Correctional psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Correctional psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF CORRECTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Correctional psychology is one of the branches of psychology, the subject of which is the patterns of mental development of abnormal children, and the object is abnormal children.

The term "anomaly" (from the Greek anomalos - "wrong") denotes a violation of the norm, the general pattern of organization, is comprehensive in relation to any developmental errors - anatomical, biochemical, functional.

In domestic special psychology, the term "abnormal children" denotes a category of children with congenital or acquired disorders of mental and physical development who need training in special (correctional) educational institutions.

In accordance with the classification of developmental anomalies adopted in defectology, groups of children with impairments are distinguished: intellect; vision; speech; hearing; musculoskeletal system; with mental retardation; with combined defects.

The following range of tasks of special psychology is defined:

1) identification of general patterns of mental development of normally developing children and children with developmental anomalies; as a result of research by L. V. Zankov, Zh. I. Shif, T. A. Vlasova, V. I. Lubovsky, it was proved that the main patterns of the mental development of an abnormal child and a normally developing child are common and are phased in nature: periodization of age, the formation of mental functions (from visual-effective thinking to verbal logical), memory, etc. The terms of formation and the quality of achievements are different);

2) identification of general patterns of mental development inherent in all children with developmental anomalies. L. S. Vygotsky deduced a regularity in the formation of secondary deviations against the background of a primary defect in mental functions. Thus, the totality of generated defects is manifested in changes in the development of the personality of an abnormal child as a whole);

3) disclosure of the specifics of the patterns of mental development in various groups of children with developmental anomalies (L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, S. Ya. Rubinshtein, L. V. Zankov, Zh. I. Shif, etc.) ;

4) study of the properties of individual mental processes in children with various anomalies;

5) establishing links between the process of mental development and the peculiarities, specifics of the anomaly;

6) development of measures for the development of compensatory abilities of the body in order to overcome defects in the development of the psyche;

7) development of measures to prevent manifestations of secondary and tertiary mental defects in children with anomalies;

8) conducting scientific research in order to find optimal conditions for the education and upbringing of abnormal children;

9) development of measures to provide psychological, pedagogical, social, medical assistance in order to successfully integrate children with developmental anomalies into society.

2. BRANCH OF CORRECTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, ITS RELATION WITH OTHER SCIENCES

Correctional psychology as a branch of psychology closely interacts with many sciences, such interaction can theoretically be divided into several blocks, which in turn consist of independent sciences and branches of science.

The first block includes pedagogy, which is divided into general pedagogy, methods of teaching subjects to children with both a normal level of development and developmental disabilities. Correctional psychology in cooperation with special pedagogy increases the level of development of children with congenital or acquired defects. Also, the interaction of sciences makes it possible to form a scientifically holistic view of the process of development of a person with disabilities. A multilateral study of one problem allows you to find a detailed answer to the questions that arise when teaching people with disabilities, as well as eliminate a one-sided approach, which in most cases is incorrect.

The second block includes medicine: anatomy, physiology, psychiatry, neuropathology. The connection between correctional pedagogy and the medical industry is so close that it is almost impossible to separate the spheres of their influence, since the mental development of a person, his deviations can only be explained from the point of view of medicine and its branches: physiology, psychiatry and psychopathology, genetics and human anatomy in different age categories , orthopedics, neuropathology and neuroanatomy, pediatrics and otolaryngology, and other branches of medicine. Some terms are used in many branches of medicine, including correctional psychology: "autism", "mentality", "anomaly", "dementia", etc. Establishing a diagnosis based on different branches of medicine, no doubt, allows you to achieve more effective results in treatment and education.

The third block is humanitarian, which consists of philosophy, sociology, psychology of all directions. The relationship of correctional psychology and the humanities allows the accumulation of knowledge for the same purpose as all other branches of science: for effective and understandable education of people with developmental defects. Such sciences as political science, philosophy, sociology allow us to consider many phenomena of correctional psychology from the point of view of a person's social status. Some aspects of the process of applying the methods of correctional psychology can be fully disclosed only from the standpoint of philosophy and political science.

Using the knowledge and experience of many independent sciences and branches of science gives an additional chance for specialists in correctional psychology to select more effective teaching methods for each category of people on an individual basis.

3. BASIC METHODS OF CORRECTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The methodology of special psychology, like that of all domestic psychological science, is based on the general methodological principles of dialectical materialism. The principle of determinism is important for understanding mental development. It means, firstly, that all mental phenomena, like the psyche as a whole, are understood as manifestations causally determined by objective reality, as a reflection of this reality; secondly, that all psychic phenomena are regarded as conditioned by the activity of the brain; thirdly, this principle presupposes, in the study of mental phenomena, the obligatory establishment of the causes that caused these phenomena. Determinism in its philosophical understanding means that an external cause does not directly determine a person's reactions, but acts through internal conditions.

The principle of development presupposes an analysis of the process of the appearance of a defect, an explanation of the product of what change in the previous development is this defect. This principle is expressed in the fact that all mental phenomena are considered as constantly quantitatively and qualitatively changing and developing, and the correct characterization of any mental phenomenon is possible only if its characteristic features at the moment, the causes of the changes and possible prospects for subsequent changes are immediately clarified. . Thus, the development principle focuses not on a static description of a defect, but on clarifying the dynamics of its development. The philosophical doctrine of the essence of development, its driving forces and the emergence of something new has become the starting point in the development of questions for the study of abnormal children and is being implemented in practice in a variety of ways.

The principle of unity of consciousness and activity. It is known that biologically inherited properties constitute one of the conditions for the formation of mental functions. Man needs to master the world of objects and phenomena created by mankind. It is activity that is the condition for the emergence, the factor of formation and the object of application of human consciousness.

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity means that consciousness is the regulator of human behavior and actions. However, according to A. N. Leontiev, the main thing is not at all to point out the active controlling role of consciousness. The main problem is to understand consciousness as a subjective product, as a transformed form of manifestation of those relations that are social in nature and which are carried out by human activity in the objective world. When studying abnormal children, the implementation of the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity finds its expression in the fact that the activity of an abnormal child is one of the important parameters for assessing the level of his development.

4. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY

The Russian direction of special psychology as a separate direction of world correctional psychology appeared in the 1920s. Prior to this period, medicine was engaged in the study of the psychological development of people with disabilities and various anomalies. The world's first experimental psychological laboratory for the study of the psyche of people with abnormal deviations was established in Russia in 1935 under the leadership of L. V. Zankov, a well-known Russian defectologist. The main areas of scientific and research activities of this laboratory were the study of the prerequisites for the occurrence of anomalies of mental development, the manifestation of defects in primary school age, the development of these children.

Based on these and other studies, methods of remedial education, special programs for individual work with abnormal people, and their further development were developed. In general, Russian special psychology was based on comparative characteristics of the development of normally developing children and children with disabilities. The study of both groups was carried out in all directions: from intrauterine development and birth to certain age groups and developmental parameters corresponding to these groups.

Russian psychiatrists U. E. Sukhareva, M. S. Pevzner and others conducted research on the emotional-volitional sphere of development and cognitive activity of the child, based on clinical data. They also paid great attention to studying the problem of pathogenesis of abnormal development, etiology, detailed description of conditions and possible development paths of children with defects.

Later (in the 1950s), research began on the activity of the higher nervous system of people with mental development disorders.

The obtained data were later used to develop pedagogical methods of teaching and educating children with disabilities.

In the process of ongoing research, some conclusions were drawn that in both groups of children (normally developing and abnormal) the psyche develops according to general patterns.

Russian pathologists (Kh. S. Zamskoy, L. V. Zankov and others) studied the weakness of the thought process, the speed of reaction with the insufficiency of some structural components of thinking, and violations of verbal-logical thinking.

It was Russian defectologists who managed to prove that people with abnormal development have not only mental deficiencies, but also extensive potential for the development of thinking, which can develop with a certain system of individual training. In the works of L. S. Vygodsky, this theory is covered quite fully and supported by practical research.

5. THE CONCEPT OF MENTAL DYSONTOGENESIS

The term "dysontogenesis" is used in science to designate various deviations from the stage of a certain age stage of a child's development, caused by a disease process or its consequences. The term “dyzontogeny” was first used by Schwalbe in 1927 to characterize abnormalities in intrauterine development. Later this term acquired a broader meaning.

Pathological effects on the structures of the immature brain lead to deviations in mental development. These negative manifestations vary depending on the etiology, severity, prevalence, time of occurrence, social and living conditions, etc.

Dysontogenia is caused by both biological and social factors.

Biological factors include:

1) malformations of the brain associated with changes in the genetic material (gene mutations, hereditary metabolic disorders, etc.);

2) intrauterine lesions (toxicoses of pregnant women, infectious diseases of pregnant women, intoxications, injuries, etc.).

The social factors of the occurrence of dysontogeny include: microsocial and pedagogical neglect; development in conditions of social deprivation.

The nature of mental dysontogenesis is determined by a number of parameters:

1) functional localization of the disorder;

2) time of defeat;

3) relationship between primary and secondary defect;

4) violation of interfunctional interactions.

The classification of mental dysontogenesis according to V.V. Lebedinsky is currently considered the most complete:

1) underdevelopment. A typical example is mental retardation. There is an early time of injury affecting the immature brain systems;

2) delayed development. It is characterized by a slow pace of formation of cognitive and emotional spheres;

3) damaged development. The pathological effect on the brain occurred in later periods, when the morphological and functional maturation of brain structures was almost formed;

4) deficient development. It is characterized by severe underdevelopment or damage to individual analyzer systems: hearing, speech, musculoskeletal system, a number of severe chronic diseases;

5) distorted development. Pathologically accelerated asynchronous development of individual mental functions is observed. A typical example of distorted development is the syndrome of early childhood autism;

6) disharmonious development. This type of dysontogenesis is caused not by an ongoing disease process, but by a congenital or acquired abnormal structure of the emotional-volitional sphere. A typical example of disharmonious development is various psychopathy.

6. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DISORDERS IN THE PROCESS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT

Based on the idea of the systemic structure of the defect, L. S. Vygotsky proposed to distinguish two groups of disorders in abnormal development: primary and secondary.

Primary disorders are disorders that directly result from the biological nature of the disease (hearing and visual impairment with damage to the sensory organs, cerebral palsy, local lesions of certain cortical zones, etc.).

Secondary disorders occur indirectly in the process of abnormal development.

The primary defect may have the character of underdevelopment or damage.

Their combination is often observed, for example, in complicated oligophrenia - underdevelopment of cortical systems and damage to subcortical ones.

In cases where the substrate of the disease process is unknown, for example, in schizophrenia, not the primary, but the main defect is distinguished.

The main defect is determined by the place occupied by this or that violation in the structure of mental deficiency in this disease.

The mechanism of occurrence of secondary disorders is different.

Secondarily, those functions that are directly related to the damaged function are underdeveloped, the so-called specific underdevelopment.

This includes, for example, underdevelopment of speech understanding in children with hearing impairments.

Secondary underdevelopment is also characteristic of those functions that are in a sensitive period at the time of exposure to harmfulness.

So, at preschool age, two functions are intensively developing and most vulnerable: voluntary motor skills and speech.

They are disrupted by a variety of hazards, leading to delayed speech development, underdevelopment of voluntary regulation of action with phenomena of motor disinhibition.

The most important factor in the occurrence of secondary disorders is social deprivation.

A defect, to some extent hindering communication, hinders the acquisition of knowledge and skills.

Psychological and pedagogical correction of difficulties not carried out in a timely manner leads to severe secondary microsocial and pedagogical neglect, a number of emotional and personal disorders associated with a constant feeling of failure (low self-esteem of the level of aspirations, the emergence of autistic traits, etc.).

7. DISTURBED DEVELOPMENT AND DECAY OF THE PSYCHE

The ratio of the biological and social formation of personality is based on the process of development and decay of the psyche. The evolution of psychiatry and psychology cannot be without studying the processes of correlation between the development and decay of the psyche. For a more complete understanding of the structure, formation and decay of human mental activity, you need to know all the processes of development and maturation of the child's psyche from the moment of birth. G. E. Sukhareva proposed an evolutionary-biological approach to study the theoretical issues of psychiatry and psychology. L. S. Vygotsky argued that for the most complete study of the formation of the child's psyche, it is necessary to know the process of disintegration of the psyche. Continuing work on the study of the decay and development of the psyche, A. N. Leontiev believes that the formation of the human psyche is formed on the experience of generations, and not on the instincts of self-preservation and adaptation to environmental circumstances. E. Kretschmer believed that mental disorders are always the basis for the uncontrolled manifestation of natural instincts (aggression), as well as the lower needs given to man by nature. The disintegration of the psyche leads to the degradation of the personality and, at the same time, to the release from the restrictions set by society, to the open manifestation of biological instincts.

Violation of personality development is the collapse of the system of needs that was built in the process of life, i.e. this system becomes less conscious and clear, the semantic load of actions and their sequence disappears.

Animal studies conducted by IP Pavlov allow us to conclude that in the process of the disintegration of the psyche, those conditioned reflexes that were acquired last are the first to be destroyed.

In other words, IP Pavlov argued that the state of disintegration of the human psyche can be identified with the state of infancy. Further research led to the following conclusions: conditioned reflexes are destroyed faster than unconditioned human reflexes; the destruction of later reflexes leads to the release of previously acquired reflexes and the return of the person to the stage of younger age.

In the process of the disintegration of the psyche, the decomposition of higher functions does not occur in all cases; this process can lead to the emergence of more complex processes in the psyche. The results of disturbed development and the process of disintegration of the psyche can be completely different, since all processes are influenced by many factors: the initial level of development of a person before the disintegration process, the duration of the disintegration process itself, the conditions in which the processes of disturbed development take place.

8. PRINCIPLES OF COMPENSATORY DEVICE ACCORDING TO P. K. ANOKHIN

According to P. K. Anokhin, compensation is a special, special case in the reflex activity of the central nervous system, and, obeying general laws, has a private, specific character. There are a number of principles to which the compensatory device is subject, namely: the reaction of the defect; progressive mobilization, which is also present in compensatory mechanisms; continuous movement of the reverse effect of the compensatory device; the relative stability of compensatory devices is manifested.

Given the loss of compensation functions, the interpenetration of both biological and social factors is very important. It should be noted that the functioning of social factors directly interacting with biological laws, with any compensation, is possible only when the main emphasis is placed on the work of the organism. There are separate, technical means of compensation aimed at visually impaired and blind people who are included in socially useful work. Two branches of division were revealed in typhlotechnical means of compensation: the first group retains and develops in disturbed visual functions. In this group, various optical devices are applicable, such as ordinary and telescopic glasses, contact lenses. The second group refers to devices whose main action is aimed at using stored analyzers, with the help of which a visually impaired or blind person receives processed information of interest to him, which enters under simple conditions through the visual system. The devices indicated above replace both light and color stimuli; stimuli of another category function as transformers of light energy, thus turning it into sound or mechanical.

It should be noted that today the work on modeling the peripheral region of the visual analyzer is being actively carried out, the consistency of the use of the electronic eye is revealed. According to research, the device must transform light energy into electrical energy and thus send small electrical impulses that are directed directly to the visual areas of the brain for the functioning of subjective light sensations. Consciousness plays an important role in the compensatory processes of visual defects. So, if animals, due to compensation, biologically adjust to new conditions, then a person seeks balance not only in biological processes, but also in the social environment, while it is very important for a person to realize and accept all defects as given, to understand the consequences and many tasks that arise. in the process of getting used to the deviations. It is necessary to overcome the psychological and physical crisis. So, the compensation process in tiflopsychology is the process of replacing lost functions or compensating for damaged visual functions.

9. CORRECTION OF WRITING AND READING DISTURBANCES IN CHILDREN OF PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE

The study of the development of children with mental retardation, the development of methods for correcting writing and reading disorders in children of primary school age is divided into four approaches, which are often used in a certain combination:

1) a pedagogical approach, which consists in uniting children with complex mental illnesses and normal development, but with neglected pedagogical education;

2) overcoming learning difficulties that lead to limited sensory experience, communication with the outside world, which are the result of negative living conditions and upbringing of children, which can subsequently hinder the development of the child's personality;

3) organization of special groups for children with impaired development in order to correct and make up for the lag behind the development of normal children;

4) organization of a separate special treatment for children with mild organic brain damage with simultaneous isolation from normally developing children.

Correction of writing and reading disorders in children of primary school age is carried out in three stages.

1. Filling in the gaps in the development of the sound side of speech, while the content of this stage is the formation of full-fledged ideas about the sounds in different words, about phonetic processes and the synthesis of the sound composition of the word. At the same stage, the correction of defects in pronunciation of words and the development of coherent pronunciation of words and sentences are carried out.

2. Filling in the gaps in the development of vocabulary, grammatical structure of speech. At this stage, the vocabulary is replenished, the construction of syntactic constructions is studied, as well as the consistent development of the grammar of speech.

3. Filling in the gaps in the formation of coherent speech. This stage of correction includes the consistent formation of skills for constructing a coherent statement, teaching the logical presentation of clear and precise thoughts, selecting the necessary words and building sentences.

Classes for correcting writing and reading activate the mental activity of children, increase the efficiency of the damaged areas of the brain, give children the opportunity to learn how to put into practice the acquired theoretical skills in word formation in communication with peers, parents, etc.

This program provides for extensive repetitive practice, the purpose of which is to consolidate the studied material in the correctional educational process. All training material should be constantly repeated for more thorough practical consolidation. In the learning process, the acquired new knowledge must be combined with existing knowledge.

10. INTERRELATION OF CORRECTION AND COMPENSATION PROCESSES

Correction is the process of correcting various altered human functions. Correction implies a specific method of influencing a person in order to correct abnormal defects. The correction process refers to external influences. Correction methods are used in cases of various violations of human function, i.e. replenishment of the body function lost for any reason.

Compensation is the process of replacing missing or completely lost functions, based on the existing normally developed body functions. Compensation for lost or missing functions is carried out under the control of GNI. All compensation processes are carried out in five stages:

1) determination of the affected or partially lost function by comparing with the normal action of another similar organ, dysfunction may be the result of a disorder in the activity of the organ itself, side effects of traumatic situations;

2) assessing the degree of dysfunction;

3) creation of an individual program for compensation;

4) control over the process of implementation of compensation;

5) upon restoration of a damaged or partially lost function, the compensation process is suspended.

Correction and compensation complement each other in many processes based on psychology, but they have different purposes.

Correction is used for psychological, pedagogical and therapeutic purposes, which are designed to overcome many shortcomings in the mental and physical development of a person. Compensation is a complex process aimed at restoring or replacing lost abilities.

If correction can change and adjust a person's abilities to the existing conditions of life, then compensation does not always provide a full compensation for lost functions.

Compensation may remain at an unfinished stage and only partially replenish functions. With a balanced use of both processes, there is a high probability of replenishing lost abilities. For example, in case of disorders of the musculoskeletal system, simultaneous correction at the psychological level and compensation for missing organs gives a higher result of awareness of the possibility of further development. At the same time, the level of inhibition of the processes of compensation and correction decreases, since the conscious acceptance of one's own shortcomings is not an obstacle to further development. Both processes are interrelated and inseparable.

11. THE CONCEPT OF SENSOR DEPRIVATION

Sensory deprivation is a long-term partial deprivation of a person's auditory, visual sensations, as well as deprivation of mobility, communication, and emotional outbursts. In psychology, three types of deprivation are known:

1) touch;

2) emotional;

3) social.

Sensory deprivation causes a state of temporary psychosis, various mental disorders, and prolonged depression in a person. Prolonged sensory deprivation leads to organic changes or degenerative changes in nerve cells.

It has been experimentally proven that conditions of sensory deprivation cause disinhibition of the cerebral cortex, hallucinations that do not correspond to reality, but are perceived by the brain as reality in a variety of forms (tactile sensations, visual, sound, tangible, etc.). Such visions of certain images and sensations lead to lateral inhibition of the cerebral cortex. The process of sensory derivation can give two oppositely polar results.

Firstly, disinhibition of the cortex may occur, and secondly, it may lead to inhibition of the cortex.

Psychologists have been studying the processes of sensory deprivation for a long time. In 1913, J. Watson published his work "Psychology from the point of view of a behaviorist." In this work, he sets out the essence of a new direction in psychology, which was called the behavioral direction in psychology. Simultaneously with this theory, J. Watson put forward an idea that is essentially the opposite: he called for relying on objective methods that have been developed in the natural sciences.

Practical, purposeful study of human neuropsychic activity began in the second half of the 20th century; the main work in applied experimental psychology was work carried out under the leadership of D. N. Biryukov. He established the dependence of the increased need for strong sensations and experiences under conditions of sensory deprivation, when imagination and figurative memory are activated. Such processes begin to take place only as a result of sensory hunger, isolation, i.e., as a defense mechanism against forced isolation in an effort to preserve in memory all existing reactions and functions of thinking. Prolonged stay in conditions of sensory deprivation in a person causes the gradual development of apathy, depression, inhibition of mental processes, as well as frequent mood changes (irritability, euphoria). Memory impairment may also occur, and the person may experience hypnotic and trance states. If the impact of sensory deprivation does not stop, then the destructive processes in the human psyche and logical thinking become irreversible. There is a direct dependence of the rate of destruction of the human psyche on the time and conditions of sensory deprivation.

12. THE CONCEPT OF "SOCIAL DEPRIVATION", ITS IMPACT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD'S PSYCHE

The concept of deprivation in special psychology means a certain state of a person in which this person or group of people has a feeling of loneliness, lack of attention and misunderstanding by the surrounding society. There are two types of deprivation.

The first type of deprivation describes the state of people who understand and are aware of the causes of the situation.

The second type of deprivation implies an unconscious state of people who do not understand and are not aware of the reasons for their loneliness.

Both types of deprivation are accompanied by a strong desire to overcome the state of isolation.

The state of deprivation is unnatural, but there are exceptions, such as caste in India. There are five types of deprivation in total, including social deprivation.

The concept of "social deprivation" reveals the desire of any society to distinguish and evaluate the abilities of each person or certain social groups. Belonging to a certain social group allows you to solve many issues related to human activities. In addition, this concept can restrict the freedom or rights of people under certain conditions.

Social deprivation is expressed in various kinds of incentives, positions, prestige, status, the possibility of moving up the social ladder, and other advantages in society.

Most often, the principles for determining social deprivation are an immutable unwritten law of society.

Thus, the rights and desires of young people are valued more highly than the elderly, with the generally accepted equality of men and women, men still have more rights and powers than women.

More gifted people have more rights and privileges than ordinary people.

Social deprivation is in addition to the other four types of deprivation, such as economic deprivation.

This relationship is expressed in direct proportion: the better a person is financially secure, the higher his social status, and vice versa.

A change in social deprivation can occur as a result of education, promotion, etc.

In children in a state of social deprivation, the development of all mental processes and speech activity may be delayed. All these restrictions lead to the suspension of speech and thinking function.

13. PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF INTEGRATED EDUCATION AND EDUCATION OF CHILDREN WITH DEVELOPMENTAL PROBLEMS

The problems of upbringing, education and personal development of children with developmental disorders are considered in conjunction with their social rehabilitation, preparation for life and social interaction with peers.

Integration into society of a person with special educational needs means the process and result of providing him with rights and real opportunities to participate in all types and forms of social life on an equal basis and together with other members of society under conditions that compensate for developmental deviations.

In the education system, integration means the possibility of a minimally restrictive alternative for persons with developmental disabilities: education in a special (correctional) educational institution or in a general educational institution (general preschool institution).

The peculiarity of the domestic version of the integrated approach lies in the early correction of impaired functions against the background of the purposeful general development of an abnormal child, in providing him with opportunities for rehabilitation through a system of special differentiated and integrated education.

The pedagogy of social integrated education is a pedagogy focused not on a disease, not on a defect, but on the child's personality.

There are various classifications of integration types. Below are some of them.

Forms of integration in educational institutions:

1) combined integration - children with a level of psychophysical and speech development corresponding or close to the age norm, who have self-care skills, are brought up in regular groups of 1-2 people and receive systematic correctional assistance from a special education teacher and a psychologist;

2) partial integration - children (1-2 people), who are not yet able to master program requirements on an equal basis with healthy peers, spend part of the day in a group of normally developing peers;

3) temporary integration - pupils of the correctional group, regardless of the level of psychophysical and speech development and self-care skills, are combined with healthy children 1-2 times a month to carry out various educational activities.

Full integration is carried out in the preschool period, it can be effective for children with developmental disabilities who, in terms of psychophysical and speech development, correspond to the age norm, have self-service skills and are psychologically ready for joint training with normally developing peers (1-2 people are included in regular DOW groups).

14. FOUNDATIONS OF OLIGOPHRENOPEDAGOGICS

Oligophrenopedagogy is a branch of special pedagogy, the object of which is mentally retarded children. The subject of its study are the issues of upbringing, education and training of children with various intellectual development disorders.

Mental retardation is a persistent, irreversible disorder of mental (primarily intellectual) development associated with organically conditioned underdevelopment or early brain damage.

The clinic of mental retardation is associated with etiology, the time of pathological effects. When exposed to harmfulness at a later date, when the brain structures are relatively formed, damage phenomena will dominate. This characterizes different types of dementia.

There are four degrees of mental retardation: mild (70 IQ), moderate (70 to 50 IQ), severe (50 to 25 IQ), and profound (25 to 0 IQ).

The majority of mentally retarded children are oligophrenic. In oligophrenia, organic brain failure is residual (residual), non-progressive (not worsening) in nature.

Oligophrenia is a persistent underdevelopment of complex forms of mental activity that occurs as a result of damage to the embryo or as a result of damage to the central nervous system at various stages of intrauterine development of the fetus or in the very early period of a child's life. Oligophrenia can be hereditary, congenital or acquired.

The clinical and psychological structure of the defect in oligophrenia is determined by two important factors: totality, which manifests itself in the underdevelopment of all mental functions, and hierarchy, expressed in the obligatory underdevelopment of higher forms of thinking, while the lack of perception, memory, emotional sphere, motor skills will always be less pronounced.

Forms of oligophrenia according to the classification of MS Pevzner.

1. Uncomplicated form of oligophrenia.

2. Mental retardation, complicated by neurodynamic disorders.

3. Mental retardation, complicated by psychopathic disorders.

4. Oligophrenia, complicated by severe dysfunction of the frontal lobes of the brain.

5. Oligophrenia, complicated by disturbances in the system of individual analyzers.

Dementia is a persistent weakening of cognitive activity, a decrease in criticism, memory, flattening of emotions.

It occurs after 2-3 years, during the period of relative maturity of brain structures.

Based on the dynamics of dementia, residual organic (residual) and progressive dementia are distinguished. Dementia, unlike oligophrenia, is characterized by partiality, i.e., some intellectual functions can be significantly more impaired than others.

15. UNDEVELOPMENT OF SPEECH, ITS DISTURBANCES WITH REDUCED INTELLIGENCE

Mentally retarded children are characterized by underdevelopment of higher forms of cognitive activity, slow development of speech, a low level of qualitative speech parameters, and immaturity of the emotional-volitional sphere. Studies of domestic and foreign defectologists make it possible to reveal the dynamics of the development of various aspects of speech (phonetic, lexical, grammatical) of mentally retarded children.

In mentally retarded children, much more often than in normally developing peers, there are various speech deficiencies, there is an inconsistency between speech and activity, speech and behavior.

Compared with normally developing children, mentally retarded children experience a delay in the development of speech. The stages of speech development are shifted in time and are characterized by qualitative originality. So, the first words appear only by 3-5 years, and phrases even later. More than 40% of mentally retarded children begin to speak after 3 years. The pace of speech development is slow. The formation of second-signal conditioned reflex connections occurs slowly and with difficulty due to disturbances in nervous activity (weakness, inertia of nervous processes).

If a normally developing child comes to school with a developed conversational everyday speech and easily communicates with adults, then a mentally retarded child has little verbal communication (3-4 years) by the time he enters school, and colloquial everyday speech is poorly developed.

Intellectual underdevelopment leads to the later formation of phonemic hearing, sound-letter analysis and synthesis, perception and understanding of speech. Phonetic deficiencies in the speech of mentally retarded children make it difficult to master literacy, exacerbate intellectual and emotional development disorders, negatively affect all aspects of the child's personality, contribute to the emergence of speech isolation, indecision, excessive shyness, self-doubt. As a result of corrective education and speech therapy work, the percentage of students with phonetic speech defects is halved in the first 2 years.

The grammatical structure of the speech of students of the VIII correctional school is not sufficiently developed and developed. Simple sentences are used, less often complex and complex sentences. In sentences, the connection between words is broken, prepositions are omitted, case endings of nouns are not taken into account, definitions, circumstances, and additions are rarely introduced. Mentally retarded children do not understand the relationship between a letter and a word for a long time; they write down words as a simple set of letters. The transition to writing according to the rules is difficult for them. Such forms of work as presentation, composition, and drawing up business papers are difficult. Cheating is the easiest.

A number of children have a writing disorder - dysgraphia, which is a consequence of a violation of phonemic hearing, limited spatial representations, and underdevelopment of motor skills.

16. CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTIVITIES OF PERSONS WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES

Activity is considered as a manifestation of the activity of the human personality. In activity, the formation and development of personality takes place. There are complex relationships between activity and the psyche.

The following types of leading activities are distinguished: direct emotional communication of the infant, object-manipulative, plot-role-playing game, educational and labor activities. Already in the first year of life, there are deviations in the development of emotional communication with adults. The child does not show interest in communication, his facial expressions are poor, motor reactions are not pronounced, emotions are simplified. In objective activity, slow development is observed, self-service skills are developed with great difficulty.

All activities of mentally retarded students have the following disadvantages.

1. Violation of purposefulness, which is largely due to poor orientation in the conditions of the task, inability to overcome the difficulties encountered, misunderstanding of the significance of the results of activities.

2. Difficulty in transferring past experience to new conditions.

3. Narrowness of motivation arising from a low level of awareness of the motives and goals of activity; instability, scarcity, situationality, simultaneous motives, as well as the inability to plan one's activities and foresee its results.

4. Insufficient understanding of the verbal instruction, low arbitrariness of attention, inability to comprehend the content of the entire instruction as a whole, etc.

In mentally retarded schoolchildren, there is an underdevelopment of purposefulness of activity, which is expressed primarily in a violation of orientation in the task. In the absence of the necessary guiding influence on the part of the teacher, oligophrenic children begin to perform the assigned task without proper preliminary orientation in it. This is clearly seen in the junior grades of the VIII type correctional school. So, when performing practical actions with objects according to the proposed model, mentally retarded students usually immediately proceed to the construction of the object, without first analyzing the sample. Pupils of elementary grades of a mass school act in a different way. Before starting work, they carefully examine the sample and establish certain connections and relationships between its individual parts.

Mentally retarded schoolchildren have a peculiar (unlike children with intact intellect) attitude to the difficulties that arise in the process of activity. When confronted with certain obstacles and difficulties in the process of activity, mentally retarded schoolchildren show a tendency to perform such actions and operations that lead them away from their original goal.

17. FEATURES OF DEVELOPING KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND SKILLS IN MENTALLY DISTRIBUTED CHILDREN

In the process of activity, schoolchildren with mental retardation develop various educational and work skills.

A skill is an established way of doing things. Most of the skills are based on a detailed conscious action. The physiological basis of the skill is the development and strengthening of conditioned reflex connections.

The formation of nerve pathways and their consolidation as a result of constant actions leads to the exact localization of the process of excitation in certain nerve structures.

As a result of organic damage to the brain, a number of features of higher nervous activity can be traced in mentally retarded people, which impede the formation of skills.

Firstly, the weakness of the closure function of the cerebral cortex, leading to weak differentiation of already developed conditioned reflex connections. When forming conditioned reflex connections in mentally retarded people, a large number of repetitions is required. Already formed connections without long-term reinforcement tend to be quickly lost. This deficiency leads to the fact that in mentally retarded people the formation of any skill requires specially organized long-term work.

Secondly, the weakness of the flow of nervous processes, the imbalance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. This makes it difficult to localize the process of excitation during the formation of a skill.

Underdevelopment of the psyche at the same time causes various difficulties in the process of developing writing skills in students of the VIII type correctional school. When developing writing skills, the following shortcomings are discovered.

1. Underdevelopment of the small muscles of the hands, weak differentiation of muscle tension.

2. Inaccuracy of individual sensations (visual, kinesthetic, tactile, etc.), insufficient differentiation of perception and ideas.

3. Violation of phonemic hearing.

4. Underdevelopment of analytical and synthetic activities.

5. Gross (in certain groups) impaired motor skills, uncoordinated movements, paralysis, paresis, etc.

As a result, the writing skill is formed over a much longer time than in normally developing schoolchildren.

The mentally retarded have difficulty developing all types of skills: motor, intellectual, sensory, behavior, communication, etc.

18. PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL BASES OF CORRECTIONAL WORK IN CONDITIONS OF SOCIAL DEPRIVATION

The process of psychological and pedagogical correctional work in conditions of social deprivation is complicated by the variety of manifestations of mental retardation. The limiting barrier in this case is the complete or partial lack of communication between a person and the outside world. If correctional work gives a more effective result with a full-fledged level of communication, then in conditions of social deprivation, psychological and pedagogical work does not give the proper result.

Correctional work largely depends on the level of a person's mental development, intellectual and emotional development, and the characteristics of mental performance. Also, the construction of correctional work depends on the combination of the emotional-volitional sphere and the unformed cognitive activity of a person, which manifested themselves in conditions of social deprivation.

The main goal of correctional pedagogical work with preschoolers in conditions of social deprivation is the formation of the basic components of mental development.

The psychological and pedagogical basis of correctional work is divided into two blocks:

1) educational block;

2) correctional and developmental block. The limited communication should be filled in the process of psychological and pedagogical training, which is expressed in preparation for schooling, the organization of corrective action along the main lines of mental development.

Corrective work with children in conditions of social deprivation should activate mental processes, improve the perception of the accessible world around them, and also develop mental and logical operations.

The main tasks of correctional work are the formation of a person’s verbal and logical thinking in conditions of limited communication, the improvement of visual forms of thinking, understanding the cause-and-effect relationships of actions and deeds. In addition, this block includes the correction of speech development, the formation of sound pronunciation, lexical and grammatical categories, vocabulary enrichment and the development of basic speech functions, etc.

In order to implement a correctional pedagogical system in conditions of social deprivation, it is necessary to choose methods that contribute to the intellectual and emotional development of a person, increasing the level of trust between the teacher and the person.

The selected psychological and pedagogical methods should increase the intellectual, emotional levels of human development in conditions of social deprivation.

19. TYPHLOPSYCHOLOGY

Typhlopsychology deals with the study of the patterns of development of the human psyche with partial or complete visual impairment, translated from Greek typhlos - "blind".

As a result, there is a violation of orientation in space, visual-figurative thinking, a change in the work of the senses.

The main purpose of typhlopsychology is to compensate for the complete or partial absence of vision by intensifying the activity of other organs (hearing, smell, touch).

Thinking, logical memory, speech are used, which can partially compensate for the absence or loss of vision. By developing these abilities, the child can navigate in space, communicate with the outside world, and be partially able to work.

People with defects in visual function compensate for it with a heightened "sense of obstacles", intuition, imagination, and logical memory.

Defects are divided into congenital and acquired. Both of these groups belong to the primary somatic defects, which in turn cause secondary defects and dysfunctions of the body (reduced visual acuity, clouding of the lens, etc.). Secondary defects negatively affect the development of mental processes (perception, sensation). Such successive influence of some defects on others causes a further change in the psyche. Such a process can last until the complete disappearance of consciousness and the suspension of mental activity.

Consequently, a direct relationship arises between emerging somatic defects and mental anomalies, entailing further, sometimes irreversible processes in the psyche.

L. S. Vygodsky was the first to analyze the essence and occurrence of defects, as well as their impact on human development in different age groups. He proposed his structure of the defect, the dependence of all somatic defects and the development of the psyche of abnormal children. He also began studying the process of compensation for defects and the results of these deviations reflected in a person’s mental health. L. S. Vygodsky deduced the main task of typhlopsychology, which is expressed in identifying the main laws of psychology in the conditions of the sensory sphere. In addition, he began a theoretical justification for more effective ways of becoming a full-fledged personality. The search for new methods of compensating for developmental defects is one of the priority areas in modern science. Compensation for both acquired and congenital defects must be perceived as a process of adjusting the body (psyche) and acquiring skills to adapt to new living conditions in society.

20. ACTIVITIES OF PERSONS WITH PROPER VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS

With profound visual impairment, the child's activity has a number of specific features. First of all, this is a slow formation of all forms of activity.

Due to poor orientation in the surrounding space and the limitation of the motor sphere, the stages of development of the leading activity are stretched in time. Thus, the transition from objective activity to play activity, and from play activity to educational activity, is slow and often of a mixed nature. There is a significant lag in mental development due to distorted ideas about the surrounding reality. The transition from object-processive games to story games takes longer than for sighted children. As a result of the research of A. M. Vitkovskaya, it was found that blind and visually impaired children have significant difficulties in the formation of objective actions and their transfer to independent activity.

There is a significant discrepancy between the understanding of the purpose of the subject and the possibility of the targeted use of this subject. There are noticeable violations of all structural components of play activity, the stereotypical construction of plot games, and the poverty of practical actions.

In communication, weak communication skills, narrowness of ideas about interpersonal relationships are revealed.

The play activity of children with visual impairment forms the zone of proximal development, expands the scope of active knowledge of the world around, enriches social experience.

As children with severe visual impairment master the game activity, the foundations of productive communication are laid, and the formation of educational activity is facilitated.

Motivation for educational activities is formed in blind and visually impaired children in the process of an active attitude towards the objects of study, the desire to obtain high grades, and the desire to earn the respect of peers. The learning process itself proceeds at a slow pace. At the initial stage of training, this is especially noticeable, since the formation of purposeful movement of the touching hand, the development of self-control over the ongoing process, the automation of correctly choreographed movements, and the development of constructive skills. An analysis conducted by R. A. Kurbanov showed that the most effective way to develop constructive activity in a blind child is to learn the rules of construction as a result of examining a sample, and then creating its model in the imagination.

The inconsistency of a number of psychological and physiological properties of the body with the requirements for a child with profound visual impairment in play, learning and work activities can provoke a number of neurological reactions in him, lead to stressful situations and nervous breakdowns.

21. PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT IN DISORDERS OF THE VISUAL ANALYZER

The development of personality in the conditions of a disturbed visual analyzer has a number of specific features. First of all, this concerns the self-esteem of a blind and visually impaired person. At the age of 4-5 years, the child begins to realize his difference from normally seeing children, and this fact becomes traumatic for him. Severe emotional states occur in people who have recently lost their sight. As a result, low self-esteem, negative character traits are formed, and frequent neurotic reactions occur. Very often there is a fear of unknown space, strangers. T. Rupponen, T. Maevsky were engaged in the study of self-esteem of the blind.

T. V. Korneva in her study emphasizes the ability of blind and visually impaired persons to a subtle understanding of the emotional state of other people.

Family upbringing has a huge impact on the development of the individual. This problem was dealt with by G. A. Butkina and S. M. Khorosh. Their research revealed several types of family relationships.

1. The development of the child's personality in conditions of hyper-care.

2. The development of the child's personality under conditions of despotism.

3. Development of the child's personality in conditions of emotional alienation.

These types of relationships in the family negatively affect the development of the personality of a blind and visually impaired child, hinder the formation of the most important personal criteria, such as will, self-esteem, adequate self-esteem, emotional sensitivity, etc.

The concepts of ethics and norms of behavior present certain difficulties for the visually impaired, since they have very limited experience in observing various interpersonal situations, narrowing the circle of communication compared to normally seeing children.

Studies of the deep structures of the personality of children with visual impairment R. A. Kurbanova, A. M. Velenskaya showed that with properly organized corrective work, children form a positive attitude towards the surrounding reality, they develop purposefulness, the ability to achieve the goal, tolerance for their defect, and many other positive character traits.

Aesthetic, physical, labor education plays an important role in the formation of a person with visual analyzer disorders. In order to improve adaptation to the surrounding reality, to enrich social experience, it is important for the blind and visually impaired to visit theaters, museums, exhibitions, concerts. In order to form the skills of spatial and social orientation, special programs of physical and labor training have been developed.

22. EARLY ONTOGENESIS UNDER CONDITIONS OF BLINDNESS

The development of a child in conditions of blindness should be carried out with the help of a complex of processes that are the basis for the development of a child as a full-fledged personality. The development process is carried out as a transition from one stage of development to another with the simultaneous consolidation of the studied material. Each new level of education is developed on the basis of the mental state of the child, his abilities for a given period. Any stage of vision compensation must correspond to the level of development of the processes of perception, representation, as well as thinking and speech. In addition, the child must learn to actively use the images of various objects in the mind, etc. The development of the child in conditions of blindness should be focused on further entry into a full-fledged society, compensation for his lack of vision and the acquisition of labor skills. The process of learning with blindness is overcoming the psychological experiences that inevitably arise in a child when he realizes the difference between his abilities and the abilities of other children, that is, his shortcomings and the consequences of limitation in a future life.

Any individual program should always be built on the basis of the child's personal experience acquired in the process of development from the moment of birth. Consequently, from what the child managed to master at an early age, what components, skills and amount of information he received from the outside world, his further development will depend. It is practically substantiated that monitoring the development of a child from the moment of birth is a significant criterion for choosing an individual program. Blindness compensation can be divided into two stages:

1) at an early stage, a blind child develops in the same way as a sighted one, this process largely depends on the activity of an adult and the degree of emotional communication with the outside world. At this stage, the child is practically not exposed to the negative influence of blindness, since at this time motor activity develops to a greater extent in a limited space. Up to 5-6 months, both sighted and blind children are in the same conditions;

2) at the second stage, the main work is carried out on the development of the child's speech, since the vocabulary and sounds will be the main basis for further development. Speech as the main means of communication allows you to accelerate the formation of ideas about the world around you, to identify specific actions and movements.

Given the slow formation of the vocabulary of blind children, it is necessary to simultaneously develop a reaction to sounds, sensations of objects and spatial orientation.

23. HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF VIEWS ON THE PERSONALITY OF THE BLIND

In the world literature, the issue of the development of the personality of a person with a complete or partial absence of visual function is little covered. The main object of research at different times was the process of development of personal characteristics of a person, especially a child with a visual impairment.

The level of experiences and the degree of emotionality, receptivity were studied; development of the character of a child in conditions of blindness in comparison with sighted children.

In the process of historical development, society had an ambiguous attitude towards people with visual impairments, ranging from deification to complete destruction as unnecessary individuals who did not bring any benefit to society.

Practically any state has considered and considers blind people as a certain problem of the whole society.

In different eras, the problem of the existence and usefulness of blind people was solved in different ways, thereby expressing their attitude towards them.

Depending on religious doctrines, state policy, dominant worldviews in a particular society, the attitude could be both merciful and, at least, indifferent.

Later, the attitude towards blind people became more loyal, and they could be useful to society, perform some duties: make music, tell legends and prophesy.

Currently, blindness is not an obstacle to a full-fledged life, since the conditions created for people with visual impairments allow them to lead a normal life: get an education in specialized institutions, engage in professional activities, etc.

The world community is constantly developing and implementing programs to support blind people in achieving their goals.

But, despite all the positive aspects, people with visual impairments are still forced to deal with negative attitudes towards themselves and their defect. The stereotype about the physical and mental inferiority of a blind person cannot be eradicated; it can be compensated for by increased attention to the needs of defective people.

In order to change the attitude of society towards the defects of people, it is necessary to change the policy of the world community as a whole and in particular (both on a global scale and in a single state).

The integration of the blind into special communities will make it possible to more fully provide them with everything they need: psychological and general medical assistance, appropriate education, work, etc.

24. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOMOTORIC AND SENSORY PROCESSES

The psyche is a special property of our brain to reflect the external world that exists outside of our consciousness.

This reflection is carried out in the brain of people through their sense organs, with the help of which the energy of external irritation is converted into a fact of consciousness.

The physiological mechanisms of the function of reflecting the external world in our brain are conditioned reflexes that ensure high adaptability of the body to constantly changing environmental conditions.

In the cortex of a sighted person, conditioned reflex activity is due to the influx of stimuli from all analyzers.

However, a sighted person does not use sufficiently, and sometimes not at all, those analyzers that are not leading for him in this act.

So, for example, while walking, a sighted person primarily focuses on vision; hearing and especially touch are used to a small extent.

And only in special conditions, when a sighted person is blindfolded or when moving in the dark (at night), he uses his hearing and touch - he begins to feel the soil with his soles, listen to the surrounding sounds.

But such provisions for the sighted are atypical.

Hence, the increased formation of conditioned reflex connections with hearing and touch during certain motor acts, for example, when walking, is not a vital necessity for a sighted person.

A powerful visual analyzer sufficiently controls the execution of the indicated motor act.

A completely different thing is noted in the sensory experience of the blind.

Being deprived of a visual analyzer, the blind, in the process of orienting themselves in the external environment, rely on other analyzers, in particular on hearing and touch.

However, the use of hearing and touch (for example, when walking) is not of an auxiliary nature, as with a sighted person.

A peculiar system of nervous connections is actively formed here.

This system in the blind is created as a result of prolonged exercises of auditory and cutaneous afferentation, caused by vital necessity.

On this basis, a number of other specialized systems of conditional connections are formed that function in certain forms of adaptation to the external environment, in particular, when mastering labor skills.

25. THINKING AND SPEECH IN CONDITIONS OF IMPAIRED VISION

The process of development of speech and thinking of people with visual impairments is always different from the development of the same processes in people with normal vision. Differences are revealed in the difficulty of establishing a semantic connection between different objects. People with impaired visual function have difficulty classifying the objects around them in everyday life.

Children with a congenital visual defect lag behind their sighted peers in the development of mental activity, that is, visual-figurative thinking in children with visual impairments is poorly developed. At the same time, their thinking process may differ from the thinking of sighted children only in that the idea of the objects and objects around them is formed not visually, but using the organs of smell and touch.

The reasons for this are violations of visual perception and the limited visual-effective experience of the blind and visually impaired.

Children who have lost visual function as a result of the negative consequences of an illness or injury may have a reduced level of attention after increased stress.

After a normal good rest, attention can be restored. In such cases, children automatically begin to use hearing and touch.

In the process of learning, playing, the attention of children with impaired vision can be on the same level as children with normal vision, provided that the rest of their body functions are preserved. It is known that children with congenital defects in visual function use other normally developed sense organs to compensate for the perception of the world.

In some blind and visually impaired disorders of subject generalizations affect the formation of speech.

As for speech, the higher the sensory experience of children with visual impairments, the richer the vocabulary and semantic composition of their speech, the more diverse the relationship between the word and the conceptual content of the objective world.

Studies show that blindness, by changing the nature of some needs, modifies the emotionality of experiences, enhances or reduces the degree of positive and negative emotions.

Especially strongly children with visual impairment experience the moment of loss or sharp deterioration of vision. During this period, a stressful state, high irritability with the inclusion of apathetic reactions and disorganization of behavior up to refusal of activity can occur. But in the process of compensating for defects in mental development, changes in the emotional sphere, children consciously master and control their mood and behavior.

26. COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN BLINDNESS AND LOW VISION

Perception plays an important role for the blind and visually impaired when orienting in space. By sound, they can reproduce a kind of sound landscape of the area, close to the natural landscape. When orienting on the ground, the blind overcome obstacles when choosing the direction of movement according to sounds that are usually not perceived by the sighted. Thus, in blind and visually impaired children, auditory perception is an important support in the knowledge of the world around them, which is necessary for their mental development.

In children with profound visual impairments, in contrast to those with normal vision, there is a decrease in the level of generalization, fragmentation and fuzziness of visual representations. The main reason for the inconsistency of the image with the original is the lack of complete sensory experience as a result of blindness and low vision.

In the process of perceiving objects on the basis of touch and tactile sensitivity, children form ideas about the shape, volume, size and quality of objects. Olfactory representations in children with visual impairments play an important role in their life. A blind person, using his sense of smell, perceives various smells as signals about events taking place around him. Throughout his life, a blind and visually impaired child learns to distinguish between smells, which forms images of representations, which are then used for various kinds of inferences.

The formation of thinking in the blind and visually impaired has a number of features.

Difficulties in establishing semantic relationships between the objects depicted in the picture, difficulties in classifying objects are noted.

Primary school children are characterized by insufficient development of visual-effective and visual-figurative plans of mental activity, which determines the originality of concrete-conceptual thinking and difficulties in solving mathematical problems. The reasons for this are violations of visual perception and the limited visual-effective experience of the blind and visually impaired.

In some blind and visually impaired disorders of subject generalizations affect the formation of speech.

Speech for visually impaired children plays a compensatory function.

According to M.E. Khvattsev, pronunciation deficiencies are noted in blind-born children in 16% of cases, and in children who are blind up to 5-7 years old - only in 6% of cases.

Speech deficiencies affect the communication of children with profound visual impairments, which leads to the appearance of isolation, negativism, autism and other negative personality traits. An unsatisfactory state of vision affects the speed and correctness of reading and writing.

27. IMAGINATION OF THE BLIND

Imagination is one of the forms of the mental process of reflecting reality, which arises as a result of processing existing ideas. Imagination is an integral part of the creative process. A characteristic feature of the imagination is its reliance on specific objects. Reconstruction of imaginary images in the blind and visually impaired may be distorted due to existing sensory limitations. Therefore, to develop the imagination, it is necessary to create connections with kinesthetic, vibrational sensations, thinking, memory, auditory images, speech, which make up for the deficiency of sensory reflection. The combination of these abilities creates the prerequisites for the development of high potential creative abilities in blind and visually impaired children. Compensation for visual deficits using the work of preserved analyzers can involve the occipital areas of the cerebral cortex and cause so-called synesthesia. The mechanism of this type of connection is explained by the proximity of the neuroconducting pathways. Typically, synesthesia occurs spontaneously and cannot be corrected, but nevertheless such “sensations” help the blind person to evoke real visual images, flashes, etc.

There are several types of imagination:

1) passive, which in turn is divided into intentional and unintentional;

2) active, which is divided into creative and recreative.

Passive imagination does not require volitional effort, it is associated with the substitution of real images for fantastic ideas that are far from reality (dreams).

Creative imagination is formed from an early age and carries a productive character. Such imagination stimulates the child to develop the necessary qualities in himself to achieve his dream.

Recreating imagination occurs in children when reading fiction, looking at geographical atlases, listening to texts. In this type of imagination, the leading role is played by the ability of children to empathize with the images presented to them.

As a result of the constant work of a typhlopsychologist and typhlopedagogue, the development of imagination goes in the following directions:

1) at first the image is unclear, then it becomes more precise and definite;

2) at first, two or three signs are reflected in the image, then much more, and significant ones;

3) the processing of accumulated images is at first insignificant, then the storyline can change by children, conventions are introduced. The image becomes more generalized and brighter;

4) first, reliance on a specific object develops, then reliance on a word develops. In the process of learning, with the general development of the ability to control one's mental activity, the imagination becomes an increasingly controlled process, and its images arise in line with the tasks that the content of the educational activity of the blind and visually impaired sets.

28. SPATIAL ORIENTATION OF THE BLIND

The term "spatial orientation of the blind" refers to the process of putting into practice spatial representations that are based on the topographical representations of a blind person.

Topographic representation is a representation of the terrain, objects and objects in this area. This process is based on a complex collection of different images reflected in memory, fixed in a certain form, form, remoteness and relativity of something more memorable. It is easier for people with visual impairments to navigate in space using the reflective, conditioned reflex activity of the brain. All processes of orientation in space are based on the integrative activity of the motor analyzer.

Topographic representations are divided into two groups:

1) map-path;

2) overview map.

The path map is characterized by gradual and specific memorization of all objects on the ground relative to each other, they are compared in size, smell, initial and final landmarks are determined. According to them, a person deprived of vision will continue to navigate in space. The path-map constantly changes as a result of finding a new object on the path, and all the previous terrain criteria change relative to the new object. Thus, spatial landmarks in the form of a path map are constantly changing during the life of a blind person. It is this type of spatial orientation that is considered the most common way of movement for people with visual impairments.

An overview map is a momentary mental coverage of a certain enclosed space.

This type of spatial orientation of the blind is compared with the terrain plan for sighted people. Such a map is compiled by studying all objects on the ground, their mutual distance and determining the main landmarks.

Orientation in space of blind people is the result of many visual analytical systems. But most often the main object, which is the reference point of everything relative to it, is the person himself. From himself, he remembers objects, then determines the distance and, according to this scheme, orients himself in space.

In the process of movement, a person changes the location of all objects relative to himself. L. S. Vygodsky determined the age of a person as the main parameter of spatial orientation. It is necessary to say about the difference in the time account in sighted and blind people: usually people with visual impairments have a more acute sense of time, which is used in spatial orientation as a measuring device for travel time.

29. THE CONCEPT OF TOTAL AND PARTIAL BLINDNESS

Children with a complete absence of visual sensations, those with residual vision (visual acuity of no more than 0,04 on the best seeing eye with correction), or children who have retained the ability to perceive light are considered blind.

Currently, the concept of a “blind child” is considered from the position of defining the leading system of analyzers, on the basis of which pedagogical influence is carried out. Therefore, children of two categories are classified as blind: children who are totally blind and children who are partially blind.

Totally blind children do not have any visual sensations.

Partially blind children have residual vision, the sharpness of which is from 0,005 to 0,04. Such children have light perception, they are able to distinguish a figure or silhouette from the background.

It should be noted that the number of totally blind children is only 3-4%. The main contingent of students studying in special schools for children with visual impairments are partially blind and visually impaired children. Education for blind children is carried out on the basis of the Braille system from textbooks designed for perception through touch. Education of visually impaired children takes place on a visual basis with the use of corrective vision aids.

From the side of the neuropsychic sphere, blind children have the same qualities as sighted children, however, the absence of vision causes a number of specific properties in the blind in his nervous activity, aimed at adapting to the surrounding reality.

The age at which the loss of vision occurred, the localization of the lesion of the visual analyzer area, and the nature of the disease are important.

It is important to determine the mechanisms of compensatory processes in the blind. Finally, severe visual impairment should be taken into account. In this case, it is especially important to single out those forms that are caused by past brain lesions (meningitis, encephalitis, brain tumors, etc.).

Observations show that in those who were born blind or who lost their sight at an early age, its absence often does not cause severe changes in the psyche.

Some blind children have special phobias - fear of large spaces. They can only walk by holding their mother's hand. If such a child is left alone, then he experiences a painful state of uncertainty, he is afraid to take a step forward.

Some originality of nervous activity is observed in persons belonging to the visually impaired. Such children have vestiges of vision that allow them to learn on a visual basis under special conditions in a special class.

30. EMOTIONAL-VOLITIONAL SPHERE OF THE BLIND

The development of the emotional-volitional sphere of people with defects in visual function differs from the development of people with normal vision in many ways. Children born with complete visionlessness have a slightly less pronounced emotional function, as their communication with the world is limited to tactile sensations and perception of sounds. The absence of visual images leads to an increase in the sensitivity of nerve endings and an exacerbation of auditory receptors.

Correction of the emotional and volitional development of a child with a visual impairment is often carried out according to the generally accepted scheme:

1) compliance with the regime of the day;

2) development of a positive emotional sphere;

3) development of arbitrary regulation of activity and self-control;

4) use of motor and cognitive correction;

5) the choice of a certain level of loads of the educational system.

In the process of raising a child with a congenital visual defect or rehabilitation after loss of sight of an adult, a special place is occupied by understanding one’s difference from sighted people, this process is especially difficult for blind children aged 4-5 years, when vision plays an important role in shaping the perception of the world around . Blind people are more acutely and accurately able to recognize the emotional states of a speaking person. Having learned to assess the emotional state of other people, blind people adequately assess such personality traits of their interlocutor as activity, anxiety, embarrassment, secrecy, lies.

The self-esteem of blind people depends on the criterion that is the starting point, or on the opinion of sighted people. Self-esteem most often begins with an assessment of one's appearance.

The development of the will, emotional threshold and character of a blind child depends entirely on the environment and methods of education. A child can grow up as an independent and emotionally developed, strong-willed person, or completely incapable of making the simplest decisions, selfish and emotionally unstable. A third option is possible, when the child grows up and is brought up in an environment where the attitude towards the blind is alienated and cold.

The process of development of the emotional and volitional spheres of the child often forms in him a high self-esteem and a low level of requirements for life. The main conditions for compensating for blindness are communication with peers, relatives and friends, awareness of one's defect and an adequate attitude towards it, understanding one's real possibilities and their realization. Negative results of low self-esteem and inadequate perception of one’s blindness, denial of the possibility of compensation and a fulfilling life can be internal conflicts, conflicts with the outside world, unwillingness to learn to live in conditions of blindness, etc.

31. PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT IN DISORDERS OF THE HEARING ANALYZER

The child's personality is formed gradually in the process of communicative actions with adults and peers, in the process of gaining social experience.

The personality of a child with hearing impairments is formed in conditions of a lack of information coming through the auditory analyzer. This complicates the process of communication with normally hearing people, impoverishes the social experience of the child.

Acoustic perception is of great importance in the formation of the emotional sphere. A child with impaired functions of the auditory analyzer is often deprived of the opportunity to listen to music, the sound of human speech, which leads to a deficit of emotions, simplification of interpersonal relationships. A.P. Gozova notes that deaf children have significant difficulties in understanding the various shades of emotions in other people, they have difficulty forming moral and ethical ideas and concepts.

V. Petshak notes the slow formation of self-control over one's own emotions, feelings, behavior in children with hearing impairment. In an unfavorable social environment, a child with hearing impairments may develop such negative character traits as self-centeredness, rigidity, increased suggestibility, and impulsiveness.

Properly constructed corrective work contributes to the formation in children of a subtle understanding of the surrounding reality, the personal characteristics of other people and interpersonal relationships. The deaf psychologist draws the attention of the child to the study of facial movements, expressive movements in sign speech. Family education is of great importance for the formation of a child's personality. Depending on whether the parents have hearing impairments, the deaf psychologist gives appropriate recommendations for raising a child. So, according to the observations of V. Petshak, deaf children of deaf parents do not differ in emotional manifestations from hearing children, and deaf children of hearing parents experience significant difficulties in enriching their emotional experience, they are more shy and seek solitude.

Interesting are the results of studies on identifying the desire to be a leader: the highest rate was in deaf children of deaf parents (45%); medium - in hearing children (30%); the lowest (5%) is in deaf children of hearing parents. Indicators of sociability and curiosity in deaf children of hearing parents also turned out to be the lowest. This is due to the fact that it is more difficult for hearing parents to communicate with children with hearing impairments, they understand their desires and needs worse, and overprotect them.

An important role in the development of the emotional sphere of a deaf child is played by imagination and inner speech. This ability develops very well in the process of reading fiction, when there is an interest in the experiences of the heroes of the works.

32. ACTIVITIES OF PERSONS WITH DEFECT OF HEARING

The process of formation of active interaction with the environment in people with hearing impairments is slow, since this defect limits the ability to perceive information, thereby inhibiting the processes of intellectual development, mastery of speech, and adaptation to the conditions of the surrounding reality.

The activity of persons with hearing impairment has its own characteristics already at an early age. Thus, in the development of objective activity, the transition from nonspecific to specific actions occurs slowly and unevenly in comparison with normally hearing children. Such children, coping with the task of the need to use a tool, do not always realize the purpose of this or that object, trying to perform actions directly, and not through an auxiliary object. The transition from primitive methods of orientation to more complex ones is much more difficult.

Objective activity forms visual-effective thinking in children, develops the body's compensatory abilities. Learning to play is an important moment in the life of a child with a hearing impairment, as speech, tactile and vibration sensations, and vision develop during the game. In the process of special education, which should begin as early as possible, articulatory images of sounds, words and phrases are formed in children, children begin to master the ability to read speech material from the lips.

The plot-role-playing games of deaf children are stereotyped. Children repeat the same actions several times without making any changes and innovations in the game scenario. The transition from object-processive games to story games takes longer than for normally hearing children. Children experience difficulties in creative reflection of the surrounding reality, paying too much attention to external mechanical actions. The development of thinking and oral speech is facilitated by the formation of tactile (finger) speech.

As children with hearing impairments master the game activity, the foundations of productive communication are laid, the formation of educational activity is facilitated.

The features of the educational activities of children with hearing impairment were studied by E. G. Rechitskaya, who identified a number of problems in the formation of the educational activities of this category of children. Thus, she noted difficulties in solving problems that require a process of analysis and synthesis, the difficulty of applying acquired knowledge in solving new problems, and in appealing to abstract concepts.

E. G. Rechitskaya also revealed a reduced level of self-control in students, which, however, increases through the use of a phased formation of mental actions.

This technique made it possible to form a higher level of self-control among students and improve the results of written work by 2-2,5 times.

Labor activity is characterized by a low level of spatial orientation, slow speed of work.

33. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS IN THE ENVIRONMENT OF THE DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING

A child perceives during the day up to a thousand different visual and approximately the same number of sound stimuli. I. M. Sechenov emphasized the role of the auditory organ in the cognition of the external world, calling it a particularly powerful receptor. But a deaf person does not have hearing, and if there are insignificant remnants of it, then they have no practical significance in the process of cognition.

As for the ways deaf people communicate with the outside world, as well as with each other, this process occurs as follows. The deaf person’s means of communication is a unique language of gestures and facial expressions. The so-called facial-gestural speech arose from natural gestures, with the help of which certain objects and actions were indicated, as well as from a peculiar change in facial expressions, reflecting certain feelings. The facial and gestural speech of the deaf and dumb is extremely poor and primitive in its nature and capabilities.

It is limited to concepts about objects, their actions and feelings, but does not have an integral ability. Thus, the main task of the teacher of the deaf, especially at the initial stages of education, is the development of verbal speech, conceptual thinking, i.e., the second signal system, in the deaf. However, this process is very complicated, a certain sequence is required here. To understand this, one must turn to the neurophysiological mechanisms that underlie the mechanism of the second signaling system, i.e., the normal speech system.

The ability to read lips is a good help in communicating with people around the deaf. It weakens the isolation that a deaf person experiences due to hearing loss, and has a beneficial effect on his psyche and working capacity.

The use of the visual analyzer as a means of communication and the formation of interpersonal relationships in case of hearing loss is also reflected in another form of speech, which is created on the basis of special signs with the help of fingers, the so-called tactile speech.

The development of verbal speech in normally hearing people occurs on the basis of auditory perception.

The deaf have no auditory afferentation. In this regard, attempts have been made to find workarounds to enhance the flow of kinesthesia, which in the deaf is much weaker than normal (therefore, tactile speech is introduced at the initial stage of teaching the deaf).

In the process of tactile pronunciation, in connection with the differentiated movements of the fingers and hands, a stream of kinesthetic impulses arises that go to the brain. This, to some extent, can compensate for the missing auditory afferentation and ensure the formation of motor reflexes in the cerebral cortex.

34. PECULIARITIES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOUCH IN DEAF CHILDREN

A deaf person does not perceive sound signals, therefore, the formation of sound (speech) kinesthesias does not occur in him. However, some information in the speech-motor analyzer can indirectly come from the visual analyzer. The child sees the movements of the lips of the speaking person - lip reading - by feeling the movements of the larynx of the teacher or parents, the deaf person feels various forms of vibration when pronouncing various sounds,

Visual and vibration sensations have not yet been combined with each other, not to mention the fact that in general their influence on the development of speech is much weaker than that of sound kinesthesia. Thus, a kind of workaround is created: instead of a phoneme (sound image), an articuleme (visual perception of a pronounced sound) is used, instead of speech (sound) kinesthesia, vibration kinesthesia is used. Nurturing this workaround for the formation of verbal speech in the deaf, when substitutes are used, is a complex process; it has a certain sequence. Despite the fact that the main task of a teacher of the deaf is the development of verbal speech, nevertheless, at the initial stages of training, facial and gestural speech is used in order to create greater contact with the deaf and come closer to understanding their characteristics, since there are no other means of communication yet. Gradually, the use of facial and gestural speech is limited, and the skill of lip reading becomes an auxiliary technique in teaching the deaf. The skill of reading spoken words from the lips of a speaker is based on the mechanism of the imitative reflex. A deaf person does not perceive by ear the spoken speech of a speaking person, but sees the movements of his speech organs. It is known that the pronunciation of each sound (phoneme) or their complex (i.e. words) is carried out as a result of combined movements of the lips, tongue, jaws, and soft palate. But only part of the sounds is articulated on the periphery of the speech apparatus and is perceived optically. These are vowels, labial and labiodental sounds. Sounds pronounced in the depths of the oral cavity are not perceived by vision.

A student of lip reading systematically observes the movements of the teacher's articulatory apparatus, repeats them (imitates), analyzes and remembers those vibrational sensations (kinesthesia) that arise during the movements of his own speech organs. As a result of systematic training, the student develops the ability to understand by the lips what the interlocutor is talking about. In these cases, the point is not to optically perceive the articulation of each sound in isolation. It is about capturing an articulatory image - a picture, a word or a phrase. Mastering the skill of reading from lips requires a certain amount of tension, hard training, and the development of visual attention. This skill is not given to everyone to the same extent, some master it perfectly and easily read from the lips of the interlocutor, others master the skill weaker.

35. FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITTEN SPEECH IN CHILDREN WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT

The written speech of children with hearing impairment largely reflects the extensive shortcomings of oral speech. However, two main categories of violations of written speech can be distinguished (according to L. S. Volkova).

1. Rough agrammatism, which is expressed in the incorrect use and agreement of prepositions, in the omissions of the main and secondary members of the sentence, etc.

2. The presence of specific errors associated with the existing gross phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment. In this case we are talking about acoustic and articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia.

These variants of dysgraphia are associated with impaired auditory differentiation of sounds. The child displays violations of his own sound pronunciation on the letter. For example, if a child distorts words in oral speech, then in written speech he fixes his mistakes (sunka instead of a bag, half-let instead of a portrait, etc.)

This kind of mistake is made mainly by children in grades 1-2. However, in the process of learning and using compensatory techniques, it is possible to significantly reduce the number of letter substitutions in writing. Such techniques, in particular, include the involuntary memorization of visual images of words: if a child who does not clearly distinguish sound phonemes has read a particular word many times, he visually remembers the correctness of its spelling. Then, during training, a kinesthetic image of words is formed.

For example, if a child who does not hear the sounds [s] and [w] repeatedly read and wrote the word frog, then the spelling "frog" will be unusual for him in terms of visual and kinesthetic sensations.

If both visual and auditory images of sounds are little differentiated (for example, [w] and [w]), compensation for this type of dysgraphia is much more difficult.

In this case, workaround methods are used, which consist in the child learning the rules of inflection and word formation, as well as memorizing the main root morphemes with the sound [u] (for example, they explain to the child that the sound [u] in the designation of items of clothing is only in the word raincoat, therefore , other words denoting items of clothing are written with the letter "sh").

Similarly, work is built on the differentiation of soft and hard consonants.

In addition to the considered types of dysgraphia, often in children with hearing impairments there is a combination of several types of dysgraphia.

M. E. Khvattsev, L. S. Volkova, F. F. Rau, K. G. Korovin, O. V. Pravdina dealt with the problem of the peculiarities of the development of written speech in children with hearing impairments.

36. FEATURES OF SOCIALIZATION OF CHILDREN WITH EASY FORMS OF MENTAL UNDEVELOPMENT

Socialization is the process of assimilation by an individual of social norms and cultural values of modern society. T. Parsons defines socialization as "a social form of perception by an individual of information necessary for the process of adaptation in a social environment; perception implies a personal attitude to the information received."

Features of the socialization of children with mild forms of mental underdevelopment consist in adapting to environmental conditions through familiarization with the norms of behavior, culture, and education. The process of socialization reaches a certain degree of completion when a person reaches social maturity.

The socialization of children with mild intellectual disabilities begins from the moment intellectual disabilities are detected. Various specialized groups are being created in the kindergarten, and correction classes are being created in secondary schools. With an accurate diagnosis of oligophrenia in the degree of debility, children enter special correctional kindergartens and schools of the VIII type. After leaving school, such children continue their education in special schools, where they receive professional knowledge, skills and abilities.

An important place in special schools is given to labor training. It already has a professional character from the 4th grade. In the process of learning to work, teenagers master the professions available to them. The main types of labor studied by students of the VIII correctional school are: carpentry, plumbing, sewing, shoemaking, cardboard-binding, agricultural labor and other various types associated with local production. In addition, in other regions of Russia, original innovative educational programs are being developed and implemented, which contribute to more successful social adaptation and rehabilitation of children with intellectual disabilities and are one of the ways to prepare them for independent life.

If the school has the necessary material base, then classes (groups) with in-depth labor training can be opened in it. Students who have completed the eighth (ninth) grade pass to such classes. Those who have graduated from the eighth (ninth) grade with in-depth labor training and successfully passed the qualification exam receive a document on the assignment of the appropriate qualification category.

In addition to education, the special school provides children with disabilities with medical and psychological support, for which the special school has appropriate specialists on staff. They work in close collaboration with teaching staff, carrying out diagnostic activities, psychocorrectional and psychotherapeutic measures, maintaining a protective regime at school, and participating in career counseling.

37. MENTAL ADAPTATION OF CHILDREN WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES TO THE CONDITIONS OF SCHOOL TRAINING

Getting into the conditions of schooling, a child with intellectual disability experiences a number of difficulties on the part of mental adaptation. Unlike normally developing children, a mentally retarded child is not yet ready for the transition from play to learning activity.

In order to effectively implement adaptation measures in pedagogical practice, three methods are used to construct teacher explanations for completing the task:

1) holistic, when the entire work plan is given as a whole. Children must listen to the entire explanation of all sequential actions and only after that proceed to work;

2) the dictation method is used at the very beginning of training. With it, the verbal instruction is divided into parts and repeatedly repeated to the child at each stage of his action. Verbal instruction can be supported by non-verbal components of speech, by providing various types of assistance to the child;

3) the combined method of explanation includes elements of a holistic and dictation instruction. With him, the familiar part of the task is performed by children according to a holistic instruction, and a new stage of work is performed according to dictation. The leading role in mental education belongs to education, the main form of which is, as in an ordinary kindergarten, a collective lesson. The task facing the learning process is the systematic, consistent communication of program knowledge and skills by the teacher; education in preschool children with impaired intelligence of the ability to learn; formation of skills of educational work, development of speech. The main didactic classes are: classes on the formation of elementary mathematical concepts and teaching literacy. Education of children is carried out strictly in accordance with the schedule.

In order to facilitate the adaptation process, a continuity of educational and training moments, corrective and compensatory measures is created.

Activities related to the adaptation of children with intellectual disabilities to schooling include several aspects.

1. Teaching a child self-care skills.

2. Development of a child's motivation to study at school.

3. Development of a positive attitude towards work in a child.

It must be remembered that the main task of teachers, psychologists, parents is the social adaptation of the child and his integration into society. The child should feel like a person needed by society.

38. COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN PERSONS WITH INTELLECTUAL DEFECTIVENESS

In a mentally retarded child, there is a weak differentiation of sensory cognition, a decrease in the adaptation of the sense organs.

T. N. Golovina notes a decrease in color sensitivity in such children. At the same time, color perception training is extremely slow.

The process of perception is complicated by the slowness of the processes of analysis and synthesis, stiffness, and inertia of nervous processes.

Due to frequent and numerous anatomical and physiological disorders of the visual analyzer, children with mental retardation experience great difficulties in spatial orientation, perception of perspective, light and shade, and depth.

Psychologists note significant deviations in the development of the attention of mentally retarded schoolchildren. L. S. Vygotsky, who was specially engaged in the study of attention, established that the underdevelopment of its higher forms in mentally retarded children is explained by "the discrepancy between their organic and cultural development."

The predominance of involuntary attention over voluntary attention, characteristic of the mentally retarded, is explained by the peculiarities of their neurodynamics: weakness of internal inhibition and pronounced external inhibition. Difficultly regulated external inhibition underlies frequent distractions of attention and its unstable focus. Difficulties in distribution and switching of attention

are caused by pathological inertness of the processes of excitation and inhibition. Since an organic defect that leads to a violation of attention cannot be eliminated by itself, correctional work should be directed towards finding means of educating attention in direct educational and other activities that are adequate to the defect.

The thinking of a mentally retarded child also has its own characteristics. When characterizing this or that object, first-graders of an auxiliary school usually point to its permanent features common to all objects of this kind, and skip the features, peculiar features. In addition, a full-fledged analysis requires that students have the appropriate linguistic means to designate parts of an object and highlight its properties. The absence in the vocabulary of mentally retarded students of the words needed to characterize the parts and properties of an object hinders its cognition to a greater extent, does not allow children to comprehend the role of each part and the connection between the parts.

In the structure of the speech of the mentally retarded, violations of all its aspects are observed: informational, emotionally expressive, and regulatory. Characterized by a poor vocabulary, primitive statements, agrammatisms in writing. It is difficult for such children to act according to verbal instructions, they cannot coordinate speech and activity, comment on what is happening.

The stages of speech development in a child with intellectual disabilities are slow and qualitatively imperfect.

39. DEVELOPMENT OF SENSATIONS AND THEIR CORRECTIONAL ROLE IN IMPAIRED INTELLIGENCE

Sensations are an act of the cognitive process, arising from the direct impact of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality on the analyzers, while only a reflection of individual properties of objects occurs.

The most holistic reflection of reality is perception.

Sensations and perceptions refer to sensory cognition. The development of sensory cognition in a mentally retarded child is an important aspect of the formation of mental processes (mental education).

Sensory education is aimed, firstly, at improving individual analyzers and their correct use for the accumulation of sensory experience; secondly, on the formation of perceptual actions in children - the actions of examining, listening, feeling, i.e., the formation of systems of sensory standards; thirdly, learning how to solve progressively more complex sensory tasks; fourthly, on the timely and correct connection of sensory experience with the word.

The combination of what the child perceives with the word denoting the perceived helps to fix the images of objects, their properties and relationships in the representation, makes these images clearer, more generalized. The development of perception in all cases proceeds from the distinction of objects, their qualities, relations to their perception on the basis of the image, and then to the fixation of the image in the word. Sensory education is carried out by a teacher-defectologist and educator both in special classes and in the process of everyday life.

Classes are held in the following areas: the development of visual perception, auditory perception and attention, tactile-motor and taste perception.

The starting point of all cognition is sensations, which are directly related to the activity of various sense organs.

Consequently, the more perfect the activity and interconnection of analyzers, the better the process of cognition.

The formation of sensory functions in abnormal children proceeds in a certain sequence.

First, ideas about the size, color, shape of the object are formed, that is, visual representations, and then spatial representations.

Violations of spatial representations in mentally retarded children become especially noticeable during manual labor, drawing, and physical education.

Visual perception also has its own characteristics. Children do not distinguish between colors close in spectrum, objects similar in shape, etc.

40. APPLIED ASPECTS OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY

At various stages of human worldview and attempts to cognize what is still beyond human consciousness and explanation, a person first of all tried to cognize himself and his own kind. In our time, such disciplines as the physiology of higher nervous activity, the physiology of sensory systems and, finally, psychology have been created.

Based on the mechanisms of sensory, abstract and logical cognition, psychological processes represent only some aspects of psychology. Many psychological processes are considered at the level of a patient who is undergoing a special course of treatment directly with the use of medications, advice and recommendations from a psychiatrist. The application and development of many treatments can take place as a dialogue between doctor and patient (conversational psychotherapy). In mental processes, memory is an integral part, with the help of which it is possible to unite human activity, which includes biophysiological and mental processes. The implementation of the above processes at a given point in time is due to the fact that many events that have already occurred, long ago or not so long ago, in a certain way modified the state of the organism. In the phase of recognition and memorization, representation and thinking can be distinguished. In special psychology, scientists also distinguish secondary images, which in everyday life are called representations. Psychologist J. Bruner for a separate study in special psychology identifies strategies for receiving information with a certain formation of concepts.

The famous psychologist L. S. Vygotsky singles out natural mental functions, that is, what a person already has from birth, and what he acquires in the process of growing up and upbringing. With the help of personal improvement of a person, a conscious reflection is formed at the subconscious level.

In turn, Z. Freud singles out the conscious and unconscious layers of the human worldview.

Applied aspects of special psychology include the study of correctional and compensatory work, the purpose of which is to help people with congenital and acquired defects become more productive members of society. Social adaptation of people with developmental defects is carried out with the aim of increasing the level of adequacy of reaction to new living conditions.

In the process of rehabilitation of children with developmental defects, the positive aspects of joint education in mixed groups with normally developing children are used.

41. SOCIAL INTEGRATION IN THE SOCIETY OF A CHILD WITH DEVELOPMENTAL PROBLEMS

Integration into society of people with disabilities is their direct and equal participation in all spheres of life.

The social integration of a child with developmental disabilities is a complex social process, consisting of many aspects of people's life.

Integration is divided into "educational", "social", "internal", "external", etc. The basis of any integration is the concept of normalization, the essence of which is expressed in the equality of people with developmental defects and the generally accepted living conditions of the whole society.

The social integration of children with developmental problems is supported by many international acts: Declarations on the rights of persons with disabilities, on the rights of the child, on the rights of persons with intellectual disabilities, etc. Social integration of an abnormal child should begin at the early stages of self-awareness. The child needs to learn to fulfill his needs in society: the need for love, a normal environment for further development, education, participation (if possible) in public life.

The problem of social integration of children in Russia lies in the lack of readiness to accept children with developmental disabilities in preschool and educational institutions.

The absence of a program that allows the educational process to be carried out in mixed groups or in general in general educational institutions with the presence of such children negatively affects their further social development.

In order to increase the effectiveness of the social integration of children with developmental problems, social adaptation takes place in specialized institutions. In such specialized schools, labor and psychological preparation is carried out for "entry" into a full-fledged society.

Also, in such conditions, rehabilitation is most fully carried out in various processes (educational, psychological) using special techniques aimed at the simultaneous use of medical, educational and educational work.

Modern society has opened up new aspects and opportunities for integrating an abnormal child into society, so professionally oriented teachers (social teachers) are called upon to teach children with developmental disabilities to gradually “enter” society, psychological adaptation, and awareness of their capabilities.

42. THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN CONDITIONS OF DISTURBED DEVELOPMENT

Children with developmental disabilities need special conditions and teaching methods from the moment this deviation is identified. At the moment, there are two known forms of teaching children with disabilities: at home and in specialized educational institutions. The education of such children comes down to correctional pedagogical work. One of the main goals of teaching children with developmental disabilities is to correct the child’s mental and physical abilities and prepare him to perform certain independent actions.

The meaning and role of teaching children with developmental disorders was more accurately revealed by V. S. Lednev, who defined the structure of this concept. Based on his theory about the education of such children, the education of abnormal people can be expressed in a socially organized process of transferring knowledge and skills from one generation to another under certain conditions.

Education of people with defects differs from the program of education of normal people in form, content, which is based on three main aspects:

1) cognitive (training), which provides a person with practical experience;

2) educational (education), in which the physical, mental and typological properties of a person’s character are educated;

3) educational (development).

Education in conditions of impaired development is based on the process of learning experience, the role of education and further development is secondary, but all three processes are interconnected and inseparable from each other.

All correctional and pedagogical work is aimed at correcting deviations in the development of children with abnormal defects.

In practice, the conduct of educational work should meet only one requirement: the training and adaptation of abnormal people to a full life in society by overcoming mental and physical developmental deficiencies and learning to apply new knowledge. The process of adaptation in a social society of people with abnormal development should be carried out simultaneously in all areas: cognitive, aesthetic, labor, etc. full member of society.

In the process of corrective development, the state of a person with defects is constantly changing, moral, physical, mental skills are developing. A person learns to control his activity, acquires social and labor experience.

43. PROBLEMS OF AGE PERIODIZATION OF DYSONTOGENESIS

Developmental psychology involves the study of the patterns of development of psychology and human personality at different stages of dysontogenesis.

All stages of personality formation and each separately are under the constant influence of specific patterns of development, which include various achievements, education, awareness of one's significance.

There are several options for studying the problem of age periodization of dysontogenesis. Russian defectologists, psychiatrists and speech therapists have developed and proposed theories of human personality development.

A. N. Leontiev determined the criteria for age periodization on the basis of the leading types of activity, which has a further impact on the development of human psychological processes at each specific stage.

D. B. Elkonin’s theory of age periodization is based on the leading activities that are responsible for the emergence of images based on psychological perception at each specific stage of human development.

A.V. Petrovsky proposed three phases of age periodization: adaptation, individualization, integration, each of which represents a process of communication between a person (child) and group members. He views personality development based on these three phases. All the main problems in the formation of a person’s personality are formed under the influence of many factors: social conditions, psychological conditions of the environment, etc. He also noticed that the same factors can have different influences on the formation of personality at different stages.

L. S. Vygodsky proposed three groups of age periodization: the first group is characterized by the construction of age periodization according to an external sign, at this stage the criterion of periodization develops; the second group is characterized by the formation of internal criteria, most often this is one side of personality development. L. S. Vygodsky paid special attention to the fact that the use of only one side of personality development is very subjective. A negative sign of the use of one side of development is the temporality of this criterion, which has a changeable character depending on the age of the person; the third group of age periodization is characterized by the simultaneous use of several criteria for personality development.

L. S. Vygodsky suggested using mental neoplasms as a criterion, which should correspond to each age group and at the same time use the terms "stable periods of development" and "unstable periods of development" of the personality.

44. PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION OF CLASSIFICATIONS OF DEFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT

The classification of deviant development is determined by both biological and social factors.

The biological ones are:

1) malformations of the brain associated with changes in the genetic material (gene mutations, hereditary metabolic disorders, etc.);

2) intrauterine lesions (toxicoses of pregnant women, infectious diseases of pregnant women, intoxications, injuries, etc.).

Social factors in the occurrence of dysontogenesis include:

1) pedagogical neglect;

2) personal development in adverse social conditions.

L. S. Vygotsky was one of the first to propose a classification of deviant development. It includes three types of defect.

1. Damage or deficiency of the sensory organs (blindness, deafness, deaf-blindness).

2. Damage or lack of parts of the response device, working bodies (cripples).

3. Lack or damage to the central nervous system (dementia).

G. E. Sukhareva distinguishes three types of deviant development from the standpoint of pathogenesis.

1. Delayed.

2. Damaged.

3. Distorted.

G.K. Ushakova and V.V. Kovaleva distinguish two main types of mental dysontogenesis.

1. Retardation.

2. Asynchrony.

The basis of the most widely used classification proposed by V.V. Lebedinsky was the development of scientists on disorders of human mental development:

1) retardation - delayed development. In this case, phenomena of delayed maturation of all mental and psychophysical aspects of development are observed;

2) maturation dysfunction - an intermediate type between deviant and normal development;

3) damaged development - local damage to any analyzer or structures of the brain;

4) asynchrony - distorted development. It is a disproportionate development of various aspects of mental development, when against the background of a pronounced advanced rate of development of some functions, there is a delay in others.

V. V. Lebedinsky classified deviant development as follows:

1. Underdevelopment.

2. Delayed development.

3. Damaged development.

4. Deficit development.

5. Distorted development.

6. Disharmonious development.

45. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THINKING IN CHILDREN WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT

Thinking is a complex cognitive mental process, which consists in a generalized mediated and purposeful reflection of reality, the process of searching for and discovering something new.

Human thinking is inextricably linked with speech and cannot exist outside of it. The word is a kind of material shell of thought. The deeper and more thoroughly a thought is thought out, the more vividly and clearly it is possible to express it in words, and vice versa, when it is possible to express this or that thought in a more perfect verbal form, it becomes more distinct and understandable not only for others, but also for oneself.

It is not surprising, therefore, that in deaf children, who master verbal speech much later than hearing children, it is in the development of mental activity that there are significantly more specific features than in other cognitive processes.

Despite the general principles of development of thinking characteristic of the deaf and hard of hearing, there are individual features. So, for example, when performing arithmetic problems, I. M. Solovieva and T. V. Rozanova managed to identify five main types of solving arithmetic problems.

The first type is characterized by "least penetration into the content of the task." In such cases, the objective content of the problem is understood by the deaf child only partially, and the solution is made on the basis of external connections between individual words that are understandable to him and arithmetic operations.

The second type of solution is the simplification of the content of the problem and the replacement of complex subject relations in it with simpler ones. Children solve the problem based on its content, understood in their own way, in a simplified form.

The third type - deaf children understand the subject content of the problem, but are not yet able to find the correct solution.

The fourth type - deaf schoolchildren correctly understand the condition of the problem, solve it correctly, but still cannot give themselves a clear account of the objective meaning of the result obtained.

Finally, the fifth, highest level of problem solving is characterized by the correct solution of the problem and the correlation of the result obtained from the arithmetic calculation with the subject content of the problem.

As a result of research, T. V. Rozanova identifies five groups of children:

1) with a relatively high level of development of visual and verbal-logical thinking;

2) with an average level of development of visual and verbal-logical thinking;

3) with a low level of development of visual and verbal-logical thinking;

4) with a high level of development of visual thinking and a low level of development of verbal-logical thinking.

46. FEATURES OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN WITH DOWN SYNDROME

Patients with Down's syndrome are characterized by significant mental retardation, with intelligence ranging from complete idiocy to the lower limit of mental development of normal people, although brain mass is usually normal or only slightly reduced. Children with this disease are often able to attend a special school.

Currently, special education and training programs for children with Down syndrome have been developed. Usually they are sleepy, good-natured, even affectionate, easily distracted from any activity, noticing something more interesting.

Patients easily come into contact with others and often imitate them. Children with Down syndrome are very suggestible and trusting, they love to serve someone.

Abstract thinking in Down's syndrome is sharply suppressed, so not all patients can learn to count even prime numbers.

Their aesthetic sense is absolutely not developed. With age, mental retardation becomes more and more noticeable. Development often stops at the level of a three-year-old child.

The emotional excitability of those affected by Mongoloid idiocy is closely related to how seriously the endocrine glands - the adrenal glands and the thyroid gland - are affected by the disease. As a rule, an endocrinologist detects a violation of the functions of almost all endocrine glands.

There is a gross underdevelopment of the functions of perception. The reaction to the environment is weak or inadequate.

Self-consciousness is vague. Thinking is underdeveloped.

In addressed speech, intonations and accompanying facial expressions and gestures are of great importance.

Features of one's own speech depend on the depth of the phenomena of underdevelopment.

Emotions are elementary and mostly associated with physical well-being, physiological needs.

The source of pleasure and primitive manifestations of joy are somatic well-being, a feeling of satiety, warmth, satisfaction of pathological desires (gluttony, masturbation, sucking fingers, chewing inedible objects).

The feeling of displeasure is caused by a feeling of cold, hunger, pain, somatic discomfort.

Forms of expression of affect are primitive: joy is manifested in motor excitement, expressive cry and facial expressions; in a state of anger, aggression, a tendency to self-harm are observed.

47. FEATURES OF GENERAL MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

In modern psychology, the concept of “psychomotor” is explained as the main type of objectification of the psyche in sensorimotor, ideomotor and impulsive reactions and acts. The concept of “psychomotor” in Russian science is associated with the name of the Russian physiologist I.M. Sechenov, who was the first to identify the important role of muscle movement in cognition of the surrounding world. Scientific findings in the field of psychology by I.M. Sechenov became the main theoretical basis for the further development of all psychology in this direction. He is the author of the conclusions about psychomotority as objectification in muscle movements of all forms of mental reflection. He also studied the motor analyzer, which performs epistemological and praxeological functions. Subsequently, based on this discovery, I.M. Sechenov identified the psychodiagnostic significance of psychomotor indicators). These psychomotor indicators can be defined as subjects of activity in various types of human motor activity.

Based on the level of motor development of a person, one can characterize his development, thinking, predict further changes in his life and the process of social growth as an individual.

Ananiev proposed four levels of activity in the process of motor development:

1) the level of human (individually) activity as a program that has developed historically, and the means and operations as a result of which material and spiritual values of society appear;

2) the level of an individual act of activity;

3) the level of so-called "macro movements", which are the basis for building movements;

4) the level of so-called "micro-movements", which together create a general level of macro-movements.

A number of domestic physiologists have proposed adding to the concept of "motor development":

1) the activity of the individual;

2) the actions of the individual;

3) arbitrary reactions of the individual;

4) movements of the individual.

N.A. Bernstein added his explanations to this definition. He proposed to consider actions as a chain of specific movements that are united by a common task. According to N.A. Bernstein, voluntary reactions are a process of interaction between various functional systems of an individual. Any production reactions in time ensure a reflection of the real situation. The scheme proposed by N.A. Bernstein is a four-stage system:

1) the formation of a nerve signal as a result of the impact of a stimulus on the receptor;

2) the process of transmission of the nerve signal to the cortical centers of the analyzer;

3) assessment of the situation, transfer of the decision made to the motor centers of the cortex;

4) the process of transmitting a nerve signal to muscles.

48. PARTICULAR BEHAVIOR IN PERSONS WITH INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENTS

Children suffering from oligophrenia, in the vast majority, adequately perceive the world around them, but the process of perceiving this world is inactive. This leads to the fact that the representations of these children are usually fuzzy and poorly differentiated.

Reduced reactivity of the cortex in the mentally retarded creates conditions that contribute to the formation of fuzzy, insufficiently differentiated ideas about objects and phenomena of the outside world. Developed conditional connections are fragile and quickly fade away. Usually, details, secondary signs of objects and phenomena are poorly or not fixed at all.

Such children sometimes have inadequate reactions and insufficiently meaningful forms of behavior.

Many authors note violations of volitional activity in oligophrenics. Outwardly, this is expressed in chaotic behavior, the predominance of movements and actions of an involuntary nature. The weakness of the will in many children is also expressed in the fact that they easily submit to someone else's influence, do not show perseverance and initiative in achieving the goal. Their behavior is impulsive. Hence the inability to restrain their feelings and desires.

For those suffering from oligophrenia in the degree of idiocy, immobility is characteristic (sitting or lying in beds); sometimes they have monotonous obsessive movements. Others are more restless: they repeat the same stereotyped movements or actions for a long time.

All these movements and actions are automated, aimless and chaotic. Some idiot children respond to stimuli coming from the environment, but the responses are primitive and monotonous.

Sometimes responses are inadequate and delayed. Idiot children often lack speech. They poorly understand speech addressed to them and more often react to intonation. Their behavior depends on the state of biological needs: they are calm when they are full, warm and dry, and show anxiety when they are in unfavorable conditions. Such children experience impulsive outbursts of anger and anger, which are expressed in violent motor agitation, screaming, aggressive actions towards themselves or others (scratching, biting, etc.).

In milder cases of idiocy, there is a relatively large dynamic in development. Children react more quickly to environmental stimuli. They form static reflexes, functions, speech begins to develop (pronounce separate words). In some of them, during classes, vocabulary increases, an understanding of short phrases arises. Sometimes there is a feeling of attachment to the persons who care for them, but this attachment is unstable. Music has a calming effect on most children.

In the process of long and hard work, children acquire some self-service skills.

49. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSISTANCE TO A CHILD OF EARLY AGE IN THE FORMING SYNDROME OF CHILDHOOD AUTISM

Autistic children are characterized by increased sensitivity to various sensory stimuli: temperature, tactile, sound and light. The usual colors of reality for an autistic child are excessive, unpleasant. Such an impact coming from the environment is perceived by an autistic child as a traumatic factor. This forms an increased vulnerability of the psyche of autistic children. The environment itself, which is normal for a healthy child, turns out to be a source of a constant negative background of sensations and emotional discomfort for an autistic child. A person is perceived by an autistic child as an element of the environment, which, like herself, is a superstrong irritant for him. This explains the weakening of the reaction of autistic children to a person in general and, in particular, to loved ones. On the other hand, the rejection of contact with loved ones deprives the autistic child of truly human psychological support. Therefore, the child's parents, and primarily the mother, often act as emotional donors.

It is known that the insufficiency of the first signaling system, manifested in an autistic child in the form of hyperesthesia, and its pronounced selectivity determine the presence of disturbances in the second signaling system. The lack of need for contact indicates that the communicative sphere of an autistic child is deficient and depends on the degree of perfection of both sensory and affective processes.

The insufficiency of the communicative sphere of an autistic child is also manifested in the peculiarities of his speech: both in autism, speech cliches, echolalia, and in the immaturity of facial expressions and gestures - factors accompanying speech utterance. At the same time, the insufficiency of the structural components of the communicative sphere in autism is accompanied by an undeveloped motivation for communication in children.

The autistic child insulates himself from uncomfortable stimuli with various types of stereotypes. Such forms of compensation allow the child to exist more or less painlessly in the outside world. Stereotypes can occur in almost all activities of an autistic child. In this regard, their manifestations are variable. So, for example, in the motor sphere, motor stereotypes arise in the form of monotonous movements and manipulations with objects that form pleasant sensations in the child (spinning any objects; playing with only one toy; running or walking in a circle).

50. METHOD OF SPEECH THERAPY IMPACT IN VARIOUS SPEECH PATHOLOGIES

Speech therapy in Greek means "education of correct speech."

The science of speech therapy studies speech disorders, identifies, develops, and offers methods and means of eliminating speech disorders through special training and education. Speech pathologists, within the framework of speech therapy, study the root causes, symptoms, and structure of speech disorders.

The subject of speech therapy is speech disorders and the selection of an individual learning process. The object of speech therapy is a person suffering from a speech disorder.

The structure of speech therapy includes preschool, school and speech therapy for adolescents and adults.

The goal of speech therapy is to develop a methodology for preventing speech disorders in children, teaching people with speech disorders.

The method of speech therapy influence is the development of people's speech, the correction of various disorders.

Speech therapy includes:

1) development of sensory functions;

2) development of speech motor skills;

3) development of cognitive activity (thinking, memory, attention);

4) development of the child's personality with subsequent correction of social relations;

5) teaching the child to communicate in a social environment.

The methodology of speech therapy influence is conditionally divided into four groups:

1) organizational methodology consists of comparative, longitudinal, complex methods;

2) the empirical methodology consists of observational (observation), experimental (laboratory, natural, formative or psychological and pedagogical experiment), psychodiagnostic (tests, standardized and projective, questionnaires, conversations, interviews), praximetric examples of activity analysis, including speech activities, biographical methods (collection and analysis of anamnestic data);

3) quantitative methodology (mathematical and statistical analysis) and qualitative analysis of the data obtained;

4) interpretive technique (research of connections between the studied phenomena).

In the methodology of speech therapy influence, technical means are actively used, which ensure the objectivity of the study. These include intotonographs, spectrographs, nasometers, video speech, phonographs, spirometers, as well as X-ray film photography, glottography, cinematography, and electromyography. All technical means are designed to study the dynamics of speech activity and its individual components. These methods of speech therapy can, if not eliminate, then reduce speech, psychological disorders. Speech therapy techniques are auxiliary to achieve the main goal of pedagogical influence - the education of a person.

51. STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF SPEECH ABILITIES. WAYS OF THEIR FORMATION

In common practice, two aspects of structural speech abilities are distinguished:

1) plan or basic structure;

2) detail plan.

R. Engelhardt, in his book "Merry Exam Prayer Book", expressed his opinion about the structure of speech: "Books with a small number of sections are like a poorly ventilated room. They cause respiratory diseases." The formation of speech occurs consciously, a person selects words so that the expression of thoughts sounds harmonious and understandable. Training should be carried out from an early age in compliance with certain principles for the formation of the structure of speech.

The structure of speech components must comply with the following principles:

1) speech must be logically understandable and skillful from the point of view of psychology;

2) the structure of speech should be visible and harmonious in terms of increasing tension. Children in the process of learning the correct formation of speech must learn the rule of "three parts": a sentence should consist of an introduction, main part and conclusion.

The first part of the sentence - the introduction - is necessary in order to attract the attention of the listeners. Most often, this is the name of a person or the general name of a group of people to whom the speaker is addressing.

The second part - the main part of the speech structure - is the main segment of the speech, containing the main topic, all the key points of the speech (explanation, examples, proofs of theorems, etc.).

The third part of the speech - conclusion - includes generalizing thoughts, conclusions, short review conclusions for each chapter or section.

In the process of forming the structure of speech

it must always be remembered that the result must be an effective impact on listeners who understand the essence of the speaker's thoughts. If one main idea is expressed, then the structure of speech is most often homogeneous. If several different thoughts are expressed, then the structure of speech should be multi-level, each level of speech contains one thought, connecting transitional segments of speech must be inserted between different semantic levels. A person must learn to form speech in such a way that, expressing different thoughts, his speech can be coherent. Transitional parts of speech act as a link between different semantic parts. Oratory is based on the correct formation of structural components and personal abilities of a person. The effectiveness of speech depends on how well its structure is formed.

52. PRINCIPLES OF BASIC CLASSIFICATIONS OF MENTAL DELAYS

The main classifications of mental retardation are built according to the degree of severity, as well as according to the etiopathogenetic principle.

The delay in mental development is manifested primarily in a slowdown in the rate of mental development.

In some cases, children have a delay in the development of the emotional-volitional sphere, in others - a slow development of the cognitive sphere.

As a result of research, K. S. Lebedinskaya identified four main options for mental retardation based on the etiopathogenic principle:

1. Constitutional origin. In this case, mental and psychophysical infantilism is observed (a holistic structure of mental and physical signs of immaturity, unusual for a given age - "childishness").

M. S. Pevzner identifies the following variants of infantilism:

1) psychophysical infantilism with underdevelopment of the emotional-volitional sphere with intact intelligence - uncomplicated harmonic infantilism;

2) psychophysical infantilism with underdevelopment of cognitive activity;

3) psychophysical infantilism with underdevelopment of cognitive activity, complicated by neurodynamic disorders.

4) psychophysical infantilism with underdevelopment of cognitive activity, complicated by underdevelopment of speech function.

2. Somatogenic origin. With this variant of ZPR, mental and physical asthenia is observed, caused by long-term chronic diseases. In children, there is rapid exhaustion, an inability to concentrate their attention for a long time, such character traits as timidity, timidity are formed. These children often have low self-esteem.

3. Psychogenic origin. The main factors in the formation of this type of mental retardation are unfavorable conditions of education, which lead to persistent shifts in the development of the neuropsychic sphere of the child. As a result, the child develops pathological character traits. Anomalies in the educational approach to the child in the family can lead to a delay in his volitional development, cognitive activity, intellectual interests, and moral attitudes. With hypo-custody, the child has an unformed sense of duty and responsibility. Such a child is extremely suggestible, impulsive, with difficulty learning school subjects. Under the conditions of hyper-custody, such personality traits as egocentrism, selfishness, installation on constant help and guardianship are formed.

4. Cerebral-organic origin. This variant of ZPR is associated with organic damage to the central nervous system in the early stages of ontogenesis.

53. INTERNAL PICTURE OF "DISEASE" WITH DISTURBED INTELLIGENCE

Childhood dementia is divided into two groups.

The first group is a state of decline in intelligence of a non-gradient nature, when the disease process does not progress and development occurs on the basis of oligophrenia.

The second group in dementia is dementia. This includes children with an ongoing disease process leading to a decrease in intelligence (psychosis, schizophrenia, etc.). Considering the clinical and pedagogical characteristics of an oligophrenic-moron child, we can say that the clinical picture of mental retardation can be very close to this characteristic and sometimes requires an in-depth study of the child and long-term observation of him for differential diagnosis.

According to K. S. Lebedinskaya, mental retardation (MPD) has four forms: cerebro-organic; constitutional; psychogenic; somatogenic.

In the clinical picture of oligophrenia, it is customary to distinguish three statuses: physical, or somatic, neurological, mental.

Oligophrenia is a group of disease states that are different in etiology and pathogenesis, which are characterized primarily by two features:

1) the predominance of an intellectual defect;

2) lack of progression (progression).

The clinical concept of oligophrenia should be understood as congenital or acquired in early infancy (up to 2-3 years old) non-progradient morbid states of the psyche, which are the result of underdevelopment or perverse development of the brain and are characterized from the clinical side primarily by a violation of normal mental activity.

According to the severity of an intellectual defect, different degrees of oligophrenia are distinguished:

1) light - debility;

2) moderate severity - imbecility;

3) heavy - idiocy.

According to the etiology (causes of development), two main groups of oligophrenia are distinguished:

1) endogenous forms (hereditary);

2) exogenous forms (acquired). Endogenous forms arise as a result of disturbances in the genetic apparatus at various levels: chromosomal (Down's disease); genome (phenylketonuria); genomic (Shereshevsky-Turner, Klinefelter syndromes).

Chromosomal diseases have common characteristics: they do not have a clear clinical picture, i.e. the same abnormalities in the chromosomal apparatus in different people can give different phenotypic manifestations - the clinical picture.

In most chromosomal diseases, there is a decrease in intelligence, impaired reproductive function, similar changes in the skeleton, and common external features.

54. PERSONAL ACCENTUATIONS IN MENTAL RETARDATION

Psychopathic-like states (i.e., resembling psychopathy in their manifestations) are secondary and appear after some period of time after the development of the underlying disease.

Unlike mental illness, psychopathy is not characterized by progressive development and the emergence of a personality defect.

With mildly expressed character deviations that do not reach the level of pathology and under normal conditions do not lead to disruption of adaptation, they speak of character accentuation. This is not a disease, but one of the normal variants and implies the individual characteristics of each person. But in a traumatic situation, decompensation can also occur in an accentuated personality.

Lack of upbringing is of great importance in the development of psychopathy in a mentally retarded child.

In modern psychiatry, there are many classifications of psychopathy and character accentuations.

Mentally retarded children may experience the following forms of psychopathy.

1. Anxious psychopaths. This form is most often manifested by the fear of the dark, animals, the fear of being alone at home, the fear of strangers. On the basis of anxiety, enuresis, neuroses, obsessions, other neurotic states, all forms of behavioral disorders up to crimes with acts of violence can appear.

2. Hyperthymic psychopaths. These are always cheerfully tuned, very impulsive and restless natures with indomitable agility. They are not able to concentrate, often deceive.

3. Excitable psychopaths. From early childhood, the most common manifestations of this psychopathy are the child's screaming, slight excitability, restlessness, disturbed sleep with frequent awakenings, startling in sleep, sometimes with twitching of the muscles of the face, arms and legs during sleep. Increased excitability can be combined with fearfulness.

4. Ambitious psychopaths. These children tend to go far beyond the normal and legitimate desire to become the object of universal admiration and attention.

5. Weak-willed psychopaths. This form of psychopathy is characterized by inconstancy and instability of aspirations, as well as a lack of endurance in their implementation.

Such children are lethargic, clumsy and easily susceptible to any influence. In combination with dementia, spinelessness is a serious phenomenon from a socio-prognostic point of view. Such children especially need professional and social-pedagogical activities.

6. Emotionally stupid psychopaths. This category of children is characterized by a weak development of feelings of affection, sympathy and social inclinations, which manifests itself from early childhood. Children with such a mental defect draw attention to themselves with their exceptional selfishness, shamelessness, passion to cause suffering and malice.

55. COMPENSATION FOR HEARING LOSS DURING THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRESERVED ANALYZERS

The leading mechanisms through which the knowledge of the external world is carried out are normally visual and auditory analyzers.

A child perceives during the day up to a thousand different visual and approximately the same number of sound stimuli. I. M. Sechenov especially emphasized the role of the auditory organ in the cognition of the external world, calling it a particularly powerful receptor. But a deaf person does not have hearing, and if there are insignificant remnants of it, then they have no practical significance in the process of cognition.

The neurophysiological mechanisms of the cognitive process are the first and second signal systems. These systems closely interact, creating as a result of their activity both concrete-figurative and abstract thinking. Despite the fact that the auditory receptor falls out of the composition of the receptor components that make up the first signal system, cognition is nevertheless carried out on the basis of the remaining analyzers, of which visual, vibrational and tactile acquire particular importance in these cases. All these analyzers undoubtedly intensify their activity due to the tendencies towards the interchangeability of functions that exist in the central nervous system.

The deaf person’s means of communication is a unique language of gestures and facial expressions. The so-called facial-gestural speech arose from natural gestures, with the help of which certain objects and actions were indicated, as well as from a peculiar change in facial expressions, reflecting certain feelings. The facial and gestural speech of the deaf and dumb is extremely poor and primitive in its nature and capabilities.

The development of oral speech is based on the reflex feedback mechanism. Incoming external stimuli conduct sound signals into the cortex, which enter the speech-motor cortex through the speech-auditory analyzer. As a result of excitation of the cells of this section, impulses are sent to the organs of speech articulation. In turn, the movements of the speech organs (during the speech process) form kinesthetic impulses (speech kinesthesia), which, in the form of feedback, enter the speech motor analyzer, which regulates the work of these articulatory organs.

56. EXPANDING THE OBJECT OF MODERN SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY

According to the Scientific Center for Children's Health of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, today 85% of children are born with developmental disabilities and poor health, of which at least 30% require comprehensive rehabilitation. The number of children who require correctional and pedagogical assistance reaches 25% in preschool age, and according to some data - 30-45%; at school age, 20-30% of children need special psychological and pedagogical assistance, and over 60% of children belong to the group risk.

The number of children with borderline developmental disorders is increasing, which cannot be unambiguously attributed to any of the traditionally distinguished types of mental dysontogenesis.

Special preschool and school educational institutions have been opened for children with developmental disabilities in Russia. They create educational conditions that should ensure optimal mental and physical development of these children.

These conditions primarily include an individualized approach, taking into account the characteristics of each child. This approach provides for the use of special educational programs, methods, necessary technical training aids, the work of specially trained teachers, psychologists, speech pathologists, etc., the combination of training with the necessary medical preventive and therapeutic measures, certain social services, the creation of the material and technical base of special educational institutions and their scientific and methodological support.

Currently, there is a wide variety of special educational institutions. Along with specialized children's educational institutions (DOE) and special (correctional) schools, in which children enter as a result of careful selection and in which special educational programs approved by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation are implemented, non-state institutions, rehabilitation centers, development centers, mixed groups, in where there are children with different disabilities, often of different ages, due to which the implementation of a unified educational program becomes impossible and the role of individual psychological and pedagogical support of the child increases.

At the same time, in mass kindergartens and secondary schools there are a large number of children who are disadvantaged in psychophysical development. The severity of these deviations may be different. A significant group consists of children with mildly expressed, and therefore, difficult to detect deviations in the development of the motor, sensory or intellectual spheres. Therefore, it is very important to timely identify not only children with severe developmental disorders, but also children with minimal deviations from the normative development.

Author: Astafieva O.P., Imasheva E.G.

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