Lecture number 42. The concept of emergency

The thousand-year practice of human activity shows that it is impossible to achieve absolute security in any type of activity. Therefore, any activity is potentially dangerous. Emergencies, from whatever reasons they arise, have a negative impact on nature and man.

The main causes of emergencies:

1) internal:

a) the complexity of technologies;

b) insufficient qualification of the personnel;

c) design flaws;

d) physical and moral deterioration of equipment;

e) low labor and technological discipline;

2) external:

a) natural disasters;

b) an unexpected power outage;

c) gases of technological products;

d) terrorism;

e) war.

Emergencies can occur when:

1) the presence of a source of risk (pressure, explosives, radioactive substances);

2) the action of risk factors (gas release, explosion, fire);

3) being in the lesions of people, farm animals and land.

An analysis of the causes and course of development of emergencies of a different nature revealed their common feature - staging. There are five stages (periods) of emergency development:

1) accumulation of negative effects leading to an accident;

2) the period of development of the catastrophe;

3) an extreme period during which the main share of energy is released;

4) damping period;

5) the period of liquidation of consequences.

Emergencies call the circumstances arising as a result of natural, natural disasters, accidents and catastrophes of man-made, environmental origin, military, social and political nature, causing a sharp deviation from the norm of life of people, the economy, the social sphere or the natural environment.

In the literature, the concept of "extreme situation" is often used, which reflects the impact on a person of dangerous and harmful factors leading to an accident or excessive negative emotional psychological impact. Extreme situations (ES) include:

1) injuries at work;

2) fires;

3) explosions;

4) traffic accidents;

5) circumstances that can lead to injuries of varying severity.

Emergencies - events of great scale, covering a large territory and threatening a large number of people.

In general, emergencies can be considered as a combination of emergencies and ES. ES under certain conditions can develop into an emergency.

The combination of ES and emergency situations is called a dangerous situation.

Natural disasters - these are dangerous phenomena or processes of geophysical, geological, hydrological, atmospheric and other origin of such scales in which catastrophic situations arise, characterized by a sudden disruption of people's life, destruction and destruction of material values.

The concept of risk

The public's perception of risk and hazards is subjective. People react sharply to events accompanied by a large number of one-time victims. At the same time, frequent events that result in the death of a few or small groups of people do not cause such a tense attitude.

Every day, 40-50 people die at work in the country, and more than 1000 people die in the country as a whole. But this information is less impressive than the death of 5-10 people in one accident or any conflict. Acceptable risk includes mechanical, economic, social and political aspects and represents some compromise between the level of safety and the ability to achieve it. Distinguish individual и social risk.

Individual risk characterizes the danger of a certain type for an individual.

Социальный, or group is a risk for a group of people. Social risk can be defined as the relationship between the frequency of events and the number of people affected.

Risk value (R) can be calculated using the formula:

R=n/N,

where n is the number of accidents;

N is the total number of people.

Let's consider four methodical approaches to the definition of risk.

1. Engineeringstatistically based calculation of frequencies, probabilistic safety analysis.

2. Model based on building models of the impact of harmful factors on an individual, social, professional groups, etc.

3. Expert, in which the probability of events is determined on the basis of a survey of experienced specialists, i.e. experts.

4. Sociologicalbased on a population survey.

These methods reflect different aspects of risk. Therefore, they must be used in combination.

Accidents is damage to a machine, machine tool, installation, production line, power supply system, equipment, vehicle, building or structure.

Catastrophe - an event with tragic consequences, a major accident with loss of life: a plane crashed, there are casualties. There are the following types of disasters:

1) environmental catastrophe - a natural disaster, a major industrial or transport accident (catastrophe), which led to extremely unfavorable changes in the habitat and, as a rule, to massive damage to flora, fauna, soil, air and nature in general;

2) industrial or transport accident - a major accident that entailed human casualties and significant material damage;

3) man-made disaster - a sudden, unforeseen release of mechanical, chemical, thermal, radiation and other energy.

1. Accidents at chemically hazardous facilities

The safety of the functioning of chemical enterprises depends on the physical and chemical properties of raw materials and products, the nature of the technological process, the design and reliability of equipment, storage and transportation conditions, the state of instrumentation and automation equipment, the preparedness and practical skills of personnel, and the effectiveness of emergency protection equipment.

Chemical waste leaks occur as a result of explosions and destruction of tanks and process pipelines. The most important characteristic of HOV - toxicity - the degree of toxicity, characterized by a threshold concentration, tolerance limit, lethal concentration or lethal dose.

Threshold concentration - this is the amount of a substance that can cause a negative physiological effect: only the primary signs of damage are felt, while working capacity is maintained.

Portability limit - this is the maximum concentration that a person can withstand a certain time without permanent damage.

According to the degree of impact on the body, CWs are divided into four hazard classes:

1) extremely dangerous;

2) highly dangerous;

3) moderately dangerous;

4) low-hazard substances.

The HOB hazard class is set according to the most stringent indicator characteristic of a given substance.

The damaging concentrations of chemical warfare are determined by their physicochemical properties:

1) state of aggregation of matter;

2) its solubility in water and organic solvents;

3) density and volatility of the substance;

4) specific heat of evaporation and heat capacity of the liquid;

5) saturated vapor pressure;

6) boiling point, etc.

Accident classification:

1. Accidents as a result of explosions causing the destruction of the technological scheme, engineering structures and the complete or partial cessation of production.

2. Accidents, as a result of which the main or auxiliary technological equipment, engineering structures are damaged and the production of products is completely or partially stopped, and more costs are required to restore production.

1) private - an accident, either not related to the release of SDYAV, or due to a minor leak of toxic substances;

2) object - an accident associated with the leakage of SDYAV from technological equipment or pipelines;

3) local - an accident associated with the destruction of a large single container or an entire warehouse of SDYAV. The cloud reaches the residential area, evacuation from the nearest residential areas and other relevant activities are carried out;

4) regional - an accident with a significant release of SDYAV;

5) global - an accident with the complete destruction of all storage facilities with SDYAV at large chemically hazardous enterprises.

2. Accidents at radiation hazardous facilities

At present, almost any branch of the economy and science uses radioactive substances and sources of ionizing radiation.

Typical radiation-hazardous objects include:

1) nuclear power plants;

2) enterprises for the manufacture of nuclear fuel;

3) enterprises for the processing of spent fuel and disposal of radioactive waste;

4) research and design organizations with nuclear reactors;

5) nuclear power plants in transport.

Radiation accidents are divided into:

1) local - violations in the operation of the ROO, in which there was no release of radioactive products or ionizing radiation beyond the provided boundaries of equipment, technological systems, buildings and structures in quantities exceeding the values ​​​​established for the normal operation of the enterprise;

2) local - violations in the work of the ROO, in which there was a release of radioactive products within the sanitary protection zone in quantities exceeding the established norms for this enterprise;

3) general - violations in the work of the ROO, in which there was a release of radioactive products beyond the boundaries of the sanitary protection zone in quantities leading to radioactive contamination of the adjacent territory and possible exposure of the population living on it above the established norms. Possible accidents at nuclear power plants and other radiation hazardous facilities are classified according to two criteria:

1) for typical violations of normal operation;

2) by the nature of the consequences for personnel, the public and the environment.

When analyzing accidents, the chain "initiating event - flow paths - consequences" is used..

The protection of personnel and the public consists in early zoning of territories around radiation-hazardous objects. In this case, the following three zones are established:

1) emergency zone - this is the territory in which the dose of exposure to the whole body during the formation of the radioactive trace may exceed the upper limit established for evacuation;

2) precautionary zone - this is the territory in which the dose of exposure to the whole body during the formation of a radioactive trace or the dose to internal organs may exceed the upper limit established for shelter and iodine prophylaxis;

3) restricted zone - this is the area in which the dose of irradiation of the whole body or its individual organs per year can increase the lower limit for food consumption. The zone is introduced by decision of state bodies.

Sources of ionizing radiation are divided into natural (natural) and technogenicassociated with human activities, natural sources include:

1) cosmic rays;

2) terrestrial radiation, which creates a natural radiation background, which for a person in one year is approximately 1,4 meV (0,14 rem).

Man-made radiation:

1) medical equipment used for diagnostics and treatment gives up to 50% of man-made radiation;

2) industrial enterprises of the nuclear fuel complex;

3) the consequences of nuclear weapons tests.

3. Accidents at fire and explosion hazardous facilities

Fire - this is burning, as a result of which material values ​​​​are uselessly and irretrievably destroyed and damaged, and a danger to human life and health is created.

Pozharo- And explosive objects (PVOO) enterprises that produce, store, transport explosive products or products that, under certain conditions, acquire the ability to ignite or explode.

According to explosive, explosion-fire and fire hazards, air defense facilities are divided into five categories, objects belonging to categories A, B, C are especially dangerous.

Category A - oil refineries, chemical plants, pipelines, oil product storages.

Category B - workshops for the preparation and transportation of coal dust, wood flour, powdered sugar, sacking and grinding departments of mills.

Category B - sawmills, woodworking, carpentry, model, sawmill production.

Category D - warehouses and enterprises associated with the processing and storage of non-combustible substances in a hot state, as well as with the combustion of solid, liquid or gaseous fuels.

Category D - warehouses and enterprises for the storage of fireproof substances and materials in a cold state, such as meat, fish and other products.

Characteristics of accidents at fire and explosive facilities.

Airborne accidents include:

1) fires followed by an explosion;

2) gaseous (liquefied) hydrocarbon products;

3) fuel-air mixtures and other explosive substances.

To the damaging factors of accidents on PVO relate:

1) air shock wave with the formation of fragmentation fields;

2) thermal and light radiation and, as a result, air pollution in the affected area with carbon monoxide and OM.

The nature and degree of damage to people depends on the degree of their protection:

1) heavy injuries are expressed by severe concussion, loss of consciousness and numerous complex bone fractures;

2) average - dislocations of limbs, contusion of the brain, damage to the hearing organs;

3) lungs - short-lived functional disorders.

The main issues of fire safety of objects (enterprises) are set out in Building codes and regulations.

The fire protection of objects depends on the purpose of buildings, their fire resistance and operation mode, the number of people who are simultaneously in the room, the amount of combustible materials and substances in enterprises, and other factors.

For each object, a specific fire mode - a set of certain fire safety measures and requirements established for a facility and subject to mandatory compliance by all employees of this facility.

It is determined by the rules, instructions, orders and orders of the head of the enterprise.

One of the promising areas to ensure fire safety of objects is the installation of fire automatics.

To report a fire, you can use:

1) electrical (EPS);

2) automatic (APS);

3) sound fire alarm systems;

4) beep;

5) siren;

6) telephone;

7) radio communication.

Currently, enterprises use beam and ring electric fire alarms.

4. Traffic accidents

Today, any form of transport is a potential danger.

The main causes of accidents and disasters in railway transport:

1) track malfunctions;

2) rolling stock malfunctions;

3) malfunction of the signaling means;

4) centralization and blocking;

5) dispatcher errors;

6) inattention and negligence of drivers.

When transporting dangerous goods such as gases, flammable, explosive, poisonous and radioactive substances, explosions and fires are possible. It is very difficult to eliminate such accidents.

One of the main problems of our time has become the provision of traffic safety in road transport.

Approximately 75% of all traffic accidents occur due to violations of traffic rules by drivers. At what a third Accident - a consequence of poor training of drivers. The most dangerous types of violations still remain:

1) speeding;

2) exit to the lane of oncoming traffic;

3) drunk driving.

The peculiarity of the accident is that 80% of the wounded die in the first three hours. Blood loss during the first hour is so great and strong that even a brilliantly performed operation is useless. First aid is very important here. However, the level of medical training of traffic police officers is low, the training of the population and drivers is also insufficient. First-aid kits, which should be in every car, without which they do not pass inspection, are often understaffed.

That is why the death rate from traffic accidents is 10-15 times higher in our country than in other countries.

Despite the measures taken, the number of accidents and disasters in air transport is not decreasing. Serious consequences lead to:

1) destruction of individual aircraft structures;

2) engine failure;

3) violation of the operation of control systems, power supply, communications;

4) poor piloting;

5) lack of fuel;

6) interruptions in the life support of the crew and passengers.

Most major accidents and disasters on ships occur under the influence of:

1) hurricanes;

2) storms;

3) fogs;

4) ice;

5) through the fault of people.

Many accidents occur due to errors in the design and construction of ships. Half of them are the result of inept exploitation. All crew members are involved in the work to eliminate the consequences of accidents, disasters and rescue drowning people. The captain supervises all work as the head of civil defense. Main goals:

1) rescue of people in distress;

2) the struggle for the buoyancy of the ship;

3) fire suppression;

4) elimination of holes.

The following are involved in the ship salvage work:

1) special rescue vessels;

2) tugs;

3) fire boats;

4) crews of other floating craft;

5) special units for rescue, ship-lifting and hoisting and technical work.

5. General characteristics of emergencies of natural origin

Natural emergencies have threatened the inhabitants of our planet since the beginning of civilization. The amount of damage depends on the intensity of natural disasters, the level of development of society and living conditions.

Natural emergencies have been on the rise in recent years. Volcanoes are becoming more active (Kamchatka), earthquakes are becoming more frequent (Kamchatka, Sakhalin, the Kuriles, Transbaikalia, the North Caucasus), and their destructive power is increasing. Floods become almost regular, landslides along rivers and in mountainous areas are not uncommon. Ice, snowdrifts, storms, hurricanes and tornadoes occur in Russia every year.

Natural emergencies are divided into:

1) geological;

2) meteorological;

3) hydrological;

4) natural fires;

5) biological;

6) space.

All natural emergencies are subject to some general patterns:

1) for each type of emergency, a certain spatial confinement is characteristic;

2) the greater the intensity (power) of a dangerous natural phenomenon, the less often it happens;

3) each natural disaster is preceded by some specific signs (harbingers);

4) with all the unexpectedness of a particular natural emergency, its manifestation can be predicted;

5) in many cases, passive and active protective measures against natural hazards can be provided.

At present, the scale of the use of natural resources has increased significantly, as a result, the features of the global environmental crisis have become tangible. Compliance with the natural balance is the most important preventive factor, taking into account which will reduce the number of natural emergencies.

There is a mutual connection between all natural disasters. The closest relationship is between earthquakes and tsunamis. Earthquakes cause fires, gas explosions, dam breaks.

When planning protective measures against natural disasters, it is necessary to limit secondary consequences and ways of appropriate preparation as much as possible, and try to completely eliminate them.

Any part of the earth's surface can be exposed to a natural disaster, i.e., a certain risk. A simple equation has been deduced, with the help of which you can understand what this risk depends on:

Risk \uXNUMXd f (Pa, Pb, Pcb, C),

where f is a factor that is different for different kinds of catastrophes;

Pa is the probability of catastrophes calculated from the number of previous catastrophes;

Pb is the probability of occurrence of qualitatively destructive processes during catastrophes;

Pcb - external conditions (population density, nature of buildings, social and political relations);

C - consequences of catastrophes.

A prerequisite for successful protection against natural emergencies is the study of their causes and mechanisms.

6. Geological emergencies

Natural disasters associated with geological natural phenomena include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, mudflows, snow avalanches, landslides, precipitation of the earth's surface as a result of karst phenomena.

Earthquakes - These are tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface that arise as a result of sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth or upper part of the mantle and are transmitted over long distances in the form of elastic vibrations. Earthquakes have always caused varying degrees of mental disorders in people, manifested in abnormal behavior.

Richter scale - seismic scale magnitude, based on an estimate of the energy of seismic waves that occur during earthquakes.

There are two groups of anti-seismic measures:

1) preventive, preventive measures carried out before a possible earthquake;

2) activities carried out immediately before, during and after the earthquake.

The set of phenomena associated with the movement of magma in the earth's crust and on its surface is called volcanism.

Magma - this is a molten mass of predominantly silicate composition, formed in the deep zones of the Earth. Reaching the earth's surface, magma erupts in the form of lava.

Лава differs from magma in the absence of gases escaping during an eruption.

Volcanoes are divided into:

1) active;

2) asleep;

3) extinct.

Volcanic eruptions are long and short-term.

There are three main types of eruptions:

1) effusive (Hawaiian);

2) mixed;

3) strombolian;

4) extrusive (dome).

The interdependence of volcanic activity and earthquakes has been noticed. Preventive measures include changing the nature of land use, building dams to divert lava flows, bombarding the lava flow to mix the lava with the ground and turn it into a less liquid mass, etc.

Landslide - sliding displacement down the slope under the action of gravity of the soil masses that form the slopes of hills, mountains, river, lake and sea terraces.

Landslides are not catastrophic processes in which people die, but the damage they cause to the national economy is significant.

Seli - short-term brown floods on mountain rivers, having the character of mud-stone flows. Mudflows can be caused by earthquakes, heavy snowfalls, downpours, and intense snowmelt.

Avalanche - this is a snowfall, a mass of snow falling or sliding from the mountain slopes under the influence of some kind of influence and entraining new masses of snow on its way. An earthquake can be one of the triggers for an avalanche.

Anti-avalanche preventive measures are divided into:

1) passive;

2) active.

Passive methods consist in the use of supporting structures, dams, avalanche cutters, gouges. Active methods consist in artificially provoking an avalanche at a pre-selected time and subject to safety measures.

7. Meteorological emergencies

Meteorological emergencies can be caused by the following reasons:

1) wind, including storm, hurricane, tornado (at a speed of 25 m/s or more, for the Arctic and Far Eastern seas - 30 m/s or more);

2) heavy rain (with precipitation of 50 mm or more for 12 hours or more, and in mountainous, mudflow and rainy areas - 30 ml or more for 12 hours);

3) large hail (with a hailstone diameter of 20 mm or more);

4) heavy snowfall (with precipitation of 20 mm or more in 12 hours);

5) strong snowstorms (wind speed of 15 m/s or more);

6) dust storms;

7) frosts (when the air temperature during the growing season on the soil surface drops below 0 °C);

8) severe frost or extreme heat.

These natural phenomena, in addition to tornadoes, hail and squalls, lead to natural disasters, as a rule, in three cases: when they occur in one third of the territory of the region (krai, republic), cover several administrative regions and last at least 6 hours.

The movement of air relative to the earth is called wind. The strength of the wind is measured on the Beaufort scale.

Urahan is a cyclone in which the pressure in the center is very low, and the winds reach great and destructive force. Wind speeds can reach 25 km/h. Sometimes hurricanes on land are called storms, and at sea - storms or typhoons.

Storm is a wind whose speed is less than the speed of a hurricane. However, it is quite high and reaches 15-20 m/s.

Hurricanes are divided into tropical and extratropical.

Hurricanes are one of the most powerful forces of the elements and, in terms of their detrimental effects, are not inferior to such terrible natural disasters as earthquakes.

Storms are divided into eddy and flow storms.

Vortex storms are dusty, snowy and squall. In winter they turn into snow. In Russia, such storms are often called blizzard, snowstorm, snowstorm.

Dust storms - These are atmospheric disturbances, in which a large amount of dust is raised into the air, transferred over considerable distances.

Tornado - this is an atmospheric vortex that occurs in a thundercloud and then spreads in the form of a dark sleeve or trunk towards the surface of the land or sea.

A tornado usually occurs in the warm sector of a cyclone and moves along with the cyclone at a speed of 10–20 m/s. A tornado travels a path from 1 to 60 km long. A tornado is accompanied by a thunderstorm, rain, hail and, if it reaches the surface of the Earth, it almost always causes great destruction, sucks in water and objects that are on its way, lifts them high up and carries them over long distances. A tornado at sea is a danger to ships. A tornado over land is called a blood clot, in the USA - tornado.

It is extremely difficult to predict the place and time of the appearance of a tornado, therefore, for the most part, they arise suddenly for people, and it is all the more impossible to predict their consequences.

8 Wildfires

The concept of natural fires includes forest fires, fires of steppe and green areas, peat and underground fires of fossil fuels.

Most typical cases of forest fires:

1) a burning match, a cigarette butt is thrown;

2) careless handling of weapons;

3) non-compliance with safety rules;

4) making fires in places with dried grass, in a cutting area, under the crowns of trees, etc.;

5) burning grass in forest clearings, clearings or near the forest;

6) a piece of glass thrown in a sunny place focused the sun's rays like an incendiary lens;

7) economic work in the forest (uprooting, blasting, burning garbage, building roads, power lines, pipelines, etc.).

Forest fires are classified according to:

1) the nature of the fire;

2) propagation speed;

3) the size of the area covered by the fire.

If you find yourself in the forest during a fire, then the direction opposite to the fire can be prompted by birds and animals that run away from the fire in the opposite direction.

Peat fires move slowly, several meters per day. They are especially dangerous due to sudden bursts of fire from the underground hearth and the fact that its edge is not always noticeable and you can fall into the burnt peat. Therefore, in case of fire, peat bogs must be avoided, and if necessary, move along the peat field only in a group, and the first in the group must check the soil as the sixth, as when moving on thin ice. A sign of an underground fire - the ground is hot, smoke comes out of the soil.

A small fire (width of the edge - up to 1 km) can be stopped by a group of 3-5 people in half an hour or an hour even without special means. For example, with a broom of green branches, a young tree (1,5-2 m), burlap, tarpaulin or clothing, knocking down the flame. The fire must be overwhelmed, swept away towards the source of the fire, small flames must be trampled under foot.

Another common technique is to throw earth at the edge of the fire.

The fight against forest fires is primarily carried out by the state service, which has its own airbases, fire and chemical stations, a patrol service, etc. Large forces and equipment used by professionals can be concentrated in one place in the region.

9. Biological emergencies

The zone of biological contamination is the territory within which infection is possible. Biological emergencies include epidemics, epizootics and epiphytoties. The causative agents of infectious diseases are pathogenic (pathogenic) microorganisms (or their toxins - poisons).

Epidemic - the widespread spread of an infectious disease among people, significantly exceeding the incidence rate usually recorded in a given territory.

Pandemic - an unusually large spread of morbidity both in terms of level and scale of distribution, covering a number of countries, entire continents and even the entire globe.

Among many epidemiological classifications, the classification based on the mechanism of transmission of the pathogen is widely used.

Infectious diseases are classified according to the type of pathogen - viral diseases, rickettsiosis, bacterial infections, protozoal diseases, helominthiases, tropical mycoses, diseases of the blood system.

Epizootics. Infectious animal diseases are a group of diseases that have such common features as the presence of a specific pathogen, the cyclical nature of development, the ability to be transmitted from an infected animal to a healthy one and to take epizootic spread.

Epiphytoty. To assess the scale of plant diseases, concepts such as epiphytoty and panphytoty are used.

Epiphytoty - the spread of infectious diseases over large areas over a certain period of time.

Panphytotia - mass diseases covering several countries or continents.

Preventive measures against the spread of infectious diseases are a set of anti-epidemic and sanitary-hygienic measures, early detection of patients and those suspected of the disease by going around the houses, strengthening medical supervision of the infected, their isolation or hospitalization, sanitization of people and disinfection of premises, terrain, transport, disinfection of food waste, sewage, sanitary supervision of the mode of operation of life support enterprises, sanitary and educational work. Epidemiological well-being is ensured by the joint efforts of health authorities, the sanitary-epidemiological service and the population.

10. Space emergencies

Kosmos - one of the elements that affect earthly life. We list some of the dangers that threaten man from outer space.

Asteroids - These are small space objects, the diameter of which ranges from 1-1000 km.

The meeting of our planet with celestial bodies is a serious threat to the entire biosphere. Calculations show that the impact of an asteroid with a diameter of about 1 km is accompanied by the release of energy ten times greater than the entire nuclear potential available on Earth. The energy of one impact is estimated at 10 erg.

The main means of combating near-Earth asteroids and comets is nuclear-rocket technology.

It is supposed to develop a system of planetary defense against asteroids and comets, which is based on two principles of protection, namely, changing the trajectory of the OKO and destroying it into several parts. Solar radiation is a powerful health-improving and preventive factor, the distribution of solar radiation at different latitudes is an important indicator that characterizes different climatic and geographical zones, which is taken into account in hygienic practice when solving a number of issues related to urban planning, etc. The totality of biochemical and physiological reactions, occurring with the participation of light energy, is called photobiological processes. Photobiological processes according to their functional role can be conditionally divided into three groups.

The first group of provides the synthesis of biologically important compounds (for example, photosynthesis).

Ко second group include photobiological processes that serve to obtain information and allow one to navigate in the environment (vision, phototaxis, photoperiodism).

The third group - processes accompanied by harmful consequences for the body (for example, destruction of proteins, vitamins, enzymes, the appearance of harmful mutations, oncogenic effect).

The most biologically active is the ultraviolet part of the solar spectrum, which at the Earth's surface is represented by a stream of waves in the range from 290 to 400 nm.

The bactericidal effect of artificial UV radiation is used to disinfect drinking water.

However, the effect of UV radiation on the body and the environment is not limited to a beneficial effect. Excessive solar exposure leads to the development of severe erythema with swelling of the skin and deterioration of health. The most common eye damage when exposed to UV rays is hyperemia, conjunctivitis, blepharospasm, lacrimation and photophobia appear.

Authors: Alekseev V.S., Zhidkova O.I., Tkachenko I.V.

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