipment of which he must directly participate.

The initiative in organizing all these actions initially belongs to adults, but as the child grows older, it should pass to him. Younger students can perform their labor duties completely independently, only in cases of extreme necessity, turning to adults for help. This is a necessary condition for the development of independence and diligence in children, a sensitive period for which is the primary school age. Industriousness arises as a result of systematically repeating success with the application of sufficient effort and receiving encouragement for the child, especially when he has shown perseverance in achieving his goal. For the development of industriousness, a favorable prerequisite is also the fact that educational activity initially presents tangible difficulties for younger students that have to be overcome. Therefore, an adult needs to use a well-thought-out system of rewarding the child for success and encourage more those achievements that turned out to be difficult for the child and depended more on the efforts made by him than on abilities. It is also necessary that the child receives satisfaction from work, so that work satisfies the needs that are important to him.

Independence in a younger student is brought up only on the condition that the child is instructed to independently carry out some important things and at the same time they trust him. It is necessary to welcome any manifestation of independence by the child in matters, regardless of whether he has achieved actual success in their implementation. The most extensive opportunities for the formation of independence are provided by the types of work associated with self-service: cooking, repairing clothes, making and repairing household items and personal use. In addition, the participation of children in cleaning the home develops accuracy and cleanliness in them. These are not just basic psychohygienic skills, but also the basis of environmental education, the formation of a caring attitude towards nature.

4.7. Education of teenagers and youths

With the onset of adolescence, the child's lifestyle changes radically: he begins to spend most of his time outside the family - at school, on the street, in communication with peers or other adults outside his place of residence. Even during the moments of physical stay at home, psychologically, the teenager is mostly out of it, thinking about school and other extra-family matters.

Psychological outreach beyond the family is usually accompanied by the strengthening of the educational role of communication with peers and adults, the media and culture. Teaching as such fades into the background, and the main psychological activity of a teenager is aimed at the formation of personality.

The school is a transitional link for a teenager on the way of estrangement from the family and an independent exit into the world. On the one hand, it is somewhat reminiscent of a family: the school maintains an attitude towards adolescents as children, adults are in the position of educators and make appropriate demands. Relations between students and teachers become more equal only when they move to the upper grades. Adults with whom adolescents communicate - club leaders, sports coaches, and others - are already strangers, and relations with them are built mainly as business and official ones.

The school forms in boys and girls certain qualities necessary for the transition to an independent life. First of all, the qualities associated with self-service, the organization of one's own life in every sense are brought up. Young people graduating from school should be able to independently find a job or get a job, hire and equip housing, provide themselves with food and clothing, and solve other business and personal problems related to the organization of life, which are quite easily solved by a socially adapted adult.

An independent life also requires qualities relating to orientation in the social, political, economic and cultural life of society. Each school graduate must develop beliefs, a worldview, a system of social attitudes that determine his attitude to the world, to people, to himself. However, practice shows that a stable worldview in high school is just beginning to take shape and is not fully formed even during the entire period of adolescence. That is why young people turn out to be the main risk group when they are involved in criminogenic activities and extremist organizations, which attract with external paraphernalia, behind which stand ideas that suppress an independent personality.

This implies the task of educating another group of personal qualities - the moral basis of the personality and its culture. By the end of school, young people should have a moral worldview, they should establish themselves in their ideas about what they consider acceptable for themselves and what is not. In principle, life itself, which becomes more complicated as the student grows up, more and more often forces him to make his own moral choice in order to maintain good relations with others and maintain positive self-esteem. High school students are much more mature than teenagers in interpreting the concepts of justice and decency. If in the fifth grade the majority of students answer the question of what it means to share something valuable fairly, they answer: “It is fair - this is when everyone is the same”, then in the tenth grade there are practically no answers in this way, everyone says: “Fair is when everyone according to his contribution.

All of the listed personality traits must be formed in schoolchildren during the years of study, and the main educational load falls precisely on middle and senior school age. This period on the scale of a student's life lasts quite a long time - usually seven years, but this time for cultivating the qualities necessary in life is not enough for everyone. By the end of school, graduates differ quite a lot in terms of the degree of "growing up": someone is completely ready for an independent life and is psychologically much more similar to adults, while someone else remains infantile for a long time.

In order for the time and opportunities available in adolescence and early adolescence to be effectively realized, it is necessary from the very first months of children's education in the middle school to gradually change the ratio of time spent on study and educational activities. This time is an indicator of the importance, respectively, of educational and educational tasks that develop a person intellectually and personally. Students need to be given more time and opportunities for personal development. Experience shows that if the task of mastering knowledge still dominates in high school, and upbringing and personal development lag behind, are regarded as something secondary, then in general this slows down the process of psychological maturation of children. As a result, by the end of school, in terms of the level of socio-psychological development, they lag behind their peers who were in more favorable conditions for personal development, sometimes by four to five years. If in the middle and senior grades of the school priority is given to upbringing, that is, to the accelerated personal development of children, then in the future, learning and intellectual development also proceed at a faster pace. This happens because the formed personal qualities become the basis for the improvement of a person in all types of activities, including educational ones.

Communication with peers and adults in terms of its structural organization and content in adolescents, compared with elementary school, changes significantly. In adolescence, the desire to communicate with peers increases, resulting in some psychological isolation of adolescents from adults, accompanied by the formation of small closed groups of friends living an autonomous, isolated life. But even with a decrease in the influence of adults on adolescent groups, this natural desire of adolescents and young men for interpersonal communication within their age can be used with maximum benefit for education.

Adolescents and youths form closed, same-age groupings because they begin to worry about important life issues and they do not see the opportunity to openly discuss them with anyone other than with each other. In addition, adolescents have many interests specific to this particular age, which they are able to satisfy only through direct communication with each other, since their affairs may seem uninteresting and not worthy of attention to adults. Many of these questions and interests are of great importance for personal development. Through communication with peers, adolescents and young men learn moral ideals, norms and forms of behavior not in the form of an abstract knowledge of "how to", but in the form of personal values ​​accepted for themselves. Contacting each other, trying themselves in joint affairs, trying on various roles, they learn role-playing forms of behavior, form and develop their business qualities, learn to lead and obey, to be organizers and performers. Communication at this age is the most important school of self-education.

In order for the opportunities created by communication to be maximally realized by children, they need to interact as much as possible not only among themselves, but also with adults in a variety of cases and situations. It is desirable that informal, spontaneously formed groupings of children be visible to adults, but not for direct interference in their affairs, but for the purpose of skillfully guiding them pedagogically and psychologically, enhancing their positive educational influence.

Adults who are included in the communication of adolescents and young men can bring tangible benefits to them. In fact, adolescents really need the help of their elders, although they themselves may not be aware of this, not seek such help and not strive to establish and strengthen psychological contact with adults. Children, due to an insufficient level of personal development, often cannot find the right answers to the questions that concern them, which they actively discuss among themselves, and here the help of adults is invaluable, you just need to organize it correctly and correctly.

Particularly favorable opportunities for communication between adolescents and young men and adults are created by their joint work. Participation in work together with adults forms in a teenager a sense of genuine adulthood and responsibility. For the accelerated development of this feeling in adolescents, they must be included in joint work, outlining a clear circle of rights and obligations for them. The trust of an adult is very appealing to a teenager, since in this case his need is satisfied not just to seem like an adult, but to really be one. A teenager usually tries very hard to justify the trust placed in him, and the older he gets, the more equal in relation to an adult he finds himself in family work and at some point he can completely replace an adult, doing some work completely independently.

In order for adolescents, with their characteristic heightened desire for independence, to positively perceive the guidance of their activities by adults, this guidance should be based on an equal, respectful attitude towards them, guardianship should not go beyond the bounds of reason. Children reject both excessive care for them and despotic control based on the adult's desire to demonstrate their power. Such behavior of adults provokes a strong protest among adolescents and even more so among high school students. The consequences of authoritarian behavior of adults in relation to children growing up in a family are especially strong. It has been established, for example, that children of too authoritarian parents begin to be afraid to make decisions on their own, lose the desire to take responsibility. They are less self-confident, less inquisitive, less mature in social and moral terms, although they can cope with problems of a purely intellectual nature no worse than their peers who grew up in families with a democratic style of upbringing.

Education through the media and culture is specific in that this process is more difficult to manage than the influence of school, family and peers. The media influence the younger generation by promoting certain goals and values ​​of life, patterns of behavior.

Interested in newspapers, magazines, TV shows, Internet resources intended for adults, children usually begin in their early teens. If the process of consumption by adolescents of the information contained in these sources is not controlled, then, taking into account the episodic, random and irregular nature of children's interests in information of a certain kind, its educational impact becomes unpredictable. As a result, children do not develop reading selectivity, without which it is difficult to navigate the huge flow of information coming from many sources that exist today.

It is impossible to artificially limit the child's access to modern sources of mass information and culture. Whether or not to comply with age restrictions for watching movies and TV shows, reading literature and periodicals, using Internet resources is a private matter of the family in which the child is brought up, and if he is good at modern technology, he may neglect the position of his parents, especially since their the possibilities for controlling what their child watches, reads and listens to are far from limitless. Instead of establishing any restrictions and prohibitions, it is more reasonable to form in children a certain taste, social, cultural and aesthetic position. Adults surrounding the child can provide him with invaluable assistance in this. Each of them reads, hears and sees something every day and therefore has the opportunity to recommend something to read or watch to a teenager or young man, to comment on the information received by him.

It is desirable that informing about social, political, economic and cultural events in the family and school become regular and mutual. This should be done systematically not only by teachers and parents, but also by the children themselves. Then they will develop a need to appeal to the media and culture, an attitude towards understanding, knowledge, memorization of what they have read, seen and heard, good taste and selectivity in the perception of information. When recommending something to children, parents and teachers should always keep in mind the educational value of turning to the media.

Youth fashion and popular culture also have a great educational impact on children, and by how much teenagers are fond of them, it may seem that this influence is quite serious, stable and deep. In fact, this is far from always the case: those samples of mass culture that really have artistic value have a deep, serious and long-term influence, but there are not so many of them. Most of the temporary fascinations of adolescents with the phenomena of mass culture are superficial and pass with age, and these cultural phenomena themselves are forgotten. It is not the hobbies of teenagers and young men for mass culture that should cause anxiety, but their long-term consequences: a long-term distraction of attention from other, more serious, sources of personal development and, as a result, the loss of valuable time, and in the future, the loss of the desire to make spiritual efforts for comprehension and processing of incoming information.

The temporality and transience of hobbies in fashion and mass culture does not mean that they do not have an impact on the personality of a teenager or high school student at all. This influence undoubtedly takes place, but it is mediated by communication with peers who share similar hobbies. It is known, for example, that following the same fashion, interest in the same phenomena of mass culture serve as a signal to the surrounding people that their carriers and propagandists have certain common views. This guides teenagers and young men in choosing a circle of friends, buddies for communication. The same tastes of teenagers and young men are often a sign of the similarity of their personal problems. This ensures interpersonal choice and selectivity in communication, and it, in turn, being closed to a certain circle of people, directs education.

4.8. Self-education of teenagers and young men

In principle, a child can engage in self-improvement already in early childhood, when he masters the skills of handling objects. Trying to perform a certain action, the child persistently achieves his goal, and when he finally succeeds, he experiences a feeling of satisfaction. Emotionally experiencing a situation of success, a small child does not yet realize that at the same time something is changing in him, forcing him to move to a new level of mental development. The preschooler already owns the concepts that characterize the personal qualities of people, and is interested in the severity of these qualities in himself, but he cannot do without the instructions and help of adults. Both before and after entering school, all types of activities that the child does himself - play, communication, learning, work - are means of his personal development. But while doing them, the child does not realize the changes taking place with him: the younger student can control his knowledge and skills, but not the qualities of his personality. Of course, he is already striving to correct his shortcomings, but he still cannot see them, let alone influence them himself, without the help of adults. And only in adolescence, when the child acquires the ability to judge his personal qualities and evaluate them independently, without the participation of adults, can we talk about conscious purposeful self-education.

Adolescents at the age of 12-13 for the first time begin to think about the possibilities of physical, intellectual and personal self-improvement and make conscious purposeful efforts to achieve this goal. At this age, attention to their shortcomings and the desire to correct them become more acute. But adolescents see these shortcomings primarily in their physical development, and not in the characteristics of the psyche. Among the psychological features, the first object of self-criticism of a teenager is insufficiently developed volitional qualities (susceptibility to influences, inability to defend one's point of view, lack of purposefulness, inability to give preference to a more difficult and distant goal over the nearest and easiest). Therefore, many teenagers choose sports as a means of self-education, as it contributes to both physical development and the formation of volitional qualities.

In addition, teenage girls, in order to achieve physical perfection, may begin to restrict themselves in food, which also involves overcoming difficulties. Achieving ever higher results in sports stimulates the further development of the motivation to achieve success. The volitional qualities that are formed in sports also extend to other activities: adolescents begin to manage their time more responsibly and try to spend it more rationally. For boys, along with sports, one of the main areas of self-education is physical labor and arts, and for girls - teaching, housekeeping, and also arts.

Self-education of a teenager and a young man needs the participation and encouragement of adults, because it is they who create the main opportunities for this. Adults - both parents and teachers - should actively support the desire of children for self-education, starting from the appearance of its first signs. A teenager in his physical self-education is best helped by organized systematic sports. They should not pursue the goal of mandatory setting records, the main thing is that they give the child pleasure, strengthen his health and improve well-being. Sports are especially useful for physically weakened children. If the child moves to sports under the guidance of experienced coaches with the prospect of achieving noticeable success, then the educational task of these classes becomes different and goes beyond simple physical or volitional self-improvement.

Physical education and sports are useful for teenagers because they are a good school for developing the necessary personality traits. But this is not the only means of volitional development of man. The qualities of will developed in physical exercises do not always manifest themselves in intellectual and other activities, do not provide volitional manifestations in the moral sphere of life (otherwise former athletes would not become members of organized criminal groups). The volitional qualities of a person should be developed in those areas of activity to which they are directly related and in which they will be manifested in practice.

The interested, benevolent and active participation of an adult in the self-education of a teenager usually helps the latter to believe in himself, to overcome the crisis phenomena and complexes characteristic of this age. An example of an adult plays an important role in the self-education of a teenager and a young man, but in reality, teenagers more often imitate the attractive qualities of not adults with whom they really communicate, but artistic characters, famous athletes, artists or musicians - the so-called idols. In personal communication, young people who are not much older than them, that is, belonging to the same generation, but seeming to teenagers to be quite adults, most often become an example. It is them that teenagers imitate in demonstrating personal qualities and try to develop the same in themselves.

An even more complex psychological and pedagogical situation associated with self-education arises when high school students face the problem of moral self-improvement. Here they have to face many contradictions and problems. One of them is the contradiction between the romanticism characteristic of youth and the pragmatism necessary in life. It is impossible for a young man to completely abandon any one of these aspects of life, and it is not necessary. In this case, the role of an adult is to show young people that in reality romantic and pragmatic ideals and values ​​are quite compatible and can be combined at the level of higher spiritual and material human values. A person can be quite pragmatic and prudent in business, but morally remain decent, showing kindness and compassion for people. To solve such problems, young men and women should pay attention not only to romantic adventure stories in literature and cinema, but also to the best works of business literature, especially biographies of prominent personalities in this field. It is important to help young people find attractive moral and romantic traits in pragmatically oriented heroes, and useful business qualities in romantics.

In general, the self-education of the individual goes through several stages of development, going far beyond adolescence and youth. In addition to physical and moral self-improvement, a person makes efforts for professional and socio-ideological self-education and the achievement of self-actualization goals. This process continues throughout a person's conscious life.

Topic 5. PSYCHOLOGY OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY

5.1. The teacher as a subject of pedagogical activity. Psychological requirements for the personality of the teacher

Pedagogical psychology traditionally includes a special section - "Psychology of the teacher", which examines the features of the professional role of the teacher, his functions, abilities, skills, analyzes the requirements for him and the social expectations that have developed in society towards him. The profession of a teacher is one of the oldest, its main social function is to ensure the connection of generations, continuity.

According to the subject of labor, the profession of a teacher belongs to the type of professions "man - man", i.e. the main essence of his work lies in communicating with people (E. A. Klimov also distinguishes the types of professions "man - nature", "man - technology", "man is a sign" and "man is an artistic image"[31] ). Indications for the choice of professions of this type are the presence of the following qualities in an individual: consistently good health in the course of working with people, a high need for communication, the ability to empathize, the ability to listen and listen, a broad outlook, high speech culture. Representatives of professions such as "man - man" are able to quickly and correctly understand the intentions, thoughts, mood of other people, remember well and keep in mind knowledge about the personal qualities of many different people, lead, teach and educate. There are a number of contraindications to the choice of professions of this type: pronounced speech defects, monotonous inexpressive speech, isolation, lack of communication, slowness, indifference to other people, lack of disinterested interest in another person.

In addition to these general requirements, the teaching profession imposes a number of specific requirements on its subject. All of them can be classified on two grounds. First, among them are the main requirements, without which, in principle, it is impossible to become a qualified teacher and (or) educator, and additional ones, compliance with each of which is not mandatory for the teacher, but increases his teaching and educational potential, expands his ability to influence on students. Secondly, among the requirements for a teacher, there are constant ones inherent in a teacher of any historical period in any society, and changeable ones, due to the characteristics of a given stage of development of the society in which the teacher lives and works.

The main constant requirements for a teacher are love for children, love for pedagogical activity, the presence of deep special knowledge on the subject being taught, broad general erudition, pedagogical intuition, highly developed intellect, a high level of general culture and morality, professional possession of a variety of teaching and upbringing methods. children. Without any of these qualities, successful pedagogical work is impossible. As noted at the end of the XIX century. P.F. Kapterev, love for children and youth must be distinguished from love for the teaching profession: “You can love children very much, deeply sympathize with youth and at the same time be not disposed to teaching; you can, on the contrary, have nothing actually against teaching activity, prefer it even to others, but not have the slightest affection for either children or youth. The teacher needs much more knowledge in the field of his subject than provided by the school curriculum, the students immediately feel that the teacher has such knowledge. They consider that one of the main shortcomings of the teacher is that he teaches "word for word according to the textbook" and finds it difficult to answer the questions they have. Along with special knowledge, a teacher also needs general high rates of intellectual development in order to be an interesting conversationalist for students: one of the main advantages of a teacher in their eyes is that "there is something to talk with him, except for the subject." Without his own high moral standard, a teacher cannot be an example for children, he does not have the moral right to make demands on them regarding their upbringing, he cannot demand that children observe moral standards if he does not adhere to them himself. Finally, the variety of methods used also raises the authority of the teacher in the eyes of students, strengthens respect for him as a professional and increases students' interest in the subject.

Additional, but relatively stable qualities expected from a teacher are sociability, artistry, a sense of humor, good taste, etc. These qualities are also important, but a teacher or educator can do without each of them individually if they are able to compensate for this at the expense of others. their qualities. For example, a subject teacher may not be a very sociable person by nature, but his didactic and speech abilities may be developed to such an extent that, in the absence of this generally useful quality, he can remain a good teacher. However, non-compliance with any of the main requirements cannot be compensated for by any additional important qualities.

The question of the changeable qualities of a teacher, which are required of him at a given moment in the development of society, is somewhat more complicated. Each new situation in society sets new goals for education, that is, it requires new psychological characteristics from members of society that contribute to its further progressive development. The existing system of education is being rebuilt following the society, but this does not happen immediately, but with some delay. In order to form in students the qualities they need today, teachers themselves must possess these qualities, for which many of them need to make considerable efforts in their own self-education and self-education. Some teachers of the "old school" find it difficult to adapt to the new features of society, while others, having long been aware of the limitations of the old framework, on the contrary, are able to realize their pedagogical potential to a much greater extent in a new situation that is more consistent with their qualities. The new goals of training and education set new requirements for the personality of the teacher and educator. In order to establish these requirements in time and accurately, it is important to correctly assess the trends in the political, social and economic development of society and understand what qualities it now requires from a person. Next, it should be clarified to what extent these new useful qualities should be expressed in a citizen at the time of graduation from high school, and on the basis of this, to conclude what psychological characteristics a secondary school teacher should have in order to ensure the formation and development of the personality necessary for modern society.

The main trends of modern Russian society are the democratization of life, the transfer of responsibility to the ordinary citizen for arranging his own life, the expansion of opportunities and the simultaneous strengthening of the need for independent decision-making. The current generation of schoolchildren and students no longer imagine their life otherwise than in conditions of democracy and pluralism, when everyone has the right to their point of view and is ready to defend it. This implies, on the one hand, the ability to recognize, to take for granted the existence of many different points of view, to conduct cultural discussions and resolve emerging differences, and on the other hand, the rejection of dictate and pressure on the individual, respect for her, recognition of her significance. Freedom of opinion requires the ability to logically and convincingly express one's thoughts, prove, listen carefully to others. The new political situation implies the possibility of any citizen being in the sphere of power, which places increased demands on the ability to lead people and make managerial decisions. Changing the system of economic relations requires prudence, efficiency, frugality, enterprise and many other qualities that in former times were not considered necessary and were not consciously brought up in children. All these qualities are urgently needed by modern young people by the time they leave school and start an independent life. The teacher responsible for their formation and development must himself have independence, literacy, initiative, independence and many other qualities.

5.2. Professional abilities of the teacher

In order to successfully cope with his work, the teacher must have outstanding general and special abilities. Domestic researchers, based on the provisions of S. L. Rubinshtein and B. M. Teplov about abilities as psychological conditions for the success of performing certain activities, identified a whole set of pedagogical abilities. Various classifications of pedagogical abilities were presented by N. D. Levitov, F. N. Gonobolin, and in the most generalized form they are presented by V. A. Krutetsky. He singled out nine groups of pedagogical abilities.[33]

1. Academic ability, i.e., ability in the field of science corresponding to the subject being taught. They are expressed in the fact that the teacher knows his subject much deeper and wider than the volume of the school curriculum, constantly monitors the development of his science and new discoveries in it, is fluent in the educational material and shows great interest in it, and conducts at least modest research work.

2. Didactic abilities, i.e., the ability to convey material to students, making it accessible to children, to present the problem to them in an accessible and understandable way, to arouse their interest in the subject, to stimulate them to active independent thinking, to focus on self-acquisition of knowledge. A teacher with didactic abilities can, if necessary, appropriately adapt the educational material, make the difficult easy, the complex simple, the obscure understandable.

3. Perceptual abilities. The concept of "perception" in Latin means perception, the word "perceptual" characterizes everything that relates to the cognitive process of perception. In this case, we mean social perception, that is, the perception and understanding of a person by a person. Perceptual pedagogical abilities include the ability to know the inner world of the student, psychological observation associated with a subtle understanding of the student's personality and the temporary mental states he experiences. A teacher with pronounced perceptual abilities, by small external manifestations, and sometimes without them at all, catches the slightest changes in the internal state of the student.

4. Speech abilities, i.e. the ability to clearly and clearly express one's thoughts and feelings using verbal speech (verbal formulations, intonations, pauses, volume), facial expressions and pantomimics. The speech of a teacher distinguished by these abilities in the lesson is always addressed to the students. In each situation of the lesson - when questioning, explaining new material, expressing approval or censure - his speech is characterized by inner strength, conviction, interest in what he says, unity of appeal and attitude (according to I. V. Strakhov [34]), t i.e. the coincidence of the semantic content of the spoken words and their intonational design.

5. Organizational skills (refer to the organization of work of both students and the teacher himself). A teacher with high organizational skills can rally the student team, motivate him to solve important problems, as well as properly organize his own work, reasonably plan and control it. One of the manifestations of these abilities is the development in experienced teachers of a peculiar sense of time - the ability to correctly distribute work in time, meet deadlines, and even without a clock to estimate the amount of time elapsed in the lesson.

6. Authoritarian abilities, i.e., the ability to emotionally and volitionally influence students and the ability to achieve authority from them on this basis. These abilities depend primarily on the volitional qualities of the teacher (decisiveness, endurance, perseverance, exactingness, etc.), as well as on the sense of responsibility for teaching and educating schoolchildren, the teacher's conviction that he is right and the ability to convey this conviction to pupils so that they accept it. consciously, and not under pressure from the authority of the teacher "from above".

7. Communication skills, i.e. the ability to communicate with children, the ability to find the right approach to students, establishing optimal business and personal relationships with them, the presence of pedagogical tact.

8. Prognostic abilities, or pedagogical intuition. This is a special ability, expressed in anticipation of the consequences of one's actions and, based on this idea, how one should behave when communicating with each student, what forms and methods of influencing him should be used to achieve the greatest progress in his intellectual and personal development. A teacher with highly developed predictive abilities is able to foresee what will come out of a student in the future, to predict the development of one or another of his mental properties and qualities.

9. The ability to distribute their attention simultaneously between several activities. The presence of this ability is especially necessary during the lesson, where the teacher has to simultaneously monitor the content and form of presentation of the material (his own or the answering student), keep the whole class in the field of attention, respond to signs of fatigue, inattention, misunderstanding, violations of discipline, and finally monitor own motor behavior (posture, facial expressions, pantomime, gait, movements around the class).

In the interpretation of N. V. Kuzmina, it is emphasized that the abilities of the subject of pedagogical activity largely determine its success. She considers pedagogical abilities as a specific form of teacher's sensitivity to the object, process and results of their own pedagogical activity and to the student as a subject of communication, knowledge, labor.[35] The researchers of the school of N. V. Kuzmina made an important conclusion that pedagogical abilities imply a high level of development of general abilities (observation, thinking, imagination) and that other special abilities (for example, linguistic, mathematical, artistic, musical, artistic, literary) are included into the sphere of pedagogical activity only if there is a pedagogical orientation and pedagogical abilities in the conditions of their further development. Three types of combination of pedagogical and other special abilities are distinguished, which: a) help; b) are neutral; c) interfere with pedagogical activity.

R. S. Nemov[36], among other pedagogical abilities, singled out a list of educational abilities, the main of which are the following:

1) the ability to correctly assess the internal state of a person, sympathize, empathize with him (empathy);

2) the ability to be an example and a role model for children in thoughts, feelings and actions;

3) the ability to evoke noble feelings in the child, the desire and desire to become better, to do good to people, to achieve high moral goals;

4) the ability to adapt educational influences to the individual characteristics of the child being brought up;

5) the ability to inspire confidence in a person, calm him down, stimulate him to self-improvement;

6) the ability to find the right style of communication with each child, to achieve his disposition and mutual understanding;

7) the ability to arouse the respect of the educated person, to enjoy informal recognition on his part, to have authority among children.

Among teachers there are many good teachers who are comparatively weak as educators. There are those who are able to raise children well, but cope much worse with the role of a teacher. This circumstance indicates that the sphere of application of pedagogical abilities for such people may be different: either predominantly teaching, or mainly educational.

5.3. Man and pedagogical activity: the problem of conformity

Considered in subsections 5.1 and 5.2, the qualities of the subject of pedagogical activity are integral components of the general structure of his personality. In the personality of every person, and not just a teacher, there are qualities that, to one degree or another, correspond to the psychological characteristics of pedagogical activity. This means that if there are optimal conditions for the development of pedagogical abilities, practically every person whose mental development corresponds to the norm and who has no obstacles to the development of qualities that are the main constant psychological requirements for pedagogical activity can turn out to be a fully qualified teacher.

The personality traits that are necessary for this are presented in the personality structure developed by K. K. Platonov.[37] According to his scheme, the personality structure consists of four hierarchically arranged layers (substructures). The fourth, lower, mainly biologically determined substructure includes temperament, age, sex properties, which cannot be influenced by social means. The third substructure consists of the individual characteristics of mental processes, formed through exercise on the basis of biological inclinations. The second substructure is experience, which includes knowledge, skills, abilities and habits acquired through training. The first, highest substructure is determined exclusively socially and includes orientation, motivational sphere, moral qualities and other features that are formed through education.

Such a representation of the personality structure shows that from layer to layer the role of biologically determined personality characteristics decreases and the role of social characteristics increases. Each of these levels, according to K. K. Platonov, contributes to the formation of abilities in general and abilities manifested in specific activities, in particular.

Based on this representation of the structure of the personality as a whole and the uniqueness of the connection of each substructure with the formation of abilities, I. A. Zimnyaya identifies three plans for the correspondence of the psychological characteristics of a person to the activity of a teacher: 1) suitability; 2) readiness; 3) inclusion.[38] Suitability implies whether a given individual can, in principle, be formed psychologically consistent with the requirements of a particular professional activity. It is determined by two lower substructures of the personality - the third and fourth, i.e., biological, anatomical, physiological and cognitive characteristics of a person. Suitability in relation to pedagogical activity implies the norm of a person’s intellectual development, the ability to empathize (emotional empathy for another), the predominance of sthenic emotions (i.e., emotions that encourage active activity), a normal level of development of cognitive and communicative activity and, of course, the absence of contraindications to professions of the type "person - person" (see 5.1).

Readiness for pedagogical activity is a personal characteristic and includes qualities acquired with experience and upbringing: broad and systemic professional and subject competence, worldview maturity. Readiness implies a conscious focus of the individual on activities of the "man-man" type, a high level of need for communication, including with children, the need to transfer their experience, knowledge and skills to them (didactic need). Based on the normal functioning of the fourth and third substructures of the personality, the readiness for activity itself includes the second and first substructures.

Inclusion in interaction with other people, in pedagogical communication reveals the third aspect of the correspondence of a person to the activity of a teacher. It implies the ease of establishing contact with the interlocutor, the adequacy of the response to his statements and actions, the ability to follow his reaction, and enjoy communication. With a teacher who is able to perceive and correctly interpret the reaction of students, students feel more comfortable and are more motivated for learning activities than when communicating with a teacher who does not have these qualities.

The suitability, readiness and inclusion of a person in pedagogical activity are three aspects of his characterization as a potential subject of this activity. Each of them receives full development only as the subject enters into activity. For teachers with different experience, for future teachers, for those who firmly and consciously decide to become one, and for those who have this intention indefinitely, these plans of correspondence, with a greater or lesser expression of each of them, are combined in different ways.

The first case is a combination of the considered characteristics of an experienced teacher who has consciously chosen a profession, has a clear inclination towards it, deeply knows his subject, and is proficient in a variety of teaching methods. Such a teacher likes the very process of communicating with children and transferring knowledge to them, he feels the return on the work of students. The situation of the lesson is for him an everyday moment that does not carry special emotional tension and does not create psychological difficulties.

The second case shows the lack of full inclusion in pedagogical communication in the presence of the other two components of compliance. Typically, this situation is typical for a teacher who is just starting his professional career, a student-probationer. As a rule, theoretically, he is well prepared, has the latest, most recent knowledge on the subject, has an idea about various pedagogical methods and is trained in their application, i.e., he has an almost complete readiness for activity. The lack of inclusion is manifested in excessive emotional stress during the lesson and especially before it. The debutant teacher is more focused on himself, he is worried about how his students will perceive him, how he will be able to conduct a lesson. He is not always able to adequately respond to an unexpected pedagogical situation (questions of students, diverting their attention, etc.). The stress of the teacher is also seen by the students; for them, it is precisely in this that the young teacher's lack of pedagogical experience is most manifest.

The third case demonstrates the lack of full readiness for pedagogical activity in the presence of involvement in it. This option is possible if the subject is already carrying out pedagogical activity in some form and feels satisfaction from this, but is not yet fully prepared professionally for it and is aware of this himself. For example, students of pedagogical universities after the second year usually do summer practice as counselors in children's health camps. For the full implementation of professional pedagogical activity, they still lack the theoretical knowledge and practical pedagogical skills accumulated by this time, however, in the role of counselors, educators, students fully find themselves and reveal their pedagogical abilities, engaging in interaction with children.

In the fourth case, we see that of all aspects of the conformity of pedagogical activity, a person has only suitability, i.e., in principle, a teacher can turn out of him, and he himself accepts for himself such a possible variant of a professional future, but no practical steps are taken towards they have not yet done so. This is typical for almost all applicants to pedagogical universities and for school graduates, who consider among the available opportunities for professional choice, including obtaining a teacher education, as well as further work in this specialty.

The last, fifth, case demonstrates a situation in which there is not even fitness for activity and, consequently, neither readiness nor inclusion can be formed in principle. The lack of professional suitability usually indicates obvious developmental disabilities that prevent the implementation of vocational training and full-fledged professional activity.

5.4. General characteristics of pedagogical activity

Pedagogical activity is the teaching and educating influence of the teacher on the student, aimed at his personal, intellectual and activity development. At the same time, the pedagogical activity of the teacher lays the foundation for further self-development and self-improvement of the student. This activity arose in the history of mankind with the advent of culture, when the task of "creating, storing and transferring to new generations of samples (standards) of production skills and norms of social behavior"[39] became crucial for social development. Already in the primitive community, children learned the skills necessary for life through communication with their elders, imitating them and adopting useful skills. In addition, the development of skills took place without the participation of adults - in the process of playing. In the ancient period, with the advent of professional specializations, the school method of teaching the younger generation, separated from direct practice, spread, and at school this was already done by specially trained people - teachers, mentors. The word "teacher" in those days was called a slave who took children to school. It began to be applied to the teacher only in the New Age.

Having undergone significant changes in the content of education in different countries at different historical stages, the school has remained a social institution, the purpose of which is the transfer of sociocultural experience through pedagogical activity. The forms of transfer of social experience in the school in the history of its development have changed. Since the time of Ya. A. Comenius, classroom teaching has been firmly established in the school, in which various forms have emerged: a lesson, a lecture, a seminar, a test, an exam, a workshop.

Pedagogical activity, like any other, has a certain subject content: motivation, goals, subject, means, methods, product, result. Along with educational activities, it is a component of the educational process. Such a unity of these two types of activity implies a similarity between them in the subject, product and result, since a single process is aimed at one area. The difference between pedagogical and educational activities in this regard lies in the fact that educational activities are aimed at the self-improvement of its subject, and pedagogical activity is aimed at improving the student, that is, another person. The subject of pedagogical activity is the organization of educational activities of students aimed at mastering social experience. The means of its implementation are scientific knowledge (theoretical and empirical), on the basis of which students' ideas are formed. This knowledge is displayed in the texts of textbooks and representations recreated by the student. Auxiliary means are also used: technical, graphic, computer, etc.

Ways of transferring socio-cultural experience in pedagogical activity are explanation, demonstration (illustration), joint work with students to solve educational problems, direct practice of students. All these methods can act as the main ones in the development of various types and forms of social experience, other methods in each such case will be auxiliary. For example, the transfer of theoretical knowledge is mainly carried out through explanation, and their consolidation - through joint problem solving. If the subject of mastering is a practical action, a demonstration is usually used first, and then students move on to direct practice.

The product of pedagogical activity, as well as educational, is the formed individual experience of the student, his knowledge and ability to apply them in practice. This product is evaluated in exams, tests, tests according to the criteria for solving problems and performing educational activities. However, it is temporary: if the experience gained is not used by the student in the future, it is quickly forgotten. To preserve the product of educational and pedagogical activity in full, it is necessary to use it regularly.

The results of pedagogical activity are the personal and intellectual development of the student, his improvement and development as a person. These results are not immediately assessable, but are visible only over the course of life.

The product and the result of pedagogical activity can be very different from each other. Knowledge from different fields, obtained in different ways and with different motives and goals, can have a different impact on the development of the student. If, for example, knowledge and skills in a particular subject were acquired only in order to get good grades, but in real life they were not used at all and were quickly forgotten, then their impact on the student's personal development will be minimal. But if the teacher has managed to captivate students with his subject, arouse in them interest and the need for additional knowledge, then this environment itself already has a significant educational impact. In many cases, students remain forever grateful to teachers for the work invested in them, even if the knowledge in the subjects taught by them was not subsequently used. And if the work of a teacher turned out to be a decisive factor in choosing a student's future profession, then the knowledge gained in the relevant subject will determine a significant part of the student's future life and will make an incomparable contribution to his personal development. This degree of fusion between the product and the result of pedagogical activity determines one more of its specific characteristics - productivity, identified by N. V. Kuzmina.[40] There are five levels of productivity of pedagogical activity.

1. Minimal, or reproductive. A teacher at this level is only able to tell others what he himself knows. This level is called "reproductive" because it only reproduces ready-made information. The teacher still does not know how to arouse the interest of students in the information provided, to make it more accessible. Accordingly, in order to assimilate knowledge, students need additional sources of information, but the teacher is not able to motivate them to search for such sources. This level is considered unproductive.

2. Low, or adaptive. The teacher knows how to adapt the presentation of the material to the characteristics of the students. He is already able to make his messages available for assimilation by students of different stages of development, but is still not able to organize their learning activities and arouse their own cognitive activity. Assimilation of the material by students is carried out only at a slightly higher level than in the first case: students can understand and retell what they heard, but do not demonstrate an active cognitive attitude towards it. This level is considered unproductive.

3. Medium, or locally modeling. The teacher owns strategies for teaching students knowledge, skills and abilities in individual sections of the course. He can formulate a pedagogical goal, is aware of the result he is achieving, is able to build a system and sequence of involving students in educational and cognitive activities, however, these positive aspects are limited to individual thematic sections of the subject being studied. Students are quite freely oriented in certain topics, but they do not imagine the purpose of studying this subject as a whole, they are not able to see interdisciplinary connections. Some topics are interesting to them and can awaken an active cognitive attitude, but it stops immediately after the study of these topics, and when starting a new section, the teacher has to achieve this again. This level is considered average.

4. High, or systematically modeling the knowledge of students. At this level, the teacher has a strategy for the formation of a system of knowledge, skills and abilities of students in the subject as a whole. He puts forward a pedagogical goal regarding the study of the entire subject, constantly draws the attention of students to the connection of new material with the already known and to interdisciplinary connections, awakens in them an active cognitive attitude. Students may experience a steady enduring interest in the subject, but do not always take their cognitive activity outside the school. This level is considered productive.

5. Higher, or systematically modeling the activities and behavior of students. The teacher is able to make his subject an educational tool. Educational information makes a significant contribution to the formation of the student's personality, awakens the need for self-education, self-education and self-development. Thus, the maximum convergence of the product and the result of pedagogical activity is achieved: the knowledge gained does not pass by the personality of the student, does not settle as a dead weight in his memory, but takes him to a new level of personal, and not just intellectual development. This level is considered highly productive.

5.5. Motivation of pedagogical activity. External and internal motives

One of the most important components of pedagogical activity is its motivation. At present, the question of the motivation of pedagogical activity in our country is particularly acute, since the outflow of young teaching staff from secondary general educational institutions has significantly increased due to low wages. The average age of a school teacher is approaching retirement, and those who continue teaching and are not going to leave it also have significant motives for this.

As already mentioned, any human activity is guided by internal and external motives, they also determine each specific action and deed. Young people entering pedagogical universities, as a rule, are well aware of the current difficult situation in the education system, however, the competition for admission is not reduced. Senior students who have completed teaching practice at school, in most cases, express satisfaction with the pedagogical activity itself and argue that only low pay for this work does not allow them to work as teachers. For these reasons, we consider it necessary to single out two components in the motivation of pedagogical activity: the motivation for choosing the profession of a teacher and the motivation for continuing pedagogical activity.

Answering the question of what determines the choice of a profession, E. A. Klimov identifies eight main factors: 1) the position of the family; 2) the position of peers; 3) the position of teachers; 4) personal professional and life plans; 5) abilities and their manifestations; 6) claim for public recognition; 7) awareness of a particular professional activity; 8) inclinations.[41] These factors can be attributed to external motives (1, 2, 3, 6) and internal motives (4, 5, 7, 8). Each of them in each specific case of professional choice can be decisive. The predominant orientation towards internal motives testifies to greater personal maturity, awareness of the choice and a genuine interest in the chosen profession. If, however, when choosing a profession, external motives turn out to be decisive, such a choice is random, not fully conscious, and runs the risk of not becoming final: a person can quickly become disillusioned with the chosen profession.

Each of these factors is significant for pedagogical activity. But the specificity of this activity lies in the fact that all schoolchildren are perfectly informed about its essence and content: each of them observes the teacher's work with his own eyes long before making a conscious professional choice. Therefore, an accidental choice, made under the influence of mainly external motives, of the profession of a teacher is a rarity. Choosing this profession, schoolchildren are mainly guided by internal motives, primarily by their inclinations and abilities. Among these inclinations, the dominant one is love for children, the desire to help them in mastering the experience. In other words, it is the very content of pedagogical activity - the opportunity to teach children - that has the greatest influence on the choice of the teaching profession. Among other factors, the influence of the teacher and the favorite academic subject, the family and the traditions that have developed in it, as well as previous work experience, are especially important.

For those who have really started to carry out pedagogical activity and are not going to stop it, the structure of motivation changes somewhat. The main internal motive is still getting satisfaction from working with children, to which are added the motives of personal and professional growth, self-actualization. Among the external ones there are the motive of achieving success, the motive of the prestige of work in a certain educational institution, etc. In addition, in pedagogical activity as a specific form of interaction between an adult and a child, such an orientation as dominance, or the motive of power, appears. In the motivational basis of the choice of pedagogical activity, the motive of power is always focused on the benefit of others: thanks to its dominant position, the teacher helps children by transferring knowledge. Power is also manifested in the ability of the teacher to encourage and punish. ON THE. Aminov[42] gives the following types of power motive, correlated with the teacher's pedagogical actions.

1. The power of reward. Its strength is determined by the expectation of the extent to which the teacher can satisfy the needs and motives of the student and to what extent he will make this satisfaction dependent on the behavior of the student that he desires.

2. The power of punishment. Its strength is determined by the student's expectation of the extent to which the teacher is able to punish him for undesirable behavior and make the dissatisfaction of his needs and motives dependent on this undesirable behavior.

3. Normative power. The student accepts for himself the norm, according to which the teacher has the right to control the observance of certain rules of behavior by students and, if necessary, insist on them.

4. The power of the standard. The student strives to be like the teacher.

5. The power of the connoisseur. Its strength depends on the attribution to the teacher by the student of special knowledge on the subject being studied, the ability to teach this subject.

6. Information power. It occurs when the teacher has information that can make the student see the consequences of his behavior in a new light.

When considering what motives drive a teacher in specific pedagogical situations, it would be interesting to consider his motivational sphere in terms of centralization according to A. B. Orlov.[43] He describes seven main concentrations, each of which can dominate the pedagogical activity as a whole or become the main one in a separate pedagogical situation. This:

› selfish (centered on one's own interests);

› bureaucratic (for the benefit of the administration, managers);

› corporate (for the benefit of colleagues);

› authoritative (based on the interests and requests of the parents of students);

› cognitive (based on the requirements of the means of education and upbringing);

› altruistic (on the interests and needs of students);

› humanistic (on manifestations of the essence of each person).

In humanistic psychology, the most developed humanistic centering. It is, as it were, opposed to the other six, reflecting the reality of traditional education. Changing the direction of these centralizations is one of the important tasks of modern education in general and school education in particular.

5.6. Pedagogical skills

Pedagogical skills are a set of various actions of the teacher, through which his activities are carried out. Skills to a large extent reveal the individual psychological characteristics of the teacher and testify to his professional competence. Pedagogical skills are presented to the fullest extent in the studies of A. K. Markova. She distinguishes four main types of skills, including a total of nine groups.[44]

The first type of skills is psychological and pedagogical. Their central component is the teacher's ability to work in changing pedagogical situations, taking into account the individual psychological characteristics of students and taking care of their mental development. Psychological and pedagogical skills can be divided into three groups:

1) the ability to set a pedagogical task and, when setting it, focus on the student as an actively developing accomplice in the educational process, having his own motives and goals; study and transform the pedagogical situation, make pedagogical decisions in conditions of uncertainty, flexibly rebuild pedagogical goals and objectives as the pedagogical situation changes, anticipate the immediate and long-term results of solving pedagogical problems;

2) skills related to the learning process itself, with answers to questions about what, whom and how to teach. The question "what to teach" is answered by the ability to work with the content of the educational material, to highlight the key ideas of the subject being taught, to update the subject, to interpret information related to the subject from the media, to establish interdisciplinary connections, to form general educational skills and abilities in schoolchildren. The question "whom to teach" is answered by the ability to study the mental functions of students and the characteristics of their learning and upbringing, to see the real learning opportunities of schoolchildren, to distinguish between their academic performance and personal qualities, to identify not only the current level of development, but also the zone of proximal development, to anticipate possible difficulties for students, proceed from the motivation of the students themselves when planning and organizing the educational process, form the levels of activity that schoolchildren lack, expand the possibilities for their independent work, work with both weak and gifted children, building individual programs for them. The question "how to teach" is answered by the ability to apply optimal combinations of methods and forms of education and upbringing, to compare and generalize pedagogical situations, to apply differentiated and individual approaches to students, to find different ways to solve typical pedagogical problems, etc.;

3) the ability to use psychological and pedagogical knowledge and the latest information on psychology and pedagogy, advanced pedagogical experience, record the process and results of their work, correlate students' difficulties with shortcomings in their work, see the strengths and weaknesses of their work, form and evaluate their individual style , analyze and summarize their experience, compare it with the experience of other teachers, make plans for the development and improvement of their pedagogical activities.

The second type of skills is communication skills. (Here and below, each type includes two groups of skills, which represent successive levels of their development - from low to high.) Communication skills are associated with creating an atmosphere of psychological safety for another person and providing conditions for self-realization of his personality. In the implementation of communicative skills, the teacher's pedagogical tact, his position as a communication partner play an important role. In the general numbering of groups of pedagogical skills, communication skills are represented by the fourth and fifth groups:

4) the ability to set communicative tasks, create conditions for psychological safety and the realization of the internal reserves of a communication partner;

5) skills that contribute to the achievement of high levels of communication. These include the ability to understand the position of another, show interest in his personality, interpret his internal state according to the nuances of behavior, master the means of non-verbal communication, create an atmosphere of trust and tolerance, use predominantly organizing, rather than disciplinary and evaluating influences, use a democratic style of leadership, be ready to thank the student and, if necessary, apologize to him, maintain an equal attitude towards all children, treat certain aspects of the pedagogical situation with humor, abandon the corporate stereotype "The teacher is always right", create conditions for the student to develop the desired qualities, not be afraid of feedback from students.

The third type of skill is self-directed. These skills are necessary for self-realization, self-expression and personal development of the teacher himself. They directly reflect the teacher's compliance with the requirement of constant growth and improvement. In the general classification, these are the sixth and seventh groups:

6) the ability to maintain a stable professional position of a teacher who understands the importance of his profession and is able to withstand difficulties, realize and develop his pedagogical abilities, manage his emotional states, giving them a constructive rather than destructive character, perceive his positive opportunities, master the standards of labor (pedagogical skill ), to carry out creative search;

7) the ability to be aware of the prospects for one's professional development, to determine the characteristics of one's individual style, to strengthen one's strengths and eliminate weaknesses, to use the compensatory possibilities of one's abilities, to be open to searching for something new, to move from the level of mastery to the actual creative, innovative level.

The fourth type of skills is diagnostic and prognostic. They are necessary for the teacher to form a correct idea about the students, not only at the present time, but also an idea of ​​what may come of them in the future. This type of skill includes the eighth and ninth groups:

8) the ability to determine the knowledge of students at the beginning and end of the school year, determine the maturity of their activities, skills and abilities, identify individual indicators of learning (activity, orientation, the amount of assistance needed), determine the reasons for the lag and implement an individual and differentiated approach, encourage students to self-learning and continuing education;

9) the ability to assess the state of upbringing and upbringing of schoolchildren, to recognize their moral standards and beliefs by which they are guided by the behavior of students, to see the personality of the student as a whole in the relationship of what he says, thinks and does, to create conditions for the development of the necessary personal qualities in individual students.

Pedagogical skills correspond to different positions, social roles of the teacher. In pedagogical activity, the teacher acts as a carrier of information, subject matter specialist, methodologist, researcher, organizer, communication partner. Those skills that the teacher possesses reveal to the observer both the personality of the teacher and the features of his activity and interaction with students. Among them there are skills that are part of several abilities at once, and each ability, in turn, determines the development of not one, but several skills.

5.7. The individual style of the teacher's activity

The general concept of the style of pedagogical activity. Pedagogical activity, like any other, is characterized by a certain style of performance. In a general sense, the concept of "style" implies the presence of a certain stable system of methods and techniques for carrying out activities. This system is a stable feature that manifests itself in various conditions under which it is necessary to perform this activity. What kind of style of performance develops in the subject of activity is primarily due to its individual psychological characteristics - the type of temperament, character traits, the level of development of professional abilities, etc. According to the definition of E. A. Klimov, the style of activity in the proper psychological sense is " a stable system of methods determined by typological features that develops in a person striving for the best implementation of a given activity ... an individually peculiar system of psychological means that a person consciously or spontaneously resorts to in order to best balance his typologically determined individuality with the objective external conditions of activity. [45] This definition emphasizes that the best performance of an activity is achieved through an individual combination of its techniques and methods.

Every adult who consciously chooses a teaching profession, at the time of making this choice, is already a largely formed personality with his own individual characteristics. In any case, the individual qualities of a teacher must meet the general psychological requirements for this profession. In addition, in pedagogical activity related to the type of professions "man-to-man", it is imperative to take into account the psychological characteristics of the other side - students. For example, the style of work and communication with students of a primary school teacher, both directly in the lesson and outside it, will differ markedly from the style of communication, for example, a chemistry teacher who works exclusively with older teenagers and young men. In turn, a university teacher in terms of style of activity will differ significantly from a school teacher, including those teaching the same discipline. Thus, at least three main factors influence the emerging individual style of pedagogical activity: 1) individual psychological characteristics of the subject of this activity, including individual typological, personal and behavioral ones; 2) psychological features of the activity itself; 3) characteristics of students (age, gender, status, level of knowledge, etc.).

The main areas of manifestation of the individual style of pedagogical activity are:

› temperament (reaction time and speed, individual pace of work, emotional responsiveness);

› the nature of the reaction to certain pedagogical situations, as well as to various actions and deeds of students;

› choice of teaching methods;

› choice of means of education;

› style of pedagogical communication;

› the use of means of psychological and pedagogical influence on students, including the preference for certain types of rewards and punishments.

It should be noted that the formation of an individual style of activity for each teacher imposes natural restrictions on the use of someone else's pedagogical experience, even the most advanced one. It is important for the teacher to remember that best practices are almost always inseparable from the personality of its author and represent a kind of combination of generally significant pedagogical findings and the individuality of the teacher, therefore, attempts to directly copy someone else's pedagogical experience, as a rule, do not bring the same results as those of its authors. For a teacher with a different set of individual traits, the same methods and techniques for carrying out activities will have a different embodiment in many respects, and not always as successful. They may simply not suit him as a person and individuality and, therefore, require much more effort from him to implement, which will greatly reduce their effectiveness. Advanced pedagogical experience should not just be copied, but consciously and creatively processed: perceiving the main thing in it, the teacher should strive to always remain himself, that is, a bright pedagogical individuality, and only under this condition is it possible to increase the effectiveness of training and education on the basis of borrowing advanced pedagogical experience.

Classification of styles of pedagogical activity depending on its nature. The most complete actually activity-based idea of ​​the styles of pedagogical activity was proposed by A. K. Markova.[46] In this case, the classification of activity styles was based on: a) its content characteristics (the teacher's predominant orientation on the process or result of his work); b) the degree of representation of the indicative and control and evaluation stages in labor; c) dynamic characteristics (flexibility, stability, switchability, etc.); d) performance (the level of knowledge and skills of students, their interest in the subject). On this basis, four types of individual styles of teacher activity were identified.

A teacher with an emotional-improvisational style (EIS) differs from representatives of other styles in a predominant orientation towards the learning process. He constructs an explanation of new material in a logical and interesting way, but he can get so carried away with his own explanation that he loses feedback with the students, does not consider it necessary to interrupt and clarify whether they understood him. During the survey, such a teacher refers to a large number of students, but more often to strong ones, since the slowdown in the pace of work and the lack of diversity that inevitably arise when weak students respond is perceived as a significant disadvantage. He conducts the survey at a fast pace, and he often does not have the patience to wait for the students to formulate the answer on their own. A teacher with EIS is characterized by not quite adequate planning of the educational process: for practicing in the lesson, he chooses the most interesting educational material, and less interesting, although important, can be left for independent analysis by students. Since the main thing in the lesson for such a teacher is interest and diversity, his activities do not sufficiently represent the consolidation and repetition of educational material, the control of students' knowledge.

The main advantages of the emotional-improvisational style are high efficiency, the use of a large number of various teaching methods. A teacher with this style often practices group discussions, encourages students to spontaneously speak on the topic being studied, even if they only touch on it indirectly, and usually does not interrupt them himself. All these features of the EIS are due to the clear predominance of intuitiveness over reflexivity, which is expressed in the frequent inability of the teacher to analyze the effectiveness of his activities in the classroom.

A teacher with an emotional-methodical style (EMS) is characterized by an orientation equally towards the process and the result of learning. He adequately plans the educational process, gradually working out all the educational material, carefully monitors the level of knowledge of all students, both strong and weak. Such a teacher is distinguished by high efficiency, he often changes the types of work in the lesson, practices group discussions. During the survey, he tries to cover the maximum number of students, often gives individual tasks. At the same time, in his activities there are constantly consolidation and repetition of educational material, control of students' knowledge. Thus, unlike a teacher with EIS, a teacher with EMS seeks to activate students not with external entertainment, but to firmly interest the features of the subject itself, while using an equally rich arsenal of methodological techniques when working out educational material. The analysis of the results of their activities by such a teacher is more accurate than that of a teacher with EIS, due to a higher degree of reflexivity, although his intuitiveness still somewhat prevails.

A teacher with a reasoning-improvisational style (RIS) is equally focused on the process and learning outcomes, adequately plans the learning process. Compared to teachers of emotional styles, he shows less ingenuity in the selection and variation of teaching methods, is not always able to provide a high pace of work, rarely practices collective discussions, so there is noticeably less spontaneous speech of students in his lessons. However, during the survey, such a teacher gives everyone (both strong and weak students) the opportunity to formulate a detailed answer and at the same time tries to speak less himself, preferring to influence students indirectly: through leading questions, requirements to clarify what was said, and very rarely through direct prompts. . When explaining new material for a teacher with RIS, the main thing is to highlight the main issues and present them logically, while emphasizing the main structure and cause-and-effect relationships. This is what, in his eyes, is the key to interest in the material of students. A teacher with RIS constantly applies consolidation, repetition and control of students' knowledge. In his activity, one can observe a certain preponderance of reflexivity over intuitiveness, which allows him to adequately analyze the effectiveness of his work, but limits the possibilities of spontaneous behavior in the classroom.

A teacher with a reasoning-methodical style (RMS) focuses mainly on learning outcomes and adequately plans the learning process. From representatives of other styles, it is distinguished by conservatism in the choice of means and methods of pedagogical activity: a small standard set of teaching methods is used, preference is given to the reproduction of the studied material by students, individual creative tasks are practically not set, collective discussions are extremely rare. In the process of questioning, the teacher with RMS addresses a small number of students, giving each student a lot of time to respond, with particular attention paid to weak students. Consolidation and repetition of educational material, control of students' knowledge are constantly and systematically used. A teacher with RMS is characterized by a high degree of reflexivity; such teachers are able to most fully analyze their activities.

The distinction between these four types reflects differences in teacher management, communication, behavior, and cognitive styles.

Styles of team leadership in the activities of the teacher. Pedagogical activity is associated primarily with the management and guidance of students' educational activities, therefore, in relation to it, it can be considered legitimate to use the classification of leadership styles proposed by K. Levin. He singled out three styles of leadership: authoritarian, democratic, and permissive liberal. As G. M. Andreeva emphasizes,[47] the specificity of each of these styles is expressed in the type of decision-making by the leader.

When using the authoritarian style of team leadership, all the affairs in the group in their entirety are planned personally by the leader. He announces to his subordinates only the goals and tasks that are closest at the moment, his opinion is decisive. Communication with the team takes place in the form of brief business orders, pronounced in a commanding tone. The leader does not consider it necessary to justify his point of view, his orders and prohibitions. He does not take into account the emotions and feelings of the team members, his praise and censure are subjective and are not accompanied by any arguments. The internal psychological position of such a leader is not within the group, but above it.

For a teacher with an authoritarian style, the student is not a communication partner, but an object of influence. The teacher alone makes decisions, establishes strict control over the fulfillment of his requirements, uses his rights without taking into account the situation and the opinions of students, does not consider it necessary to explain and justify his actions. As a result, students lose their activity, showing it only at the insistence of the teacher, their self-esteem in his lessons is significantly reduced: they are not completely confident in their knowledge, and the teacher does not support this confidence in them. The forces of students are directed primarily to psychological self-defense, and not to the assimilation of knowledge and their development. Teachers with an authoritarian style are often feared by students and not always respected. The main methods of influence of such a teacher on students are orders, teaching, notation. Teachers with an authoritarian style are characterized by low satisfaction with their profession.

A leader with a democratic style involves the entire team in making important group decisions, and each member of the group has the right to propose their own ideas and discuss those already proposed. Everyone is responsible for the implementation of the decisions made. The opinion of the group is the main factor in making a decision by the leader, but the decision made is mandatory. At the same time, the leader does not dispose, but offers and advises, using comradely intonations. Praise and censure on his part are accompanied by arguments and advice, all prohibitions are justified. Psychologically, such a leader feels like a member of the group, takes a position within it.

A teacher with a democratic style considers the student as an equal partner in communication. It involves students in decision-making, takes into account their opinions, encourages independence of judgment, appreciates students not only for academic performance, but also for personal qualities. As a result, in the lessons of such a teacher, schoolchildren often experience a state of satisfaction, peace of mind, and show high self-esteem (even weak students). Democratic teachers are generally respected and not feared. As methods of influence, they use motivation, advice, request. Such teachers are characterized by satisfaction with their profession.

With a liberal-condoning style, the leader practically does not use the possibilities of his leadership position, avoids giving direct instructions. The leading role in the team is played by informal leaders, it is on them that the planning of group affairs depends, the official leader performs only representative functions. In communication with subordinates, indifference is evident in his intonations, praise and censure are practically absent. Such a leader psychologically takes a position "imperceptibly aside" from the group.

A teacher with this style finds it difficult to make independent decisions and usually transfers the initiative to students and colleagues. He organizes and controls the activities of students haphazardly, often showing indecision and hesitation. Feeling this, students can take advantage of his weakness and put pressure on him. In a class with such a teacher, an unstable psychological climate is observed, many conflicts arise that students are not able to resolve on their own due to insufficient intellectual and personal maturity, and the teacher does not interfere in resolving these conflicts. Such teachers are usually neither feared nor respected. They have virtually no direct influence on students. Satisfaction with the profession among teachers with a liberal-permissive style, as a rule, is low, most often they are generally random people in pedagogical activity, and they do not stay in it for a long time.

5.8. Psychological analysis of the lesson as a means of developing pedagogical abilities and the formation of pedagogical skills

The lesson is the main organizational unit of the learning process, within which the teacher and students work together. Lesson analysis is one of the effective ways to increase the awareness of this activity by its participants, especially the teacher. Contributing to the improvement of teaching in general, lesson analysis is of great importance, first of all, for self-knowledge and self-development of the teacher: he gets the opportunity to look at his lesson from the side and evaluate it both as a whole and each component separately. The characteristics of the teacher's personality and his activity in the lesson, the psychological characteristics of students and their activities in the assimilation of knowledge and the formation of skills and abilities, the patterns of communication between the teacher and students are subjected to psychological analysis. The work on the psychological analysis of the lesson forms the teacher's analytical abilities, prognostic skills, and develops cognitive interest. The ability to conduct psychological observations of complex phenomena, analyze them, draw correct, psychologically sound conclusions is an important means of improving the teacher's professional and pedagogical skills.

The teacher in the lesson is included in diverse connections with each student, with the class as a whole, with the educational material presented. At the same time, the teacher himself acts for students in different capacities: as an interesting interlocutor, researcher, tester. Students draw from him all the new content: subject, personal, intellectual, activity, behavioral. The psychological components of the lesson to be analyzed are the teacher and the student, the educational subject that mediates their relationship and the process of interaction that unites all these three sides.

Three plans for the psychological analysis of the lesson can be clearly distinguished:

1) psychological analysis related to the personality of the student, the formation of his scientific outlook and morality in the learning process. In the psychological analysis of the lesson, it is necessary to include a wider range of questions about the upbringing of the student as a person;

2) connection with the methodological analysis of the lesson: how it corresponds to the level of students' preparation and their intellectual development. In this case, the psychological nature of the assimilation of educational material and the development of students' intellectual activity in the educational process, the correspondence of methods and methods of work to the age and individual psychological characteristics of students are analyzed;

3) analysis of the communicative activity of the student and the inner world of the teacher himself through reflection. The objects of reflection most often become the motives of their own pedagogical activity, emotional states during the lesson, as well as the results of pedagogical activity when the teacher realizes its strengths and weaknesses and the reasons for his own successes and failures.

To improve pedagogical skills, it is necessary to analyze the same lesson in different time plans. Three stages of the psychological analysis of the lesson are distinguished by time: 1) preliminary (during the preparation of the teacher for the lesson); 2) current (directly during the lesson); 3) retrospective (analysis of the past lesson).

Preliminary psychological analysis is carried out at the stage of preparation for the lesson. At this time, the teacher initially has an "image-plan" of the future lesson, and then a comprehensive thorough analysis of all its components begins: the educational material, the goals and objectives put forward, the chosen methods, techniques and methods of teaching, the conditions in which the lesson is planned. It is in the process of preliminary analysis that the teacher prepares an outline of the lesson.

During the preliminary analysis, the teacher meaningfully and purposefully uses theoretical knowledge from the field of general, age, pedagogical, social psychology and the psychology of teaching his subject. The main problems that he has to solve at this time are the psychological problems of organizing the educational process; it is in this case that the teacher needs to call on his skills to help answer the questions of what, whom and how to teach. Preliminary analysis develops these skills and is based on the predictive abilities of the teacher.

The current psychological analysis is carried out directly during the lesson within the framework of successive pedagogical situations. Each pedagogical situation requires a prompt reaction of the teacher, the ability to correctly orientate in the situation that has arisen, and adapt the lesson plan to the changed situation. Of course, careful planning of the lesson is necessary in advance, but each pedagogical situation that arises during the lesson carries a lot of unexpected, unforeseen. In such cases, the success of the lesson will depend even more than on its preliminary preparation, on the speed of the teacher's reaction, the ability to analyze the situation that has arisen and the flexibility to change the lesson plan in accordance with the situation. For a successful current psychological analysis of the lesson, the teacher needs to develop the following skills.

1. See if the class is prepared for the lesson. If the students are unprepared, if they do not master the previous material, they should not immediately proceed to the presentation of the new one. It is necessary to find out the reasons for what happened and, if possible, repeat the previous material, taking care this time of its assimilation by all students.

2. Observe discipline during the lesson. The massive distraction of attention from the content of the lesson requires the prompt intervention of the teacher and the use of the most appropriate means to return the attention of students to a business orientation.

3. Notice the psychophysical state of children. Even if students do not undertake deliberate violations of discipline, nevertheless, in the event of accumulated fatigue or some emotionally significant event, it also becomes a difficult task to focus their attention on the lesson, requiring additional effort and time.

4. Perceive the reaction of students to their questions. If the children do not immediately comprehend the question and do not answer for a long time, its wording should be changed (but so that it does not contain direct prompts!).

5. Listen carefully to student responses. Their mistakes and inaccuracies can tell the teacher what shortcomings he himself made when presenting this material.

6. Constantly keep the whole class in sight and organize the observation of students for the answers of their comrades. Often there are situations when the teacher focuses his attention on the responding student, and the class is left to itself, because of which the pedagogical effect of the survey is sharply reduced. To avoid this, it is necessary to motivate students to follow the answers of their comrades.

7. Perceive the reaction of students to their explanation. By the very fact where the students' eyes are directed and what postures they take, one can judge whether the material being explained is accessible, interesting, or important for them. Seeing the passive reaction of students, an experienced teacher is able to quickly change the style of explanation, pick up a vivid example, and find other ways to activate their attention.

8. To notice the peculiarities of the learning activities of the class as a whole, individual groups of students (strong, medium and weak) and each individual student - the pace of work, difficulties, typical mistakes, the depth of assimilation of the material, the ability to independently apply knowledge in practice, the quality of work performed, advancement in study.

9. Observe your own behavior and speech. Every word spoken, intonation used, movements around the class play an important role in organizing the attention of students and ensuring the optimal pace of work in the lesson.

10. Distribute attention to observe several objects at the same time. A similar ability is also highlighted in the general classification of pedagogical abilities.

The current analysis of the lesson assumes a fairly high level of possession and operation of psychological knowledge, which allows the teacher to make the right decisions in difficult, unpredictable pedagogical situations, in conditions of time pressure. This is the most difficult aspect of the psychological analysis of the lesson, and in practice, not all teachers master it in full. The ability to carry out the current analysis of the lesson serves as an indicator of the professional and pedagogical skill of the teacher.

A retrospective psychological analysis is carried out after the lesson is completed. At this stage, the teacher compares the initial idea of ​​the lesson with its implementation, draws conclusions about what worked and did not work, identifies the advantages and disadvantages of the past lesson, outlines ways to eliminate weaknesses and improve strengths. Retrospective analysis helps the teacher to understand the reasons for unexpected changes in the course of the lesson. This type of analysis causes the teacher the least difficulty, but it is also quite complicated, since it involves the disclosure of all connections, the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships, a high level of reflective abilities and skills, and at the same time being a means of their development. Thanks to a retrospective analysis of the lesson, the teacher forms a systematic idea of ​​his activities.

Completing the organization and conduct of the lesson, its retrospective analysis is at the same time the basis for a preliminary analysis of the next lesson. After all, it is the results of the previous lesson that determine whether it is possible to move on to a new topic, what teaching methods are best used in this class when studying this topic, what to expect from students when analyzing it. The more consciously and objectively the teacher analyzes the past lesson, fixing the reasons for his successes and failures, the more perfect he will plan and conduct the next lesson. Thus, the analysis of the lesson can be called a continuous process, since each subsequent stage logically follows from the previous one.

5.9. Psychological improvement of pedagogical activity

The teacher needs to constantly improve himself professionally, since the knowledge he transmits to his students becomes obsolete very quickly. The same applies to the knowledge of pedagogy and psychology, which the teacher uses in his work. The knowledge given in a pedagogical university, already at the moment of receiving it by a future teacher, may turn out to be insufficient, since it does not include everything that he may need in practice, due to the limited amount of time allotted by the curricula for the disciplines of the psychological cycle. Over time, once acquired knowledge becomes obsolete and requires updating at least once every five years through self-education and advanced training.

Psychological self-education of a teacher includes a systematic introduction to the latest achievements of various branches of psychology related to training and education. In a generalized form, psychological knowledge useful for pedagogical activity is presented in the journals "Questions of Psychology", "Psychological Journal", "Preschool Education", and other scientific and scientific-practical publications.

An important aspect of the teacher's professional activity is self-regulation - the ability to manage one's own mental states and behavior in order to optimally act in difficult pedagogical situations. The need for conscious purposeful self-regulation efforts arises when:

› the teacher is faced with an intractable, new and unusual problem for him;

› the problem does not have an unambiguous solution: it either does not exist at all, or there are several alternative options, from which it is difficult to choose the optimal one;

› the teacher is in a state of increased emotional stress, which prompts him to impulsive actions;

› the teacher has to make a decision on how to act without hesitation, in conditions of a severe lack of time;

› the actions of the teacher are evaluated from the outside, students, colleagues, other people pay close attention to him, which means that we are talking about his authority and prestige.

The psychological foundations of self-regulation consist in the management of cognitive processes and personality. Self-regulation is carried out only when the will and inner speech are involved.

Among the cognitive processes, perception, attention, memory and thinking are most amenable to self-regulation. Self-regulation of perception involves a clear statement of the task of building an image, obtaining unambiguous answers to questions about what, why and how to observe. In a difficult pedagogical situation, such answers are not always obvious, and the teacher has to make significant mental and physical efforts in order to find them. Consciously asking and answering these questions requires making and following choices, which naturally involve self-regulation.

Attention management is somewhat more complicated, since involuntary and voluntary attention are amenable to self-regulation to varying degrees. It is possible to manage involuntary attention only indirectly, through the regulation of the psycho-physiological states of the body on which it depends. With fatigue, involuntary attention becomes poorly controlled, just as during illness, in a state of excessive emotional excitement, affect or stress. The most effective means of controlling this type of attention are rest, treatment, autogenic training. Voluntary attention, on the other hand, can be controlled by words or stimuli that arouse interest. Verbal self-instruction or verbal self-regulation of attention is always directly or indirectly based on interest. Sometimes it is enough to force yourself to see something interesting in some object, phenomenon or event in order to attract attention to it for a long time.

More complex and more necessary for the teacher is the self-regulation of memory. Memory consists of particular processes: memorization, preservation, reproduction, recognition and forgetting. Memorization and reproduction of information are most amenable to self-regulation, since they are controlled by consciousness. Retention, recognition and forgetting are more difficult to manage, since they work at a subconscious level, but they can also be indirectly controlled through the organization of memorization. Self-regulation of memory processes is based on various ways of representing, associating, linking into a single whole, mental processing of the material. Preservation turns out to be more durable and long-lasting if the memorized material can be presented visually, associated with any images. Memorization can be accelerated by artificially recalling the images and ideas already in memory, mentally linking them with the newly memorized material.

Conscious mind control can also make it more productive. The main methods of self-regulation of thinking are as follows: it is necessary to carefully analyze the conditions of the activity tasks to be solved, correlate the required result with the given conditions, thus establishing what is lacking in these conditions to obtain the desired result. Thinking must be constantly trained and exercised, developing a certain discipline of it, which involves a consistent search and sufficient study of various alternative solutions. This helps to avoid the formation of rigidity (inflexibility, rigidity) of thinking, "looping" in thought processes.

Ideas related to the search for a solution to the problem should be spoken to yourself or aloud, but it is better to write them down, as well as the actions already performed. This helps to realize the course of their thought processes and thus control them.

Self-regulation of emotional states is based on the ability to control the state of the muscular system of the body, on the active volitional inclusion of thought processes in the analysis of emotional situations. The teacher needs the ability to control himself and turn his emotional states into fruitful work with students. One of the most effective ways to regulate emotional states is autogenic training (autotraining). It is a system of exercises aimed at self-regulation of the mental and physical state. Auto-training is useful in those types of activities that cause a person to have increased emotional tension, including pedagogical, since in the work of a teacher with children and their parents, situations often arise that are called difficult and require emotional and volitional self-regulation. The use of auto-training techniques allows a person to purposefully change mood and well-being, has a positive effect on his working capacity and state of health, makes it possible to rationally distribute and economically use forces in everyday life, and in emotionally intense moments to mobilize them to the maximum.

Auto-training is based on the conscious use of various means of psychological influence on one's own body and nervous system in order to relax them or, conversely, to tone them up. Usually, the auto-training procedure is carried out with the help of certain verbal formulas of self-hypnosis of a physical or mental state. Formulas, as a rule, are pronounced silently; it is desirable at this time to be in a position that provides the most complete physical relaxation (lying on your back or sitting in the "coachman's position"). But, since this is not always possible, you need to learn to relax in any available position, including standing. Through the suggestion of a certain physical state, the desired mental state is also achieved. Self-hypnosis formulas are used in a certain sequence: first relaxing, then tonic. Relaxing formulas usually suggest a feeling of warmth and heaviness in the muscles, and these sensations should spread through the body gradually, from the head to the feet. If autogenic training is aimed precisely at relaxation, then after the mental pronunciation of all verbal formulas and the achievement of the desired effect, the onset of sleep is possible. If toning is necessary, then relaxing formulas should be followed by tonic formulas that inspire a feeling of freshness and coolness in the muscles, cheerfulness, and readiness to act. Muscular sensations in this case also spread gradually, from the head to the legs. Verbal self-suggestion in auto-training is combined with a certain rhythm of breathing. Controlling the rhythm of breathing is achieved through exercises that speed up or slow down inhalations and exhalations, reduce or increase the amplitude of breathing. All these exercises are practiced in three basic positions: lying, sitting and standing.

Exercises related to the voluntary regulation of muscle tone are also practiced in a certain sequence - from simple to complex. First, they learn to strain and relax the muscles that are easiest to control (the muscles of the limbs), then they move on to the skeletal muscles that are more difficult to control (muscles of the neck, head, back, abdomen), and then they move on to learning the regulation of the tone of the smooth muscles of the internal organs.

Particularly difficult and important are exercises that provide a feeling of warmth or coolness in the muscles. These sensations are associated with the expansion and contraction of the blood vessels of the body: expansion is achieved in order to achieve a state of relaxation and calm, narrowing - to increase tone. In these exercises, figurative representations of heat and cold are used in a volitional way.

Autogenic training is useful for teachers who have a heavy workload and face individual problems that affect the psychophysiological state, performance and health. By increasing the efficiency of the teacher, autogenic training also increases his pedagogical output. If desired, each teacher and educator can master the methods of auto-training and learn how to use them independently.

Topic 6. EDUCATIONAL AND PEDAGOGICAL COOPERATION AND COMMUNICATION

6.1. Educational process as interaction. Main lines of interaction

Since both the teacher and the students are active parties of the educational process and subjects of activity (each of them), it would be wrong to consider the educational process only as the teaching and educating influence of the teacher on the student. The student also has the resources to influence the teacher, so the educational process can be quite correctly described as interaction.

In any interaction of people, its awareness and purposefulness are revealed. The goal of the interaction participants can be either common, or each participant can pursue their own goal. Depending on the goal that the participants in the interaction set for themselves, its different forms are distinguished: cooperation - in the case of a common goal and efforts to achieve it, conflict - in the case of mutually exclusive goals of each of the participants, confrontation - when the participants have one goal, but the attainment of it by one of them precludes its attainment by the other.

The interaction of a teacher and students communicating with each other is included in a more complex system of interaction in the educational process that takes place within the educational system. In this system, its subsystems are in close interaction: management (ministry, federal agency, committee, department of education), administration (rectorate, directorate), teachers' council, teaching staff, classes, groups. Each of the subsystems has its own directions of interaction with other subsystems. Between all of them, educational interaction is realized in the form of cooperation - joint, aimed at achieving a common result of activity.

In addition, the educational system interacts with other systems: the family and the public. All these lines of interaction are directly or indirectly reflected in the educational process directly in the classroom. This is expressed in the attitude of students to learning, teachers and the school as a whole, which depends on the combination of their systems of life values ​​with the nature of learning activities.

The educational process is a multifaceted interaction. It includes the actual educational and pedagogical interaction between the student and the teacher, the interaction of students with each other, as well as interpersonal interaction, which can influence the educational and pedagogical interaction both positively and negatively. In the history of teaching, interaction along the line "student - teacher" was implemented in various forms: in individual work, classroom work, consultation with the teacher during the student's independent work, the brigade-laboratory method of organizing training, etc. In any of these forms of interaction each of the parties realizes its activity. The learner's activity is most manifested in individual forms of interaction. Currently, educational and pedagogical interaction is carried out in new forms of cooperation: business and role-playing games, trainings. Thus, on the historical path of development of education, various plans and forms of educational interaction were created, withered away and revived, and its general scheme became more complicated.

Educational and pedagogical interaction takes place at the subject-subject level. Previously, it was customary to describe learning interaction according to the "subject-object" scheme, where only the teacher was considered as an active subject, initiating learning, transferring knowledge, forming skills, controlling and evaluating them. The student was considered the object of education and upbringing. But since we consider all participants in the educational process as its active parties, we will interpret the interaction of the teacher with the students as a two-way subject-subject interaction. At the same time, since the learning activity of students is carried out in the classroom, where they also interact with each other, the task of the teacher is to form the class as a single collective subject of educational activity, so the interaction between the teacher and students can be denoted by the scheme "subject - collective subject". Since the subject and goals of the activities of the teacher and students coincide, all together they form a single aggregate subject of the educational process. Thus, the interaction that develops according to this scheme is a multi-tiered formation, the strength of which is largely based on the establishment of psychological contact between the participants in the interaction.

Psychological contact arises as a result of achieving a common mental state of people due to their mutual understanding, mutual interest and trust in each other. The contact is perceived and experienced by the subject as a positive factor reinforcing the interaction. In conditions of contact, all the personal properties of the subjects of interaction are most fully manifested, and the very fact of its establishment brings them emotional satisfaction. The internal mechanisms of contact are emotional and intellectual empathy and assistance.

Emotional empathy is based on the psychological phenomenon of "contagion", which consists in the unconscious transmission of a mental attitude from one individual to another, from a group to one individual or from an individual to a group. Emotional empathy of the subjects of educational interaction is both the background and the main mechanism of contact. It is caused primarily by the personal characteristics of the interacting subjects, the significance of the purpose of interaction, the attitude of the parties to the need for interaction.

In addition to emotional empathy, the establishment and strengthening of psychological contact is facilitated by intellectual empathy - mental assistance, determined by the involvement of the subjects of interaction in the same activity to consider a particular problem and aimed at solving common mental tasks for them. The mechanism of intellectual empathy and assistance is due to the compatibility of the intellectual activity of the teacher and students.

The internal conditions for the emergence of contact between the interacting parties are sincere respect for each other, empathy (the ability to understand the emotional state of another), tolerance (tolerance for other people's opinions and attitudes). The external manifestation of contact is the behavior of interacting subjects: postures, gestures, direction of gaze, speech, its intonations, pauses in it, etc.

Thus, educational and pedagogical interaction is characterized by activity, awareness, purposefulness of mutual actions of both parties - students and teachers, who are subjects, the coordination of actions of which is determined by the psychological state of the contact.

6.2. The impact of cooperation on learning activities. Development of educational cooperation

The ideas of theorists of general and educational psychology and advanced practitioners of the modern school are reflected in the idea of ​​cooperation as one of the defining foundations of modern education. Cooperation in the educational process is implemented in practice in the form of collective, cooperative, group forms of educational work. To designate educational work based on the direct interaction of students, different concepts are used: "group work", "joint educational activity", "jointly distributed educational activity", "collectively distributed educational activity", "educational cooperation", etc. The term "learning cooperation" is used by us as the most capacious and general in relation to other terms, denoting at the same time multilateral interaction within the study group and the interaction of the teacher with the group.

Cooperation as a joint activity of subjects is characterized, in contrast to individual work, by the following properties: a) spatial and temporal co-presence; b) unity of purpose; c) organization and management of general activities; d) division of functions, actions and operations between participants in joint activities; e) the presence of positive interpersonal relationships.

Educational cooperation is an extensive network of interactions along at least four lines: 1) "teacher - student (students)"; 2) "student - student" (in pairs and triplets); 3) general group interaction of students in a team; 4) "teacher - teaching staff". These lines do not exist in isolation from each other: the “teacher-student” line, as a rule, is supplemented by a group-wide interaction line if the teacher’s work is with the whole class, or the “student-student” line when performing those types of work in the lesson that require unification students in small groups.

Most studies of the comparative effectiveness of different forms of organization of the educational process testify to the positive impact of the organization of the educational process in the form of cooperation on the activities of its participants. In comparison with individual work, complex mental tasks are more successfully solved in cooperation, new material is better absorbed. The organization of group-wide cooperation presents considerable difficulties, but it is precisely this that prepares the formation of the group as a collective subject of educational activity, capable of equal partnership with the teacher. The leading developer of the problem of the psychology of educational cooperation, G. A. Zuckerman, summarizing the research conducted in the world, notes the following advantages of joint educational activities:[48]

› increase the volume of digestible material and the depth of its understanding;

› increase cognitive activity and creative independence of children;

› less time is spent on the formation of knowledge and skills;

› there are fewer problems with discipline due to defects in learning motivation;

› students get more pleasure from classes, feel more comfortable at school;

› the nature of student relationships is changing;

› the cohesion of the class is enhanced, while self-respect and mutual respect grow simultaneously with criticality, the ability to adequately assess one's own and other people's capabilities;

› students acquire the most important social skills - tact, responsibility, the ability to build their behavior taking into account the position of other people, humanistic motives for communication;

› the teacher gets the opportunity to individualize learning, taking into account, when dividing into groups, the mutual sympathies of children, their level of preparation, their inherent pace of work;

› the educational work of the teacher becomes a necessary condition for group learning, since all groups in their development go through the stage of conflict relations and, as a rule, schoolchildren cannot overcome it without the intervention of a teacher.

The joint work of students affects not only each of them, but also their activity itself. A joint learning action is a specific learning situation that must meet the requirements of a common goal, the performance of each participant’s own individual action, the coordination of everyone and everything, and not just adding up the results of individual actions, but obtaining a common result. A group of students is given a mental task, which can only be solved collectively. Group-wide activity in solving a problem has a group-wide result, while the actions of each individual student have a semantic core common to the entire group. The influence of cooperation on the personal development of students lies primarily in the fact that they develop the ability to evaluate themselves not just from the point of view of another, but from different points of view, depending on his, the student, place and function in joint activities.

Educational cooperation is organized using various methods and techniques that simultaneously regulate the activities of participants. The most common ways of educational cooperation in solving educational problems are discussion, discussion of a problematic issue. Dialogue and joint decision arise when logical reasoning, mutual analysis and mutual evaluation of different points of view are required. Accordingly, the task that the teacher sets before the class, counting on its solution through educational cooperation, should objectively assume the existence of more than one point of view on the content and method of its solution. Such tasks require a sufficiently high level of theoretical knowledge and the ability to apply it in specific situations.

Of great importance for the effectiveness of educational cooperation is the nature of its organization, in particular, the external regulation of the activities of participants through the distribution of roles or the setting of ways to work together. An important way of organizing cooperation is the preliminary development of a program for the joint solution of educational problems. Studies have shown that such a program increases the productivity of subsequent collaboration.

Educational and pedagogical cooperation is not formed immediately. Children coming to school, who do not yet fully master the techniques and methods of carrying out individual educational activities, cannot themselves establish collective activities and do not yet know how to cooperate with the teacher. The dynamics of the formation of the joint activity of the teacher and students is considered in detail by V.P. Panyushkin, who singled out two phases of the formation of the joint activity of the teacher and students, including six of its forms.[49]

1. The phase of involvement in activities includes: 1) actions shared between the teacher and students; 2) imitating the actions of students; 3) imitative actions of students.

2. The phase of coordinating the activities of students and teachers includes: 1) self-regulating actions of students; 2) self-organized actions of students; 3) self-motivated actions of students.

These phases stand out in the formation of educational cooperation between schoolchildren and the teacher. Regarding student age, V.P. Panyushkin assumes the third phase - partnership in improving the development of activities. Equal partnership in this model of joint activity of students and teacher is the result of its development and formation. It can be assumed that the older the students, the faster the path of becoming a truly joint activity will be passed and equal partnership, subject-subject interaction in the educational process will be achieved.

6.3. Psychological features of pedagogical communication

Pedagogical communication is understood as a form of educational interaction, cooperation between a teacher and students using verbal, visual, symbolic and kinetic means. Pedagogical communication between the teacher and schoolchildren in the learning process creates the best conditions for the development of students' motivation and the creative nature of learning activities, creates a favorable emotional climate for learning, ensures the management of socio-psychological processes in the children's team and allows you to make the most of the teacher's personal characteristics in the learning process.

The specificity of pedagogical communication is manifested primarily in its orientation. It is aimed not only at the interaction of students and the organization of their personal development, but also at the organization of the assimilation of educational knowledge and the formation of creative skills on this basis. Because of this, pedagogical communication is characterized by at least a triple focus: 1) on the educational interaction itself; 2) for students; 3) for learning. At the same time, pedagogical communication is also determined by the triple orientation of its subjects: personal, social and subject. The teacher, working with one student to master any educational material, always orients its result to all those present in the class, and vice versa, working with the whole class, influences each student. Therefore, we can assume that the originality of pedagogical communication is expressed in an organic combination of elements of personality-oriented, socially-oriented and subject-oriented communication.

The second specific quality of pedagogical communication is primarily due to its teaching function, which includes the educational function. The learning function is realized in a specially organized process at any level of the educational system - preschool, school, university. Although the teaching function of pedagogical communication is the leading one, it does not supplant its other functions, which ensure the multilateral interaction of the teacher and students, as well as students among themselves. Other main functions of pedagogical communication are educational and facilitative. The educational impact of pedagogical communication on the psyche was described by A. B. Dobrovich: “Whatever subject the teacher teaches, he conveys to the student, first of all, the conviction in the power of the human mind, a powerful craving for knowledge, love for truth and an orientation towards socially useful work. able at the same time to demonstrate to students a high and refined culture of interpersonal relations - then, admiring such a teacher and involuntarily imitating him, the younger generation is formed spiritually harmonious, capable of human conflict resolution. The function of facilitation (facilitating communication) was noted by K. Rogers:[50] the teacher helps the student to express himself, to express what is positive in him. The interest of the teacher in the success of the student, a benevolent, supportive atmosphere facilitates pedagogical interaction, contributes to the self-actualization of the student and his further development.

When analyzing pedagogical communication, it is necessary to distinguish between its pedagogical and actual communicative tasks. For all their indissolubility, these are different phenomena, and the first of them are realized through the second. The pedagogical task is associated with the development of certain educational material by students, while the communicative task answers the question of what means of influence of the teacher on students can be done more effectively, what speech means are best used in different pedagogical situations.

The pedagogical situation is considered in the context of a unit of the educational process - a lesson. Depending on the basis, the pedagogical situation can be classified in different ways. According to the form of the relationship, it can be business or personal, official or informal, formal or informal. According to the stages of the lesson, pedagogical situations of familiarization with the educational material, training of methods of educational actions, control and evaluation of the mastered knowledge of methods of action are distinguished. According to the dynamics of cooperation, it is possible to single out situations of entry into work, work with partners, exit from cooperation, and its completion. By the nature of educational interaction, these can be situations of cooperation, rivalry, conflict, confrontation. By the nature of the educational tasks to be solved, the situation can be neutral or problematic. According to the spatial arrangement of the participants in communication, situations can be intimate (15-45 cm distance from each other), personal (up to 75 cm), social (up to 2 m) and public (30-7 m). For example, the pedagogical situation of a teacher’s communication in the first grade on September XNUMX can be defined as informal, general orientation in school conditions, interaction, collaborative, neutral, personal and social communication, personal acquaintance, etc. Each situation is carried out by certain communicative acts ( acts of communication), in the form of communicative tasks, with the help of certain speech actions.

The structural unit of communication, including pedagogical, is a communicative act - the situation of constructing a speech statement by one of the partners in communication and the simultaneous perception and semantic processing of this statement by another partner. Thus, the communicative act is a two-way interaction. Pedagogical communication is embodied in the communicative acts "speaking - listening", where both of these roles are alternately played by the teacher and the student. Each of the communication partners sets a specific communicative task, which is solved within the communicative act. A communicative task is a goal, which is aimed at achieving a variety of actions performed in the process of communication. When setting a communicative task, the teacher must take into account the pedagogical task, the current level of pedagogical communication between students and the class, the individual characteristics of students, their own individual characteristics and the methods of work used in this class.

From the position of the speaker, the following groups of communicative tasks can be distinguished: 1) transmission, communication of information; 2) request, request for information; 3) encouraging the partner to act; 4) expression of attitude to the partner's action. Among the tasks related to the communication of information, in practice, teachers most often set themselves such as proof, story, explanation, and persuasion. The teachers themselves consider these tasks quite difficult for themselves, since they are not specially taught to set and solve communicative tasks.

From the position of the listener in the conditions of pedagogical communication, the following communicative tasks are distinguished: understand, remember, learn, assimilate, draw a conclusion, answer, refute, prove. Obviously, these tasks are not homogeneous: some are more difficult (to prove), others are easier (to remember). Each of them is associated with one of the three attitudes of the listener: cognitive, mnemonic (for memory) or communicative. It is the communicative attitude - "to accept the message and pass it on to another" - that ensures the maximum preservation of the perceived material in all age groups. This should be taken into account by the teacher when organizing communication, teaching and formulating speech instructions and tasks.

Teachers, communicating with students and solving communicative tasks of different nature, implement four pedagogical functions through these tasks: stimulating, responsive, controlling and organizing. The communicative tasks most often used by teachers implement organizing and stimulating functions. However, the ability to solve communicative problems is not formed purposefully even among students of pedagogical universities - future teachers. Therefore, their pedagogical style of communication develops already during their pedagogical activity and does not always meet the requirements for pedagogical communication. In subsection 5.7, the concept of the style of the teacher's activity is revealed. The same concept can be applied to pedagogical communication. L. V. Putlyaeva notes that the style of communication of a teacher should be distinguished by: 1) close attention to the thought process of students; the slightest movement of thought requires immediate support, approval, sometimes just a sign that the thought has been noticed; 2) the presence of empathy - the ability to put oneself in the place of the student, to understand the goals, motives of his activity, and therefore himself, which allows to some extent to predict the student's activity and manage it in advance, not after the fact; 3) benevolence, the position of the senior colleague's interest in the success of the student, 4) reflection - a continuous rigorous analysis of one's activities as a teacher who controls the cognitive activity of students, and the introduction of the fastest possible amendments to the educational process.[52] L. V. Putlyaeva also reveals the response behavioral reactions of students caused by this style of communication of the teacher: trust, freedom, looseness, lack of fear, a joyful attitude towards the teacher and teaching, the desire for benevolent mutual understanding in the group. The absence of such a style, a disrespectful attitude towards the student nullifies the entire system of education, no matter how substantively and methodically correctly it is organized.

6.4. The Psychology of Pedagogical Assessment

One of the main aspects of the interaction of the teacher with the students is the stimulation of their learning activities. No matter how the teacher assesses the educational success of students, all his assessments ultimately come down to a system of rewards and punishments. Rewards stimulate the development of positive properties and characteristics of the psyche, and punishments prevent the occurrence of negative ones.

The efforts of students in learning activities are assessed by the teacher primarily with the help of marks. The mark combines the properties of reward and punishment: a good mark is a reward, and a bad mark is a punishment. In the conditions of the Russian education system, a five-point system of marks is used: 5 ("excellent"), 4 ("good"), 3 ("satisfactory"), 2 ("unsatisfactory"), 1 ("very bad"). In fact, this system has long turned into a four-point system, since a unit is no longer given for academic failure, it is used only as a punishment for bad behavior. Thus, three formally positive marks and one negative one remained in the marking system. But even among the positive assessments, each has its own psychological characteristics. The negative side of such a narrow range of marks is that it has reduced opportunities to serve as a means of encouragement. In fact, a completely faultless and high-quality work can only be assessed with an "excellent" rating. If the student receives "good", for him this is a signal that there are still some errors and shortcomings in his work, that is, the four already carries some negative information for the student. It’s another matter if he previously received triples more often: then a four will mean that the work is done better than his usual level, and this can make the student believe in himself and stimulate him to further work on the subject.

It should be noted that it is the average values ​​​​of marks that have the most stimulating power, and not the extreme ones: a three-year student will be more stimulated by a four, and not a five, an excellent student, rather, will be forced to make more efforts by a three, and not a deuce. A C student, having received a five, may lose the meaning of further self-improvement, since there is still no higher grade, but a four makes it clear that he still has "where to grow" and he has the opportunity to achieve more. A deuce, on the other hand, destroys the child’s desire to improve their results, since it is difficult to correct it for the usual high mark, and a three is subjectively perceived as an assessment after which it is quite possible to achieve excellent academic performance if you try.

In addition to the marks themselves, the stimulation of the educational activity of children is carried out in other ways. Motivators should be varied and used depending on whether they can meet the current needs of the child at the moment. Incentives can be of the following types: organic - associated with the satisfaction of the organic needs of the child (tasty, sweet, physically pleasant); material - the acquisition for one's own use of desirable, interesting and attractive things for the child; moral - pleasure from the consciousness of a fulfilled duty, from helping people, from the correspondence of one's actions to high moral values; socio-psychological - increased attention, respect, assignment of a prestigious and significant role; individual - something personal, essential for the child, which has a special meaning for him.

The effect of various stimuli on a child is situationally and personally mediated: his perception and evaluation of certain stimuli as significant are determined by the situation in which this happens. The same stimulus can have a different effect on further activity and success in it, depending on whether it was significant for a given student at the moment or not. If any other important events in his life depend on receiving a high mark, it can be a strong incentive to achieve success. If little depends on it in the life and activities of the child, it most likely will not become a significant incentive for activity. The personal mediation of the influence of stimuli is understood as the dependence of the results of this influence on the individual characteristics of the student, his mental state at a given time. It will be more strongly influenced by incentives relating to the satisfaction of the most urgent needs at that time. An emotionally aroused person may perceive the significance of stimuli somewhat differently than a calm person. These features of the perception of stimuli also apply to pedagogical assessments.

Pedagogical assessment plays an important stimulating role in motivating individual behavior when there is a need for intellectual and personal development. This assessment should ensure the maximum motivation of the child in educational activities, taking into account the following circumstances:

1) the teacher's knowledge of the necessary and sufficient variety of stimuli that affect the child's desire for success in learning and education;

2) knowledge of the true motives for the participation of children in these types of activities;

3) knowledge of individual differences in the motivation of teaching and education;

4) knowledge of situational factors that affect the motivation for learning information, the formation of skills and certain personality traits in children.

Pedagogical assessments, considered as rewards and punishments, must be balanced. On the one hand, they should activate the development of positive qualities in the child, on the other hand, they should prevent the emergence of negative personality traits and improper forms of behavior. Depending on the individual characteristics of the child, his age, situation and a number of other factors, the ratio and nature of pedagogical assessments used as rewards and punishments should change so that their effectiveness does not decrease.

The effectiveness of pedagogical assessment is understood as its stimulating role in the education and upbringing of children. Pedagogically effective is such an assessment that creates in the child a desire for self-improvement, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, the development of valuable positive personality traits, socially useful forms of cultural behavior. The motivation of a child for intellectual and personal-behavioral development can be external and internal (see 2.2). The internal motivation of educational activity is considered to be stronger than the external one, therefore, the more effective pedagogical assessment will be the one that creates and maintains the child's internal motivation for learning and upbringing. The effectiveness of pedagogical assessment also directly depends on the individual characteristics of the child: the assessment that corresponds to what interests him most will be effective, and in order to comply with this condition, it is necessary to know well the system of interests and needs of the child, their situational hierarchy, the dynamics of change over time.

When people talk about the socially specific nature of pedagogical assessment, they mean two things. Firstly, in the conditions of different cultures in the system of education and upbringing, preference is given to different types of pedagogical assessments: in a society of the Western European and North American types, material incentives are most effective, in traditional Islamic societies - moral and religious, in Japan - socio-psychological. Secondly, the socio-specific nature of pedagogical assessment is manifested in the fact that it can be different in its effectiveness depending on the social situation in which it is given.

It should be remembered that the personal significance for a child of one or another type of pedagogical assessment received may change over time, because as he grows up and from situation to situation, his hierarchy of needs changes and previously significant assessments lose their stimulating role, and others come to the fore instead. more appropriate for the development of the child. Finally, there are individual differences between children, due to which a stimulus that is important for one child may not be at all an effective stimulus for another.

From the foregoing, it follows that the most effective ways to increase the personal significance of pedagogical assessment are:

1) systematic study and consideration of the individual interests and needs of the child;

2) actualization of those needs and interests that correspond to the incentives available to the teacher;

3) varying the nature of pedagogical assessments in order to avoid the child getting used to them;

4) the use of pedagogical assessments by people significant to the child, whom he respects and trusts.

There are several types of pedagogical assessments that form different classifications: assessments can be subject and personal, material and moral, productive and procedural, quantitative and qualitative. Subject assessments concern what the child is doing or has already done - the content, subject, process and result of the activity, but not the child himself. Personal assessments, on the contrary, refer to the individual, note individual qualities, efforts, skills, diligence, etc. Material pedagogical assessments include various ways of material incentives for children for success in activities: money, attractive things, etc. Moral pedagogical assessments contain praise or blame characterizing the child's actions in terms of their compliance with accepted moral standards. Effective pedagogical assessments refer to the final result of the activity, focusing mainly on it, without taking into account the ways to achieve this result and other features of the activity. Procedural assessments, on the contrary, relate to the process of activity, emphasize how the result was achieved, which was the basis of the motivation aimed at achieving the corresponding result. Quantitative pedagogical assessments correlate with the amount of work done, the number of tasks solved, exercises done, etc. Qualitative assessments relate to the quality of work performed, accuracy, accuracy, thoroughness and other similar indicators of its perfection.

6.5. Difficulties in pedagogical communication

A complex, pedagogically significant problem of pedagogical psychology is the problem of difficulties, or "barriers" of communication that a teacher encounters in his work. The most difficult thing about studying this problem is the fact that communication difficulty can be a purely subjective experience of some apparent difficulty, so what causes difficulty for one person may not even be noticed by another.

Difficulties in communication for a teacher can arise in a variety of areas, but the main ones are the following: ethno-socio-cultural, status-positional-role, age, individual-psychological, activity. These areas, of course, overlap and interact in a single integral system, but for the purpose of a deeper and more detailed analysis, they can be conditionally considered separately.

The ethnosociocultural area includes difficulties associated with the peculiarities of ethnic consciousness, stereotypes, values, attitudes, manifested in communication in specific conditions of social and cultural development of a person. Each subject of activity and communication partner, being carriers of a certain mentality, interacts with other people in accordance with the norms, traditions, image of the world and attitude inherent in the people they represent. The process of globalization, on the one hand, has caused a significant increase in the likelihood of ethnosociocultural difficulties, and on the other hand, it creates an opportunity for representatives of different peoples to adapt to them and, in the end, prepares the ground for such difficulties to disappear sooner or later. Globalization most affects the mindset and worldview of the younger generation, so some national and cultural features of communication between representatives of their own people become alien to young people. For example, Russian teachers traditionally try to establish personal contact with their students, and this often causes protest among modern teenagers and high school students, since they are already guided by the more restrained business style of communication accepted everywhere. In addition, this area of ​​difficulty is revealed in the lack of understanding of the communication style of representatives of other peoples, which creates barriers to the observance of communication etiquette. So, in Russian and European cultures, it is customary for a student to look at the teacher when answering, while among the Turkic peoples, looking directly into the eyes of an elder, even answering his questions, is not accepted and is regarded as a challenge. The clash of such different ideas about behavior in communication can not only seriously impede, but even interrupt communication altogether.

Communication difficulties related to the ethno-socio-cultural area can be overcome if their specificity is recognized by the teacher, if he can control his communication, regulating it within the framework of those relations that are assumed in a particular educational institution.

The status-positional-role area of ​​difficulties is due to such reasons as the peculiarities of family education, position in the community, attributes of the role, the status of the institution, etc. Such difficulties in communication most often arise in situations of violation of the rights and obligations that make up the role of teacher and student. For example, the teacher's right to ask implies the student's duty to answer, but if the student asks a question that the teacher finds it difficult to answer, the latter can use his higher status and avoid the situation of having to answer the question right away - he has the right to change the course of communication at his own discretion, and the student in such a right is much more limited. The higher status of the teacher implies that he has authority over the students. Authority combines two equal components: the authority of the individual and the authority of the role. If in the perception of younger schoolchildren the second of these components is primary, then for adolescents and high school students, the authority of the teacher as a whole depends much more on his authority as a person. If this teacher is personally not authoritative for the student, then their communication is difficult and comes down to only formal interaction. If official relations are accompanied by positive interpersonal relations, then the efficiency of activity increases, while negative interpersonal relations have a negative impact on official interaction, both in educational and pedagogical activities.

The age area of ​​difficulties is connected with the fact that a student, especially a teenager, believes that his inner world is incomprehensible to adults, and the teacher continues to address him as a child. Difficulties in communication can also arise when the teacher, due to employment or other interests, really does not know what exactly the youth is most passionate about at the moment, has no idea about the values ​​of the current youth subculture. In this case, he does not have a common subject of communication with students. Overcoming the difficulties associated with this is possible under the condition of constant personal and professional self-development of the teacher, showing his interest in the world of youth.

The individual-psychological area of ​​difficulties most often causes communication barriers. These difficulties are due to the interrelation of three factors: the individual psychological characteristics of the teacher, similar features of the student and their acceptance by each other. Among the individual psychological characteristics of partners that have the greatest impact on communication, the level of sociability, emotional stability, impulsivity, extra- or introversion, locus of control, and cognitive style features are noted. The cognitive style of activity is a system of features of cognitive activity, organization of memory, strategies for choosing means and methods of action and decision-making. Two polar cognitive styles are distinguished: with low and high differentiation. People with low psychological differentiation prefer collective activities and are more successful in communication, while people with high differentiation of cognitive structures understand the other person better. Communication with a person with a low level of emotional regulation also causes quite a lot of discomfort: he does not know how to control the external manifestations of his reactions and easily falls under the influence of stressful situations. Everything that causes difficulties in pedagogical communication should be the subject of awareness and correction as a professionally necessary condition for a person to comply with the activity performed.

The activity area of ​​difficulties includes difficulties directly related to the pedagogical activity of the teacher and the educational activity of the student. A teacher who has not fully mastered all the intricacies of his profession may experience difficulties in setting and solving pedagogical problems, which is expressed in insufficiently accurate planning of his activities, failure to take into account past mistakes. This leads to a formalization of the lesson and a decrease in student interest. The difficulties of pedagogical influence on the student's personality lie primarily in the inability to see in him a holistic personality that is in the process of formation and development. As a result, the student is personally not included in communication, which causes him a feeling of dissatisfaction. Difficulties in teaching activities can be caused by the lack of connection between the teaching methods used, their inconsistency with the abilities of students or the individual psychological characteristics of the teacher. Such difficulties are overcome only by constant work to improve their pedagogical professionalism.

In most of these areas, communication difficulties can be overcome either by self-correction or special training. At the same time, the need for the teacher's initial orientation in their own communicative features is generally recognized. In any case, overcoming difficulties in communication requires the participants in the interaction to realize and correct the causes that caused them.

Topic 7. PSYCHOLOGICAL SERVICE IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

7.1. Structure, tasks and functions of the psychological service in the education system

The psychological service in the education system of the Russian Federation and many other countries of the world was created and operates to ensure that the education and upbringing of children is carried out taking into account the available scientific and psychological knowledge. Its main employees are specialists who graduated from higher educational institutions with a degree in Psychology or Pedagogy and Psychology. They take part in solving problems related to the life of the child, practically from the moment of his birth and at least until the end of school. During all this time, the psychological development of the child should be systematically monitored, during which psychodiagnostic examinations are regularly carried out, the nature and pace of the child’s mental development are assessed, recommendations are given on his education and upbringing, and their implementation is monitored. The psychological service in education ensures the timely identification and maximum use in the education and upbringing of children of their intellectual and personal potential, the child's inclinations, abilities, interests and inclinations.

The psychological service is also called upon to ensure the timely identification of the reserves of the psychological development of children and their use in training and education. For example, when working with children who are lagging behind in development from the majority of their peers, a psychologist must identify and eliminate the causes of developmental delays in time, but only those that are within his competence to overcome. When working with gifted children, the psychologist is faced with the task of early detection of inclinations and their transformation into highly developed abilities.

Another difficult task of the psychological service in education is to constantly monitor the compliance of the processes of education and upbringing with the natural and social laws of the mental development of children. A practical psychologist working in an educational institution should evaluate the content and methods of teaching and raising children used in various children's institutions from scientific psychological positions, give recommendations for their improvement, taking into account scientific data on the development of children of different ages.

In addition, the psychologist of an educational institution has to do a lot of psychoprophylaxis, i.e., the identification and elimination of factors that can lead to deviations from the normal mental development of the child. Solving this problem, he relies on knowledge of the laws of the child's mental development, primarily those that are presented in pathopsychology and defectology as scientific disciplines that border on psychology and medicine.

The next task solved by the psychological service in the education system is direct psychological assistance to participants in the educational process: students, teachers, parents and administration representatives. At the same time, the psychologist acts as a teacher, psychotherapist, consultant, and is engaged in psychological correction. In his practical work, he uses special methods of influencing the psyche and behavior of people. The psychological service ensures the addition and updating of the psychological knowledge available to teachers and heads of educational institutions, which is rapidly becoming obsolete and lost.

The special task of the psychological service is to solve, together with representatives of other fields of knowledge - teachers, speech pathologists, doctors, lawyers - various issues related to the fate of children who differ significantly from their peers and require special attention and specific forms of pedagogical work. For example, children who are lagging behind in development need to be trained and educated according to simplified, less stressful programs that correspond to their abilities, but these programs should not aggravate their lagging behind normal children, but, on the contrary, ensure the acceleration of their development, reducing the psychological gap between lagging behind and ordinary children. It is much more difficult to create such a curriculum - facilitated, but rapidly developing - much more difficult than developing a special complicated developmental program for gifted children. Therefore, in practice, psychologists are more involved in working with mentally retarded children than with those who are ahead of their peers.

Sometimes problems arise in working with children, the solution of which directly affects the future fate of the child. These are questions concerning the possibility or impossibility of continuing his education in a regular school due to serious, pedagogically uncompensated mental disorders, as well as questions related to other cases of medical and psychological examination of children. In such situations, the main task of a practical psychologist is to give a responsible and qualified expert opinion about the child, which, when determining his fate, is taken into account along with the opinions of other specialists.

The structure of the psychological service in the education system is multi-level, as is the system itself. At the federal level (ministries and departments), the positions of chief psychologists may be introduced or special departments in charge of the work of the psychological service may be created. In such departments, issues relating to its personnel, program, methodological and other national support are resolved. The regional level is represented by regional, regional and republican scientific and methodological centers of the psychological service, which provide guidance on the scale of the subject of the Russian Federation. The work of these centers can be managed by highly qualified psychologists with a university degree in psychology or a degree in psychology. As a rule, these centers are not directly involved in practical work with children, but deal only with practical psychologists working in the field. The municipal level is represented by the units of the psychological service under the city and district educational authorities, which organize and coordinate the activities of practical psychologists working directly in educational institutions. Each level of psychological service organization is legislative in relation to the lower level and executive in relation to the higher one. Being administratively included in certain structures of the education system and subordinate to their governing bodies, practical psychologists exercise their professional duties independently and bear full personal responsibility for their conscientious performance.

Currently, there are four main areas that define specialization in the work of a practical psychologist, although to one degree or another he has to deal with them all: 1) psychodiagnostics; 2) psychological counseling; 3) psychoprophylaxis; 4) psychological correction. Psychodiagnostics involves professional knowledge of the methods of psychological research of the child. In the process of psychodiagnostics, the main tasks of the psychologist are the assessment and qualified psychological characteristics of the individual characteristics and behavior of children and adults in the education system, based on reliable and reliable data. Carrying out psychodiagnostic procedures, the psychologist must know not only the technique of their application, but also the theories in which they were originally created and further improved. A psychologist - a specialist in diagnostics - must himself be able to design new methods and adapt existing ones, to know how to scientifically assess their validity and reliability. The psychologist is required to scientifically substantiate and correct interpretation of the results of the surveys, not allowing arbitrariness and inconsistency in their interpretation.

Psychological counseling consists in the development of psychological and pedagogical recommendations arising from the results of a psychodiagnostic examination. These recommendations should be offered to children and adults in a form that is understandable and accessible for practical implementation. Recommendations and advice may also follow from the results of the psychologist's conversations with those who need advice. Psychological counseling also includes work with teachers and parents, carried out within the framework of psychological general education and the system of advanced training.

Psychoprophylaxis is associated with the solution of problems of a preventive nature that prevent the onset of undesirable psychological consequences in the development of the child: lag, developmental delays, the appearance of undesirable character traits, bad habits and inclinations. To carry out this work, the psychologist must know the possible causes of such phenomena, be able to notice and eliminate them in time. This goal, in particular, is served by the psychological training of teachers and parents, during which they are taught to carefully observe the child and notice in a timely manner everything that can lead to deviations in mental development.

Psychological correction involves the provision by a psychologist of a direct impact on the client in order to correct shortcomings, change their psychology and behavior. To do this, the psychologist must be professionally proficient in psychotherapy, various types of training, hypnotic suggestion techniques, and also be able to have an inspiring effect on the client.

Basically, a practical psychologist works according to a program approved by the central or higher management body of the psychological service. This program usually defines the types of work that a psychologist must complete within a certain period of time, their content, volume, and the required time. There are standards that establish the mode of operation of a practical psychologist, the norms and rules of his business interaction with other participants in the educational process.

Prospects for the development of psychological service in education are associated with a deeper and more organic penetration of psychological knowledge into the process of training and education, with the integration of psychological service as an integral component of the education system.

7.2. Qualification requirements, rights, duties and ethical position of a psychologist in an educational institution

There are certain qualification requirements for a practical psychologist in the education system. The main one is the above-mentioned higher professional education in the specialty "Psychology", obtained at the university, or in the specialty "Pedagogy and Psychology", obtained in a pedagogical university. In addition to knowledge in psychology corresponding to the level of education received, a practical psychologist must have knowledge, skills and abilities in the field of psychodiagnostics, psychotherapy, psychocorrection, defectology, psychological counseling and other areas bordering on medicine, pedagogy, sociology, law. He also needs sufficient experience in practical pedagogical work with children.

These are general requirements for a practical psychologist of an educational institution. There are also special requirements related to each field of activity of a psychologist. A specialist in psychodiagnostics must be fluent in the relevant methods and be able to give a qualified assessment of the possibility of their application in practice. Specialization in the field of counseling implies a good knowledge of the technique and technology of conducting conversations, the ability to attract people's attention to oneself, win them over and convince them, the ability to understand people well, inspire confidence in them and be convincing in their psychological influences. To carry out psycho-correction measures, a psychologist must have a good command of the technique of organizing and conducting socio-psychological trainings, methods of psychoanalysis and other psychotherapeutic techniques.

The special position of a practical psychologist among educators, as the main person protecting the interests of the child, gives rise to a slightly different balance of rights and obligations in comparison with other teachers. A practical psychologist is characterized by the priority of duties over rights, duty over personal interests. Many of the psychologist's rights are also duties, since one cannot be realized without the other. In particular, the psychologist is obliged and at the same time has the right to:

› actively protect the interests of the child if they are violated by one of the persons responsible for his education and upbringing;

› make independent professional decisions within their competence;

› interfere with the methods of teaching and raising children if they do not contribute to the development of the child, and even more so if they harm him;

› seek from the administration of the educational institution, heads of public education bodies, teachers and parents all kinds of assistance to the child and the timely adoption of positive decisions regarding his fate;

› personally participate in the conduct of medical and psychological, defectological and forensic psychological examinations and studies of children and persons related to their education and upbringing.

The rights of a practical psychologist can be protected legally, socially and morally. Legal protection implies the existence of laws and other regulatory legal acts, in accordance with which the psychologist builds his work and relationships with other participants in the educational process. The main such normative act in the Russian Federation is the Regulations on the Service of Practical Psychology in the System of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, approved by order of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation of October 22.10.1999, 636 No. XNUMX. Social protection of the rights of practical psychologists is carried out by organizations whose activities affect the field of education. These are associations of practical psychologists, teachers, children's and educational funds, centers for training and raising children, and the media.

The moral defense of the activities of practical psychologists in the field of education consists in their support by public opinion. The moral rules of behavior of a practical psychologist of education constitute an ethical code that prescribes a certain ethical position to him. In developed countries, where the psychological service in the education system has existed for a long time, their own ethical codes for specialists in this field have been developed, while in Russia it is still at the formation stage. A practical psychologist needs a code of ethics for the reason that not all problems that he faces can have an unambiguous and precise legal solution, be described and presented in the form of legal norms regulating behavior in a given situation. An educational psychologist often has to act and make decisions based on intuition and feelings.

The ethical position of a practical psychologist is based on philosophy, religion, culture, customs, traditions, ideology and politics that set moral principles for all mankind. The ethical position of a psychologist in an educational institution is primarily as follows: he is obliged to protect the rights and interests of the child, always remaining on his side, even in front of his parents, no matter what the child is accused of. Like any teacher, a psychologist must accept, understand and love children, be well aware of his professional capabilities and human strengths and weaknesses, get acquainted with the latest achievements of his science, new methods of diagnosis, counseling and correction. Information about children held by a psychologist is strictly confidential and must be kept in a safe place: they must not be allowed to get to teachers and parents in their entirety. When informing parents and teachers of any information, the psychologist is obliged to ensure that it is not used to the detriment of the child. In the case of students of adolescence and young adulthood, the psychologist must first obtain their consent to the disclosure of information concerning them to third parties and make the students aware of what will be said about them. A psychologist may agree with the directions and types of work prescribed to him by the leadership of an educational institution only if they do not contradict the code of his professional ethics. He should not take part in activities that restrict the development of the child, his human freedom, physical and psychological integrity, and at the same time he is obliged to inform his management and professional association about cases of violation of the rights of the child by others he has noticed.

The code of ethics prescribes to the psychologist of an educational institution certain norms of behavior. The psychologist is obliged to control his emotional manifestations and not allow himself such manifestations that can be ambiguously interpreted by the client. When working with a child, do not make sudden movements and speak very loudly. The situation of communication with a psychologist should not cause additional emotional stress in a child, resemble an exam or an educational conversation. The psychologist should have a good idea of ​​the experiences of children of a particular age, have the most complete picture of the emotional and spiritual life of the child. The younger the child, the more playful moments should be in the psychologist's communication with him, no forms of coercion are allowed. The child needs to create his own need for cooperation with a psychologist, otherwise the results shown by him may incorrectly reflect the situation (the child may become shy, forget something from fright, show hooligan urges or negativism). If the child is not yet 15 years old, you can address him as "you", but when meeting with a previously unfamiliar student who has already reached the age of 15, the psychologist will correctly address him as "you", and to go to address on "you" you should ask his permission. The student’s communication with the psychologist should stop at the first sign of the child’s fatigue, but if there is a need for further contact with him, the psychologist should set him up for further cooperation, ask what he liked and what he didn’t like about their meeting. In any case, at the end of the meeting, the child should be thanked.

The psychologist of an educational institution participates in teachers' councils and commissions, where the personality of the child, the features of his behavior and development are discussed. When confronted with complex cases that are beyond the competence of a psychologist, he must refer the child to related specialists - a child psychoneurologist, neuropathologist or psychiatrist, if necessary, refer him to a counseling or correctional center.

Notes

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2. Decree. cit.
3. Decree. cit. C. 304.
4. Decree. cit. C. 316.
5. Decree. cit. C. 324.
6. Decree. op. pp. 340-345.
7. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology // Psychology: classical works. M., 1996. S. 19-26.
8. Anastasi A. Psychological testing: In 2 vols. T. 2. M., 1982. S. 37.
9. Collection of legislation of the Russian Federation. 1996. No. 3. Art. 150.
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22. Blonsky P. P. Memory and Thinking // Selected Pedagogical and Psychological Works: In 2 vols. M., 1979. S. 259-260.
23. Winter IA Pedagogical psychology. M., 1999. S. 214-215.
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25. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of General Psychology: In 2 vols. T. 2. M., 1989. S. 85.
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27. Pedagogy: pedagogical theories, systems, technologies / Ed. S. A. Smirnova. M., 2000. S. 303.
28. Karakovsky V. A. Become a man. M., 1993.
29. Nemov R. S. Psychology: In 3 vols. T. 2. M., 1998. S. 380-382.
30. Pedagogy: pedagogical theories, systems, technologies / Ed. S. A. Smirnova. M., 2000. S. 304.
31. Klimov E. A. The image of the world in different types of professions. M., 1995.
32. Kapterev P.F. Didactic essays. Theory of education // Selected pedagogical works. M., 1982. S. 606.
33. Krutetsky V. A. Psychology of training and education of schoolchildren. M., 1976. S. 294-299.
34. Strakhov IV Psychology of pedagogical tact. Saratov, 1965.
35. Kuzmina N. V. Professionalism of the personality of the teacher and the master of industrial training. M., 1990. S. 56.
36. Nemov R.S. Psychology: In 3 volumes. T.2. M., 1998. S. 533.
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38. Winter IA Pedagogical psychology. M., 1999. S. 157.
39. Davydov VV Problems of developing education. M., 1986. S. 134.
40. Kuzmina N. V. Professionalism of the personality of the teacher and the master of industrial training. M., 1990.
41. Klimov E. A. How to choose a profession. M., 1990.
42. Aminov N.A. Some theoretical aspects of differential psychodiagnostics of special abilities // Typological diagnostics and education / Ed. E. P. Guseva. M., 1994. Ch. 5.
43. Orlov AB Psychology of personality and human essence: paradigms, projections, practices. M., 1995.
44. Markova A.K. Psychology of teacher's work. M., 1993.
45. Klimov EA Individual style of activity depending on the typological properties of the nervous system. Kazan, 1969, p. 49.
46. Markova A.K. Psychology of teacher's work. M., 1993. S. 180-190.
47. Andreeva G. M. Social psychology. M., 1996. S. 222-224.
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Author: Tkacheva M.S.

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