Life safety. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Free library / Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Life safety. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

Lecture No. 1. The impact of the environment on human health

Health is associated with social relations and "parameters" of the external environment. The environment includes a number of environments: natural and social, domestic and industrial, space and terrestrial. Man, as a living organism, exchanges substances, energy and information with the environment.

The species affiliation of a person is fixed in heredity and is associated with biological evolution. But man, as a social being, began not only to adapt to the environment, but also to adapt it to himself, began to produce the necessary means of life. As a result of production practice, humanity has become a powerful transforming force, which manifests itself much faster than the course of the natural evolution of the biosphere, and is capable of creating a "second nature" - the technosphere.

Mankind as an element of the ecosystem is connected with all terrestrial forms of life: with air, water, soil. Production, armed with science and equipped with modern technology, often disrupts the normal functioning of natural systems, the totality of which is our habitat.

The vital activity of the human body proceeds within certain boundaries established by nature. Normal body temperature and environmental temperature favorable for a person; normal pressure in the blood vessels and atmospheric pressure around; normal amount of fluid in the body and normal air humidity, etc.

The economic intrusion of man into the biosphere in a number of parameters has sharply violated the optimum of the established natural harmony.

Some synthetic, artificial materials and industrial wastes are alien to the physical and chemical structure of living organisms, and sometimes they are simply poisonous. These substances, due to the circulation of water and air, spread and penetrate into the stratosphere and ocean depths, causing industrial pollution of water, air, and soil.

Violation of ecological balance - "environmental scissors" - is dangerous by disruption of adaptation mechanisms. A kind of biosocial arrhythmia arose - a mismatch between the natural and social rhythms of human life.

It is difficult to maintain health when a person, along with the benefits of civilization, is burdened by its costs - speed, overload, various kinds of environmental pollution, an abundance of information, an ever greater separation from nature.

The concept of "pollution of the external environment" includes three components:

1) what is polluted: atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil;

2) what pollutes: industry, transport, noise, etc.;

3) what is polluted with: heavy metals, dust, pesticides, etc.

They allow you to determine the quality of the environment in which a person lives. The external environment is considered unhealthy if it causes health problems, if it is difficult to adapt to it. There is also an extreme environment in which human life is simply impossible without its preliminary "re-equipment" for life, for example, the Arctic and Antarctica.

Lecture No. 2. A healthy lifestyle as a system of individual human behavior aimed at maintaining and strengthening health

Compliance with the norms of human behavior - a necessary condition not only mental, but also physical health. Mental health of a person is a state of complete peace of mind, the ability to control oneself, manifested by an even stable mood, the ability to quickly adapt to difficult situations and overcome them, the ability to restore peace of mind in a short time.

Prevention of painful psychological reactions in the process of communication between people is a serious task. Negative reactions can occur both at home and at work. It should be remembered that the mood and its manifestation cause a corresponding resonance among others. A harsh word, injustice already evoke negative emotions. Often, improperly established family relationships injure the psyche.

The lack of psychological comfort at work also has a negative effect. In emerging conflicts, it is difficult to maintain composure and objectivity. An increased background of emotional stress distorts people's assessment of what is happening. The keys to preventing such situations are to increase the personal and social culture of communication, mutual assistance, respect for colleagues, goodwill, and mutual understanding.

The culture of communication lies in self-control, the ability not to show negative emotions, in tact - the ability to correlate one's experiences with the experience of a neighbor, not to do, not to say what is unpleasant for others to hear. Cultural people who control their behavior are easy and pleasant to communicate with and create the necessary positive microclimate at work, which contributes to a good mood.

In human communication, their moral principles are of great importance, but not only these principles, but also will, emotions, and intellect are subject to control and training. The upbringing of mental functions, the formation of a harmonious development of the personality begin from an early age.

self-education - a mandatory requirement of society to its members. Each person should strive to conform his actions with the norms of behavior accepted in society.

Such a person knows how to restrain negative emotions, he is not characterized by selfishness, greed, money-grubbing, he is capable of compassion and care.

The ability to correctly evaluate oneself and one's capabilities protects one from unnecessary and aimless experiences and disappointments. Persistence, patience and self-control help to overcome the inevitable difficulties in life.

Self-discipline is essential for mental well-being. A self-controlled person does not create conflicts and extinguishes those that arise. The listed mental properties, evaluated by moral categories, make a person pleasant to others.

When a person sets himself a task above his mental and physical capabilities, then there are signs of not only physical fatigue, but also the mental state worsens.

It is desirable to acquire new knowledge throughout life. Training one's mental functions prevents age-related decline in mental abilities, areas of interest, determines the full value of spiritual life until the last days of human existence.

1. Relationship between lifestyle and disease prevention. The importance of personal and public hygiene for human health

Health Preservation largely depends on the person himself, since among the factors that cause diseases, the leading place is occupied by an unhealthy lifestyle, non-observance of elementary norms of personal and public hygiene, poor nutrition, and bad habits. A reasonable attitude of everyone towards their health is the most reliable guarantee of its preservation, with which even the most effective methods of treatment cannot compete.

Personal hygiene determined by a set of hygiene rules, the implementation of which contributes to the preservation and promotion of health and includes general hygiene rules for any age; proper alternation of mental and physical labor, regular intake of wholesome food, physical education, alternation of work and outdoor activities, good sleep.

Personal hygiene includes:

1) hygienic requirements for keeping linen and clothes clean;

2) requirements for keeping the dwelling clean;

3) cleanliness in food preparation.

The first priority is to keep the body clean. The skin must be washed in a timely and regular manner, otherwise its protective properties and the ratio of microorganisms that constantly inhabit the integument of the body are violated, favorable conditions are created for the reproduction of pyogenic microbes, parasitic fungi and other harmful microorganisms. Especially a lot of bacteria are found under the nails, so systematic and proper care and thorough hand washing is very important. The cleanliness of the hands of catering workers is a prerequisite for work. It is necessary to carefully care for the skin of the body and hair - take a shower, go to the bath. It must be remembered that if the integrity of the skin is violated, fungal diseases and pustular skin diseases can easily occur. Oral care not only helps to preserve the integrity of the teeth, but also prevents many diseases of the internal organs. Brush your teeth every day, rinse your mouth after every meal. Visit the dentist at least twice a year.

In addition to general hygienic measures, personal hygiene includes the care of the external genitalia. These special events should start from the moment the baby is born and be carried out continuously.

An important place is occupied by the observance of the cleanliness of underwear, work clothes, daily change of socks (stockings), especially with increased sweating of the legs. Each family member is recommended to have a separate bed and towels (personal and bath); Before going to bed, change daytime underwear for a nightgown.

Maintaining the cleanliness of the body and clothing is unthinkable without maintaining cleanliness in living rooms, kitchens, as well as in industrial premises.

All these hygienic measures are of particular importance in cases where someone in the family falls ill, since non-compliance with hygiene requirements can adversely affect the health and working capacity of the people around the patient, especially children.

2. Hardening of the body, its importance for improving human health

Hardening of the body is a set of measures to increase the body's resistance to the effects of adverse weather and climatic conditions. Modern comfortable living conditions, clothing, transport, and so on reduce the impact of changing weather conditions on the human body, reduce resistance to meteorological factors. Being an important part of physical education, hardening of the body restores this stability. Hardening of the body is based on the ability of the human body to adapt to changing environmental conditions.

The hardening effect is achieved through the systematic influence of one or another factor and a gradual increase in their dosage, since only under these conditions adaptive changes develop in the body: metabolic processes are improved, the overall resistance of the body to the effects of adverse factors increases. Systematic dosing of exposure to cold increases resistance to low temperatures, and heat to high temperatures.

The essence of hardening to cold lies in the gradual increase in the degree of cooling. In people accustomed to the cold, heat generation is more intense, which provides better blood supply to the skin, increases resistance to infectious diseases and frostbite. Hardening of the body to cold can be achieved by the rational use of the sun and air (solar and air baths) and water (water procedures).

Sunlight has a powerful stimulating and hardening effect. Solar radiation is best used in the form of diffuse solar-air baths. An air bath increases the metabolic functions of the body, strengthens blood vessels, nerves of the skin, stimulates brain activity, improves heart function, and increases the overall tone of the body.

The most effective are water procedures: rubbing, dousing, showering, bathing. They should be started at room temperature of water, gradually lowering the temperature from procedure to procedure and increasing its duration.

At high ambient temperatures, danger of overheating (heatstroke). As a result of repeated and prolonged exposure to heat, resistance to high air temperature increases: the heat transfer of the body increases due to increased sweating and changes in the composition of sweat. Due to the improved heat transfer, the increase in heart rate during work in hot climates is moderate, and performance does not fall.

The mode of hardening of the body is set by the doctor, taking into account age, individual characteristics and health status.

Lecture No. 3. Youth health and personal interest in its preservation

Youth health is one of the important social values of our society. Preserving and strengthening it is both a vital necessity and a moral duty of every young person. A healthy lifestyle is a person’s personal, deep conviction and confidence that there is no other way to health, the realization of one’s life plans, and ensuring well-being for oneself, one’s family and society does not exist.

Health - this is the education of a sanitary and hygienic culture and culture in the broadest sense of the word: the education of a culture of work and rest, consumption, communication, behavior, a culture of interpersonal relations.

In the life of young people, factors such as insufficient muscle and motor activity (physical inactivity), overnutrition, as well as psycho-emotional overload play an increasingly important role. Our contemporary experiences constant motor-visceral hunger - a lack of impulses coming from intensely working muscles (motor reflexes) and internal organs (visceral). Psycho-emotional tension is due to the fact that the nervous system is constantly overloaded with both healthy, exciting emotions and negative, even disease-causing ones. The pace of life is increasing, the terms of "wear and tear" of knowledge and technology are accelerating, some professions are "aging", science and culture are developing rapidly. All this makes increased demands on the internal resources of a person, his physical and mental health.

About 50% of deaths are due to diseases that are caused, in particular, by unhealthy habits - smoking, drinking alcohol and drugs, too high-calorie and fatty foods, as well as lack of physical activity, a person's response to stress. The idea of the need to maintain and strengthen health should seize people in their youth, when health needs to be strengthened and maintained.

Modern civilization offers a young person more opportunities for health and long life than restrictions. You need to be able to use them: reject excess food and warmth, make up for the lack of physical activity and extinguish excessive mental stimuli, all kinds of stress, negative emotions. In return, you can get health, the opportunity to fully live and work. The cult of health should enter the way of life from a young age. It is necessary that systematic physical education and sports be included in everyday life, lifestyle; proper, rational nutrition; properly organized work and rest, a certain mode of work and rest; a healthy psychological climate at work and at home. All these are components of a healthy lifestyle of the younger generation - it is the basis of health, disease prevention, the basis of active creative longevity.

A young person should have a stronger desire to be healthy, become a full-fledged citizen of society, preserve creative longevity and thereby contribute to the achievements of world civilization.

Lecture No. 4. Bad habits and their social consequences

About factors harmful to health - about drunkenness, smoking, alcoholism and drug addiction - they talk about bad habits. As a result of bad habits, life expectancy is reduced, mortality increases, and inferior offspring are born. Forced adaptation to environmental conditions, situations, and stress that is unnatural for the body has a short-term effect. Crime, aggressive behavior, harmful effects on offspring - these are the social consequences of alcoholism, drug addiction, and substance abuse.

Alcoholism - a serious disease caused by addiction to alcohol. Systematic drunkenness predisposes to many diseases, leads to the development of premature old age, and shortens life. In the social aspect, alcoholism is the cause of divorce in the family. More than half of difficult-to-raise children and adolescents are brought up in single-parent families.

Especially sharply alcohol reduces the productivity of labor in those types of labor that require more intense brain activity.

Socially less harmful than alcoholism, but a more common habit is smoking. The scale of the losses inflicted on mankind by smoking is numerous fires, explosions, burns and some transport accidents.

The problem of smoking is represented by various aspects: ethical, biological, psychological and hygienic, aesthetic, economic and social. A smoker poisons not only his body, but also the surrounding air, to which he has no right.

It is indecent to smoke in the presence of elderly people, children, at meetings, meetings, meetings, at a party, in the presence of unfamiliar people and women. The smoker unwittingly encourages teenagers and children to smoke. An unpleasant smell spreads from a smoking boy or girl, which can cause a feeling of disgust. Even non-smokers are forced to smoke forcibly, which, with the massive spread of smoking, becomes a socially dangerous phenomenon.

Drug addiction, like alcoholism, is not only a disease, but also a social phenomenon, the care of getting rid of which must be taken over by the whole society as a whole.

The social danger of drug addiction is as follows: the physical and mental working capacity of the addict is reduced, all thoughts are connected with the drug - where and how to get it, use it. Drug addiction causes great material and moral damage, causing accidents, various offenses, and contributes to the growth of crime. Drug addicts create unbearable conditions for their families, degrading physically and morally, they are a burden on society, they draw other people into this vice, primarily young people, and then die prematurely.

Drug addiction in all its forms (drug addiction, substance abuse, alcoholism, nicotinism), or drug addiction, is a socially dangerous mental illness that threatens the very future of the nation, the well-being and health of the population of the entire state. This also determines the universal, global significance of the problem.

Lecture number 5. The effect of alcohol on the human body

Alcoholism - a disease, and an insidious disease. Three stages are distinguished.

initial stage characterized by the appearance of craving for alcohol: resistance to the doses taken increases, mental dependence appears.

middle stage - a growing craving for alcohol, a change in the nature of intoxication, loss of control over the amount drunk, the appearance of a hangover.

The last stage - decrease in resistance to accepted doses of alcohol, the development of binge drinking.

Following mental dependence comes physical dependence: alcohol is included in the metabolic processes, deprivation of it leads to a painful disease - a hangover, which is characterized by hand trembling, anxious mood, heavy sleep with nightmares, and unpleasant sensations from the internal organs. Alcohol, accumulating in the blood, disrupts the permeability of cell membranes, inhibits biologically active compounds, primarily enzymes, and reduces the absorption of oxygen by tissues.

Alcohol is a narcotic poison, not a stimulant, but a depressant. The biological consequences of alcoholism are the progressive depletion of the nervous system. Nerve cells and vessels of the brain are especially sensitive. The blood supply to the brain begins to lose its rhythm. There are psychopathies, a decrease in intelligence, up to dementia, a drop in creative abilities, emotional and volitional disorders, various personality changes (loss of interests, narrowing of the social circle, distortion of moral convictions) - personality degradation occurs. A drunk person has a feeling of elevated mood, which is associated with the effect of alcohol on important mental processes in the cerebral cortex. There is an overestimation of one's strengths, a loss of a sense of self-control, an unusually easy adoption of any decision, but at the same time, working capacity decreases, which leads to fatigue, absent-mindedness, difficulty in perception, and a noticeable weakening of the will.

Alcohol has a direct toxic effect on the metabolism of vitamins (especially group B), the violation of which causes damage to the peripheral nervous system in the form of polyneuritis. There is a decrease in vision, hearing and smell.

Alcohol reduces the activity of the immune system, so alcoholics get sick more often and more severely. They are one and a half times more likely to develop respiratory diseases: tuberculosis occurs, inflammatory processes in the lungs (bronchitis, pneumonia) become protracted.

Due to the action of alcohol, inflammation of the mucous membrane of the esophagus, stomach (chronic gastritis), intestines (chronic colitis) occurs, pancreatic diseases develop: pancreatitis and diabetes mellitus.

The liver, as the organ in which the main processes of detoxification take place, is the first to take on the effect of alcohol. Severe liver damage develops - alcoholic hepatitis (inflammation of the liver) and cirrhosis of the liver (cicatricial degeneration).

Atherosclerosis of cerebral vessels develops in alcoholics 4-5 times, and hypertension 3-4 times more often than in non-drinkers.

In men, sexual function decreases, alcoholic impotence sets in, and in women, under the influence of alcohol, the ability to bear children decreases.

Lecture No. 6. Smoking and its impact on human health

Tobacco smoking weakens and undermines health, reduces ability to work, shortens life expectancy. One of the most dangerous diseases of chemical dependence, attributed to bad habits, is smoking.

About 2,5 million people die prematurely among smokers each year. Smoking is especially dangerous in certain age periods - youth, old age. A lot of smokers are people who lead an unhealthy lifestyle or are busy with big, hard work and sleep little. But we must not forget that stimulation of the nervous system with nicotine leads to the depletion of a person's energy capabilities. Smoking in an intensive mode causes overwork and the phenomena of acute poisoning: headache, pallor, dryness and bitterness in the mouth, heart spasms.

A link has been established between tobacco smoking and the occurrence of cancer of the lips, tongue, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. Especially when smoking, the respiratory organs are affected: chronic bronchitis of the smoker occurs, emphysema of the lungs gradually develops. Smokers are always worried about coughing.

Smoking leads to a violation of vitamin metabolism. There comes a lack of vitamin C, which is accompanied by irritability, fatigue, sleep disturbance, frequent colds. Insufficient assimilation of vitamin A leads to night blindness (impaired vision at dusk).

Tobacco smoke affects the central nervous system, first exciting and then depressing it. Under the influence of smoking, memory, attention, muscle strength weaken, working capacity decreases, intelligence falls.

Smoking contributes to the occurrence and worsens the course of a number of diseases of the cardiovascular system: atherosclerosis of the coronary vessels and myocardial infarction, hypertension, endarteritis, narrowing and blockage of small arteries of the vessels of the lower extremities). Acting on the digestive organs, tobacco combustion products cause inflammation, ulcers of the mucous membrane of the stomach, esophagus and intestines.

A smoking pregnant woman may have a miscarriage, premature birth, and a decrease in fetal weight. If a woman smokes during breastfeeding, then the child becomes weak, painful. Tobacco poisoning in childhood leads to a slowdown in the growth and overall development of the child, and disorders of the cardiovascular system occur.

Currently, non-smokers have begun to detect diseases inherent in smokers. This is due to passive smoking, i.e., when a person is forced to stay in a smoky room for a long time. In children of smoking parents, the frequency of bronchitis and pneumonia increases, and the risk of serious complications increases.

In passive smokers, hearing, vision, smell deteriorate, diseases of the lungs and the cardiovascular system appear, headaches, dizziness, weakness, and malaise occur.

Running forms of smoking require treatment, the initial ones can be interrupted by an effort of will and appropriate behavior. The biggest damage from smoking is serious illness, congenital deformities, disability and, as proven by science, premature death.

Lecture number 7. Tobacco smoke, the impact of tobacco smoke on humans

Tobacco smoke contains about 400 components, 40 of which have a carcinogenic effect, that is, the ability to cause cancer.

Of these, nicotine is the most famous - one of the most toxic chemicals from the group of alkaloids. The nicotine contained in tobacco refers to poisons that first cause addiction, and then a painful craving - substance abuse. A single dose of 0,08-0,16 g of nicotine is fatal to humans. During a lifetime, an adult smokes an average of 200 cigarettes, which contain 800 g of nicotine, equal to 10 lethal doses. Since nicotine enters the body gradually and in fractional doses, acute poisoning is not observed in a habitual smoker. First of all, the nervous system suffers from this poison - the central and autonomic.

Nicotine, by narrowing the vessels of the brain and reducing their elasticity, makes it difficult for blood to enter the brain, as a result, its nutrition worsens and, as a result, headaches, dizziness, and a feeling of heaviness in the head.

Tobacco smoke contains harmful substances: carbon monoxide, pyridine bases, hydrocyanic acid, arsenic, styrene, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, nitrogen, essential oils.

Inhalation of smoke containing tobacco combustion products reduces the oxygen content in the blood (hemoglobin loses the ability to attach oxygen), causes irritation of the bronchial mucosa, which subsequently leads to chronic bronchitis and changes in the structure of the lung tissue. Lung function weakens, the process of exchanging carbon dioxide for oxygen becomes more difficult.

Ammonia irritates the mucous membrane of the mouth, the mucous membrane of the nasopharynx, trachea and bronchi, so smokers have loose gums. Ulcers of the oral cavity, the pharynx often becomes inflamed, which leads to the frequent occurrence of tonsillitis. With prolonged constant smoking, the glottis narrows, hoarseness of the voice appears, its timbre decreases, and sonority is lost.

Another harmful substance is formed during smoking - tobacco tar, a tarry dark coating that settles in the smoker's lungs. A person who smokes a pack of cigarettes daily absorbs 700-800 g of tar per year.

The resinous substances of the tar are carcinogens and contribute to lung cancer. Especially dangerous are the benzopropylene and radioactive isotopes contained in the tar: polonium-210, lead-210, bismuth-210, and polonium-210, getting into the body with tobacco smoke, accumulates in the bronchi and lungs, causing lung cancer. Accumulating also in the liver and kidneys, radioactive isotopes have a toxic effect.

When tobacco is burned, carbon monoxide is released, which has the ability to bind the respiratory pigment of the blood - hemoglobin. In this case, carboxyhemoglobin is formed, which cannot carry oxygen, which leads to disruption of tissue respiration processes.

Toxic combustion products of tobacco can pass into the milk of a nursing mother. In 1 liter of milk, the nicotine content of a smoking woman can reach 0,5 mg, while the lethal dose is 1 mg per 1 kg of a child's weight. Carbon monoxide, getting through the milk of a smoking mother into the body of a child, causes oxygen starvation of the tissues of a growing organism.

Lecture number 8. Drug addiction and substance abuse

Consumption of various drugs - drug addiction - a real scourge in many countries of the world.

Often the first step towards drugs is taken out of curiosity (up to 60% of drug addicts have "tried" drugs for the first time this way). At the same time, everyone is convinced that he personally can always stop if necessary.

But this is a profound delusion. Usually, years pass before a drunkard becomes an alcoholic, while drug addiction is formed within a few months, and the process of degradation is so fast that at the age of 30-40 a drug addict is already a very old man. From psychological addiction to physical dependence takes only 2-3 months.

Addiction - a disease resulting from the abuse of drugs and narcotic active substances. Drug addiction is manifested by the constant need to take narcotic substances, since the mental and physical state of a person depends on whether he has taken the drug he needs or not. Drug addiction leads to a gross violation of the body's vital functions and social degradation.

Addiction It is a disease with a chronic course, which begins gradually. The cause of the disease is the ability of narcotic substances to cause a state of intoxication, accompanied by a feeling of complete physical and mental comfort and well-being.

The development of a painful addiction to drugs is the conscious use of drugs in order to obtain the effect of drug intoxication.

As a rule, emotionally unstable, mentally immature, dependent, prone to imitative actions, extremely selfish, whose interests are limited to elementary needs, tend to do this. Such people lack self-control, so the desire for intoxication does not meet with internal resistance, drug addiction develops quickly and is accompanied by the absorption of large doses of narcotic substances.

Drug addiction begins with repeated drug use due to the desire to again and again experience the sensations caused by drug intoxication. Without taking a drug, a person experiences dissatisfaction, he lacks "something". Calm and pleasure brings only the next use of the drug. This is how drug addiction is formed. Addiction is painful because it does not reflect a natural need and gradually suppresses and displaces natural drives.

As the drug is used, the effect of the drug weakens, and the patient is forced to increase the dose of the narcotic substance in order to achieve the same effect. Intoxication becomes pleasant rather because the state of sobriety is unpleasant, the person becomes restless, tense, unable to concentrate on anything, distract from thoughts about the drug. Only the introduction of the next portion of the drug brings him to a "normal" state. This is how addiction develops.

Substance abuse is formed according to the same principles, only drug addiction is associated with potent and psychotropic drugs.

According to the World Health Organization, drugs have taken the first place among the culprits of premature death in people and have already outstripped cardiovascular diseases and malignant tumors.

Lecture No. 9. The consequences of drug use for human health

Drug addiction develops quickly and is accompanied by the absorption of large doses of narcotic substances. The course of the disease in these cases is severe, and it ends, as a rule, catastrophically.

Narcotic substances have an extremely pronounced effect on the human body. Nerve cells under the influence of drugs lose their function, the body's defenses are sharply reduced. Literally all organs and systems of the body suffer. A person's personality is subjected to a deep deformation, and serious mental illness often develops.

The processes of vital activity with regular anesthesia proceed in the conditions of the constant presence of the drug in the body, and the cessation of its use disrupts these processes.

Physical attraction serves as a signal of the need for a drug that has already become vital. At the onset of the disease, the attraction to the drug is expressed by a disorder of mental functions (irritability, depressed mood, inability to concentrate), and then signs of a physical condition disorder appear: sweating, palpitations, dry mouth, muscle weakness, trembling of the limbs, pallor, dilated pupils.

If the drug does not enter the body for more than a day, an abstinence syndrome develops - a painful condition accompanied by severe mental and physical disorders, in some cases life-threatening.

Against the background of an indomitable attraction, excitement, anxiety, anxiety, fear arise, often replaced by thoughts of hopelessness.

Depending on the type of drug, convulsive seizures and acute psychosis with impaired consciousness, an influx of hallucinations, and delirium may occur during the withdrawal period. The function of all body systems is impaired. Blood pressure rises, heart rate increases sharply. Muscles are tense, there are severe muscle pains and trembling, twitching and convulsions. Characterized by restlessness, which alternates with severe weakness and immobility. The work of the digestive apparatus is disrupted: vomiting, diarrhea, pain in the stomach and along the intestines occur, there is no appetite, sleep is disturbed.

As the disease develops, the body becomes completely depleted, tolerance to the drug decreases, and previous doses cause severe poisoning. Without the drug, the state of weakness is so strong that he can die. Often, however, medical assistance is ineffective.

Death threatens the drug addict not only in far-reaching cases, it lies in wait for him from the very first weeks of the disease. Patients die from accidental overdose, from taking unknown, untested substances, from infection by injection.

Mental exhaustion determines deep emotional disorders: depressions develop, during which suicides are committed. Weakening of the body contributes to the development of infectious diseases; even a mild illness can lead to death. An addict intoxicated easily becomes a victim of an accident.

Addiction - a disease that develops with the abuse of narcotic substances and is expressed in a pathological craving for these substances, increasing uncontrolled abuse of them.

One of the signs of drug addiction is an irresistible craving for euphoria, achieved through the use of a narcotic substance; the ability to euphoric sensations decreases with the development of the disease. In drug addiction, the vital activity of the body is maintained at a certain level only under the condition of constant intake of a narcotic substance. Abrupt cessation of drug use causes a violation of many body functions - withdrawal.

With the regular intake of the required dose of the drug, the patient's condition improves, so drug addiction is formed.

Drug craving is a very stable symptom, so the addict is not able to critically assess his condition for a long time, and, as a rule, he does not want to be treated. Therefore, drug addicts are treated forcibly.

Society fights drug addiction and prevents its spread. In all countries of the world, persons illegally producing or distributing drugs are subject to criminal punishment. In most countries, a drug addict who evades treatment is criminalized.

The fight against drug addiction provides for strict criminal liability for violation of the rules for dealing with drugs by imprisonment: for the illegal manufacture, acquisition, storage, transportation or shipment for household purposes, as well as the illegal sale of narcotic substances; for inducing the use of narcotic substances for up to 5 years, and if this act is committed against two or more persons or a minor, then it is punishable by imprisonment up to ten years.

For the theft of narcotic drugs entrusted to storage in connection with the official position with the deprivation of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities.

Now negative impact of the human environment manifests itself in the development of an abiological tendency in the organization of life (smoking, drug addiction, alcoholism, etc.), an increase in the proportion of chronic diseases, the development of occupational diseases, etc.

Lecture number 10

1. Sex education: education of gender identity, gender role and proper sexual behavior

Insufficiency and incorrectness of upbringing, unfavorable sexual experience, adoption of false attitudes, deformed or archaic ideas about masculinity and femininity can adversely affect the moral and mental health of the individual.

Sex education is part of moral education. The purpose of sex education: to educate a holistic person who is able to realize social and moral norms, his psychological and physiological characteristics and, through this, establish optimal relationships with people of his own and the opposite sex. Sex education should help the developing personality to master the role of a boy or a girl, a young man or a girl, and in the future - the role of not only a man or woman, but also a husband or wife, father or mother in accordance with social and moral principles and hygienic requirements.

Received by the younger generation gradually, in accordance with age, the correct information about the manifestations of sex will help reduce ignorance, shame, prohibition, mystery in matters relating to these manifestations. Knowledge of these issues can prevent the emergence of bad habits in children and the premature awakening of sexual desire. To help them adapt to the upcoming maturity, alleviate the experiences associated with it, not only prepare them for the normal development of childbearing functions, but also instill a sense of responsibility in relationships with people of the opposite sex, and prevent possible conflicts in future married life.

An important psychohygienic task is the prevention of somatic and neuropsychiatric disorders, which could be the result of flaws in sexual education. Excessive concentration of children on gender issues, especially thoughts about their inferiority, depravity, guilt due to the impossibility of being different (as a rule, reflecting ignorance of the developmental features of their sex) often become the content of conflicts that underlie neurotic disorders.

Education plays a leading role in the sexual definition of personality, the real direction of male and female belonging, in the formation of a moral position. These factors lead to an understanding of the development of sex in humans: sexual desire in its specifically human form is the result of the action of biological and socio-psychological factors. Sexual education as a part of moral education should help a person to find and realize his individuality in the sublime, noble and humane, and not in the vulgar, base and voluptuous-willful.

2. Marriage and family, culture of gender relations

Qualities that spouses must have to create a strong family: the ability to communicate with people of the opposite sex, the ability to find mutual understanding in any situation. Speaking about the psychological mystery of the sexes, a woman's logic is not accessible to a man and vice versa, namely: the logic of feelings, emotions. Women do not understand the isolation of men from everyday worries, they are more inclined to confidential communication, more emotional, less restrained. Women and men have their own characteristics in relation to love. For women, ethics, the psychological attractiveness of a man are in the first place, so they always want to hear affectionate words addressed to them, while men "love with their eyes."

It is important to take a serious and thoughtful approach to the issue of creating a family based on mutual attraction, respect for each other and common interests. However, the choice of a partner usually occurs in youth, when life experience is small.

Ignorance of the basic conditions of sexual life by young men and women, young spouses deprives them of the necessary caution and often leads to irreparable mistakes.

It is important to have an idea about the anatomy and functional features of the genital organs - male and female, to know the mechanism of conception, the birth of a new life.

Entering into intimate premarital relationships, young people do not really understand their consequences, they do not think about a possible pregnancy, infection with a sexually transmitted disease or AIDS. At first, the child is the reason for creating a family, and then the same child is the reason for the divorce.

Sexual life influences the formation of such social aspects of life as the family and the upbringing of children.

First of all, a community of interests, approximately the same level of development, seriousness and deep respect, feelings of love and friendship are necessary. Sexual relations of spouses are based on deep emotional attraction, but they are not the only ones that determine the strength of the family.

A healthy lifestyle is associated with skillful family planning, based on the idea of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbpreserving people's health.

Planning - this is the birth of a child at the time when the necessary conditions for this appeared in the family. The nature of the relationship of spouses determines the birth rate, affects the outcome of pregnancy, affects various health indicators. According to the observations of doctors, healthy children are born from women aged 25-35 years and from men aged 24-40 years. Getting rid of an unwanted child through an abortion often brings irreparable harm to a woman's health. The first abortion in 15 cases out of 100 causes secondary infertility.

A person's life cannot be considered complete if he does not know the happiness of motherhood and fatherhood.

Lecture No. 11. Family in modern society. Family functions. The impact of family relationships on human health

The family plays an important role in strengthening the health and education of the younger generations, ensuring the economic and social progress of society, and improving demographic processes.

Family - the first team that plays a huge role in creating a healthy lifestyle. Society and the state are interested in this.

Family - a group of people related by marriage, consanguinity or adoption, having common expenses and incomes. Family members are connected by a common life, mutual help and moral responsibility, therefore the family is a moral and legal union of a man and a woman.

Family life, its way of life determines the health of family members both directly and indirectly. In happy families, life expectancy is higher, and diseases are less common. Here the foundations of a person's character, his attitude to work, moral, ideological and cultural values are formed, a complex of habits, stereotypes of behavior that directly affect health is formed: rest, nutrition, psycho-emotional climate.

Happiness in family life depends on the ability to maintain caring, kindness, attention, responsibility, responsiveness throughout the life together; housekeeping skills, family budget planning. A frivolous attitude towards family and marriage can disfigure personal life.

The main function of the family is its reproductive function - this is the birth and upbringing of children, which ensures the change of generations, the transfer of moral values and norms, labor skills to their children.

Marriage entered into between the ages of 20 and 24 conforms both to the laws of biology and medicine and to the laws of social development. The age difference between husband and wife is desirable, it is better if the husband is 5-6 years older than his wife. Harmful early, as well as too late marriages.

In most urban families, consisting of two or three generations, contacts of family members are often difficult due to psycho-emotional tension. Family members have little contact with each other, contacts are suppressed by watching television. All these reasons have a significant impact on the stability of the family and adversely affect the health of the population as a whole.

Mutual respect for spouses, care for each other, children and old family members - these are the signs of a healthy family. It must be remembered that marriage does not solve all the problems of the individual and cannot make up for the imperfection of other aspects of the way of life.

Lecture No. 12. Safety and sexual culture

The instinct of self-preservation is still insufficiently revealed in youth, wrote I. I. Melnikov. - Youth is the age of the most selfless victims, but also of various abuses of alcohol, sexual functions, etc.

The early onset of sexual activity adversely affects the offspring. Marriages between boys and girls who have not yet reached full puberty are often barren, and children born to such parents are weak.

The lack of sexual culture and, consequently, the crisis state of intimate life can explain the disrespect of people for each other, hysterical screaming as a method of proving one's own innocence, conflicts at home and at work, eternal conflict with oneself, permanent stress. The cause of most neuroses is precisely sexual problems, and with age, when sexual activity decreases, the possibility of nervous breakdowns and mental cataclysms increases.

Normal sex life has a beneficial effect on human health, performance and longevity. Harmful promiscuous sex life, which leads to premature wear of the body, is fraught with the danger of contracting venereal diseases, AIDS. A person who indulges in sexual excesses prematurely weakens his nervous system and reduces the body's resistance to various diseases.

The unsatisfactory state of the intimate sphere directly affects the quality of labor productivity. The working capacity of men is reduced by 25%, women - by 70%.

Sexual intercourse is recommended and beneficial when physical and mental inclinations attract partners to each other. The functional need for sexual intercourse largely depends on temperament, health, upbringing, mutual attraction and other reasons. Doctors consider sexual intercourse 1-2 times a week to be the most hygienic for healthy people. You need to focus on your well-being. If after sexual intercourse a person feels healthy and vigorous, it means that the act was not harmful; if he feels lethargic, tired - there was an excess.

Widespread ways to prevent unwanted pregnancy, such as the calculation of infertile days in women and the interruption of sexual intercourse. These methods are often ineffective, and the woman has to artificially terminate the pregnancy. Interruption of sexual intercourse is harmful for both men and women. In men, as a rule, impotence develops, in women, the sexual feeling is weakened.

Use reliable contraceptive measures. Mechanical means prevent sperm from entering the woman's genital tract. The most effective intrauterine devices containing copper or silver, the effectiveness of preventing pregnancy is 95%.

Mechanical means are introduced by a gynecologist. Chemical contraceptives affect the viability of spermatozoa. Hormonal contraception is a XNUMX% method of contraception and should be prescribed by a gynecologist.

Lecture number 13. Venereal diseases

Sexually transmitted diseases - a group of sexually transmitted infectious diseases: syphilis, gonorrhea, chancre. The social significance of venereal diseases is determined by their prevalence, danger and severity of consequences for the health of the sick, the impact on the reproduction of healthy offspring.

The main reason for the spread of venereal diseases is extramarital, promiscuity, due to both social and moral reasons (early awakening of sensuality among young people and sexual promiscuity).

An important role in shaping a person's attitude to sexual life is played by the immediate environment (parents, friends). One of the main causes of sexual promiscuity is alcoholism (intoxication facilitates sexual intercourse).

Many female diseases, female and male infertility, blindness are often the result of untreated gonorrhea. Untreated syphilis causes severe damage to the central nervous system, cardiovascular and skeletal systems, can cause congenital deafness and various deformities. Syphilis can be latent for a long time, and it can only be detected with the help of modern special studies.

Prevention of venereal diseases is carried out both in the direction of social transformations and through the implementation of special medical measures. The leading place belongs to the system of education, the formation of healthy moral and ethical attitudes, the fight against alcoholism, sexual promiscuity. An effective means of preventing sexually transmitted diseases is considered to be a rational system of sexual education, as well as compliance with the rules of personal hygiene and a rational regimen, education of the will and the ability to control one's feelings. Family education also plays an important role.

Measures of a medical nature are aimed at the early detection and treatment of patients, as well as the suppression of transmission routes. Anonymity ensures the interests of patients who have applied for preventive care and treatment at the Dermatovenerologic Dispensary. If the patient threatens the health of others by evading treatment and violating the regimen, then he is criminally punishable for the deliberate spread of sexually transmitted diseases.

An important condition for personal prevention is the exclusion of casual sexual intercourse. If it has been admitted, you should immediately urinate and wash the external genitalia with warm water and soap (mechanical removal of trapped gonococci). If you suspect the possibility of contracting a venereal disease, you should, in the first two hours after sexual intercourse, contact the prophylactic center of the dermatovenerological dispensary, which operates around the clock, where preventive care will be provided. Condoms serve as a reliable prevention of the entry of pathogenic microbes into the genitals.

For the prevention of congenital syphilis, all pregnant women are examined for blood (Wasserman reaction).

A sick person should inform the doctor about sexual contact in order to timely treat both the person who is the source of infection, and those persons whom he could infect himself while being sick. Members of the patient's family are examined and preventive treatment is prescribed, while observing medical secrecy.

Lecture No. 14. AIDS and its prevention

Acquired human immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), discovered in 1981, affects both industrialized and developing countries. This proves once again how closely the lifestyle and norms of life are connected with health. Pandemic (worldwide epidemic) AIDS - a serious threat to entire peoples and cultures.

The causative agent of the disease - the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was discovered in 1983. It affects the human immune system: it settles in blood cells that protect the body from pathogens entering from outside. For a person with AIDS, even those microbes that are constantly present in the body and usually do no harm become dangerous.

The disease develops gradually, lasts for several years, and almost always ends in death.

Early symptoms of the disease can be: weight loss, swollen lymph nodes that do not disappear for a long time, general malaise, unexplained fever, lesions of the central and peripheral nervous system.

At later stages, chronic pustular and inflammatory lesions of the skin, genitals, and mouth develop. A weakened body is more easily affected by bacteria, fungi; bacterial, viral, fungal complications develop. There are signs of pneumonia, prolonged diarrhea, mental disorder, damage to the nervous system.

Three ways of transmission of the AIDS virus have been identified: sexual; when transfusing infected blood or using non-sterile syringes and needles; infection of the fetus or newborn child from an infected mother.

Among the high-risk groups, first of all, there are people who are promiscuous and drug addicts, who often use common syringes.

Each country is developing its own national program to combat this disease.

In Russia, test systems have been created for diagnosing AIDS, which detect antibodies to the virus. You can be tested for the AIDS virus either at your place of residence or anonymously in specialized laboratories.

If a person - a carrier of the AIDS virus does not show signs of illness, then he is taken under the supervision of doctors and examined regularly two to three times a year. Each carrier of the virus receives individual advice on the rules of conduct that prevent infection of other people, and at the same time is excluded from the list of donors. Sexual partners of carriers of the virus are identified and examined.

AIDS prevention is developing in two directions: establishing the production of disposable syringes and systems for blood transfusion; adequate supply of condoms; strengthening the fight against drug addiction, since the use of the same needle by several drug addicts is considered one of the main conditions for contracting AIDS.

The onset of a formidable disease requires each person to observe such life rules that will allow them to preserve their own health and those around them. Effective treatments have not yet been found.

AIDS prevention prescribes sexual intercourse with a regular partner, the obligatory use of a condom in case of a relationship with an unknown partner; refusal to have sexual relations with people of the same sex; withdrawal from drugs.

Lecture number 15. The most common infectious diseases, their causes

Infectious diseases - diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms and transmitted from an infected person or animal to a healthy person.

The mass spread of certain infections among the population of a country (epidemic) or several countries (pandemic) can determine the fate of cities and countries.

Infectious diseases can occur in the presence of three components: a pathogenic microorganism - a pathogen, a susceptible macroorganism (human), and factors that ensure the transmission of infection from an infected organism to a healthy one.

The ability of the pathogen to cause infectious diseases depends on the ability to penetrate into certain organs and tissues, to release toxins.

The body's susceptibility to infection is determined by a number of biological and social factors - age, diet, living conditions, etc. Factors such as fasting, monotonous irregular meals, lack of vitamins, proteins in food, overwork, overheating, hypothermia, the presence of worms and others diseases, overcrowding of the population favor the emergence of infectious diseases.

Transmission factors of pathogens are various elements of the environment: water, food, dishes, dirty hands (intestinal infection); with air from a sick person when coughing, sneezing, talking (airborne); by direct contact (fungal diseases); transmitted through blood-sucking vectors.

With intestinal infections (dysentery, typhoid fever, cholera, salmonellosis, food poisoning), pathogens enter the external environment mainly with the feces of patients and bacteria carriers, and into the body of a healthy person through the mouth from contaminated hands, food, water. In the spread of intestinal infections, flies play an important role in the summer.

In blood infectious diseases, pathogens circulate in the blood and do not communicate with the environment, the transmission of pathogens from a patient to a healthy person occurs only through blood-sucking insects - carriers. Carriers are mosquitoes (malaria, yellow fever), lice (typhus and relapsing fever), ticks (tick-borne encephalitis), fleas (plague, flea fever).

In infectious diseases of the external integument, pathogens enter the human body through damaged skin and mucous membranes, where they are often fixed. Infection of a person occurs both by direct contact with the patient (venereal diseases), and by using bedding, towels of patients and others (trachoma, scabies, fungal skin diseases, etc.).

There are anthroponoses - infectious diseases that are peculiar only to humans, and they can only be infected from a person. These are typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera, smallpox, diphtheria, measles, etc.

Infection Prevention Measures

To prevent intestinal infections, the identification, isolation and treatment of patients and bacteria carriers, the disinfection of dwellings, and the fight against flies are carried out. Everyone should be sure to wash their hands with soap before eating, after using the toilet; wash fruits and vegetables and pour boiling water over them before use, boil milk, drink only disinfected water; protect food from flies.

Some infectious diseases (influenza and influenza-like illnesses) can spread extremely quickly and affect large numbers of people.

Therefore, during the epidemic, when a patient develops a cough, runny nose, with a slight increase in temperature, he should be isolated at home and call a doctor.

For the prevention of blood-borne infectious diseases, patients are identified and isolated, combating blood-sucking insects, protecting people from the bites of blood-sucking insects, using mechanical means of protection (protective nets, canopy, overalls) and repellents.

For the prevention of infectious diseases of the external integument, patients are identified and treated. Strict observance of the hygienic regime is necessary - the use of individual underwear bed linen, towels, etc.

For the prevention of zoonoses, sick animals are identified and isolated or destroyed, livestock keeping areas are disinfected, rodents and insects are controlled, preventive vaccinations are carried out for people working with animals, as well as pets.

To prevent many infectious diseases, protective vaccinations are made to create immunity to infectious diseases by preliminary introduction of vaccines, toxoids, gamma globulins, and immune sera into the human body. This achieves the development of active and passive immunity.

Vaccinations are carried out in a planned manner and according to epidemiological indications.

Routine vaccinations given at a certain age include vaccinations against tuberculosis, diphtheria, poliomyelitis, tetanus, mumps, as well as vaccinations carried out in natural foci of infection, against tularemia, tick-borne encephalitis. Inoculations for epidemic indications include vaccinations against influenza, to increase the immunity of the population when there is a danger of an epidemic of this disease.

Parents should know what vaccinations their child has received and which will be given and when. The accuracy of the vaccination period must be observed, because at the specified time they will be most effective.

Protective vaccinations are one of the important means of combating infectious diseases. Thanks to them, infectious diseases such as smallpox, poliomyelitis, relapsing fever, and plague have been drastically reduced or practically eliminated.

Lecture number 16. Classification of the main forms of activity

The concepts of "work" and "work" are not unambiguous. The term "work" means all activities associated with the expenditure of energy and the release of the organism from a state of rest. In any kind of labor, work is performed, but not all work can be considered labor activity.

Labor activity is usually divided into physical and mental. This division is conditional, since no labor activity is possible without the regulatory role of the central nervous system, without volitional efforts. When evaluating physical effort, the concept of "labor severity" is used, which reflects the load on the skeletal muscles, cardiovascular and other physiological systems. To characterize mental activity, the concept of "labor intensity" is adopted, reflecting the predominant load on the central nervous system.

Scientific and technological development causes a transformation in the nature of labor activity. In the middle of the twentieth century. of all the energy that was produced on Earth, 96% came from human muscle power. Nowadays, muscle energy in the total energy balance of the world is only 1%.

Mental work is one of the most laborious and stressful. It has been established that the measure of loading a person with mental work during manual cleaning and mopping is 9%, while working on a lathe - 52%, while driving a car in the city - about 60%, and with thoughtful reading - 100%.

For a person, physical labor is important and absolutely necessary. There are painful conditions in people of mental labor, which are to a certain extent associated with a lack of physical activity: stoop, diseases of the joints, spine, obesity.

There are four main groups of professions: physical, mechanized, automated and mental labor. All these forms of labor are present in modern production, but the share of the first two is declining, while the latter is increasing. The severity of mental work during training increases due to what happens against the background of static stress associated with the need for additional time to maintain a certain posture for a certain time.

With strictly rhythmic activity, the processes of excitation are concentrated on a smaller and smaller space of the cerebral cortex. Between the areas of the cortex, which are "responsible" for the rhythm of physical labor, and those that control the given mental work, there is, as it were, a delimitation. Both sites function without interfering, but complementing each other. This is an important condition for creativity, a productive combination of mental and physical activity. The correct alternation of excitatory and inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex, elements of diversity in the labor process - all this is very important for high performance, for the emotional, moral and physical well-being of a person.

Ways to improve the efficiency of human labor activity

An important condition for high performance is the gradual inclusion in the work. A person is more quickly involved in physical work than in mental work.

To improve the efficiency of labor activity, a working person must know the dynamics of working capacity, its various phases.

Production phase - the body adapts, adjusts to the mode of operation. Coordination, accuracy and speed of movement improve, an optimal working posture emerges, an economical mode of breathing and blood circulation is established. The phase of the stable operating state is characterized by the highest individual work efficiency. After 3-4 hours, performance decreases. By this time, a break is provided, after which the production phase begins, but shorter than at the beginning of the working day. A stable working state lasts less and passes into a phase of partial fatigue, requiring the mobilization of the body's resources.

The period of gradual "entry into work" is of great importance. We must begin it without excessive swiftness and haste. "Gallop from a place" is harmful not only in physical, but also in mental labor. Any new function must be balanced with the system of existing functions and skills. A well-thought-out and worked out habitual sequence and a certain system in work, planned activity are always more productive.

Any work is productive and less tiring if it is done in a certain sequence. The external rhythm of movements and labor methods gradually acquire an orderly character. There is a so-called assimilation of rhythm, a state of high and stable performance. The more a person is trained, experienced in work, the more automatically, easier and more economically, in terms of the expenditure of physical and mental energy, he performs this work. Compliance with a certain rhythm and pace assimilated by the body is the most important factor in working capacity and health.

The rhythm of work is the basis of high efficiency. It, as a rule, is determined by the character of a person, his purposefulness. But the rhythm in work should be moderate, expediently and correctly selected in accordance with the physiological capabilities of the body. The lack of sequence in the performance of technological operations, uneven loads during the day, week, month reduce efficiency, lead to disorganization in work, the appearance of errors, and rapid fatigue, thereby disrupting the coordinated work of all physiological functions of the body and leading to overwork.

Lecture No. 17. Physiological foundations of labor

Labor is necessary for the optimal flow of biological processes in the body, therefore, it has a great impact on health. Physical labor is characterized by severity and is associated with the performance of static and dynamic work, while mental labor is associated with tension against the background of static stress. Physical and mental labor are based on the same central mechanisms. Physical labor is characterized by high energy consumption, oxygen consumption, rapid development of fatigue and relatively low productivity.

Static work is more tedious than dynamic work. During dynamic work, due to the alternation of the processes of contraction and relaxation of the muscles, the latter rest. Contracting skeletal muscles simultaneously act as micropumps, facilitating blood circulation and performing the function of a "peripheral heart". During static work, muscle tension lasts continuously, the vessels in them are constantly compressed, and normal blood circulation is difficult. This leads to stagnation of blood, accumulation in the muscles and in the body of products of incomplete oxidation.

Mental work is one of the most laborious and stressful.

First of all, a clear and precise work of the brain is necessary: attention and memory, which most people consider the main guarantee of success in mental work. Attention has wave-like fluctuations due to natural physiological reasons - a periodic increase in the excitability of the brain is replaced by a decrease in its activity and is associated with the appearance and maintenance of a persistent focus of excitation in one (or several) well-defined centers of the brain. Memory is associated with the preservation of persistent traces of excitation (or internal inhibition) in various centers of the cerebral cortex of the cerebral hemispheres.

With an increase in the severity of physical labor and the intensity of mental labor, oxygen consumption increases. There is a limit to the maximum amount of oxygen that a person can consume - the so-called oxygen ceiling. Usually it does not exceed 3-4 l / min. During the performance of very hard work, the supply of oxygen to the body reaches its limit, but the need for it becomes even greater and is not satisfied in the process of work. At this moment, a state of oxygen deficiency occurs in the body - hypoxia, which becomes a damaging factor. Intracellular oxidative processes are disturbed and toxic substances are formed - oxygen free radicals that poison the body. If hard physical and mental work continues for a very long time or a person is not accustomed to great physical or mental stress, then his respiratory and cardiovascular systems poorly provide the work of muscles and brain cells. There are mechanisms in the body that prevent the development of such a dangerous condition. There is a decrease in efficiency, fatigue develops. However, if the working capacity does not have time to recover by the beginning of the next working day, overwork develops, accompanied by chronic hypoxia, impaired nervous activity, diseases of the cardiovascular and other systems.

Fatigue Prevention

Fatigue - This is a physiological state of the body that occurs as a result of excessive activity and manifests itself in a decrease in efficiency. Fatigue can occur during any kind of activity - both mental and physical work.

Mental fatigue is characterized by a decrease in the productivity of intellectual work, impaired attention, slow thinking, and sleep disturbance. Physical fatigue is manifested by a violation of muscle function: a decrease in strength, speed, accuracy, consistency and rhythm of movements.

Efficiency can be reduced not only as a result of the work done, but also due to illness or unusual working conditions. In these cases, a decrease in efficiency is a consequence of a violation of the functional state of the body.

The speed of fatigue depends on the specifics of labor: it occurs much sooner when performing work, accompanied by a monotonous posture, muscle tension; less tiring rhythmic movements. Many people in a period of emotional stress for a long time do not have signs of fatigue and a feeling of fatigue. Fatigue is associated with a decrease in performance, which is restored as a result of proper rest.

A tired person works less accurately, making first small, and then serious mistakes.

Insufficient rest or excessive workload for a long time often leads to chronic fatigue or overwork, which can cause neuroses and diseases of the cardiovascular system.

To prevent overwork, it is necessary to take into account two phases of working capacity: I - excitatory, associated with motor restlessness, absent-mindedness; II - inhibitory, when there is lethargy, a decrease in vitality.

The efficiency and quality of work during the excitatory phase of fatigue can remain high, but this is achieved through volitional effort and mental stress. A subjective feeling of fatigue appears, but work should be continued until the onset of phase II of fatigue.

When signs of inhibition of the central brain structures appear, attempts to overcome it and continue to work can cause overwork, so the onset of the inhibitory phase dictates the need for rest.

An important means of combating overwork is a rational regime of work and rest or the organization of short-term breaks at a strictly defined time of the working day, which are arranged taking into account the nature of the labor process. A good rest does not consist in idleness, but should alternate with physical activity and a change of activity.

One of the effective means of long-term preservation of efficiency during the working day is a clear rhythm of labor activity.

Work performed rhythmically is about 20% less tiring than non-rhythmic work of the same severity.

When carrying out measures to prevent fatigue, an important place should be given to the elimination of unnecessary movements, the rational organization of the workplace, which allows not only to save movement, but also to work in a normal posture that excludes static muscle tension.

Lecture No. 18. Physiological effects of meteorological conditions on a person

Meteorological conditions include physical factors that are interconnected with each other: temperature, humidity and air speed, atmospheric pressure, precipitation, indications of the Earth's geomagnetic field.

Air temperature affects heat transfer. During physical exertion, a prolonged stay in very hot air is accompanied by an increase in body temperature, an acceleration of the pulse, a weakening of the cardiovascular system, a decrease in attention, a slowdown in the speed of reactions, a violation of the accuracy and coordination of movements, loss of appetite, fatigue, a decrease in mental and physical performance. Low air temperature, increasing heat transfer, creates the danger of hypothermia, the possibility of colds. Rapid and sudden changes in temperature are especially harmful to health.

Water vapor is constantly present in the atmospheric air. The degree of saturation of air with water vapor is called humidity. The same air temperature, depending on its humidity, is felt by a person in different ways.

Thin people are most sensitive to cold, their efficiency decreases, a bad mood appears, and there may be a state of depression. Obese people are more difficult to tolerate heat - they experience suffocation, palpitations, and irritability increases. Blood pressure tends to go down on hot days and up on cold days, although about one in three people have it high on hot days and low on cold days. At low temperatures, there is a slowdown in the response of diabetics to insulin.

For normal heat sensation, the mobility and direction of the air flow is of great importance. The most favorable air speed in winter is 0,15 m/s, and in summer - 0,2-0,3 m/s Air moving at a speed of 0,15 m/s makes a person feel fresh. The effect of the wind on the state of the organism is not connected with its strength.

When the wind changes temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, and it is these changes that affect human health: depression, nervousness, migraine, insomnia, malaise appear, angina pectoris attacks become more frequent.

A change in the electromagnetic field causes an exacerbation of cardiovascular diseases, nervous disorders increase, irritability, fatigue, a heavy head, and poor sleep appear. Men, children and old people react more strongly to the impact of electromagnetic changes.

A decrease in oxygen in the external environment occurs when a warm air mass invades, with high humidity and temperature, which causes a feeling of lack of air, shortness of breath, dizziness. An increase in atmospheric pressure, an increasing wind, a cold snap worsen the general state of health, exacerbates cardiovascular diseases.

Prevention of adverse effects of the microclimate

The complex of physical factors determines the meteorological conditions (microclimate) of production.

The microclimate of enclosed spaces is determined by climatic conditions (Far North, Siberia, etc.) and the season of the year and depends on the climatic factors of the external atmosphere: temperature, humidity, air velocity, thermal radiation and temperature of fences, which should be taken into account when designing, choosing construction materials, types of fuel, heating, ventilation systems and their mode of operation.

The main role in the thermal state of the body is played by air temperature, for which the value of thermal comfort is determined by sanitary requirements.

The creation of an artificial microclimate is aimed at neutralizing adverse climatic factors and providing certain thermal conditions corresponding to the thermal comfort zone.

For this, air conditioning and heat supply systems and apparatus are installed, which can be local (ovens) or centralized (boiler room). The average surface temperature of heating devices (radiators) must be at least 60-70 °C.

Increased indoor humidity (dampness) may appear as a result of improper operation of buildings - insufficient heating and ventilation, overcrowding, washing in residential premises.

The elimination of dampness in residential premises is facilitated by more frequent ventilation and better heating.

Windows in rooms with high humidity should be kept uncurtained throughout the day, thus providing greater insolation of the room.

Walls in damp rooms should not be painted with oil paint, as moisture condensation increases.

The microclimate of factory shops depends on the amount of excess heat generated by the process equipment and the efficiency of air exchange carried out using natural ventilation or mechanical ventilation. Depending on the amount of heat release, "hot" shops are distinguished, in which it is 20 kcal (84 kJ) or more per 1 m²/ h, and "cold" shops, where heat is released in a smaller amount.

The thermal balance of the body with the environment is maintained by changing the intensity of two processes - heat production and heat transfer.

The regulation of heat production occurs mainly at low temperatures. Of more universal importance for the body's heat exchange with the environment is heat transfer. As the air temperature rises, evaporation becomes the main route of heat transfer.

Increased sweating leads to loss of fluid, salts and water-soluble vitamins.

The action of thermal radiation and high air temperature can cause a number of pathological conditions: overheating, heat stroke, sunstroke, convulsive illness, eye disease - professional thermal cataract ("glassblower's cataract").

Prolonged exposure to heating and especially radiation microclimate causes premature biological aging of the body.

Local and general hypothermia of the body is the cause of chills, neuritis, myositis, radiculitis and colds.

Lecture No. 19. Occupational hazards of the working environment

Occupational hazards - factors of the labor process and the working environment that have a direct or indirect adverse effect on the state of health and performance of a person, which, under certain conditions, can cause occupational diseases or exacerbation of general diseases.

Industrial hazards may be the result of insufficient knowledge of technology in terms of sanitary and hygienic terms, especially with the use of newly synthesized substances that have pronounced toxic and allergenic properties, and to a certain extent, violations of the technological regime and sanitary standards.

Occupational hazards associated with technological processes in production include: dust, noise, vibration, high and low temperatures, high relative humidity, high or low atmospheric pressure, toxic and radioactive substances, sources of ionizing, ultraviolet and other radiation, electromagnetic waves , microorganisms, etc.

Industrial hazards can be associated with the labor process - its organization, intensity and duration.

Occupational diseases can occur as a result of physical, chemical and biological factors. For example, when working in conditions of high atmospheric pressure (in caissons), if the transition from high atmospheric pressure to normal is not gradual enough, the so-called caisson disease develops. Constant production noise and vibration often cause the development of hearing loss and vibration disease. Prolonged inhalation of some types of dust leads to the development of pneumoconiosis or other lung diseases. Contact with radioactive substances and exposure to ionizing radiation can cause radiation sickness. The action of chemicals on the body may be accompanied by intoxication, leading to the development of occupational diseases, for example, in case of poisoning with industrial poisons. Skin diseases can also occur: eczema, dermatitis caused by irritants.

The influence of low-range ultrasound, used in industry or produced as a by-product in production conditions, on the human body is due to its action not only in the contact zone, but also on the entire surface of the body, including the organ of hearing and the vestibular apparatus. Prolonged, repeatedly repeated exposure to ultrasound can have a depressing effect, which is manifested by weakness, drowsiness, and decreased performance.

Occupational hazards can cause a decrease in working capacity, the development of acute and chronic poisoning and diseases, an increase in general morbidity, and negative long-term consequences.

1. General sanitary and technical requirements for industrial premises and workplaces

Healthy and productive work is possible only with good maintenance of the workplace, its proper organization. A comfortable working posture, lack of fuss, unnecessary movements, comfort in the room are important for labor productivity, to combat premature fatigue.

The microclimate of the workplace has a significant impact on human performance.

The main hygienic requirements are the creation of an optimal microclimate in the working room and sufficient stability of the internal temperature. The temperature difference in the horizontal direction from windows to opposite walls should not exceed 2 °C, and in the vertical direction - 1 °C per meter of room height.

The temperature level can be reduced to 8-15 ° C where work is associated with constant movement and carrying heavy loads or where there is significant heat radiation. In summer, the temperature in the working room should not exceed the temperature of the outside air by 3-5 ° C, and in hot weather, so that it is lower than outside. Performance is reduced both at very low and at very high humidity.

World - a strong performance stimulant. Lighting is considered sufficient if it allows for a long time without stress and does not cause eye fatigue. When using fluorescent lamps (fluorescent lamps), visual fatigue occurs later than with conventional incandescent lamps, and labor productivity increases.

The color of the surrounding objects, the color of the walls have a significant impact on human performance. Red colors with a golden hue - warm - have an invigorating, stimulating effect, and blue, green-blue, on the contrary, soothing, conducive to rest, to peace, conducive to sleep. Things painted in a dark color seem heavier than light ones, so it is recommended to paint machines and machines in pleasant light colors.

Noise has a negative impact on health and performance. Exposure to prolonged and very intense noise (over 80 dB) adversely affects the nervous system, hearing loss and deafness may develop.

Standards for general safety requirements for production equipment establish safety requirements for the design of equipment as a whole and its individual elements. Methods for monitoring the fulfillment of safety requirements contain safety requirements for the placement of elements of technological systems, operating modes of production equipment, control systems and personnel working conditions, requirements for the use of protective equipment, standards for norms and general requirements for types of hazard, establish maximum permissible concentrations, levels or doses of harmful substances and safety requirements when working with substances that emit dangerous and harmful vapors.

2. Industrial ventilation and air conditioning

Ventilation - air exchange in the premises, carried out with the help of various systems and devices.

As a person stays in a room, the air quality in it deteriorates. Along with exhaled carbon dioxide, other metabolic products, dust, and harmful production substances accumulate in the air. In addition, the temperature and humidity of the air rise. Therefore, there is a need for ventilation of the room, which provides air exchange - removal of polluted air and its replacement with clean air.

Air exchange can be carried out in a natural way - through the vents and transoms.

The best way of air exchange is artificial ventilation, in which fresh air is supplied and polluted air is removed mechanically - with the help of fans and other devices.

The most advanced form of artificial ventilation is air conditioning - the creation and maintenance of the most favorable (comfortable) conditions for people in enclosed spaces and transport with the help of technical means to ensure technological processes, the operation of equipment and instruments, and the preservation of cultural and art values.

Air conditioning is achieved by creating optimal parameters of the air environment, its temperature, relative humidity, gas composition, speed and air pressure.

Air conditioning units are equipped with devices for cleaning the air from dust, for heating, cooling, dehumidifying and humidifying it, as well as for automatic regulation, control and management. In some cases, with the help of air conditioning systems, it is also possible to carry out odorization (saturation of air with aromatic substances), deodorization (neutralization of unpleasant odors), regulation of the ionic composition (ionization), removal of excess carbon dioxide, oxygen enrichment and bacteriological air purification (in medical institutions where patients with airborne infection).

Distinguish between central air conditioning systems, serving, as a rule, the entire structure, and local, serving one room.

Air conditioning is carried out with the help of air conditioners of various types, the design and arrangement of which depends on their purpose. Various devices are used for air conditioning: fans, humidifiers, air ionizers. In the premises, the air temperature is considered to be optimal in winter from +19 to +21 ° С, in summer - from +22 to +25 ° С with a relative humidity of 60 to 40% and an air velocity of no more than 30 cm / s.

3. Requirements for lighting of premises and workplaces

Lighting is of great hygienic importance. It is important not just to illuminate a room or a separate workplace, but to create lighting that would correspond to the nature of the work performed. Insufficient lighting reduces working capacity and labor productivity, causes eye fatigue, contributes to the development of myopia, an increase in industrial injuries, and leads to transport accidents on the streets and roads. Lighting can be natural, artificial and mixed.

Natural lighting is determined by the sun's rays and the diffused light of the sky and varies depending on the geographical latitude, the height of the sun, the degree of cloudiness and the transparency of the atmosphere. Natural light has a spectrum to which the human eye is most accustomed.

Natural lighting standards are set depending on the purpose of the building and individual rooms. The best illumination of the premises is achieved by painting walls and ceilings in light colors, as well as periodic cleaning of window panes, the contamination of which leads to a loss of 50% of the light flux. To assess natural lighting, the coefficient of natural light is used, showing how many times the illumination inside the room is less than the outside. In the middle lane, at the points farthest from the windows, the coefficient of natural light should be at least 2,5%, and in the northern latitudes - 2,9%. The optimal orientation of the windows of residential premises is south and southeast.

Electric lamps serve as sources of artificial light. The quantitative characteristic is the illumination, which is set in the range from 5 to 5000 lux, depending on the nature of the work performed.

There are two types of artificial lighting: general, in which light spreads evenly throughout the room, and combined, created by lamps of general and local lighting at the same time and which is most hygienically appropriate. It is not recommended to work only with local lighting, since by looking from a brightly lit surface to dark surrounding objects, we create an additional load on the eyes. A table lamp or other portable lamp is installed directly at the workplace so that the light from it falls from the front on the left side, then the shadow from the hand will not obscure the work.

In a table lamp or sconce, the light bulb should be at least 40-60 W for people with normal vision, and for the elderly and those with impaired vision, it is better to purchase lamps with a power of 75-100 W. The power of lamps in general lighting fixtures is determined at the rate of 10-15 W per 1 m³ area of the room.

When using fluorescent lamps, fixtures with a single lamp are not recommended, since the light in such a lamp pulsates according to changes in the voltage in the network. It is advisable to arrange general lighting with fluorescent lamps, and for local use incandescent lamps.

mixed lighting - the inclusion of artificial (electric) light in addition to daylight, which, if necessary, is quite advisable.

4. Industrial vibration and its impact on humans

Vibration - mechanical vibrations of solids. Sources of vibration are pneumatic and electric, manual, mechanized tools, various machines, machine tools widely used in industry and in everyday life.

Vibration is characterized by the displacement of the oscillating point from a stable position (amplitude) in millimeters and the number of vibrations per second. From these values, the vibrational speed is calculated, expressed both in absolute (m/s) and relative values (decibels), and acceleration.

Both in production and in everyday life, vibration can have an adverse effect on a person - lead to a violation of a number of physiological processes, and with prolonged systematic exposure - to the development of a vibration disease.

Conventionally, they distinguish between local vibration, which acts mainly on the hands of workers, and the general one - when the entire body is exposed to vibration when the floor, seat (workplace) oscillates.

In case of a vibration disease that develops under the influence of local vibration, the following are characteristic:

1) pain in the hands, more often at night;

2) whitening of the fingers in the cold;

3) numbness and chilliness of the hands;

4) pain in the lower back and in the region of the heart.

This is due to impaired blood circulation in the peripheral vessels. Pain sensitivity is especially severely affected, the temperature of the skin on the hands and feet decreases. The degree of sensitivity reduction increases with the duration and severity of the disease.

There are disturbances in the activity of the endocrine glands, internal organs and metabolic processes. When exposed to vibration with a large amplitude, disturbances occur in muscles, ligaments, joints, and bones. There is weakness, fatigue, irritability, headaches, poor sleep.

With general vibration, the vestibular system is especially often affected, headaches, dizziness occur.

To prevent vibration disease, along with hygienic regulation, the vibration of machines, equipment and tools is eliminated by balancing the forces that cause vibrations. Measures are taken to reduce the transmission of vibration with the help of elastic elements and vibration damping, technological processes are introduced that limit or completely exclude the contact of a worker with a vibrating surface.

It is necessary for workers to observe a rational regime of work and rest and use personal protective equipment, such as vibration-damping gloves and shoes.

The most important measure to prevent vibration disease is the strict observance of the established rules for working in vibration conditions and safety standards.

5. Occupational noise and its impact on humans

Noise - a complex of sounds that causes an unpleasant sensation or painful reactions.

Noise - one of the forms of physical pollution of the living environment. He is as slow a killer as chemical poisoning.

The noise level of 20-30 decibels (dB) is practically harmless to humans. This is a natural noise background, without which human life is impossible. For loud sounds, the acceptable limit is approximately 80 dB. A sound of 130 dB already causes a painful sensation in a person, and at 130 it becomes unbearable for him.

In some industries, long-term and very intense noise (80-100 dB) has a negative impact on health and performance. Industrial noise tires, irritates, interferes with concentration, has a negative effect not only on the organ of hearing, but also on vision, attention, memory.

Noise of sufficient efficiency and duration can lead to a decrease in auditory sensitivity, hearing loss and deafness may develop.

Under the influence of strong noise, especially high-frequency, irreversible changes gradually occur in the organ of hearing.

At high noise levels, a decrease in hearing sensitivity occurs after 1-2 years of operation, at medium levels it is detected much later, after 5-10 years.

The sequence in which hearing loss occurs is now well understood. At first, intense noise causes temporary hearing loss. Under normal conditions, hearing is restored in a day or two.

But if noise exposure continues for months or, as is the case in industry, for years, there is no recovery, and the temporary shift in hearing threshold becomes permanent.

First, nerve damage affects the perception of the high-frequency range of sound vibrations, gradually spreading to the lowest frequencies. The nerve cells of the inner ear are so damaged that they atrophy, die, and do not recover.

Noise has a harmful effect on the central nervous system, causing overwork and exhaustion of the cells of the cerebral cortex.

There is insomnia, fatigue develops, working capacity and labor productivity decrease.

Noise has a harmful effect on the visual and vestibular analyzers, which can lead to impaired coordination of movements and balance of the body.

Studies have shown that inaudible sounds are also dangerous. Ultrasound, which occupies a prominent place in the range of industrial noise, adversely affects the body, although the ear does not perceive it.

The harmful effects of noise during work in noisy industries can be avoided by various methods and means. A significant reduction in industrial noise is achieved by using special technical means of noise suppression.

6. Industrial dust and its impact on the human body

Industrial dust consists of solid particles suspended in the air. By origin, it can be natural and artificial, mineral and organic. Industrial dust, the nature of which depends on its composition, is the most common cause of disease. The finer the dust particles, the longer they stay in suspension, penetrating into the smallest pores of the skin, bronchi and alveoli.

A high risk of "dust" diseases is observed in mining, in metallurgy, mechanical engineering, building materials industry by inhalation of dust of quartz, asbestos, coal and other solid, practically insoluble materials.

A special class of harmful substances is the so-called fibrogenic dust, with prolonged inhalation of which the most severe occupational diseases develop in the lungs - chronic dust bronchitis and pneumoconiosis. Pneumoconiosis occurs when various dusts are inhaled for a long time and are characterized by the growth of connective tissue in the respiratory tract.

Depending on the type of inhaled dust, some types of pneumoconiosis are distinguished.

Silicosis - develops with prolonged inhalation of dust containing free silicon dioxide.

Dust may contain silicon dioxide, which is associated with other elements - magnesium, calcium, iron, aluminum - and is found in the production and processing of silicates (asbestos, cement, talc, aluminum). When inhaling the dust of some metals (beryllium, iron, aluminum, barium), metalloconiosis develops.

Anthracosis develops in miners working on the excavation of coal and workers in processing plants when inhaling coal dust. When exposed to plant fiber dust (cotton), flour dust, grain, sugar cane, plastics, allergic bronchitis can develop, agricultural dust with impurities of fungi - "farmer's lung". With all these occupational diseases, patients develop cough, shortness of breath, persistent changes in the lungs, chest pain, often leading to a decrease in performance and disability.

In the fight against the formation and spread of dust, technological measures are the most effective. In the mining and coal industry, the introduction of drilling with water was an effective measure to combat dust in the air. During wet drilling, the dust at the moment of its formation is moistened, precipitated and does not enter the air. Of great importance is the use of local and general ventilation, personal protective equipment - dust respirators.

Preventive sanitary and hygienic measures to combat industrial dust are diverse and are aimed at maximizing the dust content of the air: mechanization and automation of production, organization of general and local ventilation, sealing of production equipment, replacement of dry methods of work with wet ones. It is necessary to conduct preliminary (when applying for a job) and periodic medical examinations.

Lecture No. 20. Classification of harmful substances according to the degree of impact on the human body

Air plays the most important role in the daily metabolism of the body. A person cannot live without air for even a few minutes.

Air is a mixture of gases whose composition changes with altitude.

The effect of toxic exposure depends on the amount of AHOV (emergency chemically hazardous substances) that has entered the body, their physical and chemical properties, duration and intensity of intake, interaction with biological media (blood, enzymes).

AHOV, along with the general one, have selective toxicity, i.e. they pose the greatest danger to a particular organ or body system. According to selective toxicity, there are:

1) cardiac with a predominant cardiotoxic effect (many drugs, plant poisons, metal salts - barium, potassium, cobalt, radium);

2) nervous, causing a violation of mental activity (carbon monoxide, organophosphorus compounds, alcohol and its surrogates, drugs, sleeping pills);

3) hepatic (chlorinated hydrocarbons, poisonous mushrooms, phenols and aldehydes);

4) renal (heavy metal compounds, ethylene glycol, oxalic acid);

5) blood (aniline and its derivatives, nitrates, arsenic hydrogen);

6) pulmonary (smog, tar, gases).

The toxic effect under the action of various doses and concentrations of hazardous chemicals can manifest itself as functional and structural (pathomorphological) changes, i.e. toxicity manifests itself in the form of threshold doses and concentrations. But the result can be the death of the organism in the case of lethal concentrations. The danger of poisons can also be judged by the values of the thresholds of harmful action (single, chronic) and the threshold of specific action.

Harm threshold - this is the minimum concentration of a substance, under the influence of which in the body there are changes in biological parameters at the organismal level, which go beyond the limits of adaptive reactions, or latent pathology.

The nature of the impact of harmful substances on the body and general safety requirements are regulated by GOST 12.0.003-74, which subdivides substances into:

1) toxic, causing poisoning of the whole organism or affecting individual systems (CNS, hematopoiesis), causing pathological changes in the liver, kidneys;

2) irritating, causing irritation of the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, eyes, lungs, skin;

3) sensitizing, acting as allergens (formaldehydes, solvents, varnishes based on nitro and nitro compounds);

4) mutagenic, leading to a violation of the genetic code, a change in hereditary information (lead, manganese, radioactive isotopes);

5) carcinogenic, causing malignant neoplasms (cyclic amines, aromatic hydrocarbons, chromium, nickel, asbestos);

6) affecting the reproductive (childbearing) function (mercury, lead, styrene, radioactive isotopes).

Harmful substances and prevention of occupational poisoning

Predominantly as a result of exposure to the body of adverse labor factors and occupational hazards, occupational diseases arise, the prevalence of which depends on the socio-economic working conditions, the technological process and the state of the technical equipment of production.

The prevention of occupational poisoning largely depends on the observance of preventive measures by all those working in industries with harmful working conditions, as well as on the implementation of labor protection and safety rules. Preventive measures are aimed at introducing automation of production processes, a reasonable organization of work and leisure, the establishment of a reduced working day and additional annual leave in hazardous industries, free therapeutic and preventive nutrition, and rational ventilation in relation to the characteristics of production.

industrial poisons - chemicals used in production and having a harmful effect on the human body in case of violation of the rules of safety and labor hygiene.

Influencing the human body, industrial poisons can have an adverse effect on offspring.

Prevention of the impact of harmful substances on the body provides for the exclusion from the production technology of highly toxic and life-threatening poisons or their replacement with less toxic and less dangerous ones; shortening the working day and increasing holidays for persons in contact with poisons; proper ventilation, wearing protective clothing, use of a gas mask, respirator or other means of protection (protective pastes, ointments, etc.); organization of showers and daily change of industrial underwear; periodic medical examinations, therapeutic and preventive nutrition, drug prophylaxis (inhalation, dispensaries, etc.).

Scientific substantiation of acts of sanitary legislation in the field of hygienic regulation of environmental factors is very important. It is necessary to establish maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of harmful substances in the air of the working area, i.e. such concentrations that during the entire working experience cannot cause diseases or deviations in the state of health of workers directly in the process of work or in the long term.

MPCs are a mandatory sanitary standard in the design of industrial buildings, technological processes, equipment and ventilation, as well as in preventive and ongoing sanitary supervision and regimen in production conditions, to assess the effectiveness of recreational activities.

Enterprises and design organizations must constantly achieve a minimum (below MPC) content of harmful substances in the air of the working area.

Lecture No. 21

Electromagnetic field (EMF) radio frequency is characterized by the ability to heat materials; propagate in space and reflect from the interface between two media; interact with matter, due to which electromagnetic fields are widely used in various sectors of the national economy: industry, science, technology, medicine, everyday life.

Electromagnetic waves are partially absorbed by the tissues of a biological object, so the biological effect depends on the physical parameters of the RF EMF:

1) wavelength;

2) intensity and mode of radiation;

3) the duration and nature of exposure of the body;

4) on the area of the irradiated surface and the anatomical structure of the organ and tissue.

When an EMF acts on a biological object, the electromagnetic energy of the external field is converted into thermal energy, which is accompanied by an increase in body temperature or local selective heating of tissues, cell organs, especially with poor thermoregulation (the lens, the vitreous body, etc.). the thermal effect depends on the intensity of irradiation.

The effect of electromagnetic fields of radio frequencies on the central nervous system at an energy flux density (EFE) of more than 1 m W/cm² indicates its high sensitivity to electromagnetic radiation.

A change in the blood is observed, as a rule, with PES above 10 mW / cm³, at lower exposure levels, phase changes in the number of leukocytes, erythrocytes and hemoglobin are observed.

With prolonged exposure to EMF, physiological adaptation or weakening of immunological reactions occur.

Static electricity - this is a set of phenomena associated with the emergence, conservation and relaxation of a free electric charge on the surface and in the volume of dielectric and semiconductor substances, materials, products or on insulated conductors.

Studies of biological effects have shown that the nervous, cardiovascular, neurohumoral and other systems of the body are most sensitive to electrostatic fields.

Optical quantum generator is a generator of electromagnetic radiation in the optical range, based on the use of stimulated (stimulated) radiation.

The effect of lasers on the body depends on the radiation parameters, exposure localization and anatomy. The energy of laser radiation in biological objects (tissues, organs) can undergo various transformations and cause organic changes in the irradiated tissues (primary effects) and post-mortem functional changes (secondary effects). In this case, a combined thermal and mechanical effect on the irradiated structures is observed.

Biological action of UV - Rays of sunlight is manifested primarily in their positive effect on the human body. The most common consequences of lack of sunlight are beriberi, weakening of the protective immunobiological reactions of the body, exacerbation of chronic diseases, and functional disorders of the nervous system.

UV radiation from industrial sources can cause acute and chronic diseases.

Lecture No. 22. Ionizing radiation and ensuring radiation safety

Ionizing radiation is a phenomenon associated with radioactivity.

Radioactivity - spontaneous transformation of the nuclei of atoms of one element into another, accompanied by the emission of ionizing radiation.

There are the following types of radioactive transformations: electronic alpha decay, B-decay, K-capture, spontaneous nuclear fission and thermonuclear reactions.

The degree, depth and form of radiation injuries that develop among biological objects when exposed to ionizing radiation, primarily depend on the amount of absorbed radiation energy. To characterize this indicator, the concept of absorbed dose is used, i.e., the radiation energy absorbed by a unit mass of the irradiated substance.

Ionizing radiation - a unique environmental phenomenon, the consequences of the impact of which on the body at first glance are not at all equivalent to the amount of absorbed energy.

If we take morphological changes as a criterion for sensitivity to ionizing radiation, then the cells and tissues of the human body, according to the degree of increasing sensitivity, can be arranged in the following order: nervous tissue, cartilage and bone tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue, thyroid gland, digestive glands, lungs, skin, mucous membranes, sweat glands, lymphoid tissue, bone marrow.

The most important biological reactions of the human body to the action of ionizing radiation are conditionally divided into two groups:

1) acute lesions;

2) long-term effects, which in turn are divided into somatic and genetic effects.

At radiation doses of more than 100 rem, acute radiation sickness develops, the severity of which depends on the radiation dose.

Long-term consequences of a somatic nature include a variety of biological effects, the most significant of which are leukemia, malignant neoplasms, and reduced life expectancy.

Regulation of exposure and principles of radiation safety. Since January 1, 2000, exposure of people in the Russian Federation has been regulated by radiation safety standards (NRB-96), hygienic standards (GN) 2.6.1.054-96. The main dose exposure limits and permissible levels are established for the following categories of exposed persons:

1) personnel - persons working with man-made sources (group A) or located in the area of impact due to working conditions (group B);

2) the population, including persons from the staff, outside the scope and conditions of their production activities.

Three classes of standards are provided for the indicated categories of exposed persons:

1) basic dose limits (maximum allowable dose - for category A, dose limit - for category B);

2) acceptable levels;

3) control levels set by the administration of the institution in agreement with the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision at a level below the permissible level.

Basic principles for ensuring radiation safety:

1) reducing the power of sources to minimum values;

2) reducing the time of work with sources;

3) increasing the distance from sources to workers;

4) shielding of radiation sources with materials that absorb ionizing radiation.

Lecture number 23. Electric current and its effect on humans

Electricity is the orderly movement of electric charges. The current strength in the circuit section is directly proportional to the potential difference (i.e., the voltage at the ends of the section) and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit section.

The nature and depth of the impact of electric current on the human body depend on the strength and type of current, the time of its action, the path of passage through the human body, the physical and mental state of the latter.

The threshold (sensible) current is about 1 mA. At a higher current, a person begins to feel unpleasant painful muscle contractions, and at a current of 12-15 mA, he is no longer able to control his muscular system and cannot independently break away from the current source. Such a current is called non-letting. The action of a current of more than 25 mA on muscle tissue leads to paralysis of the respiratory muscles and respiratory arrest. With a further increase in current, fibrillation (convulsive contraction) of the heart may occur. A current of 100 mA is considered lethal.

Alternating current is more dangerous than direct current. It matters what parts of the body a person touches the current-carrying part. The most dangerous are those ways in which the brain or spinal cord (head and arms, head - legs), heart and lungs (arms - legs) are affected.

A characteristic case of getting under voltage is contact with one pole or phase of a current source. The voltage acting on a person in this case is called the touch voltage. Particularly dangerous are the areas located on the temples, back, backs of the hands, shins, back of the head and neck.

The effect of electric current on the body is characterized by the main damaging factors:

1) an electric shock that excites the muscles of the body, leading to convulsions, respiratory and cardiac arrest;

2) electrical burns resulting from the release of heat during the passage of current through the human body. Depending on the parameters of the electrical circuit and the condition of the person, redness of the skin, a burn with the formation of;

3) blisters or charring of tissues; when the metal is melted, metallization of the skin occurs with the penetration of pieces of metal into it.

The effect of current on the body is reduced to:

1) heating;

2) electrolysis;

3) mechanical impact.

The mechanical action leads to rupture of tissues, delamination, percussive action of evaporation of fluid from the tissues of the body.

During thermal action, overheating and functional disorder of organs in the path of current flow occur.

The electrolytic effect of the current is expressed in the electrolysis of fluid in the tissues of the body, a change in the composition of the blood.

If there are tissue changes at the site of exposure to electric current, a dry aseptic bandage is applied to the affected part of the body.

To avoid electric shock, it is necessary to carry out all work with electrical equipment and devices after disconnecting them from the electrical circuit.

ESD protection

Constant electrostatic field (ESF) is a field of fixed charges that interacts between them.

The occurrence of static electricity charges occurs during deformation, crushing (spraying) of substances, relative movement of two bodies in contact, layers of liquid and bulk materials, with intensive mixing, crystallization, and also due to induction.

When dielectrics are rubbed, excess charges appear on their surface, electric charges accumulate on dry hands, creating a potential of up to 500 V. The potential difference between a thundercloud and the Earth reaches huge values, measured in hundreds of millions of volts, and a strong electric field arises in the air.

Under favorable conditions, breakdown occurs. Charges tend to accumulate to a greater extent on points or bodies similar in shape to points.

High electric fields are created near these points. For this reason, lightning strikes high free-standing objects (towers, trees, etc.), and therefore it is dangerous for a person to be in open space during a thunderstorm or near individual trees, metal objects.

Along with natural static electric fields in the technosphere and in everyday life, a person is exposed to artificial static electric fields.

Artificial static electric fields are due to the increasing use for the manufacture of household items:

1) toys;

2) shoes;

3) clothes;

4) for interior decoration of residential and public buildings;

5) for the manufacture of building parts of production equipment;

6) equipment;

7) tools;

8) machine parts of various synthetic polymeric materials;

9) dielectrics.

Permissible levels of electrostatic fields are set in GOST 12.1.045-84.

The use of protective equipment for workers is mandatory in cases where the actual levels of electrostatic fields in the workplace exceed 60 kV / m².

When choosing means of protection against static electricity, the features of technological processes, the physical and chemical properties of the processed material, the microclimate of the premises, and others should be taken into account, which determines a differentiated approach in the development of protective measures.

Common means of protection against static electricity are to reduce the generation of electrostatic charges or their removal from the electrified material, which is achieved by:

1) grounding of metal and electrically conductive elements of equipment;

2) an increase in the surface and volume conductivity of dielectrics;

3) installation of neutralizers of static electricity.

Grounding is carried out regardless of the use of other protection methods.

Lecture No. 24. Measures to prevent industrial injuries

Injuries are often the cause of temporary and permanent disability and mortality of the population. Of the causes of industrial injuries, the most common are violations of safety regulations. Therefore, the main methods of prevention and reduction of industrial injuries are the organization of safe working methods, extensive sanitary and educational work, and strict control over compliance with safety regulations.

In scientific sanitary-hygienic and traumatological-orthopedic institutions, a broad study of the problems of industrial injuries, the development of new safety regulations corresponding to changes in the technical equipment of production, and new methods of combating industrial hazards are being carried out.

All causes of work-related injuries are conditionally divided into two main groups:

1) organizational;

2) technical.

The main organizational causes of industrial injuries include:

1) insufficient supervision of compliance with safety regulations; their violation;

2) non-use of various safety devices: goggles; gloves barrier bars;

3) negligence in the maintenance of jobs;

4) lack of necessary technical qualifications among workers and their incorrect placement;

5) insufficient sanitary-technical briefing of newly arriving workers; unsatisfactory sanitary working conditions.

Measures to eliminate the causes of industrial injuries include strict and constant supervision of the proper organization of labor and compliance with safety regulations both by the administration of the enterprise or workshop, and by the workers themselves. It should be borne in mind that for workers performing complex technical work, a mandatory technical minimum of knowledge has been introduced, which includes basic safety information. All newcomers to production must undergo sanitary-technical briefing.

Systematic advanced training of workers and their correct placement. It is very important to train each worker in the correct methods of work on his site and the inadmissibility of performing any additional or extraneous work for him.

Creation of favorable sanitary conditions for work:

1) sufficient lighting;

2) ventilation;

3) normal temperature, etc.

In addition to all of the above, in the prevention of injuries, constant monitoring of the state of health of workers and the removal of persons who are in a state of intoxication from work are essential.

Lecture No. 25. Investigation and analysis of industrial accidents (registration and accounting)

work injury is a sudden damage to the human body and loss of ability to work, caused by an accident at work. The repetition of accidents associated with production is called industrial injury. Accidents are divided into:

1) by the number of victims - into single and group;

2) by severity - light, severe, fatal;

3) depending on the circumstances - related to production, not related to production, but related to work, and accidents at home.

Accidents that occur on the territory of the enterprise and in places specifically stipulated in the regulation on the investigation of accidents at work must be investigated.

The head of the site where the accident occurred is obliged to:

1) organize measures of first aid to the victim and hospitalize him;

2) take measures to prevent a recurrence;

3) urgently report the accident to the head of the enterprise and the trade union committee;

4) within three days to investigate the accident together with the senior public inspector for labor protection and safety engineer;

5) draw up an accident report in the form of H-1 in two copies and send it to the head of the enterprise.

The act is approved by the head of the enterprise and certifies with the seal of the organization.

One copy of the act is given to the victim. The second copy is stored together with the materials of the investigation for 45 years in the organization at the main place of work (study, service) of the victim at the time of the accident.

On a group, fatal or severe case, the head is obliged to immediately inform the technical inspector of the trade union serving the enterprise, the higher economic body, the prosecutor's office at the location of the enterprise, Gosgortekhnadzor or Energonadzor for the objects under his control.

An accident is not recognized as related to production if it occurred to an employee during the manufacture of any items for personal purposes or theft of materials; as a result of intoxication, which is not the result of exposure to things used in production, etc.

For accidents related to production, the administration is responsible, and the victim is paid temporary disability benefits in the amount of average earnings at the expense of the enterprise.

One of the most important conditions for combating industrial injuries is a systematic analysis of the causes of its occurrence, which are divided into technical and organizational.

An analysis of the causes of accidents at work is carried out in order to develop measures for their provision and prevention.

Lecture number 26

1. When bleeding

There are arterial, venous and capillary bleeding. Blood from a gaping wound is poured out in a light red color rhythmically, in a pulsating stream during arterial bleeding, and a dark color in a continuous continuous stream during venous bleeding. Capillary bleeding - blood from damaged small vessels flows like a sponge.

When providing first aid, a temporary stop of bleeding is used.

Ways to temporarily stop bleeding

Stopping arterial bleeding should always begin with finger pressure on the artery. To do this, the pulsation of the artery is felt, which is pressed against the bone with a finger for a short time, necessary to apply a pressure bandage, tourniquet or twist. Bleeding from a wound located in the region of the shoulder girdle, shoulder and forearm is stopped by pressing the subclavian artery against the XNUMXst rib in the supraclavicular region, and the brachial artery against the humerus along the inner edge of the biceps muscle. In case of arterial bleeding from wounds of the lower limb, the femoral artery in the inguinal fold should be pressed against the pubic bone.

Elevation of the limb, wound tamponade, and a tight pressure bandage can help stop both profuse and most arterial bleeding.

Forced flexion of the limb with fixation in an excessively bent position squeezes the arterial vessel. This effect is enhanced if a tight cotton-gauze roller or any other object is placed on the elbow joint or knee joint and then the limb is firmly fixed in an excessively bent position with a trouser belt.

To stop bleeding from the subclavian region and the upper half of the shoulder, the roller is placed in the axillary region.

The arms, bent at the elbow joints, are brought behind the back and tightly fixed one to the other.

Twisting (tourniquet) is used only when simple and safe methods cannot stop the bleeding, and is used more often when bleeding from an amputated stump.

When applying a twist (tow), the following rules must be observed:

1) give the limbs an elevated position;

2) apply a tourniquet above the wound and as close to it as possible;

3) the tourniquet is superimposed on clothes or some kind of padding (shawl, scarf, towel);

4) stop bleeding with one or two rounds;

5) securely fasten the applied tourniquet;

6) it is unacceptable to stay a tourniquet on the limbs for more than 2 hours in summer and 1 hour in winter;

7) it is necessary to mark in a conspicuous place (forehead of the victim) the date and time of applying the tourniquet;

8) in winter, a limb with an applied tourniquet should be wrapped in clothes or a thick layer of cotton wool.

Victims with temporarily stopped bleeding should be urgently delivered to a surgical hospital in a horizontal position on a shield or stretcher.

2. For closed injuries

Closed injuries include:

1) bruises;

2) damage to ligaments and tendons;

3) dislocations.

Bruises - closed injuries of soft tissues without violating the integrity of the skin, which occur when struck with a blunt object, when falling on a hard surface.

First aid for traumatic bruises. In order to prevent hemorrhage, it is necessary to hold the cold at the site of the bruise, provide the affected organ with absolute rest and apply a pressure bandage. In case of bruises of the head, chest, abdomen, accompanied by severe pain and deterioration of the general condition, the victim must be urgently shown to the doctor.

Sprain or damage to the ligamentous apparatus of the joint occurs with sudden impulsive movements in the joint, significantly exceeding the limits of normal mobility in it, or may be the result of a direct blow to a tense tendon.

The most common injuries of the ligaments of the ankle, interphalangeal, wrist and knee joints, while the smoothness of the contours of the joint, limitation of function and pain in the projection of the damaged ligaments are determined.

First aid:

1) application of cold to the joint area;

2) immobilize the joint with a fixing 8-shaped bandage;

3) give painkillers to drink;

4) send to the emergency room.

The tendons most commonly injured are the extensor tendons of the fingers, the quadriceps femoris, and the calcaneal (Achilles) tendon. First aid consists in immobilizing the limb with improvised means in a position that ensures the convergence of the ends of the tendon.

Dislocation - this is a displacement of the articulated ends of the bones with damage to the joint capsule and ligamentous apparatus of the joint. With a dislocation, acute pain, joint deformity, limitation of active and passive movements, and a forced position of the limb appear.

Dislocations in large joints can be accompanied by significant damage to soft tissues, blood vessels and nerve trunks, which determines the urgent direction of the victim to the hospital. First aid for dislocation includes: application of cold, giving an elevated position to the injured limb, immobilization of the damaged joint with improvised means, the need to deliver the victim to a trauma center.

3. For fractures

Fracture (violation of the integrity of the bone) can be closed and open (with damage to the skin).

With a fracture, acute local pain is noted, which increases with the movement of the limb and the load on it along the axis, swelling and an increase in the circumference of the limb segment at the level of the fracture. Absolute signs of a fracture: deformation of the damaged segment and pathological bone mobility.

First aid consists in transport immobilization of the limb, most often with the help of splints made from improvised materials (boards, plywood strips, etc.).

Properly performed transport immobilization prevents an increase in the displacement of bone fragments and reduces pain during transportation of the victim, and hence the possibility of developing traumatic shock, especially with a hip fracture. In the absence of means for splinting, the upper limb can be hung on a scarf or fixed to the body, the lower limb can be bandaged to a healthy limb.

When providing first aid to patients with open fractures, it is necessary to lubricate the skin around the wound with an alcohol solution of iodine.

With an open fracture, it is absolutely unacceptable to reduce the bone fragments protruding to the surface into the wound or cover them with soft tissues, since together with them infectious agents can penetrate into the deep tissues. Several sterile napkins should be applied to the bone fragments protruding from the wound.

With an open fracture of the limb with heavy bleeding, it is necessary to apply a hemostatic tourniquet (twist) above the fracture, which is applied before immobilization. To stop bleeding, apply a pressure bandage to the wound area. Fix the limb and deliver the victim to a specialized hospital.

When providing first aid, one should not seek to correct the existing deformity of the limb.

General principles of immobilization for fractures.

In case of fractures of long tubular bones, at least two joints adjacent to the damaged limb segment must be fixed. It is often necessary to fix three joints. Immobilization will be reliable if fixation of all joints that function under the influence of the muscles of this limb segment is achieved. So, with a fracture of the humerus, the shoulder, elbow and wrist joints are fixed; in case of a fracture of the bones of the lower leg, it is necessary to fix the knee, ankle and all joints of the foot and fingers.

The limb should be fixed in an average physiological position, in which the flexor and extensor muscles are equally relaxed.

During splinting, care must be taken with the injured limb to avoid additional injury. It is advisable to apply a splint with an assistant who holds the limb in the desired position.

4. For wounds

Wounds can be very diverse depending on their origin, degree of tissue damage, microbial contamination, location, depth. Wounds can differ in the nature of the injuring weapon or object: cut, chopped wounds, stab wounds are the deepest and most dangerous; bruised wounds, bitten wounds - dangerous with the possibility of rabies.

With deep wounds, not only the skin with subcutaneous tissue is damaged, but also muscles, bones, nerves, tendons, ligaments, and sometimes large blood vessels. There may be penetrating wounds, accompanied by damage to internal organs. When injured, bleeding, pain, and almost always gaping, i.e., divergence of the edges of the wound, necessarily occur.

It should be remembered that all wounds are infected. In the first hours after the wound, the microbes are mostly still on the surface of such a fresh wound and in a static state, that is, they do not yet multiply and do not show their painful properties. This must be taken into account when providing first aid.

First aid for injury - protection of wounds from secondary pollution. The surrounding skin around the wound should be smeared twice with an alcoholic solution of iodine and a sterile dressing should be applied, avoiding touching the wound itself. Foreign bodies embedded in tissues should not be removed, as this may increase bleeding. Any washing of the wound is prohibited!

1. At scalped wounds the flap is often torn off to the side, with the subcutaneous tissue outward. In this case, it is urgent to lift the flap and also lubricate its skin surface with an alcohol solution of iodine. If the wound bleeds profusely, assistance begins with a temporary stop of bleeding - applying a pressure bandage to the wound, and in case of severe bleeding - applying a tourniquet. In severe wounds of the extremities, transport immobilization is necessary.

The victim must seek medical attention without fail. A patient with any wound must necessarily enter tetanus toxoid and toxoid.

2. In case of bite wounds inflicted by any animal, the victim, after first aid, is immediately sent to the emergency room, where the issue of the presence or absence of indications for prophylactic vaccination against rabies is decided.

3. In case of poisoned wounds (snake bites), one should: squeeze out the first drops of blood from the wound; suck out the poison by mouth for 15-20 minutes (it is safe if the oral mucosa is healthy and saliva is often spit out); lubricate the bite site with a solution of iodine or diamond; apply a bandage; to immobilize the limb; give the victim plenty to drink; transport the victim to the nearest medical facility. It is forbidden: to apply a tourniquet on the affected limb; cauterize the bite site; make incisions in the skin to remove the poison.

5. Drowning

Heating - filling the respiratory tract with liquid (usually water) or liquid masses (silt, mud), causing acute respiratory and cardiac impairment.

Drowning can be caused by fatigue when swimming long distances, injury - a bruise on stones or hard objects when diving, as well as alcohol intoxication. Fainting can occur with a sharp sudden change in temperature when immersed in water; after overheating in the sun; redistribution of blood due to the overflow of the stomach with food; with muscle strain; from fear during an accidental fall into the water.

The nature of assistance to the victim depends on the severity of his condition. If the victim is conscious, he needs to be calmed, take off his wet clothes, wipe his skin dry, change clothes; if consciousness is absent, but the pulse and breathing are preserved, the victim should be allowed to inhale ammonia, free the chest from tight clothing; to activate breathing, you can use the rhythmic twitching of the tongue.

In the absence of cardiac activity and respiration, the simplest methods of reviving the body are used. First of all, you need to remove the fluid from the respiratory tract. To this end, the caregiver puts the victim on his bent knee with his stomach, while the victim's head hangs down, and water can pour out of the upper respiratory tract and stomach. After removing the water, they immediately begin artificial respiration, after quickly cleaning the victim's mouth from sand, silt, and vomit.

The most effective methods of artificial respiration are mouth-to-mouth and mouth-to-nose. During artificial respiration, the victim is in a supine position with his head thrown back sharply. This position of the head contributes to the most complete opening of the entrance to the larynx. Breathing mouth to mouth and mouth to nose is best done through gauze or other thin fabric. While blowing air into the mouth, the nose is clamped; when blowing into the nose, the mouth of the victim should be closed and the lower jaw pushed forward. Simultaneously with artificial respiration, an external heart massage is performed, producing 3-4 pressures on the chest after each breath (blowing). Attempts to revive a drowned person by rocking on a sheet, blanket, etc. (pumping out) are pointless and should not take place.

In any condition of the victim, measures are taken to warm the body by rubbing, massaging the upper and lower extremities.

All this is carried out immediately after removing the drowned person from the water (on the shore, in a boat, on a raft) until the arrival of a doctor or delivery of the victim to the hospital, where he will be provided with qualified medical care.

6. With solar heat stroke

Heatstroke - a painful condition that occurs as a result of general overheating of the body with prolonged exposure to high ambient temperatures.

Heat stroke occurs because when overheating and excessive sweating, the body loses a large amount of fluid, the blood thickens, and the balance of salts in the body is disturbed. In severe conditions, this leads to oxygen starvation of tissues, in particular the brain.

Sunstroke occurs when direct sunlight hits an uncovered head. Usually, this causes overheating of the body and mainly affects the central nervous system.

The first signs of sunstroke:

1) lethargy;

2) weakness;

3) nausea;

4) headache;

5) dizziness;

6) darkening in the eyes;

7) the face turns red;

8) sometimes there is a slight increase in body temperature.

With further overheating, the body temperature rises to 38-40 ° C, vomiting appears, fainting may occur, and sometimes even convulsions. In severe cases, excitation, hallucinations, delirium, convulsions of the type of epileptic seizures, loss of consciousness, coma are observed. Pulse, respiration become more frequent, arterial pressure goes down.

Before the arrival of a doctor, the victim should be laid in the shade or in a well-ventilated area. Bubbles with ice or cold water are applied to the head, as well as to the area of large vessels (lateral surfaces of the neck, armpits, inguinal regions). The victim is wrapped in a wet sheet, blown with cold air, since the evaporation of water from it will slightly reduce the temperature. They bring cotton wool with ammonia to the nose. Thirst is quenched with cold water, tea, coffee. When breathing stops, artificial respiration is performed.

With moderate and severe sunstroke, the victim must be taken to a medical facility for medical assistance.

To avoid heat or sunstroke, you must follow the rules of being in the sun, the correct drinking regimen.

7. For burns, frostbite

First Aid thermal burns. It is necessary to carefully remove the smoldering remnants of clothing from the victim. It is impossible to tear off the remnants of clothing adhering to the burn surface, they must be cut with scissors along the border of the burn and a bandage applied directly to them.

I degree burns are treated with 70% alcohol. For burns of the II degree, after treatment with alcohol, apply a dry sterile dressing to the burned surface, for III-IV degrees, apply a sterile dressing. For extensive burns of any degree, the victim should be wrapped in a clean sheet, carefully wrapped in blankets and taken to a medical facility as soon as possible. When providing first aid, it is forbidden to open blisters, apply any lotions, rinses, ointment bandages.

To prevent shock, rest, warming and painkillers are used, drinking plenty of water in the form of a soda-salt solution (1 tsp of table salt and 1/2 tsp of baking soda per 1 liter of water). When transporting the burned, if possible, they are placed on an undamaged part of the body and carefully wrapped up and given as much warm drink as possible.

In case of burns of the respiratory tract from inhaled hot air (in case of fire) or smoke, shortness of breath, hoarseness, cough occurs. It is urgent to send the victim to the hospital, regardless of the severity of the skin burn.

Chemical burns most often occur when various chemicals come into contact with the skin or mucous membranes: strong acids, alkalis, volatile oils, phosphorus, as well as from prolonged exposure to gasoline or kerosene vapors.

First aid: immediate and abundant washing for 5-10 minutes of the affected area with water, preferably under pressure. In case of burns with lime or phosphorus, it is necessary to first remove the remnants of the substance in a dry way and only then proceed to washing. The affected area is washed with neutralizing solutions: for burns with acids or phosphorus - 2% solution of bicarbonate soda or soapy water, for burns with alkalis - 1-2% solution of citric, acetic or boric acid. Then a dry bandage is applied, and in case of burns with phosphorus, lotions are made from a 2-5% solution of copper sulfate or a 5% solution of potassium permanganate. For burns with phosphorus, oil dressings should not be used.

The victim with any kind of frostbite is placed in a warm room. The patient is given hot tea, coffee, wine.

The whitened part of the body is rubbed with cleanly washed, moistened or lubricated hands with sterile vaseline, and best of all with alcohol or vodka until the frostbitten place turns red and becomes warm.

You can not perform rubbing with snow, as it cools the skin. Dirty and sharp pieces of ice can damage and contaminate frostbitten skin. At the end of rubbing, dry the frostbitten area, wipe it with alcohol and apply a clean bandage with a thick layer of cotton wool on it.

You should not lubricate the frostbitten part of the body with iodine tincture or any fat, as this makes subsequent treatment difficult. If swelling has already set in or blisters have appeared, then rubbing can not be done.

8. In case of poisoning

Poisoning with household chemicals. After a strong acid or alkali enters the body, it is urgent to call an ambulance. Immediately remove saliva and mucus from the mouth. If there are signs of suffocation, apply mouth-to-nose artificial respiration. When vomiting, it is strictly forbidden to wash the stomach, as acid or alkali can enter the respiratory tract. This procedure can only be performed by a healthcare professional. The victim is given 2-3 glasses of water to drink. Never attempt to neutralize toxic liquids. This leads to the formation of carbon dioxide, distension of the stomach, increased pain and bleeding. With the development of suffocation, the victim should be urgently sent by any transport to a medical institution. In case of poisoning with household chemicals (not containing acid or alkali), before the doctor arrives, the patient should be vomited (if he is conscious). Patients in an unconscious state should be laid so that their head is lowered and turned to one side so that the contents of the stomach do not enter the respiratory way. In case of retraction of the tongue, convulsions, when the jaws are tightly closed, gently tilt the head back and push the lower jaw forward and upward to ensure breathing through the nose.

In case of poisoning with sleeping pills or sedatives (sedatives), the victim must be laid down with his head raised. Rinse the stomach with 1-2 liters of water, induce vomiting by pressing on the root of the tongue. Then give strong tea to drink, eat 100 g of black crackers. You can't give milk. It accelerates the entry of the poisoning drug into the intestines and prevents its removal from the body.

An unconscious patient is strictly forbidden to wash the stomach. Water can be inhaled and cause death by suffocation. If the victim is not breathing or his breathing is oppressed, it is necessary to perform artificial respiration.

In case of alcohol poisoning, the victim must inhale vapors of ammonia, give 3-4 glasses of water to drink (with the addition of 1 tsp of baking soda per glass), induce vomiting, drink strong tea or coffee.

In case of poisoning with methyl alcohol or ethylene glycol, it is necessary to give 100-150 ml of ethyl alcohol (vodka) to drink, if the victim is conscious, since it is an antidote, it slows down the decay of methyl alcohol.

In case of mushroom poisoning, immediately take the patient to the hospital. Before the arrival of the doctor, rinse the stomach with a soda solution or a solution of potassium permanganate, and the intestines - using laxatives (castor oil, bitter salt), make an enema. The patient is given salted water to drink.

In case of poisoning with inhaled chlorophos or karbofos, take the patient out into the air, remove contaminated clothing, and wash open areas of the body with water.

When swallowing a pesticide, gastric lavage is done 4-5 times: give 3-4 glasses of salted water to drink and induce vomiting. Then take a laxative - 1 tbsp. l. bitter salt. It is very good to take 5-6 tablets of besalol or becarbonate orally.

Lecture number 27. The combustion process and types of combustion

Combustion is a fast-flowing chemical process of oxidation or combination of a combustible substance and oxygen in the air, accompanied by the release of gas, heat and light.

Combustion is also known without oxygen in the air with the formation of heat and light. Thus, combustion is not only a chemical reaction of the compound, but also of decomposition.

Distinguish between actual combustion, explosion and detonation. During actual combustion, the flame propagation speed does not exceed tens of meters per second, during an explosion - hundreds of meters per second, and during detonation - thousands of meters per second.

Combustion occurs most rapidly in pure oxygen. As the oxygen concentration decreases, the combustion process slows down, the lowest combustion rate at an oxygen content in the air is 14-15%.

Combustion requires combustible materials, an oxidizing agent, and an ignition source.

In practice, a distinction is made between complete and incomplete combustion. Complete combustion is achieved with a sufficient amount of oxygen, and incomplete combustion is achieved with a lack of oxygen. During incomplete combustion, as a rule, caustic, toxic and explosive mixtures are formed.

The combustion process in practice is considered under the conditions of ignition of a combustible substance. Self-ignition (thermal explosion) occurs when a combustible substance is heated internally as a result of chemical processes. The fire hazard of combustible substances is characterized by the induction period, or the time delay of self-ignition. For combustion and ignition, the concentration of gases and vapors in the air is important. The combustion and ignition range is characterized by the lower and upper explosive limits. They are the most important characteristic of the explosiveness of combustible substances.

During the explosions of certain gases, vapors and mixtures, combustion passes into a special form - detonation.

The correct operation of electrical networks and appliances is important in fire protection.

Fire and Explosion Hazardous Objects (PVOO) - enterprises that produce, store, transport explosive products that, under certain conditions, acquire the ability to ignite or explode.

All building materials and structures made of them are divided into three groups:

1) fireproof - these are materials that, under the influence of fire or high temperature, do not ignite, do not smolder or char;

2) hardly combustible - these are materials that, under the influence of fire or high temperature, hardly ignite, smolder or char and continue to burn in the presence of a source of fire;

3) combustible - these are materials that, under the influence of fire or high temperature, ignite or smolder and continue to burn and smolder after the source of fire is removed.

Organization and management of fire safety at the enterprise

Fire safety - the state of the object, in which the possibility of a fire is excluded, and in the event of its occurrence, the impact on people of dangerous fire factors is prevented and the protection of material assets is ensured. Fire safety is ensured by a fire prevention system and a fire protection system. All office premises must have a Fire Escape Plan.

Fire protection - this is a set of organizational and technical measures aimed at ensuring the safety of people, preventing fire, limiting its spread, as well as creating conditions for successful fire extinguishing.

One of the most important tasks of fire protection is the protection of building premises from destruction and ensuring their sufficient strength under the influence of high temperatures during a fire.

Fire extinguishers designed to contain small fires include fire nozzles, internal fire water pipes, fire extinguishers, dry sand, asbestos blankets, etc.

In buildings, fire hydrants are installed in the corridors, on the landings of stairwells and entrances. Water is used to extinguish fires in the premises of libraries, ancillary and service premises.

Fire extinguishers are widely used to extinguish fires in the initial stages. According to the type of extinguishing agent used, fire extinguishers are divided into the following main groups.

Foam fire extinguishers are used to extinguish burning liquids, various materials, structural elements and equipment, except for energized electrical equipment. Gas fire extinguishers are used to extinguish liquid and solid substances, as well as electrical installations under voltage.

Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers are also used, the advantage of which is the high efficiency of fire extinguishing, the safety of electronic equipment.

Lecture No. 28. The responsibility of the employer for damage to the health of employees

The main measures to ensure safety at work are carried out by the administration of industrial and agricultural enterprises. Safety measures are developed by the labor protection service based on working conditions, existing technological processes and equipment, analysis of the causes of injuries and occupational diseases. The administration of the enterprise is obliged to ensure the proper technical equipment of all workplaces and create working conditions for them that comply with the rules for safety and industrial sanitation and ensure safe working conditions.

The administration is entrusted with instructing workers and employees on safety measures, as well as constant monitoring of compliance by employees with all the requirements of the labor protection instructions. To train workers in safe working methods, enterprises organize permanent safety rooms with modern educational and visual aids. Highly qualified specialists conduct classes with workers according to the safety program. During the briefing (introductory, repeated and at the workplace), safe working methods and techniques are shown. Workers should not be allowed to work without undergoing safety briefing.

Legislative documents on labor protection oblige the administration of enterprises and institutions to introduce modern safety measures that prevent occupational injuries, to achieve the creation of proper sanitary and hygienic conditions that prevent the occurrence of occupational diseases.

The labor legislation of the Russian Federation provides for a number of measures that are mandatory for all enterprises, institutions and organizations for labor protection and safety. Compliance with labor laws is mandatory for all officials. Those guilty of violating labor laws bear disciplinary, administrative or criminal liability. In the event of injury or other damage to health, the organization responsible for the harm caused is obliged to compensate the victim for the earnings lost by him due to loss of ability to work or its reduction, as well as expenses caused by damage to health (increased nutrition, prosthetics, inpatient treatment).

The heads of organizations whose activities are associated with increased danger to others (transport and construction organizations, industrial enterprises) are liable for damage caused by a source of increased danger, and are obliged to compensate for the damage, unless they prove that the damage was caused by force majeure or the intent of the victim.

Violation by an official of safety rules, industrial sanitation or other labor protection rules is criminally punishable if this violation could lead to accidents with people or other serious consequences.

If the same violations caused bodily injury or disability, then the perpetrators are punished with imprisonment for up to 3 years or corrective labor for up to 1 year. In even more severe cases, the perpetrators are punished with imprisonment for up to 5 years.

Lecture No. 29. Biosphere and man

Man is a product of the most complex evolutionary processes that have been going on for hundreds of millions of years. Being the pinnacle of the development of matter, modern man has developed as a biopsychosocial being, whose life activity can be characterized by biological, mental and social indicators. Biological ones are expressed in various functions of the human body, its direct connections with the environment, without which it simply cannot exist physically. The mental world is understood as the spiritual world of a person and its manifestations, and the social is the "embedded" of a person in the established relationships in a team, in a community of people.

From the standpoint of ecology, humanity is a global population of a biological species, an integral part of the Earth's biosphere, in which it arose and developed. A person enters the biotic component of the biosphere, where he is connected by food chains with producers, is a consumer of the first and second (sometimes of the third order), heterotrophic, uses ready-made organic matter and biogenic elements, is included in the cycle of substances in the biosphere and obeys the law of physical and chemical unity of matter B I. Vernadsky - living matter is physically and chemically one.

The biosphere is divided into three sub-spheres as places of modern habitat of organisms together with the organisms themselves:

1) geobiosphere - the upper part of the lithosphere inhabited by geobionts;

2) hydrobiosphere - hydrosphere without groundwater, inhabited by hydrobionts;

3) aerobiosphere - the lower part of the atmosphere inhabited by aerobionts.

V. I. Vernadsky considered the biosphere as an area of life, including, along with organisms, their habitat. The formation of the biosphere took place over billions of years.

In order to ensure biological life and existence, a person absolutely needs a continuous supply of atmospheric oxygen, drinking water, and food. A reflection of the biological nature of a person (as well as all living things) is the desire to preserve one's life by all available means, including through the use of natural factors, to continue it through reproduction, to ensure maximum life safety. As you know, the term "biosphere" was first proposed E. Leroy в 1927 g. and P. Teilhard de Chardin в 1930 g. In 1944 V. I. Vernadsky developed ideas about the transition of the biosphere to the noosphere, i.e., to such a state of it, when the development of the biosphere will be controlled by the human mind.

With the development of scientific and technological progress, anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere have acquired a global scale, especially in the second half of the XNUMXth century, and in many aspects they are negative and even destructive. At international conferences held under the auspices of the UN, scientists have repeatedly warned of an impending environmental catastrophe, a threat to the safe life of mankind as a whole, on a planetary scale.

Lecture No. 30

1. If you thought you were lost in the woods

If you thought you were lost in the woodsstop immediately and don't panic, don't waste your energy.

Try to calm down and remember the last sign on the familiar part of the path, mentally trace the road to it. Try to concentrate, strain your hearing and identify the noise of a familiar landmark.

Along the way, look for paths that could lead you to some kind of accommodation.

If you get lost at night, then follow the stars. You can find out where the north is by finding the North Star in the sky.

It is indicated by the last two stars of the Ursa Major bucket, no matter which way its handle is turned.

To kindle a fire, you need:

1) find dry material;

2) prepare a place for a fire;

3) surround it on three sides with stones or thick branches, leaving the leeward side open;

4) prepare more firewood;

5) set fire to kindling;

6) fan the fire;

7) gradually add branches and branches to it.

In order for the fire to burn as long as possible, it is necessary to reduce the air flow by surrounding the fire on all sides with stones or earth.

Purification of drinking water. Dirty water must be filtered through any dense cloth:

1) put sand, crushed charcoal and small stones on the fabric;

2) make a hole from the bottom;

3) pass water through the filter made.

2. Rules of conduct near water bodies

If you are in a swamp:

1) you need to find a long pole with which you should feel the road in front of you;

2) choose higher places overgrown with shrubs;

3) step on those bumps on which heather grows;

4) move as slowly and easily as possible.

If you are in a swamp:

1) Throw away all heavy items, drop your backpack to lighten your weight;

2) place a pole or stick under your feet;

3) move smoothly and slowly, without making jerky movements;

4) feeling that you are being sucked in, immediately lie down flat on the bumps and wait for someone to throw a rope or stretch out the end of the pole.

Swimming in stormy weather is not recommended.. But if you do find yourself in the water, try to get back to land as quickly as possible. Do not waste your strength and do not fight the waves, let them carry you to the shore.

To move forward, use the technique "sliding on the waves". It consists of the following:

1) watch over the shoulder for the approach of the next wave;

2) when she picks you up, tighten your whole body, raise your head, pushing your chin forward and stretching your arms in front of you, or press them to your body under you;

3) having reached the shore in this way, go out to it only after the crest of the wave leaves from under you;

4) once on land, immediately grab onto something so that the next wave does not drag you back into the sea.

If you are entangled in algae:

1) push off sharply with both feet;

2) try to free yourself;

3) alternately rub one foot with the other, rolling algae off them;

4) do not dive, otherwise the algae may envelop the neck.

Lecture No. 31. Atmosphere. Consequences of pollution

The main air pollutants are industrial enterprises (especially metallurgical, chemical plants), as well as thermal power plants, transport of all types (especially automobile - heavy-duty, diesel-fuelled). Most of the emissions into the atmosphere are carbon dioxide (CO₂). Currently, about 1 ton of carbon per person per year enters the atmosphere from thermal power generation alone; According to the forecasts of environmental specialists, in the first half of the 10st century, the total volume of emissions of this gas will reach XNUMX billion tons. The main anthropogenic source of CO is₂ into the atmosphere is the combustion of carbonaceous fuels (coal, oil, fuel oil, methane, propane, etc.). In addition to carbon dioxide, a significant amount of sulfur and nitrogen oxides enters the atmosphere with emissions from various enterprises, and their total amount, on a planetary scale, reaches more than 250 million tons.

When sulfur and nitrogen oxides interact with atmospheric moisture, nitric and sulfuric acids are formed, which leads to acid rain (pH 5,0). Ecologists have found that when acid rain falls in soils, the solubility of minerals increases sharply, in particular, aluminum is released from them, which is poisonous in free form. Further, with acid rain, other heavy metal compounds, nitrates, are formed.

In dry and calm weather, with significant air pollution by various emissions from enterprises and vehicles in large cities, smog is formed. Smog causes exacerbation of respiratory diseases, eye irritation, deterioration of physical condition due to general poisoning of the body with carcinogens in the air. At the same time, in some cases, due to smog poisoning, a fatal outcome is observed. For example, in 1995 g. In London, more than 4000 people died from smog in two weeks. In Russia, smog occurs in Moscow, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, Novosibirsk, Kemerovo and other large industrial centers. According to environmental specialists, 70% of the Russian population (more than 100 million people) live in an area with a polluted atmosphere of 5-10 MPCs of highly toxic substances. Air pollutants of various types also lead to the greenhouse effect.

The gases released into the atmosphere (CO₂, SO₂, I have not₂, CH₄ and etc.). Called greenhouse, they act like glass in a greenhouse: they freely pass solar radiation to the Earth, but delay thermal radiation from the earth's surface. As a result, its surface temperature rises, weather and climate change. The greenhouse effect is understood as a constant increase in the global temperature of the planet as a result of changes in the heat balance due to the gradual accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. As a result of this effect, desertification of lands occurs, the repetition of droughts in many regions of the Earth becomes more frequent. The greenhouse effect in some cases leads to the provocation of heat stroke in humans.

Lecture No. 32. Protection of water bodies. Consequences of pollution

Water is very important for humans and other organisms living on Earth, as it ensures the flow of metabolism in organisms and their normal functioning in general. The average water content in the cells of most living organisms is about 70%. Water in the body's cell is present in two forms: free (95% of all cell water) and bound (4-5% bound to proteins). Water is the only mineral that, under terrestrial conditions, is found in all three phase states - solid, liquid and gaseous. The total volume of water on Earth is estimated at 1,8 billion km³. Moreover, the seas and oceans account for about 10%, about 5% of the water is in the earth's crust and about 15% - in lakes, rivers, swamps and glaciers. The importance of water, especially fresh and drinking, for the normal life of mankind is very high. It is necessary both for domestic needs and for agricultural production.

Water pollution occurs in two ways - firstly, when acid rain falls, and secondly, when industrial and domestic wastewater is discharged into water bodies. The impact of acid precipitation on aquatic ecosystems is very diverse.

Once in water sources, they increase the acidity and hardness of water. When industrial effluents are discharged into water bodies, water is polluted with various chemical compounds, including salts of heavy metals - lead, zinc, copper, etc.

When household wastewater is discharged into water bodies, water is polluted both by chemical compounds from the use of synthetic detergents and by various pathogens in fecal matter.

As studies by environmentalists show, modern methods of water purification for drinking needs do not provide a 100% guarantee of the required quality. This is how they explain the massive spread of various diseases, primarily of the gastrointestinal tract, followed by cardiovascular and oncological diseases.

Pollution of water in various reservoirs also occurs as a result of washing off from the fields by rains of various chemicals - fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides. Recently, water pollution - surface, ground and underground - has taken on a global scale.

To ensure the safety of the life of the population when using tap water, it is necessary to constantly use effective water purification filters of the type.

1. Composition and calculation of wastewater discharges into water bodies

When organizing the economic activity of an enterprise that uses water in production and then discharges wastewater, an environmental impact assessment is carried out. Based on the environmental impact assessment data, the composition of wastewater is determined and a calculation is made of their release into water bodies or sewage systems, based on the requirements of GOST 17.1.1.01-77. This GOST regulates the maximum allowable discharge - the entry of substances in the wastewater of the enterprise into the water body. In accordance with paragraph 39, the maximum allowable discharge (MPD) of a pollutant into a water body is understood as the mass of this substance in wastewater, the maximum allowable for the discharge of a water body at a given point in a unit of time in order to ensure water quality standards at the control point. MPD (g/day, tons/year) is set by the Sanitary and Epidemiological Service, taking into account the MPC of pollutants in places of water use. When discharging several substances with the same limiting indicators of harmfulness, the MPD is set so that, taking into account impurities entering the reservoir from upstream outlets, the sum of the ratios of the concentration of each substance (Сst₁...Sst_n), mg/l, in the water body to the corresponding MPC did not exceed one:

Cst₁ / MPC₁ + Cst₂ / MPC₂ +... + Sst_n / MPC_n 1.

The initial data for the development of MPD standards are the characteristics of wastewater and the wastewater receiver, background concentrations of pollutants and the category of water use.

At present, only 15-20% of polluting industries in Russia operate on MPD standards, and 40-50% at the Air Force - temporarily agreed discharges (effluents) of harmful substances, and the rest carry out wastewater discharges based on limit discharges, which are determined according to actual data on a certain period of time.

Currently, there are more than 1900 MPCs for hazardous chemicals for wastewater in Russia.

As a rule, MPC is established on the basis of complex studies. When determining it, the degree of influence of pollutants not only on human health, but also on animals, plants, microorganisms, as well as on natural communities as a whole, is taken into account. The content of harmful pollutants in wastewater is subject to constant environmental monitoring.

In case of exceeding the MPC or "volley" discharges of untreated wastewater, fines are imposed on violators in an unaccented manner.

In case of repeated violations of wastewater discharges with significant excess of MPC, environmental control authorities may take punitive measures, for example, restriction, suspension or complete cessation of any production (workshop, plant, etc.). Environmental control bodies operate on the basis of legislative acts of the Russian Federation.

2. Means of protecting the hydrosphere

В 1995 g. A law was adopted, developed by environmentalists of the Russian Federation, which regulates legal relations in the field of the use and protection of water bodies. The law aims to protect water from pollution, clogging and depletion. The development of this law was due to a number of reasons, one of which is the increase in the volume of wastewater, point and area sources of pollution of the components of the hydrosphere (surface and groundwater), leading to a qualitative depletion of fresh water.

The means of protecting the components of the hydrosphere primarily include a set of water protection measures, including treatment facilities with a cascade of settling tanks and highly efficient filters. In addition, at present, special forest plantations are increasingly being used to intercept and subsequently purify water (under natural conditions) coming from certain areas - from fields, roads, settlements. For these purposes, highly productive, with thick forest litter and multi-tiered (with shrubs) coniferous-deciduous forest plantations are most acceptable. Such plantations are able to accumulate, purify, and then transfer huge masses of water into underground runoff. Artificial forest plantations along the banks of rivers and reservoirs prevent soil erosion after rains or during spring floods, protecting the components of the hydrosphere from pollution.

Similar artificial afforestation is carried out near springs, sources of small rivers. At the same time, any economic activity of people, the population in such forest plantations is prohibited, as well as in the presence of natural, natural forests.

Over the past 50-60 years, wars have caused great harm to nature, starting with World War II, ending with local wars in different parts of the Earth (in the 1950s, the war in Korea, in the 1960s, the Vietnam War with the use of chemical and bacteriological weapons by the United States) .

The protection of the components of the hydrosphere - reservoirs of all kinds - directly depends on the state of air pollution. As you know, acid rain falls not only over fields and forests, but also over water bodies, and in dry weather, industrial dust from emissions from industrial enterprises (containing pollutants) also settles on the surface of water bodies.

Based on the interconnectedness of atmospheric air pollution and components of the hydrosphere in Russia in 2002 g. was developed and adopted Law of the Russian Federation "On Environmental Protection".

This law provides for a set of measures to protect the hydrosphere with the introduction of the latest technologies and equipment for wastewater treatment. From the budgets of all levels, the necessary financial resources are allocated for these activities. Water use has a closed cycle (without discharges into water bodies).

Lecture No. 33. Soil. Consequence of soil pollution

Soil is an important component of the biosphere, an integral part of any terrestrial biogeocenosis. At the same time, it performs a number of ecological functions, including global biospheric ones, which ensure the stability of the biosphere and the very possibility of the existence of life on Earth.

The soil cover, being an integral component of the biosphere, performs a number of biospheric functions:

1) it is a habitat - an accumulator and a source of matter and energy for land organisms;

2) conjugation of large geological and small biological cycles of substances on the earth's surface;

3) regulation of the chemical composition of the atmosphere and hydrosphere;

4) protective barrier of the biosphere;

5) ensuring the existence of life on Earth.

In addition to ecological functions, in relation directly to a person, the soil performs another function - agricultural. Soil fertility is adversely affected by pollution with various substances. Pollution and chemical poisoning of soils are of several types:

1) industrial soil pollution - the result of deposition of vapors, aerosols, dust and dissolved compounds of pollutants on the soil surface with precipitation;

2) agricultural soil pollution - the result of improper use of pesticides, the introduction of excess doses of mineral and organic fertilizers, waste and runoff from livestock farms;

3) radioactive contamination of soils - natural or anthropogenic accumulation of radionuclides in the soil as a result of nuclear explosions, accidental releases at nuclear enterprises, leaks of radioactive materials, disposal of waste from the nuclear industry.

Significant soil pollution occurs when acid rain falls.

The direct intake of harmful substances through the soil into the human body is small, it is limited to a few cases of direct contact with it (children playing in sandboxes or on the ground, eating unwashed vegetables, etc.). Harmful chemicals that enter the soil enter the human body mainly through the media in contact with the soil: water (migratory water hazard indicator), air (migratory air hazard indicator) and plants (translakation hazard indicator).

The degree of soil contamination of agricultural land is assessed by the translocation indicator of harmfulness, which most reflects the level of possible accumulation of toxicants in food products. With excessive application of nitrogen fertilizers to the soil, nitrates accumulate in vegetables and other agricultural products, which leads to food poisoning.

Lecture No. 34. Protecting the environment from energy impacts

As a result of the scientific and technological revolution, processes and devices, which are sources of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), have become widespread, which has now turned into a "raging ocean" of EMR, many times greater than the natural background created by the radiation of the Sun. Electromagnetic radiation of artificial origin, together with natural solar radiation, has a significant impact on human health, as well as on all living things in the biosphere. Electromagnetic radiation produces a biological effect on the functioning of the body as a whole, as well as on its individual systems - immune, endocrine, hematopoietic, and so on, as well as on the sense organs - eyes, ears, leading to various disorders and damage. Researchers have established the negative impact of electromagnetic radiation from high-voltage power lines on people living near these lines.

And to protect against such energy impacts, they propose the creation of a buffer zone of dense, dense forest plantations, including tall trees such as cypress and pyramidal poplar, between EMP sources and residential buildings. In addition, residential buildings and EMP sources must have a ground loop. Such radiation is created by television and radio centers (their transmitting devices), radars (airports, air defense systems).

Refrigerators, televisions, computers, radios, VCRs, vacuum cleaners, microwave ovens, etc. are considered to be sources of electromagnetic radiation directly in a residential or industrial premises that have a negative effect on the body. Experts consider them comparable in terms of the strength of the impact of some home electromagnetic fields on the human body. with electromagnetic radiation from power lines. The negative effects of computers on people's health during long-term work, manifested in the form of depression, stress, headaches, insomnia, skin irritation, eye fatigue, have been noted.

The variable electromagnetic field of monitors is a powerful source of alternating electromagnetic and electric fields of high and low frequencies.

According to the statistics of the studies conducted, high-intensity electric fields increase the likelihood of cancer by 7 times, and also contribute to a change in the structure of dental fillings, which leads to their destruction and the release of toxic substances. To protect against the above effects, it is necessary to use filters of the "maximum protection" class (type "MAX-MP-196"). In addition, ecologists recommend placing indoor ornamental plants and flowers in rooms where various electrical equipment, including computers, works. It is also mandatory to connect electrical appliances (including computers) to the ground loop of residential and industrial buildings.

Lecture No. 35. Ecological crisis, its demographic and social consequences

Ecological crisis (environmental emergency) - environmental trouble, characterized by sustainable negative changes in the environment and posing a threat to human health. This is a tense state of relations between humanity and nature, due to the discrepancy between the size of human production and economic activity and the resource and environmental capabilities of the biosphere. The ecological crisis is characterized not so much by the increased impact of man on nature as by a sharp increase in the influence of nature changed by people on social development.

Ecological crisis (according to I. I. Dedy) - a situation that occurs in ecological systems (biogeocenoses) as a result of imbalance under the influence of natural disasters or as a result of anthropogenic factors (human pollution of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, pedosphere - soil cover, destruction of natural ecosystems, natural complexes, forest fires, regulation of rivers, deforestation, etc.). In a broader sense, the ecological crisis is a critical phase in the development of the biosphere, during which a qualitative renewal of living matter takes place (the extinction of some species and the emergence of others). The modern ecological crisis is a "crisis of decomposers" (according to many scientists), since natural decomposers no longer have time to purify the biosphere from anthropogenic waste or are potentially unable to do this due to the alien nature of the emitted synthetic substances - xenobiotics, the biosphere has lost the ability to self-repair.

The first anthropogenic environmental crisis caused the great migration of peoples. The transition to agriculture and cattle breeding was accompanied by the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of the slave system, which was accompanied by the desertification of fertile lands in the Sahara, Central Asia and other places, the depletion of land resources and the transition to a feudal system. The modern environmental crisis is also anthropogenic in nature and has a global scale, and changes in the natural environment have boomeranged back to their root cause - man. They began to negatively affect various aspects of public life and cause all sorts of social conflicts. This is, firstly, a decrease in the birth rate in economically developed countries, and secondly, increased migration from environmentally unfavorable areas both within countries and from states, in particular from Asia and Africa to Western Europe and America. The environmental crisis was also the reason for the organization of the green movement - Greenpeace (Green World) and even the Green Party.

The negative social consequences of the environmental crisis include: the growing shortage of food in the world:

1) an increase in the incidence of the population in cities;

2) the emergence of new diseases;

3) environmental aggression - the export of toxic technological processes and waste to other countries, etc.

Lecture No. 36. Fundamentals of the harmonious coexistence of society and nature

The interaction of society and nature is subject to certain laws. Russian scientists Yu. N. Kuratkovsky (1989) the most important of them are highlighted:

1) human activity smooths out interzonal and interregional differences in the living cover of the Earth and enhances local differences;

2) exposes all elements of the biospheric nature to spontaneous and partial cultivation;

3) humanity exists in the biosphere as a superspecies that changes its entire closed environment in such a way that it becomes unsuitable for its existence;

4) the superspecific properties of mankind created by reason and technical equipment allow it to impart the properties of an ecological system to its environment, to ensure the stable existence of life;

5) humanity can preserve the possibility of a favorable existence only in the conditions of a planetary system of nature management built on ecological principles.

The World Charter for Nature, approved by the UN General Assembly in 1982, calls for the harmonious coexistence of human society and nature. This charter proclaimed a number of fundamental provisions for all mankind:

1) humanity is aware that it is an integral part of nature. Therefore, nature should be treated with respect and not violate its basic principles;

2) the genetic basis of life on Earth should not be endangered. The position of every form of life, wild or domesticated, must be maintained; the necessary habitat for this should be preserved;

3) all regions of the Earth, both on land and on the seas, should be subject to protection in accordance with these requirements, special protection should be provided to unique areas - typical representatives of all types of ecosystems and habitats of rare or endangered species;

4) natural resources should not be wasted, but used sparingly.

In 1992, the UN International Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro adopted recommendations on the transition of mankind to sustainable development for the harmonious coexistence of society and nature. The same conference pointed out the need to solve three strategic tasks facing the world community for this:

1) limiting the growth of production and consumption in the industrialized countries of the world, which are both the main consumers of natural resources and pollutants of the environment;

2) reasonable limitation of population growth, especially in the developed countries of Asia and Africa;

3) prevention of deepening inequality between rich and poor countries and regions.

United Nations Special Body on the Environment - UNEP - implements a long-term environmental protection program, for the financing of which The UN General Assembly created the Environment Fund. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) promotes cooperation between governments, national and international organizations, and individuals on the protection of nature and the conservation of natural resources. IUCN has prepared an International The Red Book (10 volumes).

Thus, the conclusion follows that without the harmonious coexistence of society and nature, sustainable development of mankind is impossible both on a global scale and locally.

Lecture No. 37. State policy of environmental protection

Currently, to protect the habitat in each country, environmental legislation is being developed, in which there is a section of international law and legal protection of nature within the state, containing the legal basis for the conservation of natural resources and the environment for the existence of life.

United Nations (UN) in the Declaration of the Conference on Environment and Development (1992) legally fixed two basic principles of the legal approach to nature protection:

1) States should introduce effective legislation in the field of environmental protection. The norms related to environmental protection, the tasks and priorities put forward should reflect the real situation in the areas of environmental protection and development, in which they will be implemented;

2) the state should develop national legislation regarding liability for environmental pollution and other environmental damage and compensation for those who suffer from this.

In various historical periods of the development of our country, the system of environmental management, control and supervision has always depended on the form of organization of environmental protection. When issues of environmental protection were solved through the rational use of natural resources, management and control were carried out by many organizations. In the 1970s-1980s. in the USSR, 18 different ministries and departments dealt with the management and protection of the natural environment. There was no common coordinating body that would unite environmental activities. Such a system of management and control gave rise to a criminal attitude towards nature, primarily on the part of the ministries and departments themselves, as well as large enterprises subordinate to them, which were the main polluters and destroyers of the natural environment.

С 1991 g. The Russian Committee for Nature Protection was abolished and replaced by the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources. It included the environmental services of Hydromet, forestry, water resources, protection and use of subsoil, and fisheries transformed into committees. On the basis of six reorganized ministries and departments, a natural resource block was created, uniting the entire environmental protection service in a single center. This block turned out to be unmanageable, and the year-long practice of its functioning showed that it was not capable of solving the assigned tasks. The solution of environmental problems at the present stage should be implemented both in the activities of special state bodies and the whole society. The purpose of such activities is the rational use of natural resources, the elimination of environmental pollution, environmental education and education of the entire public of the country. The legal protection of the natural environment consists in the creation, justification and application of normative acts that define both the objects of protection and measures to ensure it. These measures form an environmental law that implements the relationship between nature and society.

1. Environmental legislation

Environmental protection and rational use of natural resources is a complex and multifaceted problem. Its solution involves regulating the relationship between man and nature, subordinating them to a certain system of laws, instructions and rules. In Russia, such a system is established by law.

The legal basis for environmental protection in the country is the Federal Law of March 30, 1999 D52-FZ "On the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population", in accordance with which sanitary legislation was introduced, including this law and regulations that establish safety criteria for a person, environmental factors and the requirement to ensure favorable conditions for his life. The requirement of environmental protection is fixed in Fundamentals of the legislation of the Russian Federation on the protection of the health of citizens (1993) and Law of the Russian Federation "On Protection of Consumer Rights" (1992).

The most important legislative act aimed at ensuring environmental safety is the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection" (2002) The law fixes the right of citizens of the Russian Federation to a favorable living environment. The most important section of the Law "Economic regulation in the field of environmental protection" establishes the principle of payment for the use of natural resources. The law establishes the principles of standardization of the quality of the natural environment, the procedure for conducting state environmental expertise, environmental requirements for the location, design, reconstruction, commissioning and operation of enterprises. Separate sections of the law are devoted to emergency environmental situations; specially protected territories and objects; principles of environmental control; environmental education; education and research; resolution of disputes in the field of environmental protection; liability for environmental offenses; order of compensation for the harm caused.

Of the other legislative acts in the field of environmental protection, it should be noted:

1) Water Code of the Russian Federation;

2) Land Code of the Russian Federation;

3) Federal Law "On the Protection of Atmospheric Air" (1999);

4) Federal Law "On Ecological Expertise";

5) Law of the Russian Federation "On the use of atomic energy";

6) Federal Law "On Production and Consumption Waste".

Regulatory legal acts on environmental protection include sanitary norms and rules of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, which ensure the necessary quality of natural resources (air, water, soil).

The main type of normative-legal acts on environmental protection is the system of standards "Nature Protection".

The Law of the Russian Federation "On the Protection of Consumer Rights" gives the consumer the right to demand that goods be safe for his life. It also gives the authorities the right to suspend the sale of goods if there is a threat to the health of citizens or the state of the environment. The laws on local self-government, taxation of legal entities reflect various benefits for reducing emissions, using clean technologies, etc.

2. Legal support of environmental control

The key environmental law in Russia is the Federal Law of January 10, 2002 D7-FZ "On Environmental Protection", March 3, 1992. Its 15 sections reflect the main issues of human interaction with nature on the territory of the Russian Federation.

Tasks, principles and main objects of environmental protection are formulated in Section I of the Law. For the first time, the priority of protecting human life and health, providing favorable conditions for life, work and recreation of the population in the implementation of any activity that affects nature has been clearly expressed. According to this section of the Law, the objects of protection are natural ecological systems, the ozone layer of the atmosphere, as well as the Earth, its subsoil, surface and groundwater, atmospheric air, forests and other vegetation, wildlife, microorganisms, genetic fund, natural landscapes. Reserves, national natural parks, natural monuments, rare plants and animals are subject to special protection. The right of citizens to a healthy and favorable environment is enshrined in Section II of the Law. Every citizen of Russia has the right to health protection from the adverse effects of the natural environment, which is ensured by planning and state control of environmental quality, insurance of citizens, compensation for damage to health caused by environmental pollution or other harmful effects.

The economic mechanism of environmental protection (section III) is the main one in the Law of the Russian Federation "On Environmental Protection". It reveals the principles of payment for nature use and environmental pollution.

Art. 18, which establishes that any user of natural resources is obliged to conclude an agreement with the executive authority for the proposed economic or other activity. The contract is concluded on the basis of environmental expertise and a license (permit) for integrated environmental management.

Regulation of the quality of the environment and the procedure for state environmental expertise, established in Sections IV and V of the Law, make it possible to ensure the state's impact on users of natural resources. The levels of maximum permissible environmental impacts for all types must be approved by specially authorized bodies of the Russian Federation in the field of environmental protection and sanitary and epidemiological supervision.

Requirements for enterprises, structures and other objects are formulated in Sections VI-VII of the Law. They are obligatory both during the placement, design, construction, reconstruction, commissioning, and during the operation of facilities.

The procedure for actions in emergency environmental situations and in specially protected natural areas is legalized in Sections VIII - IX.

Environmental control according to the Law (section X) is systemic and consists of state, industrial and public.

Responsibility for environmental violations is divided into disciplinary, administrative, material and criminal - for individuals and legal entities; administrative and civil law - for institutions, enterprises and organizations.

3. Bodies of management, control and supervision for nature protection, their functions

The UN has specialized international organizations for environmental protection. The UN has developed and adopted special principles for the protection of the human environment.

In 1992, in Rio de Janeiro, at the UN Conference on Environment and Development, five key documents:

1) Declaration on Environment and Development;

2) Agenda for the XNUMXst century;

3) Convention on Biological Diversity;

4) Convention on climate change;

5) Statement of principles for the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests.

An extremely important role in the implementation of the fundamentals of environmental legislation is played by the bodies of management, control and supervision in the field of environmental protection of Russia.

The current structure of environmental protection management bodies provides for two categories: bodies a common и special competence.

The state bodies of general competence include:

1) President;

2) the Federal Assembly;

3) State Duma;

4) Government;

5) representative and executive authorities of the subjects of the Federation;

6) municipal authorities.

State bodies of special competence include those that perform environmental functions.

Legal aspects of nature protection include the following legal documents:

1) the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993);

2) laws and other normative acts of the Russian Federation and subjects of the Russian Federation in the field of nature management and environmental protection;

3) decrees and orders of the President of the Russian Federation and resolutions of the Government of the Russian Federation;

4) normative acts of ministries and departments;

5) regulatory decisions of local governments.

The main directions of Russian environmental policy are as follows:

1) consistent solution of the problems of development of the economic complex of the state, in which the environmental and natural-geographical conditions of specific territories are fully taken into account to ensure the well-being of the peoples inhabiting these territories;

2) consistent achievement in each specific territory of the proper quality of the environment that meets the currently accepted sanitary and hygienic standards, but also in the system of its assessment that would take into account the genetic health of the population;

3) restoration and preservation of biospheric balance (at the local, regional and global levels);

4) rational use of the entire natural resource potential of Russia.

Lecture No. 38

In the Soviet Union, the foundation of civil defense - until 1961 it was called the local air defense (MPVO) - began to be laid in the very first years of the establishment of Soviet power. The first MPVO measures were carried out in Petrograd in March 1918 after the first aerial bombardment of the city by German aircraft. During the years of the Civil War, residents of a number of other large cities were involved in the activities of the MPVO when there was a threat of air raids.

The Soviet government, beginning in 1925, issued a number of decrees aimed at creating and strengthening the country's air defense. By the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, a lot of work had been done to prepare the population and cities of the threatened border zone for air defense and chemical protection.

Civil Defense (GO) - a system of measures to prepare and protect the population, material and cultural values on the territory of the Russian Federation from the dangers arising from the conduct of hostilities or as a result of these actions (Law of the Russian Federation of February 12, 1998 No. 28-FZ "On civil defense"). The civil defense of Russia is an integral part of the general system of state defense measures carried out in peacetime and wartime. The activities of civil defense are aimed both at protecting against modern means of attack by the enemy, and at carrying out rescue and urgent emergency recovery work at facilities and in the centers of destruction in emergency situations of peacetime and wartime. The main tasks facing civil defense can be formulated as follows:

1) teaching the population how to protect themselves from the dangers arising from the conduct of hostilities or as a result of these actions;

2) notification of the population about the dangers arising from the conduct of hostilities or as a result of these actions;

3) evacuation of the population, material and cultural values to safe areas;

4) provision of shelters and personal protective equipment to the population;

5) carrying out activities for light and other types of camouflage;

6) fighting fires arising during the conduct of military operations or as a result of these operations;

7) restoration and maintenance of order in areas affected by the conduct of hostilities, urgent restoration of the functioning of the necessary public services in wartime;

8) development and implementation of measures aimed at preserving objects that are essential for the sustainable functioning of the economy and the survival of the population in wartime.

At each facility, a regulation on civil defense should be developed, in which the tasks of the civil defense of the object are indicated.

An important task of the civil defense headquarters is the training and preparation of personnel for actions in emergency situations. The learning process is multilevel. It includes an introductory briefing, familiarization with the characteristics and methods of handling individual and collective protective equipment, conducting drills, etc.

Lecture No. 39. Organization of civil defense at an industrial facility

Civil defense at an industrial facility (hereinafter - at the facility) is organized to protect the personnel of the facility and the population living near it from natural, man-made and military emergencies.

The main tasks of civil defense at the facility are:

1) protection of the personnel of the facility and the population from emergencies;

2) increasing the stability of the operation of the facility in emergency situations;

3) carrying out emergency rescue and other urgent work in the foci of damage and areas of catastrophic flooding.

Organizational activities provide for the development and planning of actions for the management, command and command staff of the department for civil emergency situations, services and formations of civil defense to protect the personnel of the facility, conduct rescue and other urgent work.

Engineering and technical measures of civil defense - this is a set of measures carried out by engineering methods and means and aimed at preventing or reducing possible losses and destruction, increasing the stability of the facility in emergency situations.

Economic activities provide for such an approach to the implementation of the entire range of works that would ensure their efficiency with minimal capital costs.

Environmental activities represent a continuation of the complex of works in this area, which should be carried out by each facility in order to minimize the harmful effects of the products of the technological cycle on the environment.

The civil defense system of the facility is responsible for organizing the protection of the facility personnel and the population from emergencies.

Head of civil defense facility is its leader. He is subordinate to the department, and operationally to the head of the civil defense of the city in whose territory the object is located.

At large industrial facilities, as a rule, there is a full-time deputy head of civil defense, which in peacetime is the main organizer of all preparatory activities for civil defense.

Deputy Chief of Civil Defense for the dispersal and evacuation of personnel a deputy head of the facility for general issues is usually appointed. He develops a plan for the dispersal of working personnel and their families, organizes the preparation of places in the countryside, the transportation of people there.

Deputy Head of Civil Defense for Engineering and Technical Part the chief engineer of the enterprise is appointed, who directly manages the services, and also provides technical management of emergency rescue and other urgent work.

The Deputy Head of the Civil Defense Department for Logistics is appointed the Deputy Head of the facility for these issues, who is in charge of the Logistics Service.

At all objects, as a rule, are created departments for civil defense and emergency situationswhich are completed from officials. To solve the tasks assigned to civil defense, the following services are created at facilities that have an appropriate base:

1) alerts and communications;

2) protection of public order;

3) fire fighting;

4) medical;

5) emergency technical;

6) shelters and shelters;

7) energy and blackout;

8) radiation and chemical protection;

9) transport, etc.

Basic requirements for shelters

Shelters must meet certain requirements:

1) provide protection from any damaging factors and from the thermal effects of fires on the surface for at least two days;

2) be built outside the zones and sources of fires and floods;

3) have entrances with the same degree of protection as the main premises, and in case of blockage - emergency exits;

4) have approaches that are free from the storage of hazardous, combustible and highly fuming substances, as well as access roads;

5) have main rooms with a height of more than 2,2 m, and the floor level must be higher than the groundwater level by more than 20 cm;

6) have filtering and ventilation equipment that provides air purification from impurities and supply to the shelter at least 2 m³ air per hour per person.

If shelter is located in the zone of contamination with radiation levels after a nuclear explosion, then the time of safe stay in it of sheltered people will be from several hours to one day.

Shelters are equipped with functional equipment:

1) filtering equipment provides cleaning and disinfection of the air entering the shelter;

2) water supply, supply of water in flow tanks at the rate of 6 liters of drinking and 4 liters of technical (for sanitary and hygienic needs) per person for the entire estimated period of stay in the shelter;

3) water, electric or other heating, which is switched on with the start of filling the shelter;

4) sewerage (bathroom) is carried out on the basis of common networks, but there must be fecal water receivers that will ensure normal life in case of accidents on common networks and prevent flooding of the shelter;

5) lighting (main, emergency) should not consume oxygen;

6) fire-fighting equipment, tools, equipment and materials for extinguishing fires;

7) there must be a medical center in the shelter;

8) to control the life support systems in the shelter, there are appropriate measuring instruments, a chemical reconnaissance device (VPKhR) and a dose rate meter IMD-21s (or DP-64, DP-5, IMD-5);

9) the necessary documentation is stored in the shelter: the plan of the shelter and the rules for operating the systems and elements of the shelter;

10) emergency power plant, if any, is located in a separate isolated room with a vestibule;

11) each shelter is served by a special formation of civil defense (shelters and shelters). His personnel arrive at the signal and set up posts.

Post 1 - at every entrance. When the shelter is full, people are allowed to pass through it. It distributes the flow of arrivals, providing accommodation for children, the sick and the elderly. On signal"Close shelter" guards close the door, and one of them is constantly at the door.

Post 2 - in the control room. It includes filtering equipment (FVA) and monitors the operation of all equipment, the readings of measuring instruments. Executes commands to set the ventilation mode.

Post 3 - before filling the shelter, the specialist turns on the lighting in all rooms, closes the manhole shutters, adjusts the exhaust ventilation plugs, switches according to the shelter's air supply scheme, and then maintains order when placing people.

Lecture No. 40. The city as a zone of increased danger

In the conditions of a city, especially a large one, the cause of discomfort and disease is gas pollution and dustiness of the atmospheric air, a high level of noise or vibration, household and industrial waste, pollution of the earth's surface and water bodies. The urban environment is dangerous.

The complex of negative factors of the production environment is characterized by diversity and high levels of impact on a working person. The most common factors include:

1) gas contamination and dustiness of the air of the working area;

2) unfavorable temperature regimes;

3) increased noise;

4) insufficient lighting;

5) hard physical work;

6) increased vibrations.

If safety requirements are not observed in the production environment, occupational diseases, injuries, poisoning and death of people are inevitable.

Over the past decade, cities have significantly increased the number of products made from polymeric synthetic materials used in the decoration of offices of banks, joint-stock companies, etc. There are about 90 types of such materials (wallpaper, tiles, floor coverings, etc.).

Foreign researchers have found that this kind of materials emit chemicals - phenol, benzene, formaldehyde, etc..

To this urban phenomenon is added negative in the form of radiation from office and household appliances (computers, copiers, printers, microwave ovens, televisions, video and audio recorders, etc.), as well as the evaporation of mercury vapor from fluorescent lamps, lamps. The system of bodies of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia has established, on the basis of statistical data, the following zones of increased danger (according to road accidents and cases of a criminogenic nature) in cities:

1) stations (auto, river, sea, railway, air terminals);

2) bazaars (retail, wholesale trade, collective farm fairs, clothing);

3) supermarkets;

4) entertainment establishments (discotheques, casinos, nightclubs, cafes, bars, restaurants).

According to the above objects, accidents occur in the adjacent territories and on roads, entrances, parking lots, criminogenic events occur both at the objects themselves and in the adjacent territories.

Rules of human behavior in everyday life, helping him to avoid criminal situations

Situations of a criminal nature can occur at any time.

Crime has always existed. Today, criminals are a real threat to human life, health and property. Now no one can say with certainty: "My house is my fortress." The risk of intrusion into the apartment of an uninvited guest exists, and no one is immune from this.

There are three ways to enter a home:

1) through the entrance doors;

2) through windows;

3) through the balcony.

How can this be prevented? Try to protect yourself and your children by following the basic rules.

1. If possible, do not leave children alone at home. When you leave home, instruct the children, give them some advice, and try to follow the same procedure yourself when you are at home.

Try to play possible situations with children, comment on the actions of children during the game, clearly explain how to behave in extreme situations;

2. While in the apartment, check the reliability of locks and constipation;

3. No need to answer questions on the phone about the names of the parents, where they work, what is their work phone number, what time they will return home. Do not enter into conversations with anyone through the door, in response to any questions and requests, answer: "Now I will call the police, they will come and sort it out."

4. Be careful with the keys to the apartment.

5. When leaving the house, securely lock the balcony doors, vents, even if the apartment is located on the top floor.

6. Returning home, approaching your door, make sure that there are no strangers behind.

7. Do not leave the keys to the apartment in accessible and well-known places (under the rug, in the mailbox).

8. Never tell anyone about the valuable things that are in your apartment, about the condition of the apartment, who returns home and at what time. Be careful when choosing an interlocutor, even if you are in a store, at the post office and other crowded places in your neighborhood. The offender is unlikely to act without accurate data on the condition of the apartment.

9. If, upon returning home, you find that the door of the apartment is ajar or forced, do not enter the apartment under any circumstances.

10. Do not enter into an argument with robbers. Try to calm down and concentrate in order to remember everything you saw and heard, paying attention to any features of the appearance and behavior of the bandits. This will make it easier to catch them and help return the stolen goods.

pickpocketing This is highly professional work.

It is carefully organized, worked out many times and takes literally seconds.

When going to crowded places, do not take your wallet with you.

If you quickly discovered the theft, immediately find the police officer on duty and inform him about what happened.

Lecture No. 41. Terrorism and its manifestations. Extreme situations of a social nature

Terrorism - violence against individuals or organizations, as well as the destruction (damage) or the threat of destruction (damage) of property and other material objects, creating a danger of death. Terrorism can manifest itself in three forms:

1) criminal terrorism;

2) political terrorism;

3) international terrorism.

Criminal terrorism carried out with the aim of violating public security, intimidating the population or influencing the adoption of decisions by the authorities that are beneficial to terrorists, or to satisfy their illegal property or other interests.

Political terrorism is manifested in an encroachment on the life of a statesman or public figure in order to stop his activities, or out of revenge for such activities. International terrorism is expressed in an attack on a representative of a foreign state or an employee of an international organization enjoying international protection in order to provoke a war or complicate international relations.

If you are held hostage:

1) do not expose yourself to unnecessary risk;

2) be flexible and calm;

3) if the criminals are in a state of alcoholic or drug intoxication, try to limit all contacts with them, as their actions can be unpredictable;

4) at the first opportunity, try to inform your relatives or the police about your whereabouts;

5) try to establish contact, evoke humane feelings and start a conversation without suggesting that you want to know something;

6) Don't let yourself be discouraged. Take every opportunity to talk to yourself about your hopes and desires;

7) closely monitor the behavior of criminals and their intentions. At the first convenient and safe opportunity, be ready to flee.

If you are in places where there are large concentrations of aggressive people (rallies, strikes):

1) stay away from the center;

2) away from a group of extremists;

3) stay confident on your feet;

4) stay away from the police and extremists of any kind - "red", "brown", "black", "blue", "green", observe neutrality;

5) if you have a bag or package in your hands, be vigilant - drugs, weapons, ammunition and other "evidence" can be planted on you;

6) it is better not to approach crowds of people of any kind at all, and also to police squads;

7) exercise maximum vigilance and attention on the streets of the city - this is in order to preserve your freedom and safety.

Lecture number 42. The concept of emergency

The thousand-year practice of human activity shows that it is impossible to achieve absolute security in any type of activity. Therefore, any activity is potentially dangerous. Emergencies, from whatever reasons they arise, have a negative impact on nature and man.

The main causes of emergencies:

1) internal:

a) the complexity of technologies;

b) insufficient qualification of the personnel;

c) design flaws;

d) physical and moral deterioration of equipment;

e) low labor and technological discipline;

2) external:

a) natural disasters;

b) an unexpected power outage;

c) gases of technological products;

d) terrorism;

e) war.

Emergencies can occur when:

1) the presence of a source of risk (pressure, explosives, radioactive substances);

2) the action of risk factors (gas release, explosion, fire);

3) being in the lesions of people, farm animals and land.

An analysis of the causes and course of development of emergencies of a different nature revealed their common feature - staging. There are five stages (periods) of emergency development:

1) accumulation of negative effects leading to an accident;

2) the period of development of the catastrophe;

3) an extreme period during which the main share of energy is released;

4) damping period;

5) the period of liquidation of consequences.

Emergencies call the circumstances arising as a result of natural, natural disasters, accidents and catastrophes of man-made, environmental origin, military, social and political nature, causing a sharp deviation from the norm of life of people, the economy, the social sphere or the natural environment.

In the literature, the concept of "extreme situation" is often used, which reflects the impact on a person of dangerous and harmful factors leading to an accident or excessive negative emotional psychological impact. Extreme situations (ES) include:

1) injuries at work;

2) fires;

3) explosions;

4) traffic accidents;

5) circumstances that can lead to injuries of varying severity.

Emergencies - events of great scale, covering a large territory and threatening a large number of people.

In general, emergencies can be considered as a combination of emergencies and ES. ES under certain conditions can develop into an emergency.

The combination of ES and emergency situations is called a dangerous situation.

Natural disasters - these are dangerous phenomena or processes of geophysical, geological, hydrological, atmospheric and other origin of such scales in which catastrophic situations arise, characterized by a sudden disruption of people's life, destruction and destruction of material values.

The concept of risk

The public's perception of risk and hazards is subjective. People react sharply to events accompanied by a large number of one-time victims. At the same time, frequent events that result in the death of a few or small groups of people do not cause such a tense attitude.

Every day, 40-50 people die at work in the country, and more than 1000 people die in the country as a whole. But this information is less impressive than the death of 5-10 people in one accident or any conflict. Acceptable risk includes mechanical, economic, social and political aspects and represents some compromise between the level of safety and the ability to achieve it. Distinguish individual и social risk.

Individual risk characterizes the danger of a certain type for an individual.

Социальный, or group is a risk for a group of people. Social risk can be defined as the relationship between the frequency of events and the number of people affected.

Risk value (R) can be calculated using the formula:

R=n/N,

where n is the number of accidents;

N is the total number of people.

Let's consider four methodical approaches to the definition of risk.

1. Engineeringstatistically based calculation of frequencies, probabilistic safety analysis.

2. Model based on building models of the impact of harmful factors on an individual, social, professional groups, etc.

3. Expert, in which the probability of events is determined on the basis of a survey of experienced specialists, i.e. experts.

4. Sociologicalbased on a population survey.

These methods reflect different aspects of risk. Therefore, they must be used in combination.

Accidents is damage to a machine, machine tool, installation, production line, power supply system, equipment, vehicle, building or structure.

Catastrophe - an event with tragic consequences, a major accident with loss of life: a plane crashed, there are casualties. There are the following types of disasters:

1) environmental catastrophe - a natural disaster, a major industrial or transport accident (catastrophe), which led to extremely unfavorable changes in the habitat and, as a rule, to massive damage to flora, fauna, soil, air and nature in general;

2) industrial or transport accident - a major accident that entailed human casualties and significant material damage;

3) man-made disaster - a sudden, unforeseen release of mechanical, chemical, thermal, radiation and other energy.

1. Accidents at chemically hazardous facilities

The safety of the functioning of chemical enterprises depends on the physical and chemical properties of raw materials and products, the nature of the technological process, the design and reliability of equipment, storage and transportation conditions, the state of instrumentation and automation equipment, the preparedness and practical skills of personnel, and the effectiveness of emergency protection equipment.

Chemical waste leaks occur as a result of explosions and destruction of tanks and process pipelines. The most important characteristic of HOV - toxicity - the degree of toxicity, characterized by a threshold concentration, tolerance limit, lethal concentration or lethal dose.

Threshold concentration - this is the amount of a substance that can cause a negative physiological effect: only the primary signs of damage are felt, while working capacity is maintained.

Portability limit - this is the maximum concentration that a person can withstand a certain time without permanent damage.

According to the degree of impact on the body, CWs are divided into four hazard classes:

1) extremely dangerous;

2) highly dangerous;

3) moderately dangerous;

4) low-hazard substances.

The HOB hazard class is set according to the most stringent indicator characteristic of a given substance.

The damaging concentrations of chemical warfare are determined by their physicochemical properties:

1) state of aggregation of matter;

2) its solubility in water and organic solvents;

3) density and volatility of the substance;

4) specific heat of evaporation and heat capacity of the liquid;

5) saturated vapor pressure;

6) boiling point, etc.

Accident classification:

1. Accidents as a result of explosions causing the destruction of the technological scheme, engineering structures and the complete or partial cessation of production.

2. Accidents, as a result of which the main or auxiliary technological equipment, engineering structures are damaged and the production of products is completely or partially stopped, and more costs are required to restore production.

1) private - an accident, either not related to the release of SDYAV, or due to a minor leak of toxic substances;

2) object - an accident associated with the leakage of SDYAV from technological equipment or pipelines;

3) local - an accident associated with the destruction of a large single container or an entire warehouse of SDYAV. The cloud reaches the residential area, evacuation from the nearest residential areas and other relevant activities are carried out;

4) regional - an accident with a significant release of SDYAV;

5) global - an accident with the complete destruction of all storage facilities with SDYAV at large chemically hazardous enterprises.

2. Accidents at radiation hazardous facilities

At present, almost any branch of the economy and science uses radioactive substances and sources of ionizing radiation.

Typical radiation-hazardous objects include:

1) nuclear power plants;

2) enterprises for the manufacture of nuclear fuel;

3) enterprises for the processing of spent fuel and disposal of radioactive waste;

4) research and design organizations with nuclear reactors;

5) nuclear power plants in transport.

Radiation accidents are divided into:

1) local - violations in the operation of the ROO, in which there was no release of radioactive products or ionizing radiation beyond the provided boundaries of equipment, technological systems, buildings and structures in quantities exceeding the values established for the normal operation of the enterprise;

2) local - violations in the work of the ROO, in which there was a release of radioactive products within the sanitary protection zone in quantities exceeding the established norms for this enterprise;

3) general - violations in the work of the ROO, in which there was a release of radioactive products beyond the boundaries of the sanitary protection zone in quantities leading to radioactive contamination of the adjacent territory and possible exposure of the population living on it above the established norms. Possible accidents at nuclear power plants and other radiation hazardous facilities are classified according to two criteria:

1) for typical violations of normal operation;

2) by the nature of the consequences for personnel, the public and the environment.

When analyzing accidents, the chain "initiating event - flow paths - consequences" is used..

The protection of personnel and the public consists in early zoning of territories around radiation-hazardous objects. In this case, the following three zones are established:

1) emergency zone - this is the territory in which the dose of exposure to the whole body during the formation of the radioactive trace may exceed the upper limit established for evacuation;

2) precautionary zone - this is the territory in which the dose of exposure to the whole body during the formation of a radioactive trace or the dose to internal organs may exceed the upper limit established for shelter and iodine prophylaxis;

3) restricted zone - this is the area in which the dose of irradiation of the whole body or its individual organs per year can increase the lower limit for food consumption. The zone is introduced by decision of state bodies.

Sources of ionizing radiation are divided into natural (natural) and technogenicassociated with human activities, natural sources include:

1) cosmic rays;

2) terrestrial radiation, which creates a natural radiation background, which for a person in one year is approximately 1,4 meV (0,14 rem).

Man-made radiation:

1) medical equipment used for diagnostics and treatment gives up to 50% of man-made radiation;

2) industrial enterprises of the nuclear fuel complex;

3) the consequences of nuclear weapons tests.

3. Accidents at fire and explosion hazardous facilities

Fire - this is burning, as a result of which material values are uselessly and irretrievably destroyed and damaged, and a danger to human life and health is created.

Pozharo- And explosive objects (PVOO) enterprises that produce, store, transport explosive products or products that, under certain conditions, acquire the ability to ignite or explode.

According to explosive, explosion-fire and fire hazards, air defense facilities are divided into five categories, objects belonging to categories A, B, C are especially dangerous.

Category A - oil refineries, chemical plants, pipelines, oil product storages.

Category B - workshops for the preparation and transportation of coal dust, wood flour, powdered sugar, sacking and grinding departments of mills.

Category B - sawmills, woodworking, carpentry, model, sawmill production.

Category D - warehouses and enterprises associated with the processing and storage of non-combustible substances in a hot state, as well as with the combustion of solid, liquid or gaseous fuels.

Category D - warehouses and enterprises for the storage of fireproof substances and materials in a cold state, such as meat, fish and other products.

Characteristics of accidents at fire and explosive facilities.

Airborne accidents include:

1) fires followed by an explosion;

2) gaseous (liquefied) hydrocarbon products;

3) fuel-air mixtures and other explosive substances.

To the damaging factors of accidents on PVO relate:

1) air shock wave with the formation of fragmentation fields;

2) thermal and light radiation and, as a result, air pollution in the affected area with carbon monoxide and OM.

The nature and degree of damage to people depends on the degree of their protection:

1) heavy injuries are expressed by severe concussion, loss of consciousness and numerous complex bone fractures;

2) average - dislocations of limbs, contusion of the brain, damage to the hearing organs;

3) lungs - short-lived functional disorders.

The main issues of fire safety of objects (enterprises) are set out in Building codes and regulations.

The fire protection of objects depends on the purpose of buildings, their fire resistance and operation mode, the number of people who are simultaneously in the room, the amount of combustible materials and substances in enterprises, and other factors.

For each object, a specific fire mode - a set of certain fire safety measures and requirements established for a facility and subject to mandatory compliance by all employees of this facility.

It is determined by the rules, instructions, orders and orders of the head of the enterprise.

One of the promising areas to ensure fire safety of objects is the installation of fire automatics.

To report a fire, you can use:

1) electrical (EPS);

2) automatic (APS);

3) sound fire alarm systems;

4) beep;

5) siren;

6) telephone;

7) radio communication.

Currently, enterprises use beam and ring electric fire alarms.

4. Traffic accidents

Today, any form of transport is a potential danger.

The main causes of accidents and disasters in railway transport:

1) track malfunctions;

2) rolling stock malfunctions;

3) malfunction of the signaling means;

4) centralization and blocking;

5) dispatcher errors;

6) inattention and negligence of drivers.

When transporting dangerous goods such as gases, flammable, explosive, poisonous and radioactive substances, explosions and fires are possible. It is very difficult to eliminate such accidents.

One of the main problems of our time has become the provision of traffic safety in road transport.

Approximately 75% of all traffic accidents occur due to violations of traffic rules by drivers. At what a third Accident - a consequence of poor training of drivers. The most dangerous types of violations still remain:

1) speeding;

2) exit to the lane of oncoming traffic;

3) drunk driving.

The peculiarity of the accident is that 80% of the wounded die in the first three hours. Blood loss during the first hour is so great and strong that even a brilliantly performed operation is useless. First aid is very important here. However, the level of medical training of traffic police officers is low, the training of the population and drivers is also insufficient. First-aid kits, which should be in every car, without which they do not pass inspection, are often understaffed.

That is why the death rate from traffic accidents is 10-15 times higher in our country than in other countries.

Despite the measures taken, the number of accidents and disasters in air transport is not decreasing. Serious consequences lead to:

1) destruction of individual aircraft structures;

2) engine failure;

3) violation of the operation of control systems, power supply, communications;

4) poor piloting;

5) lack of fuel;

6) interruptions in the life support of the crew and passengers.

Most major accidents and disasters on ships occur under the influence of:

1) hurricanes;

2) storms;

3) fogs;

4) ice;

5) through the fault of people.

Many accidents occur due to errors in the design and construction of ships. Half of them are the result of inept exploitation. All crew members are involved in the work to eliminate the consequences of accidents, disasters and rescue drowning people. The captain supervises all work as the head of civil defense. Main goals:

1) rescue of people in distress;

2) the struggle for the buoyancy of the ship;

3) fire suppression;

4) elimination of holes.

The following are involved in the ship salvage work:

1) special rescue vessels;

2) tugs;

3) fire boats;

4) crews of other floating craft;

5) special units for rescue, ship-lifting and hoisting and technical work.

5. General characteristics of emergencies of natural origin

Natural emergencies have threatened the inhabitants of our planet since the beginning of civilization. The amount of damage depends on the intensity of natural disasters, the level of development of society and living conditions.

Natural emergencies have been on the rise in recent years. Volcanoes are becoming more active (Kamchatka), earthquakes are becoming more frequent (Kamchatka, Sakhalin, the Kuriles, Transbaikalia, the North Caucasus), and their destructive power is increasing. Floods become almost regular, landslides along rivers and in mountainous areas are not uncommon. Ice, snowdrifts, storms, hurricanes and tornadoes occur in Russia every year.

Natural emergencies are divided into:

1) geological;

2) meteorological;

3) hydrological;

4) natural fires;

5) biological;

6) space.

All natural emergencies are subject to some general patterns:

1) for each type of emergency, a certain spatial confinement is characteristic;

2) the greater the intensity (power) of a dangerous natural phenomenon, the less often it happens;

3) each natural disaster is preceded by some specific signs (harbingers);

4) with all the unexpectedness of a particular natural emergency, its manifestation can be predicted;

5) in many cases, passive and active protective measures against natural hazards can be provided.

At present, the scale of the use of natural resources has increased significantly, as a result, the features of the global environmental crisis have become tangible. Compliance with the natural balance is the most important preventive factor, taking into account which will reduce the number of natural emergencies.

There is a mutual connection between all natural disasters. The closest relationship is between earthquakes and tsunamis. Earthquakes cause fires, gas explosions, dam breaks.

When planning protective measures against natural disasters, it is necessary to limit secondary consequences and ways of appropriate preparation as much as possible, and try to completely eliminate them.

Any part of the earth's surface can be exposed to a natural disaster, i.e., a certain risk. A simple equation has been deduced, with the help of which you can understand what this risk depends on:

Risk \uXNUMXd f (Pa, Pb, Pcb, C),

where f is a factor that is different for different kinds of catastrophes;

Pa is the probability of catastrophes calculated from the number of previous catastrophes;

Pb is the probability of occurrence of qualitatively destructive processes during catastrophes;

Pcb - external conditions (population density, nature of buildings, social and political relations);

C - consequences of catastrophes.

A prerequisite for successful protection against natural emergencies is the study of their causes and mechanisms.

6. Geological emergencies

Natural disasters associated with geological natural phenomena include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, mudflows, snow avalanches, landslides, precipitation of the earth's surface as a result of karst phenomena.

Earthquakes - These are tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface that arise as a result of sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth or upper part of the mantle and are transmitted over long distances in the form of elastic vibrations. Earthquakes have always caused varying degrees of mental disorders in people, manifested in abnormal behavior.

Richter scale - seismic scale magnitude, based on an estimate of the energy of seismic waves that occur during earthquakes.

There are two groups of anti-seismic measures:

1) preventive, preventive measures carried out before a possible earthquake;

2) activities carried out immediately before, during and after the earthquake.

The set of phenomena associated with the movement of magma in the earth's crust and on its surface is called volcanism.

Magma - this is a molten mass of predominantly silicate composition, formed in the deep zones of the Earth. Reaching the earth's surface, magma erupts in the form of lava.

Лава differs from magma in the absence of gases escaping during an eruption.

Volcanoes are divided into:

1) active;

2) asleep;

3) extinct.

Volcanic eruptions are long and short-term.

There are three main types of eruptions:

1) effusive (Hawaiian);

2) mixed;

3) strombolian;

4) extrusive (dome).

The interdependence of volcanic activity and earthquakes has been noticed. Preventive measures include changing the nature of land use, building dams to divert lava flows, bombarding the lava flow to mix the lava with the ground and turn it into a less liquid mass, etc.

Landslide - sliding displacement down the slope under the action of gravity of the soil masses that form the slopes of hills, mountains, river, lake and sea terraces.

Landslides are not catastrophic processes in which people die, but the damage they cause to the national economy is significant.

Seli - short-term brown floods on mountain rivers, having the character of mud-stone flows. Mudflows can be caused by earthquakes, heavy snowfalls, downpours, and intense snowmelt.

Avalanche - this is a snowfall, a mass of snow falling or sliding from the mountain slopes under the influence of some kind of influence and entraining new masses of snow on its way. An earthquake can be one of the triggers for an avalanche.

Anti-avalanche preventive measures are divided into:

1) passive;

2) active.

Passive methods consist in the use of supporting structures, dams, avalanche cutters, gouges. Active methods consist in artificially provoking an avalanche at a pre-selected time and subject to safety measures.

7. Meteorological emergencies

Meteorological emergencies can be caused by the following reasons:

1) wind, including storm, hurricane, tornado (at a speed of 25 m/s or more, for the Arctic and Far Eastern seas - 30 m/s or more);

2) heavy rain (with precipitation of 50 mm or more for 12 hours or more, and in mountainous, mudflow and rainy areas - 30 ml or more for 12 hours);

3) large hail (with a hailstone diameter of 20 mm or more);

4) heavy snowfall (with precipitation of 20 mm or more in 12 hours);

5) strong snowstorms (wind speed of 15 m/s or more);

6) dust storms;

7) frosts (when the air temperature during the growing season on the soil surface drops below 0 °C);

8) severe frost or extreme heat.

These natural phenomena, in addition to tornadoes, hail and squalls, lead to natural disasters, as a rule, in three cases: when they occur in one third of the territory of the region (krai, republic), cover several administrative regions and last at least 6 hours.

The movement of air relative to the earth is called wind. The strength of the wind is measured on the Beaufort scale.

Urahan is a cyclone in which the pressure in the center is very low, and the winds reach great and destructive force. Wind speeds can reach 25 km/h. Sometimes hurricanes on land are called storms, and at sea - storms or typhoons.

Storm is a wind whose speed is less than the speed of a hurricane. However, it is quite high and reaches 15-20 m/s.

Hurricanes are divided into tropical and extratropical.

Hurricanes are one of the most powerful forces of the elements and, in terms of their detrimental effects, are not inferior to such terrible natural disasters as earthquakes.

Storms are divided into eddy and flow storms.

Vortex storms are dusty, snowy and squall. In winter they turn into snow. In Russia, such storms are often called blizzard, snowstorm, snowstorm.

Dust storms - These are atmospheric disturbances, in which a large amount of dust is raised into the air, transferred over considerable distances.

Tornado - this is an atmospheric vortex that occurs in a thundercloud and then spreads in the form of a dark sleeve or trunk towards the surface of the land or sea.

A tornado usually occurs in the warm sector of a cyclone and moves along with the cyclone at a speed of 10–20 m/s. A tornado travels a path from 1 to 60 km long. A tornado is accompanied by a thunderstorm, rain, hail and, if it reaches the surface of the Earth, it almost always causes great destruction, sucks in water and objects that are on its way, lifts them high up and carries them over long distances. A tornado at sea is a danger to ships. A tornado over land is called a blood clot, in the USA - tornado.

It is extremely difficult to predict the place and time of the appearance of a tornado, therefore, for the most part, they arise suddenly for people, and it is all the more impossible to predict their consequences.

8 Wildfires

The concept of natural fires includes forest fires, fires of steppe and green areas, peat and underground fires of fossil fuels.

Most typical cases of forest fires:

1) a burning match, a cigarette butt is thrown;

2) careless handling of weapons;

3) non-compliance with safety rules;

4) making fires in places with dried grass, in a cutting area, under the crowns of trees, etc.;

5) burning grass in forest clearings, clearings or near the forest;

6) a piece of glass thrown in a sunny place focused the sun's rays like an incendiary lens;

7) economic work in the forest (uprooting, blasting, burning garbage, building roads, power lines, pipelines, etc.).

Forest fires are classified according to:

1) the nature of the fire;

2) propagation speed;

3) the size of the area covered by the fire.

If you find yourself in the forest during a fire, then the direction opposite to the fire can be prompted by birds and animals that run away from the fire in the opposite direction.

Peat fires move slowly, several meters per day. They are especially dangerous due to sudden bursts of fire from the underground hearth and the fact that its edge is not always noticeable and you can fall into the burnt peat. Therefore, in case of fire, peat bogs must be avoided, and if necessary, move along the peat field only in a group, and the first in the group must check the soil as the sixth, as when moving on thin ice. A sign of an underground fire - the ground is hot, smoke comes out of the soil.

A small fire (width of the edge - up to 1 km) can be stopped by a group of 3-5 people in half an hour or an hour even without special means. For example, with a broom of green branches, a young tree (1,5-2 m), burlap, tarpaulin or clothing, knocking down the flame. The fire must be overwhelmed, swept away towards the source of the fire, small flames must be trampled under foot.

Another common technique is to throw earth at the edge of the fire.

The fight against forest fires is primarily carried out by the state service, which has its own airbases, fire and chemical stations, a patrol service, etc. Large forces and equipment used by professionals can be concentrated in one place in the region.

9. Biological emergencies

The zone of biological contamination is the territory within which infection is possible. Biological emergencies include epidemics, epizootics and epiphytoties. The causative agents of infectious diseases are pathogenic (pathogenic) microorganisms (or their toxins - poisons).

Epidemic - the widespread spread of an infectious disease among people, significantly exceeding the incidence rate usually recorded in a given territory.

Pandemic - an unusually large spread of morbidity both in terms of level and scale of distribution, covering a number of countries, entire continents and even the entire globe.

Among many epidemiological classifications, the classification based on the mechanism of transmission of the pathogen is widely used.

Infectious diseases are classified according to the type of pathogen - viral diseases, rickettsiosis, bacterial infections, protozoal diseases, helominthiases, tropical mycoses, diseases of the blood system.

Epizootics. Infectious animal diseases are a group of diseases that have such common features as the presence of a specific pathogen, the cyclical nature of development, the ability to be transmitted from an infected animal to a healthy one and to take epizootic spread.

Epiphytoty. To assess the scale of plant diseases, concepts such as epiphytoty and panphytoty are used.

Epiphytoty - the spread of infectious diseases over large areas over a certain period of time.

Panphytotia - mass diseases covering several countries or continents.

Preventive measures against the spread of infectious diseases are a set of anti-epidemic and sanitary-hygienic measures, early detection of patients and those suspected of the disease by going around the houses, strengthening medical supervision of the infected, their isolation or hospitalization, sanitization of people and disinfection of premises, terrain, transport, disinfection of food waste, sewage, sanitary supervision of the mode of operation of life support enterprises, sanitary and educational work. Epidemiological well-being is ensured by the joint efforts of health authorities, the sanitary-epidemiological service and the population.

10. Space emergencies

Kosmos - one of the elements that affect earthly life. We list some of the dangers that threaten man from outer space.

Asteroids - These are small space objects, the diameter of which ranges from 1-1000 km.

The meeting of our planet with celestial bodies is a serious threat to the entire biosphere. Calculations show that the impact of an asteroid with a diameter of about 1 km is accompanied by the release of energy ten times greater than the entire nuclear potential available on Earth. The energy of one impact is estimated at 10 erg.

The main means of combating near-Earth asteroids and comets is nuclear-rocket technology.

It is supposed to develop a system of planetary defense against asteroids and comets, which is based on two principles of protection, namely, changing the trajectory of the OKO and destroying it into several parts. Solar radiation is a powerful health-improving and preventive factor, the distribution of solar radiation at different latitudes is an important indicator that characterizes different climatic and geographical zones, which is taken into account in hygienic practice when solving a number of issues related to urban planning, etc. The totality of biochemical and physiological reactions, occurring with the participation of light energy, is called photobiological processes. Photobiological processes according to their functional role can be conditionally divided into three groups.

The first group of provides the synthesis of biologically important compounds (for example, photosynthesis).

Ко second group include photobiological processes that serve to obtain information and allow one to navigate in the environment (vision, phototaxis, photoperiodism).

The third group - processes accompanied by harmful consequences for the body (for example, destruction of proteins, vitamins, enzymes, the appearance of harmful mutations, oncogenic effect).

The most biologically active is the ultraviolet part of the solar spectrum, which at the Earth's surface is represented by a stream of waves in the range from 290 to 400 nm.

The bactericidal effect of artificial UV radiation is used to disinfect drinking water.

However, the effect of UV radiation on the body and the environment is not limited to a beneficial effect. Excessive solar exposure leads to the development of severe erythema with swelling of the skin and deterioration of health. The most common eye damage when exposed to UV rays is hyperemia, conjunctivitis, blepharospasm, lacrimation and photophobia appear.

Lecture No. 43. Organization of the work of the commission at emergency facilities

The activities of the CoES for the prevention and elimination of emergencies at the facility, depending on the situation, are carried out in three modes of operation of the system for the prevention and elimination of emergencies:

1) routine of daily activities - operation of the system in peacetime under normal industrial, radiation, chemical, biological, seismic and hydrometeorological conditions;

2) high availability mode (CoES is obliged to assess the threats that have arisen, likely scenarios for the development of the situation, etc.);

3) if necessary, from the CES of the object is formed task force to identify the reasons for the deterioration of the situation at the facility, to develop proposals for preventing an emergency.

Planning of measures for the prevention and elimination of emergencies is carried out by the chairman of the CoES of the facility. Planning provides for the solution of the main issues of organizing actions to prevent and eliminate emergencies at the facility, the main of which are: the implementation of the entire range of measures to protect personnel, buildings, structures and the territory of the facility from natural and man-made emergencies; ensuring the protection of personnel in various types of emergencies; allocation of the necessary forces and means for carrying out measures to prevent and eliminate emergencies.

When planning measures to prevent and eliminate emergencies at hazardous production facilities, the list of which is given in the Federal Law dated July 21, 1997 1116-FZ "On industrial safety of hazardous production facilities", study the Industrial Safety Declaration of their facility and the Emergency Localization Plan, as well as the latest documents of Gosgortekhnadzor, Gossanepidnadzor, etc.

Organization of preparation for actions in case of emergency. The training of the management team, forces and means, as well as the personnel of the facility for actions in emergency situations is organized and carried out in accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated July 24, 1995 1738 "On the procedure for preparing the population in the field of protection against emergency situations", organizational and methodological instructions of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia on this issue for the next year, the relevant orders or instructions of the senior heads of the civil defense and the head of the civil defense facility.

Training of special non-military formations is carried out directly at the facility according to existing programs. At the facility, the training of management personnel, specialists, commanding officers and personnel of formations is carried out in classes, CoES training, staff training, command and staff exercises and integrated exercises (on-site training).

The development of the material and technical base of the CoES includes: the creation and improvement of warning, communication and control systems, including local ones; creation of the required stock of personal and medical protective equipment. To ensure the performance of works on decontamination, degassing and disinfection of territories, buildings and structures, stocks of decontaminating, degassing and disinfecting substances are created in advance; accumulation of the fund of protective structures in accordance with the requirements of the norms of engineering and technical measures for maintenance:

1) acquisition of the necessary equipment;

2) purchase of equipment for special (non-military) formations of TO.

Lecture No. 44

Emergency Prevention is a set of measures carried out in advance and aimed at reducing the risk of an emergency as much as possible.

In accordance with Federal Law of December 21, 1994 No. 68-FZ "On the protection of the population and territories from natural and man-made emergencies"the unified Russian state system for the prevention and elimination of natural disasters and emergencies (RSChS) operates, which has control bodies, forces and means in order to protect the population and national property from the impact of catastrophes, accidents, environmental and natural disasters or reduce their impact.

The main goal of RSChS - combining the efforts of central and regional bodies of representative and executive power, as well as organizations and institutions to prevent and eliminate emergencies.

RSChS is based on several postulates:

1) recognition of the fact that it is impossible to exclude the risk of an emergency; compliance with the principle of preventive security;

2) reducing the likelihood of emergencies;

3) priority of preventive work;

4) an integrated approach in the formation of the system;

5) building a system on a legal basis with a delimitation of the rights and obligations of participants.

Organizationally, RSChS consists of territorial and functional subsystems and has five levels:

1) federal;

2) regional (several subjects of the Russian Federation);

3) territorial (territory of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation);

4) local (district, city);

5) object (organization, enterprise).

The territorial subsystem of the RSChS is designed to prevent and eliminate emergencies in the controlled territory. Main governing body - Commission for Emergency Situations (CoES) for the Protection of the Population and Territories. The working bodies of the territorial CoES are the headquarters for civil defense and emergency situations and the elimination of consequences of natural disasters.

Functional subsystems of the RSChS are created in the ministries, departments and organizations of the Russian Federation. Their task is to monitor and control the state of the environment and the situation at potentially hazardous facilities, eliminate emergencies, protect personnel and the population of the territories.

The forces and means of the RSChS system are divided into: forces and means of observation and control; forces and means of liquidation of the consequences of emergencies.

Forces and means of observation and control include:

1) bodies;

2) services;

3) institutions exercising state supervision;

4) inspection.

The forces and means of liquidating the consequences of emergencies consist of paramilitary and non-military firefighting, search and rescue and emergency recovery units of federal and other organizations.

The RSChS system operates in three modes:

1) the mode of daily activities - the functioning of the system in peacetime under normal industrial, radiation, chemical, biological, hydrometeorological and seismic conditions;

2) high alert mode - the functioning of systems when the situation worsens and a forecast is received about the possibility of an emergency, the threat of war;

3) emergency regime - the functioning of the system in the event of the occurrence and elimination of emergencies in peacetime, as well as in the case of the use of modern means of destruction.

Legislative and legal acts in the field of protection of the population and territories from natural and man-made emergencies

Ensuring life safety - a task of paramount priority for the individual, society and the state. The fundamental law regulating the organization of work on the prevention of emergencies, the procedure for actions in emergencies and the elimination of their consequences, is Federal Law "On the Protection of the Population and the Territory from Natural and Technogenic Emergencies"" (1994):

1) in chapter I "General Provisions" of the Law explains its main provisions, goals, defines a unified state system for the prevention and liquidation of emergencies, the boundaries of emergency zones, the basic principles of protecting the population and territories from emergencies. A separate article is related to ensuring publicity and information about emergencies;

2) chapter II dedicated to the powers of state authorities and self-government of the Russian Federation;

3) chapter III - principles of public administration in the field of protection of the population and territories from emergencies;

4) chapter IV determines the rights and obligations of citizens in the area under consideration and the principles of social protection of victims of emergencies;

5) chapter V associated with the preparation of the population for emergencies;

6) chapter VI - with the procedure for financial and material support of measures to protect the population and territories from emergencies;

7) Chapter VII - with the procedure for conducting state expertise, supervision and control in the area under consideration;

8) Chapter VIII dedicated to international treaties on protection against emergencies.

The main type of normative and technical documentation for emergencies is the system of standards "Safety in emergency situations" (BSES). It includes 10 groups of standards.

Group O standards establish:

1) the main provisions of the set of BChS standards;

2) basic terms and definitions in the field of safety in emergency situations;

3) classification of emergencies;

4) classification of products, processes, services and objects of the national economy according to the degree of their danger;

5) nomenclature and classification of damaging factors and impacts of emergency sources;

6) the main provisions and rules of metrological support for monitoring the state of complex technical systems in emergency situations.

Public administration in emergencies is determined by the "Regulations on the Unified State System for the Prevention and Elimination of Emergencies (RSChS)", which unites the governing bodies of the constituent entities of the Federation, Federal executive authorities, local governments and emergency management organizations.

The main tasks of training in the field of protection from emergencies:

1) training of all groups of the population in the rules of conduct and basic methods of protection against emergency situations;

2) training in first aid for victims;

3) familiarization with the rules for the use of collective and individual protective equipment;

4) training of students of educational institutions and institutions of primary, secondary and higher professional education, carried out during school hours according to educational programs for protection from emergencies.

Lecture No. 45. International cooperation in the field of life safety and environmental protection

Currently, one of the first places in international relations is the problem of rationalization of nature management and environmental protection. Therefore, it is not enough to improve the legislation and the system of nature management only in one's own country; it is necessary in every possible way to promote the development of international cooperation and international legislation regulating the joint efforts of all countries in the field of nature protection.

International cooperation can be carried out on a bilateral and multilateral basis. Its history spans over a hundred years.

The most important documents in the system of international environmental relations:

1) the World Party for Conservation of Nature, which proclaimed and protected the right of all forms of life to survive;

2) Convention on the Prohibition of Military and Any Other Hostile Use of Means of Influencing the Natural Environment;

3) Convention on climate change;

4) Convention on Biological Diversity;

5) Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer;

6) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna;

7) Declaration on the human environment, which is a set of fundamental principles of international cooperation;

8) Convention on Wetlands;

9) Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage and a number of other documents.

International organizations monitor the implementation of the adopted agreements, coordinate joint efforts to protect nature and draw public attention to environmental problems.

They can be international (intergovernmental) or non-governmental (public):

1) the most important among interstate organizations is UNEP, created UN в 1972 g. for the implementation of the environmental protection program;

2) health aspects of environmental protection are considered by the World Health Organization (WHO);

3) control over compliance with the construction and operation of nuclear power plants is carried out by IAEA - The International Atomic Energy Agency, established under the auspices of UN в 1957 g.;

4) for Russia and other CIS countries, the creation of the Interstate Ecological Council is of particular importance (1992);

5) the World Wildlife Fund is actively involved in the conservation of biological diversity (WWF) ;

6) a well-known international public organization is "Greenpeace", whose main activity is to combat environmental pollution.

Program EEC on civil protection includes the following activities:

1) dissemination of knowledge about protective measures and improvement of the quality of education;

2) development of a unified terminology;

3) development of networks for the detection of natural risk areas using satellites;

4) organization of seminars, symposiums, exhibitions and other public events;

5) creation of the European civil defense emblem and the establishment of honorary awards.

Lecture No. 46. Conscription military service and its features

Military service is a special type of federal civil service. It consists in the daily performance of military duties by citizens. Military service in Russia has always been considered an honorable duty, a sacred duty, of exceptional importance and necessity.

The main task of military service is constant purposeful preparation for armed defense or armed defense of the territory of the Russian Federation.

Military service has a number of significant differences compared to other types of public service.

Citizens doing military service are subject to increased requirements for health, educational level, moral and psychological qualities and the level of physical fitness.

One of the features of military service is the mandatory adoption of a military oath by every citizen. Citizens take a military oath of allegiance to their homeland - the Russian Federation.

A distinctive feature of military service is a high degree of obligation and responsibility for the performance by each serviceman of his official duties.

For violations committed in the performance of official duties or evasion of their performance, military personnel are subject to stricter measures of influence than for similar violations against citizens in public service.

The procedure for passing military service is determined by the Federal Law "On Military Duty and Military Service", the Regulations on the Procedure for Passing Military Service.

Conscripted military personnel may be sent (including as part of a subunit, military unit, formation) to perform tasks in armed conflicts (to participate in hostilities) in peacetime exclusively on a voluntary basis and only if the term their military service is at least 6 months.

The beginning of the military service for citizens called up for military service, the day of departure from the military commissariat of the subject of the Russian Federation to the place of service is considered.

From that moment on, the citizen acquires the status of a serviceman.

Upon arrival at the and after completing basic military training, the soldier is sworn in as a military officer. The duration of initial military training does not exceed two months.

Before bringing a soldier to military oath he cannot be involved in the performance of combat missions (to participate in hostilities, combat duty, combat service, guard duty), weapons and military equipment cannot be assigned to him, and a disciplinary sanction in the form of arrest cannot be imposed on him.

Soldiers and sailors who arrived at the military unit from military commissariats for replenishment, after passing the corresponding program and mastering the basic duties of a soldier (sailor), the meaning of the military oath, battle flag, military unit and military discipline, but no later than 2 months later, are brought to military oath.

Internal service designed to maintain internal order and military discipline in the military unit. It is organized in accordance with the provisions of the Charter of the Internal Service of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.

Organization of conscription for military service. Grounds and procedure for granting deferrals and benefits to conscripts

The conscription of citizens for military service is carried out 2 times a year:

1) spring call - with 1 April by 30 June;

2) autumn call - from 1 October by 31 December.

Conscription for military service is organized on the basis of Decrees of the President of the Russian Federation.

Citizens living in remote areas of the Far North are called up for military service with 1 May by 30 June. Those living in rural areas and directly employed in sowing and harvesting work are called up for military service with 15 October by 31 December. Citizens who are teaching staff of educational institutions are called up for military service with 1 May by 30 June.

Male citizens aged 18 to 27 years who are or are required to be registered in the military and are not in the reserve are called up. The call is carried out by the recruiting committee.

According to the medical examination, citizens recognized as fit for military service with minor restrictionsare not sent for service:

1) to the airborne troops;

2) marines;

3) floating composition of the Navy.

By the time a citizen is called to the draft board, the professional selection group, based on the results of processing all the information about his individual psychological qualities and abilities, general educational and professional suitability, sends the recruit to military service for some established class of similar military positions:

1) command;

2) operator;

3) driver's;

4) technological.

When deciding on exemption from conscription for military service, the draft commission by the Federal Law "On conscription and military service".

From conscription released citizens:

1) recognized as unfit (category D) or partially fit for military service (category B) for health reasons;

2) those who are or have completed military service in the Russian Federation;

3) passing and having passed alternative civil service;

4) who have completed military service in another state;

5) having the academic degree of Candidate of Science and Doctor of Science;

6) in case of death (death) of the father, mother, brother, sister in connection with the performance of military service duties by them.

Postponement (Article 24 of the Federal Law "On military duty and military service"):

1) citizens recognized as temporarily unfit for military service (category G) are granted a deferment from conscription for 6 or 12 months for examination (treatment);

2) citizens recognized as limited fit for military service (category B) are enlisted in the Reserve of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation and are subject to periodic (once every 3 years) examination until they reach the age of 27, and those recognized as unfit for military service (category D ) are excluded from military registration.

Eligibility deferrals have:

1) employed in their specialty immediately after graduating from educational institutions of higher professional education on a full-time basis in state organizations, the list of which is determined by the Government of the Russian Federation;

2) having a higher pedagogical education and permanently working in pedagogical positions;

3) permanently working as doctors in rural areas - for the duration of this work.

Military ranks of military personnel of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. Military uniform

Each serviceman performs military service in a certain military position, which corresponds to a military rank. Each soldier is assigned a corresponding military rank.

In the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, other troops of military formations, the composition of military personnel and their corresponding military ranks have been established. The list of compositions and military ranks of the military personnel of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation is determined by the Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On conscription and military service".

Military uniforms and insignia are established for servicemen.

Military uniform and insignia for military ranks of military personnel of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.

The insignia for the types of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, branches of service and services, as well as the rules for wearing military uniforms and insignia are determined by the Ministry of Defense.

At present, the rules for wearing military uniforms are determined by order of the Minister of Defense No. 210 of March 28, 1997.

"On the rules for wearing military uniforms of military personnel of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation". The military uniform of servicemen is subdivided into full dress, everyday and field, and each of these forms, in addition, is subdivided into summer and winter. When military personnel perform specific tasks, it is envisaged to wear special (flight technical, insulated, etc.) clothing.

Table 1 List of compositions and military ranks of military personnel of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation

The uniform is announced daily or for the period of specific events by the commanders (chiefs) of military units (ships).

Conscripted military personnel wear military uniforms:

1) front door - when taking the Military oath; upon presentation of the military unit of the Battle Banner; upon appointment to the guard of honor; during the annual holidays of the military unit; when serving as sentries for the protection of the Battle Banner;

2) field - in exercises, maneuvers, combat duty and in classes at training centers;

3) everyday - in all other cases.

For example, consider the summer dress uniform for conscripted military personnel. The full dress uniform for building and out of order (except for the Airborne Forces) consists of:

1) woolen khaki caps;

2) a khaki woolen tunic;

3) straight-cut wool trousers in khaki;

4) khaki shirts;

5) a tie of a protective color with a golden clip;

6) a black belt - with a uniform for the formation;

7) black boots.

Authors: Alekseev V.S., Zhidkova O.I., Tkachenko I.V.

We recommend interesting articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets:

▪ Correctional psychology. Crib

▪ Political science. Crib

▪ State and municipal finance. Crib

See other articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets.

Read and write useful comments on this article.

<< Back

Latest news of science and technology, new electronics:

Artificial leather for touch emulation 15.04.2024

In a modern technology world where distance is becoming increasingly commonplace, maintaining connection and a sense of closeness is important. Recent developments in artificial skin by German scientists from Saarland University represent a new era in virtual interactions. German researchers from Saarland University have developed ultra-thin films that can transmit the sensation of touch over a distance. This cutting-edge technology provides new opportunities for virtual communication, especially for those who find themselves far from their loved ones. The ultra-thin films developed by the researchers, just 50 micrometers thick, can be integrated into textiles and worn like a second skin. These films act as sensors that recognize tactile signals from mom or dad, and as actuators that transmit these movements to the baby. Parents' touch to the fabric activates sensors that react to pressure and deform the ultra-thin film. This ... >>

Petgugu Global cat litter 15.04.2024

Taking care of pets can often be a challenge, especially when it comes to keeping your home clean. A new interesting solution from the Petgugu Global startup has been presented, which will make life easier for cat owners and help them keep their home perfectly clean and tidy. Startup Petgugu Global has unveiled a unique cat toilet that can automatically flush feces, keeping your home clean and fresh. This innovative device is equipped with various smart sensors that monitor your pet's toilet activity and activate to automatically clean after use. The device connects to the sewer system and ensures efficient waste removal without the need for intervention from the owner. Additionally, the toilet has a large flushable storage capacity, making it ideal for multi-cat households. The Petgugu cat litter bowl is designed for use with water-soluble litters and offers a range of additional ... >>

The attractiveness of caring men 14.04.2024

The stereotype that women prefer "bad boys" has long been widespread. However, recent research conducted by British scientists from Monash University offers a new perspective on this issue. They looked at how women responded to men's emotional responsibility and willingness to help others. The study's findings could change our understanding of what makes men attractive to women. A study conducted by scientists from Monash University leads to new findings about men's attractiveness to women. In the experiment, women were shown photographs of men with brief stories about their behavior in various situations, including their reaction to an encounter with a homeless person. Some of the men ignored the homeless man, while others helped him, such as buying him food. A study found that men who showed empathy and kindness were more attractive to women compared to men who showed empathy and kindness. ... >>

Random news from the Archive

Life without passwords 08.02.2015

Developers from the US military academy at West Point are creating a new employee identification system that will be able to replace passwords and biometrics. The government has allocated "millions of dollars" to the project, writes Sky News. The specific amount is not specified.

The project is called cognitive fingerprint ("cognitive fingerprints") and is dedicated to the ways of identifying a person according to the peculiarities of using a mobile device or PC. For example, how fast he types on the keyboard, moves the mouse cursor, or how often he makes spelling mistakes.

The new technology could change the market for identification systems, according to project documents that Sky News has accessed.

“When you interact with technology, your brain processes information in an individual way. In this way, you kind of leave a “cognitive imprint” inherent only to you, just like leaving your fingerprint on a fingerprint sensor,” the documents say.

"Our goal is to create a next-generation identification system that can be used on standard Department of Defense equipment," the authors say.

Similar technologies are currently used in commercial software such as plagiarism checker applications. They compare two texts and decide whether the second text is the original or a modified copy of the first. In the same way, here the system will understand whether an authorized user or a stranger is working with it.

“We live in a world where any user can become a victim of fraud, threats or intelligence agencies due to the lack of sufficiently reliable means of identification on the Internet. For this reason, any new technology that could determine the identity of a person in the background could make the world wide web more civilized place," ViaTheWire's strategist Sharif Sakr told Sky News.

The authorities plan to introduce the new technology in all military departments and do not exclude that it will enter the commercial market in the future. It is assumed that it will be able to increase the level of protection of bank accounts, accounts of payment systems and online stores. The new technology could also be used to access smart consumer electronics, Sky News writes, citing documents.

We add that Google is also working on improving identification tools, but the methods proposed by it are more traditional. In January 2013, the corporation presented a project in which it is proposed to provide web services with two-factor authentication using physical means, such as a smartphone or USB dongle. The first devices are already on sale.

Other interesting news:

▪ RAM smartphones reached 4 GB

▪ Mind on vacation

▪ masked camera

▪ Express neurons

▪ Plants can distinguish friend from foe

News feed of science and technology, new electronics

Interesting materials of the Free Technical Library:

▪ site section Preamplifiers. Article selection

▪ article by Christian Huygens. Biography of a scientist

▪ article Which chips were unsuccessfully demanded by their company not to be considered chips? Detailed answer

▪ article Sawing the bone. Standard instruction on labor protection

▪ article Meter L and C. Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering

▪ article Riddles about transport and technology

Leave your comment on this article:

All languages of this page

Home page | Library | Articles | Website map | Site Reviews