Commercial activity. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Commercial activity. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Table of contents

1. Business and entrepreneurship. Concept and essence

Business and Entrepreneurship - one of the main elements of a market economy, without them the state cannot develop intensively. Business and entrepreneurship affect the rate of economic growth of the state, the structure, volume and quality of the gross national product.

Recently, concepts such as "business" and "entrepreneurship" have begun to mix and lose their original meaning.

One of the most common definitions today says that a business is any activity aimed at making a profit, carried out by selling goods and services that are in demand.

However, there are other definitions that are more adapted to real conditions, for example: business is an entrepreneurial activity that is carried out by subjects of a market economy and government agencies at their own expense or borrowed funds under their own responsibility and whose main goals are to make a profit and develop their own enterprise.

Entrepreneurship or entrepreneurial activity is an independent activity of citizens and their cooperatives, associated with risk, carried out under their own responsibility, aimed at generating income from the use of property, the sale of goods, the performance of work or the provision of services by persons, in accordance with the law.

It is difficult to separate these concepts, since they are equivalent, but, of course, there are differences.

Business, like entrepreneurial activity, is divided by the size of its implementation into large, medium and small.

They differ significantly both in production volumes, and in the size of fixed assets, and in labor and financial resources. Big business is one of the foundations of the modern economy, and small and medium-sized businesses are an important indicator of its state and development.

Entrepreneurship as the basis of business involves one's own business, which is always associated with the danger of losing it and losing the expended material and intellectual resources.

For the intensive development of business and entrepreneurship, certain conditions and factors are necessary:

1) entrepreneurial ability, personal interests, creative ideas, benefits;

2) the existence of free space in the market or the likelihood of market expansion;

3) the possibility of increasing profits;

4) the ability to economically use resources, innovation;

5) the possibility of predicting crisis situations and ways to resolve them.

2. Main signs and features of entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship plays a key role in the formation and development of market relations. World experience shows that the more opportunities for individual entrepreneurs for their activities, the higher the pace of development of the country's economy. Therefore, it is very important to create favorable conditions in the country for the development of entrepreneurial activity.

Entrepreneurs face both economic and organizational and legal difficulties in their practical activities. Entrepreneurial activity has two sides - economic and legal.

From an economic point of view, entrepreneurship plays a certain role in the development of the economy of any country. According to Schumpeter, entrepreneurs are "economic entities that carry out new combinations in their activities." The function of entrepreneurs is to implement innovations that play a significant role in the development of the economy.

Innovations include the introduction of advanced technologies, new products, the development of new sources of energy and raw materials, the search for markets with a shortage of goods, the use of modern personnel policy and wage systems, the introduction of organizational innovations, etc.

Therefore, in the economic aspect, entrepreneurship is an innovative activity, and the entrepreneur himself can be considered as the bearer of an innovative idea.

The content of the essence of an entrepreneur and entrepreneurial activity has changed with the history of the formation of commodity-market relations, the development of exchange, the production of new types of goods and the distribution of goods and services; the development of scientific and technological progress is also of great importance.

The entrepreneur, in addition to the desire to get the maximum possible profit, also sets as his goal the establishment of the production process, the constant resumption of production cycles. Therefore, in order to achieve the set goals, it is necessary to quickly respond to all, even minor changes in the market, and monitor consumer sentiment. Entrepreneurship is not just any business, it is a special form of management in which everything new is inherent, while business is an activity in the production of goods and services, distribution and sale of goods and services without innovation, without the initiative to promote the application of new scientific and technological developments . Thus, the same product is produced from year to year, its sale is carried out in the same markets, despite the fact that demand is falling, and interest in the product is fading, the sale occurs according to the classical established pattern.

There are 4 main areas of entrepreneurship:

1) production;

2) commercial;

3) financial;

4) the sphere of consumption.

3. Factors of entrepreneurial activity

Entrepreneurship, in principle, can be done by everyone, since it is a public activity, but not every person has the opportunity and ability to entrepreneurship. According to Russian law, any citizen capable of acting can be an entrepreneur.

Entrepreneurial activity can go in two directions:

1) direct production of any goods, product or service;

2) the implementation of intermediary functions to promote the goods from the producer to the consumer.

Business Factors - this is everything that an entrepreneur uses in his activities, this includes both the means of production and the circulation of goods in the form of human resources, material resources, information and finance involved in production that require transportation.

In part, these factors are available to the entrepreneur himself.

If the entrepreneur does not have such factors, then it is possible to purchase these factors from their right holders (owners) for a certain cost; with their help, the entrepreneur produces and sells goods to the consumer.

If the factors are the goods necessary for the consumer, then the entrepreneur acts as an intermediary dealer.

As a result of entrepreneurial activity, the goals set by the entrepreneur are realized. The main objectives of entrepreneurial activity are:

1) profit from capital, financial, resource and material resources spent on a particular activity for a certain period of time;

2) satisfaction of consumer demand, its specific needs.

Of course, there are many more goals and in a broad sense we can talk about the following goals:

1) the accumulation of funds to expand production, to conquer new markets and increase capital;

2) stimulating the motivation of employees, increasing interest, increasing labor productivity;

3) orientation of customer demand for these products.

To achieve the goals, specific tasks of entrepreneurial activity are determined and solved in accordance with the policy of the enterprise. The purpose of the organization forms the direction and methods of entrepreneurial activity. The tasks of entrepreneurial activity and their solution, which lead to the achievement of the set goals, can be divided into two areas:

1) a set of tasks, the implementation of which positively affects the success of the innovative activity of the entrepreneur;

2) a set of measures to increase the efficiency of production processes or intermediary activities.

4. Forms of entrepreneurship

The success of entrepreneurial activity is associated with the correct choice of its form, especially organizational and legal, since this directly affects the efficiency of the enterprise. At the present stage in Russia, this issue is quite acute in the transition to an entrepreneurial type of management. A significant drawback, which greatly slows down the creation and development of entrepreneurship, is a weak legislative and regulatory framework. It is easier for small and first-time organizations in this regard; the situation is more complicated with large, especially privatized enterprises. The growing bureaucratic apparatus puts more and more obstacles in the way of entrepreneurs. The choice of the form of entrepreneurship in any case will be faced by a specific manager. Those forms of entrepreneurship are effective that, under certain conditions, allow the most profitable use of financial and material resources, industrial and social infrastructure, labor, intellectual and natural resources, existing economic and market relations.

According to the form of ownership, there are personal, private (including private-collective), state, municipal and mixed enterprises. There are also several types of entrepreneurship; there is no single classification. Entrepreneurship is also divided by scale into small, medium and large (corporate); are considered by the breadth of territorial coverage (local, regional, national and interstate) and by sectoral focus (industrial, agricultural, construction, transport, trade, etc.).

The cornerstone is the organizational and legal aspects of entrepreneurship. Recently, some changes have taken place in the classical structure - it has expanded.

The choice of the form of economic activity is determined by the amount of capital and the responsibility of the entrepreneur for the results of his activities.

Of great importance here are such factors as the scale of the proposed activity, its types, sectoral orientation, the economic situation in the country and in the region, state policy and the social structure of society.

All this must be taken into account and calculated when drawing up a business plan. Only a comprehensive consideration of all factors and conditions helps to answer the question of which of the organizational and legal forms will be most effective for a given organization.

5. History of Russian entrepreneurship

Russian entrepreneurship In its development over the past 10 years, it has already passed two stages and is on the eve of entering a new, third stage. The first (most striking) took place back in the conditions of the former USSR in the late 1980s. Huge benefits of all kinds were allocated, various subsidies, including those from the state budget. Since conditions were created rather favorable, there was a very rapid and easy accumulation of capital, the production of scarce consumer goods and the sphere of all kinds of household services, which were equally scarce at that time, retail trade, public catering, etc., began to develop.

The second stage conditionally begins in 1992, the year of shock therapy, which was characterized by the highest rates since the mid-1980s. the growth rate of the number of small enterprises (by 2,1 times) and the number of employees of these organizations. This fact is phenomenal, since the price liberalization carried out at that time and the introduction of tax pressure greatly undermined the financial base of small businesses. The huge rate of inflation led to the depreciation of the savings of the population and, as a result, a decrease in purchasing power and a sharp increase in interest rates on bank loans. Investment activity was in a stupor, this task does not lose relevance until now.

The active growth of private entrepreneurship in 1992 was due to the rapid development of the trade and intermediary business, which in turn was a response to the erosion of the original financial base.

Only by 1995 did the regularities of a civilized market economy become more and more apparent. In the economic life of Russia, a trend began to be traced towards the beginning of a market concentration of capital, which was new for that time. The process of takeover of enterprises, often the most profitable, is gaining momentum. In this sense, at this stage of Russian reforms, there is also a decrease in the number of entrepreneurial projects.

The slowdown in the creation and development of new enterprises is also explained by the fact that such a negative powerful factor influencing the increase in the number of enterprises, such as rising unemployment, has come into force in economic and social terms, especially according to unofficial data.

It can be stated that in 1994-1995. the policy of moderately soft financial stabilization pursued by the Russian government, on the one hand, was accompanied by a significant slowdown in the growth of the number of private enterprises, but, on the other hand, the sanation effect was clearly visible. In Russia, a completely different economic situation began to emerge, in which the private sector began to play the role characteristic of entrepreneurship in a normal market economy.

6. Resources, factors and business results

Business has a huge potential for the intensive development of the economy and society as a whole. A characteristic feature of the business is high efficiency in the use of all types of resources and the constant desire to minimize losses, ensure their most rational proportions for the given conditions - after all, the enterprise does not have extra equipment, excess stocks of raw materials and materials, excess labor. This factor is one of the most important circumstances for achieving dynamic indicators of the economy as a whole.

Thus, in general, for the country's economy, the importance of business cannot be overestimated, and its influence on various aspects of social reproduction is very significant.

A special role for a single country is played by small business as the leading sector that determines the rate of economic growth, the structure and qualitative composition of the gross national product. However, it is not only quantitative indicators that matter; this factor, in principle, is typically a market one and underlies the modern market infrastructure.

The main advantages and characteristics of a small business:

1) mobility, the ability to make more flexible, timely and operational decisions;

2) orientation of producers mainly to regional and local markets;

3) maintaining the level of employment of the population and creating new jobs;

4) performing auxiliary functions in relation to large enterprises;

5) small initial investment volume.

Venture capital firms are very active in the field of innovation, which can quite successfully create competition with large ones, achieving accelerated rates of introduction of scientific and technical innovations. Small firms with their mobility and innovative solutions in the conditions of competition of new products have found their place in the management system.

They are engaged in the development of innovations, allocating large firms only capital-intensive stages of industrial production. The achievements of scientific and technological progress used make it possible to quickly connect to knowledge-intensive industries in the absence of large capital.

Small firms have to work in conditions of strong market competition, which not everyone is able to cope with. In most cases (about 90%), firms go bankrupt not because of a lack of finance or irrational technology, but because of the lack of managerial knowledge that is necessary to make competent decisions in market conditions. Reasons for failure can be: incompetence or lack of experience in the field of commerce and financial operations, in supply, production and management, small sales volumes, fierce competition, too high production costs.

7. New approaches to the problem of improving the efficiency of entrepreneurship

The effectiveness of entrepreneurship is characterized by the full and competent use of resources to achieve the goals.

The problem of entrepreneurial efficiency exists both at the level of a single enterprise, and within the framework of the entire economic system, when we can talk about the efficiency of the economy as a whole.

Here we are talking about reducing production costs and maximizing profit in such conditions.

When evaluating the effectiveness of a market economy, inflation gives it an important specificity, which leads enterprises to crisis situations, distorting all data on their condition, which threatens with incorrect management decisions.

As a result, increasing efficiency comes down to maximizing profits while reducing costs against the background of increasing labor productivity using the achievements of scientific and technological progress.

Market research plays an important role in improving the efficiency of entrepreneurship. Such data are taken as a basis for choosing the strategy and activities of entrepreneurs. To emerge victorious in the competition, ensure the competitiveness of manufactured products and reduce business risks, today it is not enough to study, predict and take into account consumer demand.

It is necessary to adapt to the constantly changing tastes of the consumer.

The assessment of the functioning of the company is carried out according to performance indicators and depends on the goals of the analysis:

1) strategic goals;

2) tactical goals;

3) planning tasks;

4) other management objectives.

At the stages of investing in production, developing a business plan and selling the company's products, there are various aspects of the use of production factors and therefore the system of indicators of the effectiveness of their use is complex and multilateral.

The generalizing indicators of the efficiency of the production activity of the company as a whole are determined by comparing the volume of all material resources and the final result of its activity: the return on capital (assets) of the organization, the turnover of all capital, costs per unit of finished products, profitability of production and the average annual cost of fixed and working capital. The most general indicator is the profitability of all capital.

It reflects the organization's profit per one ruble of funds spent. This indicator is the most objective, it is also called the rate of return or the rate of return on funds. Tracking changes in this indicator and the reasons for such changes is the main task of the enterprise administration.

8. Virtual business

Modern business cannot develop successfully without information; a huge number of means of communication are used. From the office of any organization stretches a lot of wires, through which a wide variety of information is transmitted, as a rule, in digital and voice form.

Internet- one of the most popular systems for selling information and advertising. Its prevalence and interest in it are only increasing every year, and at a tremendous pace. This system allows you to set up a profitable business and opens up new opportunities for generating income.

Most experts agree: the Internet is the business of the 21st century; but in Russia it is only gaining momentum. Information brokers, Web designers and other areas are especially popular today. Now is the time for many organizations to take advantage of emerging opportunities.

A year ago, a number of leading Russian companies began to discuss purely theoretical questions about whether e-commerce is a viable commercial environment. It cannot be said that over the past few years there have been some global changes. Although the number of online stores and various types of companies trading on the Internet has increased, the distrust of a larger number of users in their activities has remained. This, in turn, is a significant problem and hinders the development of this industry.

Today in Russia, an electronic store is not a very profitable enterprise. It is more correct to consider it as advertising, an image addition to "physically" existing stores, that is, attracting the attention of potential consumers, customers, partners, sponsors and demonstrating the company's competence in its field. When a potential buyer is interested, managers are involved in working with him, whose competence includes the sale of goods to a specific person. Prices and novelties are the most important elements of the driving force of consumer demand. Advertising today is a rather long and expensive process that does not always pay off the costs. To date, many organizations have begun to focus not on classic intrusive advertising, but on small frequent reminders not even about the product, but about their company. In this regard, the Internet is indispensable for any organization. Moreover, this information is in front of the user around the clock. For companies (both small and large) it is important to work on the formation of a permanent customer base. At any time, without delay, a potential buyer can:

1) contact the firm;

2) get advice on questions of interest to him or information about the availability of goods;

3) place an order and receive an invoice.

If such conditions are provided, the likelihood that its purchase will take place here increases.

In this aspect, the role of a round-the-clock available virtual store is increasing.

9. Private, collective, state entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurial activity is classified according to various criteria: type of activity, forms of ownership, number of owners, organizational, legal and economic forms, the degree of use of hired labor and other indicators.

In the conditions of monopolistic competition with complex, requiring injections of huge capital and energy-intensive production, the monopolies themselves became interested in strengthening the regulatory role of the state, in supporting it, and with its help providing access to new domestic and foreign markets. The market mechanism is unable to solve all the difficulties associated with defense, science, ecology, reproduction of the labor force and, ultimately, with the overall economic growth of the country.

State enterprise takes over management in cases where huge capital investments are required, the payback period is long and the risks are high. This is where the main difference from private entrepreneurship emerges: the primary goal of state entrepreneurship is not to make a profit, but to solve social and economic problems.

But private enterprise for objective reasons, it is developing at a faster pace than the state.

State can regulate market relations only when powerful economic control levers are in its hands.

The state influences the market mechanism through:

1) their expenses;

2) taxation;

3) regulation;

4) public entrepreneurship.

Government spending represents government purchases and transfer payments. Such spending contributes to national income and directly uses resources.

Taxation is an indispensable element of state policy. Taxes make up 75-85% of the budget. The government levies various types of taxes.

At high tax rates, massive tax evasion begins, and budget replenishment decreases. It's a vicious circle.

The legislative form of regulation shapes the activities of entrepreneurs (antimonopoly laws).

Tax and credit forms affect the national volume of production, changing the volume and direction of production, affecting private and collective entrepreneurship.

collective enterprise acts in two forms: on the one hand, it hires labor, on the other, members of the labor collective live by selling their own labor. This feature determines the specifics of the economic behavior of such an enterprise.

The utility function of a collective enterprise is comparable to the utility function of a family enterprise and includes the total money income and the total free time of the work collective. Each of its members is faced with a contradiction in the desire to get the maximum income and free time. The assessment of value in this case will be subjective.

10. Industrial entrepreneurship

Manufacturing entrepreneurship is one of the leading types of entrepreneurship. Here the production of products, goods, works is carried out, services are provided, certain values are created. The function of production in this type of business is the main, defining, and the accompanying functions are of complementary importance (storage, transportation, marketing, etc.). Industrial entrepreneurship includes innovative and scientific and technical activities, direct production of goods and services, their use in further production. Every entrepreneur who is ready to engage in production activities must first determine what exactly he will produce. Then the entrepreneur conducts marketing activities, is engaged in market research and consumer demand.

The next stage in the activity of industrial entrepreneurship is the acquisition or rental of factors of production.

Factors of production include: production assets, labor, information. Production assets, in turn, are divided into fixed and circulating.

The main production assets are buildings, structures, transmission devices, power machines and equipment, working machines and equipment, etc.

Working capital assets include raw materials, basic and auxiliary materials, fuel and energy resources, containers.

The entrepreneur hires labor through advertisements, through labor exchanges, employment agencies, with the help of friends and acquaintances.

Further, the entrepreneur acquires all the information he needs about the possibility of attracting resources: material, financial and labor, about the market for the product or service planned for manufacturing, etc.

Factors affecting entrepreneurship, especially production, can be divided into economic, technological, political and legal, institutional, socio-cultural, demographic and natural.

Numerous economic factors include: the scale of markets and the level of their development, household incomes, the size of effective demand and competition in different industries, the exchange rate of the national currency, etc. All this affects industry business and entrepreneurial initiative.

Technological factors indicate the level of scientific and technological progress and material and technical base.

Political and legal factors determine the relationship between society and the state, the mechanisms of state influence and the processes of making important decisions, the development of the legal framework and legal awareness in the country.

11. Trading business

Characteristic commercial entrepreneurship serve close economic ties with wholesalers and retailers, consumers of goods, works, services.

Commercial business includes all types of activities that relate to all kinds of types of exchange of goods and money.

Despite the fact that financial and monetary relations of purchase and sale of goods are fundamental for commercial entrepreneurship, it uses the same factors and resources as in industrial entrepreneurship, but the scale is less significant.

Trading activities are especially attractive for entrepreneurs, since there are real prospects for making significant profits in the shortest possible time. In addition, there are no difficulties that arise during the production process.

Retail is the final element in the movement of goods from the manufacturer to the final consumer.

Retail trade has its own characteristics:

1) explores the relationship between supply and demand in the market;

2) determines the market situation;

3) selects goods according to the principle of greatest utility;

4) makes settlements with suppliers for the goods received;

5) finalizes goods and forms prices for them.

Retail is an important element of the country's economy and commercial entrepreneurship. Every year the turnover in Russia is growing, this is confirmed by the positive trends in the development of retail trade.

There are various retail enterprises in the domestic market of the country. They can be divided:

1) according to the assortment sold;

2) in the form of trade services;

3) by price level;

4) by type of operating enterprise;

5) by concentration and location of trading organizations.

Wholesale trade is no less important for the country's economy, facilitating maneuvers with material resources, the distribution of stocks of products and their surpluses, and the elimination of commodity shortages.

Wholesale trade makes the most of the totality of commodity resources. In wholesale trade, goods are purchased in large quantities. Wholesalers, as a rule, are not connected at all with end consumers in their activities.

Wholesale trade is characterized by:

1) creation of a resource base for wholesale trade;

2) participation in the creation of market infrastructure elements that assist in the free choice of trading partners and the formation of commercial relations for the successful implementation of trade transactions.

12. Financial entrepreneurship

Field of activity financial entrepreneurship are circulation and exchange of values. Financial activity is connected with production and commercial activities, and these relationships are constantly deepening. However, financial entrepreneurship can also be in the form of banking, insurance, etc. The main field of activity of financial entrepreneurship is commercial banks and stock exchanges.

Commercial Bank - this is a financial and credit institution of a joint-stock type, lending on a fee basis to various organizations, accepting cash deposits and performing all kinds of settlement operations on behalf of the client. The operations of commercial banks are divided into three areas:

1) passive (raising funds);

2) active (placement of funds);

3) commission and intermediary (performing various operations on behalf of clients with payment of a commission).

In Russia, a feature of the activities of commercial banks is the attraction of funds from enterprises for a significant period; however, credits and loans are issued for relatively short periods. Banks are exposed to risks of a commercial nature no less than entrepreneurs, since they have their own debts and obligations that must be fulfilled within a certain time frame. Therefore, the bank must have certain reserves in case of unforeseen circumstances.

The stock exchange is an institutionalized, regularly functioning securities market, which contributes to increasing the mobility of capital and revealing the real value of assets.

The operating principle of the stock exchange is based on the quick and timely regulation of supply and demand. On the stock exchange there are so-called securities quotes. They are regularly assessed by quotation department specialists for all securities they deal with on the stock exchange. Such information is always available, current rates are constantly displayed on the illuminated board and are regularly published in special newsletters. Changes in rates show the price at which specific shares can be bought or sold at a certain moment on a given exchange. These prices are recalculated using a certain system of formulas and serve as the basis for the subsequent production of exchange activity indices that reflect all changes in economic conditions.

Financial entrepreneurship acts as a special form of commercial entrepreneurship, in which currency, values, securities (stocks, bonds, etc.) sold by the entrepreneur to the consumer or provided to him on credit are the subject of sale and purchase. The essence of financial entrepreneurship is that the entrepreneur acquires finance and sells it to the buyer for a fee higher than the initial one, as a result of which an entrepreneurial profit is created, which is based on the price difference.

13. Insurance business

Substance insurance business is that the entrepreneur guarantees the client compensation for damage in accordance with the conditions prescribed in the contract, which does not contradict the current legislation, in the event of unforeseeable circumstances of the loss of property, valuables, health, life and other losses for a certain amount when concluding an insurance contract. The profits of the insurance business are insurance premiums minus insurance payments under certain circumstances. As a rule, the probability of occurrence of force majeure circumstances is small and a significant part of insurance premiums forms entrepreneurial income.

Despite the fact that the insurance business does not produce any goods, it still remains one of the most risky activities. Insurers (organizations, enterprises, individuals), on the contrary, can receive compensation for a certain fee when the events specified in the contract occur. Despite the fact that this type of entrepreneurship is gaining momentum, the level of trust of potential clients remains very low. Entrepreneurs have to resort to certain tricks and spend money on large-scale advertising campaigns.

Each client, in accordance with the contract, pays insurance premiums, which form the insurance fund. It is used for insurance payments. However, the conduct of insurance activities is possible only if there are legislative documents, instructions and methodological materials necessary for the formation of insurance relations, which together form the insurance legislation.

Tasks, the implementation of which is necessary for the development of insurance:

1) formation of a strict legislative framework for insurance activities that does not allow for various interpretations;

2) development of compulsory and voluntary insurance;

3) creation of an effective body controlling the insurance activity;

4) joint work of the national insurance system with foreign insurance markets.

The legal essence of the insurance business is to establish legal relations to protect the client's property interests at the expense of insurance payments in accordance with the concluded contract. The property interest of the insured is a condition for cooperation with the insurer; without it, insurance activities are impossible.

Insurance business is different from commercial insurance and all kinds of government support. In this case, insurance is only a type of activity for the purpose of making a profit, and insurance payout funds are formed separately for each company.

14. Intermediary business

Intermediary activity is to make a profit, for the provision of certain services to the consumer, in the role of which entrepreneurs can also act.

As a rule, this is a simplification of purchase and sale operations, information services, etc. An entrepreneur, as an intermediary, faces the following tasks in order to attract clients:

1) determining the deficit, the needs of certain market segments and finding ways to meet them;

2) identification of business areas that need intermediary services of various types.

Intermediaries - individuals or legal entities that can engage in entrepreneurial activities without creating a legal entity, representing the interests of the producer or consumer, acting on their behalf and receiving income from this.

In economic theory, mediation is an operation that takes place in the time interval between the release of products (the provision of services, the performance of work) and its delivery to the consumer. In the process of doing business, most entrepreneurs use the services of intermediaries when concluding transactions.

Trading intermediary activity differs from other varieties of this entrepreneurial activity in that it acquires ownership of the goods with which it works. The largest part is retail trade (products are resold to the final consumer) and wholesale (very rarely deals with the final buyer). Wholesalers improve the efficiency of the sales process. A small manufacturer, which has limited financial resources, cannot create and ensure the organization of competent marketing. Good wholesalers - with decent experience in their activities, with a stock of special knowledge and skills - have a large number of business contacts in the field of retail sales. Wholesalers have a mature customer base that helps the manufacturer reach many small consumer firms at relatively low cost. The buyer, as a rule, receives more guarantees from the wholesaler than from some distant manufacturer. The wholesaler selects the necessary products and forms the necessary product range, thereby relieving the client of significant hassle. With wholesalers, in contrast to manufacturing enterprises, it is possible to agree on a reduction in the size of consignments of goods or their crushing. Wholesalers carry out warehousing of commodity stocks, thereby reducing the corresponding costs of the supplier and consumer, perform faster delivery of goods, being closer to customers than manufacturing enterprises. Wholesalers assist their customers in providing information about competitor activity, new products, price developments and market changes.

15. Agency intermediaries

Agency intermediaries act only as a representative of their client. They do not acquire ownership of the product they work with. If resellers earn on the difference in prices for the purchase and sale of products, then agency intermediaries receive their income in the form of fees and commissions. Commissioners are endowed with broad powers on the part of the client. They take over all the physical manipulations with the goods, agree on the terms of the transaction.

Payment for their services is determined by deducting their remuneration from the profits received, the remainder is given to the client.

An organization acting as a commission agent concludes a commission agreement with the client, carries out entrepreneurial activities that are aimed at making a profit from the performance of services for the conclusion of transactions for the sale of commission goods, i.e. the property of another organization (committent). The commission agent often has the necessary inventory for receiving, storing, processing and selling goods.

Commission relations mainly arise when dealer relations are unprofitable, and agency agreements severely limit the powers of intermediaries and interfere with work when concluding purchase and sale transactions.

When making a commission transaction, the remuneration in most countries is small (no more than 4%), and in retail sales, with the provision of guarantees for the operation, its size can increase up to 10-15%.

A variety of such agents are traveling salesmen - intermediary entrepreneurs who search for and select available resources in various regions interacting in commodity exchange operations, and involve production waste and secondary resources into circulation. A traveling salesman, as a rule, is a representative of an enterprise, but can carry out his activities freely from anyone; his fee depends on the completion of a trade transaction for a certain type of product. Salespeople are engaged not only in selling, but also in delivering to the client. Traveling salesmen include traveling representatives of trading companies. They offer customers products based on samples and catalogs, provide fairly effective and intrusive advertising of goods and services, and use previously established strong sales channels for products.

Brokers do not work directly with the goods. They clearly follow all the instructions and instructions of the client, have fewer opportunities in the course of work. Speculative intermediaries buy and sell goods with one goal - to profit from price changes, very often slow down transactions and trading operations in order to increase income due to constantly occurring changes in the level of inflation. In agricultural markets, the most well-known participants are processors and producers of basic foodstuffs. There are also support organizations that assist the rest of the intermediary groups in their tasks.

16. Business operation: concept, essence, components

There is a concept in business business operations.

It means a short-term business, as a result of which the entrepreneur or businessman makes a profit. In other words, a business transaction is a transaction. Such a definition takes place in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

A business transaction consists of several steps. A business transaction structure can have the following content.

1. At the first stage - defining the goals and objectives of the business operation - it is necessary to think over the meaning and significance of the operation for the business of the company, to outline the amount of profit desired to be received as a result of the operation.

2. Drawing up a business operation plan. Once a decision has been made to carry out a business transaction, a plan of action must be drawn up to be followed during the transaction. The operation plan must contain goals, objectives, financial analysis, comparison of the company's capabilities with the objectives, timing of the operation, expected profit volumes, cost analysis, identification of possible risks and ways to minimize them.

3. Defining participants in a business transaction consists in choosing suppliers, attracting the necessary specialists and employees, participants in the market sale of products.

Employment contracts are concluded with employees who are involved in the performance of a certain type of production work.

4. An important factor for the implementation of a business operation is its resource support. Resource support includes production and financial resources.

Production resources include the provision of the necessary materials, equipment, raw materials, premises, transport. The production resources include the labor force - employees.

Financial resources are determined by the cash that the firm has. In the event of a lack of own funds, a businessman is forced to resort to finding sources of raising additional funds.

5. The stage of production or receipt of the company's products is a key stage of a business operation, during which the development of production activities takes place, the results of which are directly related to the achievement of goals.

Production activities are aimed at manufacturing products and services with their subsequent sale in the markets. A businessman may not be engaged in the production of goods, but in their resale.

6. Selling products and making a profit are the final step in a business transaction. The results of this stage depend on the quality of all previous stages. If the product is of high quality and in demand, its implementation should take place without any special difficulties.

17. Scheme of resource provision of a business operation

Resource provision is an important condition for conducting a business transaction. The resources required to carry out a business operation include natural, labor, production, information and financial resources.

Resource provision scheme includes the following components.

1. The most important issue is providing cash for the operation. The source of funds (primarily) is the initial cash capital available to a businessman or entrepreneur. If the amount of own funds available to an entrepreneur does not allow the business operation to be carried out properly, there is the possibility of taking out a loan. With the help of initial capital and the provided loan, start-up capital is formed, which allows the planned operation to be carried out.

2. Fixed assets are large production equipment in the form of office premises, buildings, equipment, transport, furniture, equipment. These funds, unlike the rest, as a rule, are not used within a single business operation, but for a long time.

In the case when fixed assets are used for one operation, the businessman resorts to renting them. In addition, there is such a thing as leasing. It means a lease with a subsequent purchase.

3. Human Resources are a prerequisite for conducting a business transaction. Labor resources are determined at the very beginning of the operation and have two main sources. One source is the businessman or entrepreneur himself; this means that he primarily takes part in the work of the company. Another source is employees, for whose wages the company's money is spent.

4. Current assets are movable material resources that play an important role in the production activities of the company. These include semi-finished products, materials, raw materials. Working capital requires an investment of capital and is acquired from the moment the operation begins until its final stage.

5. Informational resources are an integral and important component of the resource support of a business operation.

These include economic, financial, legal documents, accounting reports, projects. Information resources also require an investment of money throughout the duration of a business operation.

Sources of information are both internal, in the form of specialists included in the staff of the company, and external informative information.

In addition to the listed means of resource support for a business operation, such important factors as services are used, which include: transport, legal, advisory, services of advertising and security agencies, etc.

18. Cash settlement of the business transaction

The main subject for monetary calculation is the determination of the total amount of costs, which consists of various types of costs.

Expenses are divided into the following types:

1. For material expenses cash includes the cost of obtaining materials, semi-finished products, raw materials, energy.

Zm = Ohm x Cm,

where Zm - material costs;

Ohm - the volume of materials used;

Cm - the price of a unit of material.

This formula is suitable for calculating one type of material. To calculate various material resources, the following formula is used:

Zm = Ohm₁ x Tsm₁ + Ohm₂ x Tsm₂ +...+ Ohm_п x Tsm_п,

where is ohm₁, Ohm₂,...Ohm_п - the volume of materials of one type;

CM₁, cm₂,...Tsm_п - price of units of various types of materials;

n is the number of different types of materials.

2. Labor costs include cash costs for wages for employees of an entrepreneurial firm, the administration of the firm, employees, and support staff of the firm.

Зт = Зч x Кр x W, where Зт - labor costs;

Zch - the cost of hourly wages to employees; Kr - the number of employees; W - the total time of work of workers. The total expenditure of funds for the remuneration of all groups of employees is calculated according to the following formula:

Zt = Zt₁ + W₂ +. + W_п,

where zt₁, W₂, W_п - labor costs of various groups of workers.

3. Permanent fixed assets calculated as their expense for the period of the operation. To do this, you can use the following formula:

Zos = Tsos x (Vdi / Voi),

where Zos - the cost of fixed assets;

Tsos - the price of fixed assets;

Vdi - the time of use of fixed assets in the process of this operation;

Voi - the total time of use of fixed assets.

4. Loan payment costs differ in that costs are the difference between the amount of the loan granted and the amount returned to the lender, including interest.

The calculation formula is as follows:

Zk = Zkp - Zk = Zk x (M / 100% x Vk),

where Zk - the cost of paying the loan;

Zkp - amount with interest;

M - monthly percentage of the loan;

Vk - loan repayment time.

5. Income Tax:

Npr = n pr / 100% x Pv,

where Npr - income tax;

n pr - the percentage rate of tax on profits;

Pv - gross profit.

6. Profit calculationremaining with the businessman after paying income tax is carried out according to the formula:

Po \u1d Pv - Npr \u100d Pv (XNUMX - p pr / XNUMX).

To determine profit, an indicator such as profitability is used.

7. Profitability is calculated using the following formula:

P \uXNUMXd Po / Zo,

where R - profitability;

By - residual profit;

Zo - total costs.

19. The value of a business plan in entrepreneurial activity

Business planning is necessary to achieve financial success, for the long-term and efficient operation of a firm or enterprise. A modern entrepreneur should be able to determine the prospects for the development of his enterprise, justify the feasibility of obtaining bank loans and attracting investments, and also be prepared for structural changes within production.

The program of action or plan for the implementation of entrepreneurial operations is called a business plan.

Business plan is a permanent document in which necessary changes and updates are made, depending on changes in the economic market, as well as on changes occurring within the company. Each company, regardless of its size, draws up a business plan, although a small company can attract specialists from consulting organizations to draw up a business plan. When drawing up a business plan, it is necessary to take into account the concept of the company’s development, its financial and economic aspects, its technical and technological capabilities. Having a business plan allows a businessman to justify the feasibility of carrying out a business operation, correctly calculate sales volumes, profits and income, determine the source of financing for the operation, and select a team to implement the plan.

The business plan is most actively used in the process of finding and attracting investors (shareholders, sponsors, creditors). Investors are usually offered a summary of the business plan, which is a difficult task to prepare. First, the entire plan is developed and the main measures for its implementation are determined. From this, the main important points are highlighted, which are included in the summary, which is provided to investors. According to this material, investors will draw conclusions about the effectiveness of the project.

When forming a business plan, a businessman will choose the product or service that represents the main purpose of the operation. After choosing the main product, the entrepreneur calculates the quantity of products that he has the opportunity to produce, and calculates the expected profit received after the sale of this product. In the process of forming a planned operation, a businessman comes to the decision of the main question: is it worth starting this business.

20. Business plan section. The company, its business

Business plan may include the following sections:

1) company summary (contains information about the company);

2) types of goods, services, manufactured products that are the subject of business;

3) analysis of the market for goods and services;

4) marketing;

5) organizational and production plan of the company;

6) sources of financial support;

7) financial plan;

8) legal aspects of the business plan;

9) assessment of critical risk points;

10) the final section of the business plan.

The company and its business.

The first section of the business plan describes the company, provides brief information about the company that may be of interest to investors. These include the following sections.

1. Company formation. This section contains the date of creation and registration of the company, its location. The name must indicate the legal form of the company. The capital structure is indicated in the form of the quantitative content of shares, their nominal and exchange value. The content indicates the bank where the open accounts of the company are located. The management of the company is listed: general director, lawyer, accountant, managers.

2. Structural divisions of the company: organizational, production and management.

3. An idea of the company’s image: how it has established itself, how it differs from other similar companies, what types of goods have gained fame, what is the constancy of the consumer market, the commodity sales market.

4. The conditions of the company's activity: internal (technology, equipment, production costs, quality characteristics of the goods) and external (consumer demand, supply of raw materials and material resources, financial capabilities of the company in the economic market).

In drawing up a business plan, it is necessary to form the goals of the company's development and the possibility of achieving them. The goals for which the activity of the company is directed depend on what it is focused on. If this orientation is aimed at rapid growth, then the goals will be to increase sales by a certain number of times, increase the profits of the company in existing economic markets, and expand entrepreneurial activities in new markets. If the company's plans do not include a rapid growth in sales, then its goals will be aimed at improving the quality of products, improving the quality of services provided, and increasing the technical capabilities of production.

If the company is focused on the production of new products, its goals will be to accelerate the development of these products or services, increase the volume of products, and promote the new product to the markets.

21. Entrepreneurial product: concept and essence

In entrepreneurial activity, the main factors aimed at achieving the desired results are the production and sale of goods produced by the company.

The entrepreneur should determine in advance the main characteristics of the product that he planned to produce. This factor gives confidence not only in the implementation of the planned plans, but is also able to convince investors of the efficiency of the production of this product (product, service). If it is possible to produce a ostentatious sample of the product and give it the main characteristics, this will give solidity and reliability to the company.

Regardless of whether there is a sample or not, the content of the business plan must contain a complete description of the product, its properties and characteristics. It is necessary to indicate the demand for this product in consumer markets, its ability to meet the needs of consumers, as well as its main and secondary use. Emphasis can be placed on the difference between this product and those already on the market. The plan provides general technological assessments of products, their competitiveness, product advantages and ways to use these advantages.

The product can be presented in the form of the following scheme:

1) the name of the product (service), its trademark, patent for the product;

2) the essence of the product (service): what it is intended for, its necessity;

3) characteristic features of the product (service): what needs can be satisfied with its help; demand for it availability to buyers; ways of its implementation; what is the possibility of mastering the production of this product; costs in the process of its production; advantages of the product over others similar to it; how profitable is its acquisition by buyers; monetary opportunities for acquisition by the population;

4) forecast and analysis of goods: price forecast for the sale of goods, expected terms for maintaining competitiveness and stability of prices for goods, the need and possibility of updating it, intended sales markets;

5) a list of production conditions: increasing requirements for personnel, improving their qualifications, training and education of workers, supply of equipment and materials, development of instructors and technologists.

When planning business operations, it is important to take into account inflation, to predict all kinds of changes in the economic and industrial spheres.

22. Market analysis

The business plan has a section on the problem of market demand. It is advisable to prepare this section at the very beginning of the preparation of the plan, since the rest of the business plan depends on it.

Depending on the results of the market analysis, the firm chooses a marketing strategy. The strategy helps to develop a business plan correctly. In order to choose the right strategy, it is necessary to determine factors such as:

1) production program;

2) competition of similar goods in the market;

3) determination of the market segment where the sale of goods is planned;

4) determination of needs for the proposed product;

5) assessment of possible costs;

6) determination of expected income;

7) assessment of purchasing opportunities and ways to attract buyers;

8) the assumption of possible consumer needs.

The section of the business plan devoted to this subject is the most difficult task in planning a business operation. If a business operation is planned for the short term, this task is much easier than when planning a long-term operation.

Market demand can be estimated and anticipated in several ways. One of them is that there is a practical study of demand, sales volumes of goods, the capacity of its individual parts. Another way is that customers and buyers are offered a product in advance, which they guarantee to purchase. For this, methods of preliminary preparation of applications and orders for goods, the conclusion of contracts and agreements on the supply of goods are used.

In addition, there is a way to predict the possible sales of products manufactured by the firm.

The market is to be divided into segments in order to single out the most promising and targeted ones. This is necessary for the purposeful conquest of the desired market segment, where the sale of products or services will be most effective.

Once the customer base has been identified, the ways in which you can expand your customer base, attract new customers, and help keep them interested in the product in the future should be identified.

In relation to the competitiveness of the company, an assessment of the goods that make up the competition is carried out, during which it is necessary to highlight their strengths and weaknesses, determine the most competitive goods, compare their cost, quality characteristics.

It is necessary to conduct a comparative analysis of competing firms, determine the areas of their activities, highlight the advantages and disadvantages, compare the prices and qualities of their products, determine the reasons for the persistence or inconstancy of the competitiveness of these firms in the market, familiarize themselves with the methods of their advertising.

23. Marketing

Marketing is is a profitable process for a firm that aims to meet the needs of people through the production and supply of goods and services.

Since the needs of the population are diverse, marketing usually begins with the division of the market into segments. Marketers distinguish certain groups of buyers whose needs differ. Depending on these differences, different marketing strategies are used. The firm chooses the most suitable market segments, the needs of which it can satisfy to the maximum.

A market is a place where goods are exchanged between buyers and sellers. In a modern market economy, companies or manufacturing firms are united in such a thing as an industry, and buyers of manufactured goods are called the market. Sellers supply the market with goods in exchange for receiving money, as well as information about the effectiveness and need of goods.

In the modern world, there are two forms of market activity: material (shops, trading houses) and spatial (Internet).

For each of the selected markets, the company must develop an offer, which is compiled depending on the needs of consumers. The firm is an active subject of the market, which is looking for its potential client. Both parties that seek to exchange goods are active market participants.

In marketing, there is the concept of exchange, the essence of which is to offer a product to another party in exchange for receiving the desired equivalent. To complete the exchange process, it is necessary to have two parties, the presence of a mutually acceptable product for these parties, readiness for cooperation, equality of both parties, deriving mutual benefit from the exchange.

A transaction (transaction) is an exchange of values between a certain number of parties, which occurs in concert with respect to conditions, place and time.

There is a special form of exchange, which differs from a transaction in that some value is transferred without receiving another material object in return. This form is called a transfer and can mean the transfer of a gift or charitable contribution. In return, the donor receives only verbal gratitude.

The basis for the transaction (or exchange) is the coincidence of the needs of the buyer and the seller (represented by the firm).

In the process of negotiations, three types of marketing channels are used: communicative (exchange of information through advertising, television, radio, Internet); distribution channels (wholesale warehouses, transport); trade channels (distributors, retailers and wholesalers).

The consumer makes his choice of product based on whether the value of the product corresponds to its expected value.

24. Price as an element of marketing

Price - is an element of marketing, which is the main producer of profit. Price, unlike product characteristics, is a flexible element that is subject to rapid change. The pricing process contains six main stages: setting the task, demand, cost assessment, analysis of the pricing policy of competitors, determining the pricing method, final price setting.

The price of goods or services of the company is set depending on the prices of competitors. The pricing process takes into account the cost of transporting goods and storing them. The price of a product is directly dependent on demand, i.e. the lower the price, the higher the demand. In relation to prestigious goods, an inverse relationship can be observed, since high prices for a certain category of buyers are an indicator of the high quality of the goods. In marketing, there is such a thing as the demand curve.

The demand curve reflects the behavior of different categories of buyers, which differ in their attitudes towards price. With the help of the demand curve, you can estimate how much is expected to be sold in the market at various prices. Demand curves can be determined in three ways:

1) analyze the achieved sales volumes at current prices;

2) conduct an experiment with changing prices for the same type of product;

3) draw conclusions about the dependence of sales volumes on prices based on the results of a survey of buyers.

In addition to the dependence of pricing on demand and costs, prices, costs and the behavior of competing firms are taken into account. If the characteristics of a product differ little from those of a competing product, the price should be about the same. If the quality of the product is higher than the quality of the competing product, it is possible to set a higher price.

The final price is set after studying such additional factors as the buyer's psychological perception of prices, the impact of prices on other market participants, and the firm's pricing policy.

The psychology of price perception by the buyer lies in their attitude to the quality of the goods. A high price is perceived as a confirmation of high quality. Many firms use prices that end in odd numbers. When changing prices for goods, it is very important to take into account the reaction of buyers, competitors and other market participants. The most noticeable reaction of consumers to changes in prices for expensive goods.

The reasons for setting the price higher than those of competitors must be justified (better quality, service, product features). If the price is too high, it may reduce sales.

A special issue in the promotion of goods in the markets is the issue of attracting attention to the product through advertising. This may be advertising on TV, radio, newspapers, billboards, catalogs, using the services of distributors, sales representatives.

25. Organization of production management

This section of the business plan should contain information on the production support for the release of products, the performance of work, the provision of services.

Planning of production activities includes the provision of the necessary equipment, logistics, management of production activities, control of products, procurement management.

The main goals and directions of production activities:

1) productive field;

2) industry field;

3) field of competencies;

4) market field;

5) vertical field;

6) geographical field.

The business plan should indicate the address of the enterprise or firm, the types of activities of the company in this region, the features of production facilities, the ownership of land or the lease agreement, and possible restrictions on the activities of the company in this region.

The business plan may contain a three-year production planning period.

It is advisable to list the components of the production process. These include:

1) planning of production purchases;

2) attracting finance;

3) improving the working conditions of employees and improving their qualifications;

4) issues of expanding production.

The management of the firm must have a concrete idea of the activities of its firm. This may be only the production of goods, or only the purchase and distribution of products of other firms.

Due to the occurrence of a large number of surprises in entrepreneurial activity, an important factor is the control over the activities of the company. The purpose of control is to confirm that the company is acting strictly according to the planned plan. The main type of control is control over management by objectives, which includes four types of control:

1) control of annual plans;

2) control over production efficiency;

3) profit control: evaluation of various sources of profit;

4) control of the firm's strategies (marketing). A necessary factor for the successful existence of the company is the management team.

When forming a management team, it is necessary to take into account the professional qualities of people, which include: business, managerial, commercial, technical, economic.

The formed management team earns the respect of investors and attracts their attention and interest in financing the proposed projects of the company.

26. Financial resources and their sources

Financial resources include a set of sources of funds that are combined to carry out entrepreneurial activities. The activities of the company can be carried out at the expense of its own funds and income, as well as by attracting finance from outside.

The sources of financial resources of the firm can be three groups of resources:

1) financial resources that come in the process of redistribution of government revenues: insurance, subsidies, and others;

2) financial resources that are formed by the enterprise's own funds (profit, income, reserve funds);

3) financial resources received in the course of the company's activities in the financial market (realization of shares, dividends, interest income, loans).

Financial resources are used to finance the production of goods and their sale in the markets, to make budgetary and extrabudgetary payments, to pay loans and borrowings, to make charitable contributions.

A mandatory item in the preparation of a sales forecast is to determine the expected profitability of the project. The level of production depends on sales volumes; when forecasting, the costs of production elements are taken into account: transport, advertising, storage of goods, sale of goods.

Expenses are divided into: trading, general and administrative, production and advertising.

Trading costs include the cost of transporting goods, their storage, warehousing. General and administrative expenses include the salaries of the administration staff, payment of involved specialists (lawyers, accountants). Production and advertising expenses are intended to pay for utilities, rent, insurance premiums, telephone services.

The business plan should present ways to reduce production and sales costs. Issues that are controversial should be presented in a plan and have a detailed explanation. Disputable issues may include the amount of administrative costs, interest rates of costs, the amount of general costs.

Risk situations that may be an obstacle to the successful achievement of project objectives should be identified.

The main goal of the project is the profit received in the process of selling the goods, so the most important issue is the issue of forecasting sales and profits.

At the beginning of the project, the level of profit usually does not exceed the costs.

27. Efficiency in the use of funds

The founders of the project must be well aware of the intermediate and final results of the intended process. All possible options for the effective use of financial resources should be calculated, from which the most appropriate option for implementing the project is singled out. In the course of negotiations with investors, economic aspects can be reviewed, developed and formalized in the form of new decisions.

Investment efficiency has two main groups of criteria: absolute and relative. The absolute criterion is a significant excess of profit over costs (net profit). The relative criterion is the various ratios of income to investment funds (profitability).

Investors, when deciding to invest in a company's project, are interested in the following issues: profit margins, loan repayment terms, ability to pay interest.

For the founders and participants of the project, the following performance parameters will be of interest: net profit, break-even rate, the cost of long-term current net profit to their share of the contribution, the ratio of net profit to sales volumes.

Taking into account all the indicators of interest, the project participants have the opportunity to make the most rational decision in choosing the method of financing, in choosing the form of organization of the company, as well as in choosing the marketing strategy.

The financial section of the business plan combines sales and cost forecasts, payment forecasts, and financial risk analysis.

Financial risks include:

1) associated with a change in foreign economic policy;

2) associated with adverse changes in the social and political spheres;

3) related to changes in economic legislation;

4) associated with poor orientation in new technologies and insufficient knowledge of new technology;

5) instability of prices in the markets;

6) the possibility of changing natural and climatic conditions;

7) associated with production and technical failures;

8) associated with the uncertain behavior of project participants;

9) instability and unreliability of the financial position of the company or firm.

Given the possibility of these risks, it can be concluded that the investment assessment should depend on taking into account all possible changes in various areas that relate to the implementation of the project. Evaluation of the effectiveness of investment resources should be based on a qualified expert opinion.

28. Legal and economic aspects of ownership

Forms of business organization These are the ways entrepreneurs organize their business, the ways they interact with each other.

Forms of business organization are subject to legal formalization and are called organizational and legal.

Forms of business organization depend on the form of ownership.

Property - this is a certain form of appropriation of material values, services and means of production. The property has legal and economic aspects.

The legal aspect is expressed in property relations, which are determined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and other laws. Property relations include: the right of possession, the right of disposal and the right of use.

The right of ownership is an entry into the rights of inheritance, purchase, donation of property. The entry into the right of possession must be supported by documents: a will, a bill of sale, a deed of gift.

The right of disposal means the disposal of property at the discretion of its owner. The owner has the right to sell, lease or use the property himself. If the property is to be sold, the right of disposal is exercised by the owner once. The buyer becomes the full owner. When transferring property for rent, the ownership passes to its temporary owner.

The right of use gives the owner of the property the opportunity to use it at their own discretion, depending on the purpose. In the case of transfer of property for rent, the terms of the lease and the rent are negotiated. Money capital can be used as investment resources (investment in production), as financial transactions in the stock markets.

The economic aspect of ownership consists of three types of economic relations: appropriation, economic implementation and economic use of material values.

Assignment is an economic form of relations, which consists in the use of the right to own property. Simultaneously with appropriation, the process of alienation takes place.

The objects of alienation are land, capital, natural resources, means of production. The documentary basis for confirming the alienation may be a contract for the purchase of products or an employment contract in the case of using the labor of employees. As a result of the assignment, a legal entity, called the owner, appears.

Economic realization is the ability to make a profit when using property. In this case, the property is a source of income. The amount of income depends on how the property is used. This may be the use of capital for the production and further sale of goods, resulting in income. In the case of leasing property, the owner receives rent, and in the case of capital investment in financial transactions, the owner receives interest income. The sale of property is a one-time sale. In this case, the income is the selling price of the property.

29. Forms of business organization

There are several types, types and forms of ownership. Depending on the degree of ownership, property is divided into private and public. Depending on the form of alienation and appropriation, property is divided into two types: labor and non-labor.

Private property is the appropriation of property by individuals.

Private property can be labor and non-labor.

Labor private property based on the appropriation of income received as a result of the production and sale of products obtained by one's own labor.

Unearned private property represents the appropriation of the results of the work of employees.

In the process of development of society, private property has acquired new forms: individual, partnership and corporate private property.

Individual private property is a form of ownership that belongs to one owner.

Partner property presented in the form of property owned by business partnerships or firms based on partnerships on shares.

Corporate property belongs to a group of persons who are founders of corporations.

There is another form of ownership - intellectual property. Owners of intellectual property have the right to own and dispose of their inventions, knowledge, scientific information, and outstanding achievements in the field of culture and art. The labor type of public property can be represented by such forms of ownership as: family, corporate, joint stock, property of business partnerships. The non-labor type of public property is state property, which is based on the appropriation by the state of the results of the labor of hired workers or the property of joint-stock companies, concerns and other companies that use the labor of hired workers.

State property is a form of ownership that belongs to enterprises and unitary organizations. The state bears property responsibility for state-owned enterprises, but is released from responsibility for unitary enterprises (SUEs), which are under the full economic control of the labor collective.

State property is divided into federal property, property of subjects of the federation and municipal property.

К federal property include objects that ensure the security of the country, are the basis of the economy, as well as objects of federal government and authorities.

municipal property belongs to rural and urban settlements.

There is another form of property - personal property. This form grants the right to own personal items.

30. Business partnerships

Business partnerships called associations of entrepreneurs for joint business.

The participants in the partnership unite their shares of property, which form the common capital. Contributions to business partnerships can be cash, securities, property assets.

The profit received in the process of selling industrial goods is distributed among the participants depending on the size of their share contribution. Participants take part in decision-making on issues related to the activities of the partnership in accordance with the amount of the equity contribution. The share of the deposit has its nominal and book value. The nominal value is equal to the value of the share at the time of its contribution to the common capital of the partnership, and the book value is equal to the amount of capital that falls on shared ownership.

The partnership in most cases is formalized as an enterprise. According to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, business partnerships are the main form of creating legal entities - commercial organizations. Commercial organizations differ in that their main goal is to make a profit.

Organizers of business partnerships make a certain contribution and are called founders. Their first contribution to the partnership is called statutory.

Members of the partnership have the right to manage affairs, keep records, have access to information about the activities of the partnership (enterprise), participate in the distribution of profits between the founders. If the partnership breaks up, its participants have the right to divide the remaining property among themselves.

In addition to the rights, the participants also have obligations, according to which they are obliged to follow the requirements of the constituent documents, not to distribute confidential information, keep commercial secrets, make deposits and contributions in a timely manner, as provided for by the rules.

The property of the partnership is the fixed assets that are in use and at the disposal of the partnership. It can be structures, buildings, equipment. In addition, assets are current assets, which include stocks of materials, raw materials, as well as products, money capital and other valuables.

Business partnerships that do not have a legal status are partnerships based only on an agreement of equal persons, each of which is a participant in a common cause and is responsible for the results with its property. Such a partnership is not legally registered and is not a single enterprise, it does not have its own name and charter.

There is a property liability of participants in a partnership, depending on which partnerships are divided into two types: limited (based on trust) and general partnership.

31. General partnership

Full partnership created on a voluntary basis. Participants of a general partnership enter into an agreement and conduct business activities on a joint basis. A characteristic feature of a full partnership is the property responsibility of its participants for how their obligations are fulfilled. If debts arise in the process of entrepreneurial activity, the participants in the partnership are liable for this not only with the property contributed to the formation of a general partnership, but also with their personal property.

The property united to create a partnership is a common shared property, which belongs equally to all participants in the partnership. This means that each participant is entitled to a share, which is expressed in the monetary or property value invested by him in the partnership. A general partnership has certain rights, as it is a legal entity. This is an independent company that acts as a subject of economic activity. As a legal entity, a partnership may be sued as a defendant, as well as file a lawsuit as a plaintiff. A general partnership has its own name, which is registered in the register of owners, is in interaction with authorities and other partnerships engaged in economic activities.

Members of a general partnership assume obligations that consist in managing the activities of the company. Members of a partnership are allowed to be members of only one partnership.

All members of the partnership have the right to be jointly and severally liable. Each participant has the right to independently manage the affairs of the company, interact with other partnerships or government organizations. Given these circumstances, it can be assumed that the partnership should include people who fully trust each other. Each participant must be sure of the honesty of his partners and the correctness of their actions. When organizing a general partnership, the agreement concluded between its participants must be carefully thought out, worked out, and approved by all members of the partnership. When negotiating the contract, the abilities of each participant are taken into account in order to avoid independent actions of people who are incompetent in certain matters. The correct drafting of the contract ensures the protection of the interests of all participants in the partnership and prevents the danger of possible damage. In drawing up the contract, the participation of lawyers, economists and other specialists who can be useful in the course of the partnership's activities is very important.

General partnerships have become widespread in Russia, despite the fact that they are a rather risky form of entrepreneurial activity.

When deciding to organize a general partnership, its participants must assess the degree of entrepreneurial risk and correctly calculate their chances for the success of the planned enterprise. If all employees fully trust each other and have a high level of responsibility, this makes it possible to obtain a loan from a bank secured by the personal property of the participants. If members of a future partnership take such a bank loan, they need to legally resolve the issue of dividing their property and the property of other members of their family in order to avoid losing all the property and money of the family in the event of bankruptcy of the general partnership.

32. Individual entrepreneurship

Individual Entrepreneurship is the simplest form of business organization, which is formed with the help of family and individual property.

Individual entrepreneurship is divided into two forms: family private enterprise and individual labor activity.

A family private enterprise in the course of its activities uses not only the labor force of family members, but also resorts to the use of hired workers.

Individual labor activity is limited to the work of the entrepreneur himself and his family members.

In individual entrepreneurship, the businessman acts independently, and the forms of organization are established by him.

In 1994, the state registration of individual entrepreneurship was put into effect, provided for by the new Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

There is registration of entrepreneurship and its registration as a legal entity in the form of a company.

The firm acts as an independent business entity.

A firm or enterprise is organized in accordance with the current legislation, produces products, and also performs various services to meet the needs of the population.

Firms can be diverse in their organizational structure, scale, scope and profile of activity.

For all types of firms, there are legislative norms, according to which their activities are regulated.

33. Limited Liability Company (LLC)

Limited Liability Company is a commercial organization established by one or more persons, having its own charter and memorandum of association.

A limited liability company unites persons who form the authorized capital at the expense of the contributions of participants.

Contributions of participants can be of various nature. This may be personal property, land, transport and other individual property. The charter of the company determines the property that cannot be a contribution to the authorized capital.

Being a legal entity, a limited liability company is obliged to act in accordance with its charter and memorandum of association accepted by the participants of the company. The name of the company must indicate the organizational and legal form (LLC).

Legal entities that are part of the company retain their rights and independence.

The authorized capital may have a minimum allowable size, which makes it possible for novice entrepreneurs to start their own business with a small starting capital. Limited liability companies can be organized as family firms, enterprises that bring together business partners who are in constant business contact and mutually interested in the success of a common cause.

The Civil Code of the Russian Federation establishes a law on the maximum number of participants in a limited liability company, which they are not entitled to exceed. If the number of participants exceeds the limit, the company will be subject to transformation into a joint-stock company.

Limited liability companies consist of a small and constant number of participants who have rights, the amount of which depends on the amount of funds invested by them. Members of the company have the right to receive their share of the profit, which can be distributed among them once a year, once every six months or once a quarter.

The participants of the company have the right to transfer their share in the common capital to other legal entities or individuals, having informed other members of the company in advance and having received their consent. The charter of the company fixes the procedure for the transfer of deposits from one owner to another. Each member of a limited liability company may freely leave the company.

The established limited liability company is designed to bring profit to its participants. It is necessary to control that the value of monetary and property resources is not lower than the value of the authorized capital. If this happens, i.e., the value of net assets falls below the value of the authorized capital, the company is liquidated.

34. Joint stock companies

The most common form of business organization are joint-stock companies.

Joint-stock company - this is a business company, which is an association of participants (shareholders) who have invested their shares in the form of a certain number of shares.

The authorized capital of a joint-stock company consists of the nominal value of the shares, which must be the same. The size of the authorized capital must be at least 1000 minimum wages in an open joint stock company and at least 100 minimum wages in a closed joint stock company. The shares of the company must be paid by the participants within a year from the date of registration of the joint-stock company. Shares can be sold, transferred to another person, but they cannot leave the company together with their owner.

The capital collected in cash in the form of shares is called share capital. It is not a separate property of its members, but the property of the joint-stock company as a whole. A share is a security that indicates that its owner has contributed his share in the capital of a joint-stock company. The share entitles its owner to receive profit (dividends), as well as to participate in the management of the company. Shares are divided into preferred and ordinary. Ordinary shares provide an opportunity to receive profit remaining after the payment of dividends on preferred shares, the opportunity to vote at shareholder meetings, to participate in the election of the board. Preferred shares give the right to a fixed, fixed dividend, the right to priority dividends, but do not give the right to vote at shareholders' meetings. Shares can be sold, bought, donated, given in the form of a pledge. Only a shareholder with a controlling stake can have a significant influence on the management of the company. Joint-stock companies are divided into open and closed. Open joint stock companies may be formed from limited liability companies in which the number of participants exceeded the number established by the law on companies of this type. Shares owned by an open joint stock company have the right to free sale. They can be distributed both among individuals and among enterprises and banks. Shares of a closed joint stock company do not have the right to free sale. They can be distributed only among the employees of the joint-stock company.

The meeting of voting shareholders is the supreme governing body of the joint-stock company, it elects the governing bodies: the board of directors, the audit commission, the board. The management of a joint-stock company is actually carried out by hired specialists (lawyers, managers, economists, etc.).

The joint-stock company is the owner of the property belonging to it, which includes material, property, intellectual values. Shareholders are owners only of their securities - shares, not being owners of the property of the joint-stock company. Property can only be disposed of by the company represented by its governing bodies.

35. Companies with additional liability, team partnerships

Additional liability company - a company founded by one or more participants who have combined their contributions to the common authorized capital.

The authorized capital is formed from the shares of the company's participants. Members' shares have a nominal value. The authorized capital of an additional liability company has an equity division, the size of the shares is determined by the constituent documents.

The members of this society are liable with their own property in accordance with the amount of their contribution. When organizing a company with additional liability, constituent documents are created in the form of an agreement and a charter, which fix the obligations and rights of participants.

According to the founding documents of the company, in the event of the bankruptcy of one of its members, its responsibility is redistributed among the remaining members of the company, depending on the value of the funds invested by them.

Limited partnerships

A limited partnership is an intermediate form between a general partnership and a limited liability company. A limited partnership is called a limited partnership.

In a limited partnership, entrepreneurial activity is carried out by participants who are liable with their property for the obligations of the charter of the partnership.

Limited partnerships may include several legal or civil entities that conclude an agreement with each other for the purpose of jointly conducting economic activities. Participants in limited partnerships are divided into contributor members (limited partners) and general partners (complementary partners).

Members-contributors (limited partners) bear limited liability, responding only to their share invested in the common capital. They do not take part in the management of the company's business activities. Full members bear full responsibility with all their property.

Each participant in a limited partnership is obliged to contribute to the common capital. Members-contributors are only entitled to receive profits, not being able to take part in the management of the partnership. General partners have the right to manage the partnership.

A limited partnership as an organizational and legal form was formed in 1991 and is not yet widespread.

The partnership may include a minimum number of participants, starting from two people, one of whom must be a contributing member and the other a general partner. This form of business organization can be convenient for bringing together rich people who are ready to invest in a profitable business, and people who are poor but have promising ideas.

36. Cooperatives. Municipal and unitary enterprises

Cooperatives - this is a form of business organization, which is created on the basis of combining the shares of cooperative members into the authorized capital.

Cooperatives are created to carry out joint production or economic activities.

The work of the cooperative uses the personal labor participation of its members. At the time of the organization of the cooperative, a charter is created and approved.

During the years of Perestroika, production cooperatives were organized, which were created on the basis of property shares and labor participation of members of the cooperative.

In their organizational and legal form, cooperatives are similar to a limited liability company in that they are organized on a shared basis of their members and the sources of their income are income received from the sale of products or other activities. The governing body of both forms is the general meeting, and the executive body is the board. The mechanism of creation, their registration and the content of the statutes are also similar.

The differences between cooperatives and limited liability companies are casting votes in voting at a general meeting. Members of a cooperative have only one vote, regardless of the size of the share they contributed, and in a limited liability company, casting votes are distributed depending on the size of the contribution of the participants in the partnership. The second difference is that the amount of income of members of the cooperative does not depend on the amount of their contribution, and the income of participants in the partnership directly depends on the amount of their share contribution. The next difference is the different composition of their founding documents.

Municipal and unitary enterprises.

Municipal and unitary enterprises are state-owned enterprises in which a controlling stake is owned by the state and are on its balance sheet.

Unitary enterprises (SUEs) are transferred by the state into full economic ownership of the labor collective. At the same time, the state does not bear any responsibility for the activities of the enterprise created by it. The enterprise itself bears property responsibility for the actions performed by it in the course of economic activity.

Municipal enterprises are owned by rural or urban settlements or other municipalities. Management and responsibility for property objects is assumed by the administration of the city or village.

Unitary and municipal enterprises are classified as state budget enterprises. They are part of a specific ministry, body or department of local government. The heads of enterprises are appointed by state bodies, and the personnel are classified as civil servants.

37. Public and religious organizations

Public and religious organizations refers to non-profit organizations whose members are only individuals. Being members of public and religious organizations, citizens do not receive any material income or profit. Such organizations are created to meet the spiritual needs of their members. Donating any material resources in favor of the organization, its participants cannot claim them back in case of withdrawal from it, and also do not have the right to distribute the balance of property upon liquidation of the organization. Members of public and religious organizations are relieved of liability for the debts of these organizations, just as organizations are not liable for the debts of their members. Incomes received in the course of the activities of public and religious organizations go to the needs of their founders.

Public and religious organizations have their own statutes and laws, in which property issues must be clearly resolved in accordance with the goals facing these organizations.

Public organizations are associations created by individuals with at least ten people on the basis of common interests. The goals for the creation of public organizations may be: protection of the rights of citizens (social, civil, political, cultural and others), participation in charitable events, sports competitions, management of public affairs, cultural development, health programs, nature conservation and other socially useful activities. When creating public organizations, a general meeting is convened, at which the leaders are elected by the participants of the future organization, and constituent documents (charter or regulations) are adopted.

Incomes received in the course of the organization's activities are used to achieve its goals.

Public organizations can be various political, children's, youth, sports, cultural and educational organizations, creative associations, disabled people's organizations, charitable organizations and other associations.

Religious organizations - these are voluntary associations of individuals who have reached the age of majority for the purpose of confessing, performing various religious rites, worship, conducting sermons, religious education and religious enlightenment.

Religious organizations have their constituent documents in the form of statutes and regulations.

Religious organizations include religious institutions, centers, theological seminaries, religious associations (local, central, regional).

38. Associations of entrepreneurs. Associative forms of business organization

Associative forms of business organization are the association of enterprises or firms into aggregate structures.

Associative forms include the following types of associative structures.

1. Corporation is a joint-stock company that combines several companies with common business goals.

2. Economic associations is an association of organizations and enterprises, which is created on the basis of an agreement in order to coordinate common activities and perform similar functions. Members of business associations have the right to be members of other associations.

3. Concerns are an organizational form of association of enterprises, which is in the nature of monopolies and allows you to use the possibilities of large-scale production.

4. Consortium is an association of organizations, enterprises, which is created on a voluntary basis and is temporary. The consortium is organized to carry out major projects in ecology, science, technology, and the social sphere. The consortium uses financial and material resources, personnel and capacities of the organizations that are its members.

5. Holding companies They differ from other association forms in that they control other companies through the appointment of their directors, as well as through the ownership of their cash and shares. Despite the fact that the enterprises included in holding associations are independent, the holding is capable of exerting a great influence on their economic and commercial decisions.

6. Cartel is an association of legally independent enterprises on a contractual basis, which is engaged in the marketing of products manufactured by these enterprises.

7. Syndicate is a form of association of enterprises to organize the procurement and supply of raw materials to these enterprises, and the marketing of their products. From the moment of joining the syndicate, the commercial independence of its participants is lost, while the production independence is partially preserved.

8. Trusts - this is a form of association of enterprises in which the participants in this association completely lose their commercial, industrial and legal independence, while being subject to a single management.

There are structural specific forms of business organization that have not yet become widespread in the Russian economy, but are actively used in the practice of developed capitalist countries. These include: offshore companies, trust companies, franchisors.

39. Sources of business financing

Financing It is a way to provide business with money.

There are internal and external sources of cash flow.

Internal sources are sources of cash receipts, which are formed at the expense of the results of entrepreneurial activity. This may be income from the sale of products, the sale of property.

Internal sources of financing include investments of the company's founders in the authorized capital, as well as funds received after the sale of the company's shares, the sale of the company's property, and the receipt of rent for the lease of property.

External sources are divided into two groups:

1) debt financing;

2) gratuitous financing. Grant financing is the representation of funds in the form of gratuitous charitable donations, assistance, subsidies.

Debt financing refers to debt capital. Borrowed capital includes:

1. Short-term loans and borrowings are intended to finance current assets.

2. Long-term loans serve as a source of financing for part of current and non-current assets.

3. Credit has a close connection with such a form of economic relations as loan capital. Loan capital is an independent part of economic capital, which functions in the form of cash in the field of entrepreneurial activity.

There is a mortgage loan - a mortgage loan. This loan is the most common form of secured loan. Its essence is that the firm, upon receipt of debt funds, guarantees the creditor to repay the debt, taking into account interest.

In the event that the company cannot repay the debt, the creditor has the right to recover the property of the company in his favor.

Trade credit is a commercial loan, which consists in the fact that an entrepreneur buys a product, postponing its payment. By purchasing goods, the entrepreneur enters into an agreement with the seller, according to which he undertakes to return to him the cost of the purchased goods, including interest on the loan, within the appointed time. Most often, trade credit is used by wholesale buyers of goods.

Shares are a common form of raising money. By issuing and selling shares, an entrepreneurial firm receives a debt loan from the buyer, as a result of which the shareholder acquires the right to the property of the company, as well as to receive dividends. Dividends in this case are interest on a loan, which is presented in the form of money paid for shares. Through this type of loan, the company has the opportunity to receive significant financial capital.

40. Accounting and balance sheet

Бухгалтерский учет is a process that consists of obtaining information about financial transactions, processing data and documenting all the results of financial transactions.

Accounting documentation contains a huge number of digital indicators that characterize the work of the company. The accountant collects report data, processes and analyzes it, systematizes it, and then brings it to management in the form of easily perceived information about the financial condition of the company.

Accounting calculates the costs and volumes of the company's costs for the production of products, the amount of profit as a result of the sale of products, monitors the cost-effective value. In addition, accounting is designed to monitor the budget of the company, the volume of expenses and income, the amount of tax payments. The main form of accounting is the balance sheet.

Balance sheet must correspond to the formula in which the income must be equal to the sum of the expense and the balance. All components of this formula have a monetary equivalent, which is convenient when calculating the financial resources of the company.

The balance sheet depends on two interrelated types of capital of the firm: active and passive capital.

Active capital is the property of the company, which is expressed in the asset of its balance sheet in the form of fixed and working capital. Passive capital consists of the sources of funds from which the firm's assets were formed.

They, in turn, are divided into the company's own capital and borrowed capital.

In the balance sheet formula, the difference between the amounts of assets and liabilities should form the amount of equity. Assets represent all the incoming income of the company, which are converted into inventories, cash reserves, fixed and current assets of the company. A firm's liabilities are its obligations in the form of financial or material resources that are received from internal or external sources and are subject to reimbursement. In other words, liabilities are the company's debts that must be repaid in accordance with the obligations assumed. Assets show the direction of cash that is used by the firm in the course of its activities.

Liabilities characterize the direction of receipts of financial resources presented in the form of cash loans. Equity capital is formed by the company's own financial resources, which, in turn, are obtained from the investments of the company's founders. The company's own funds together with liabilities form the company's assets.

For each balance sheet item, a special document is created, which is called an invoice. The account, which is compiled according to the data of the asset accounts, is called the active one, and the account, which is compiled according to the data of the liability accounts, is called the passive one. Any of the types of active and passive accounts has its own standard number. Thanks to this circumstance, an accountant or financier has the opportunity to obtain the necessary information from the accounting report of any company.

41. Income and expenses in the balance sheet

Accounting reflects the income and expenses of the company.

This information relates to a specific reporting period in which there were receipts and payments of funds that are related to these incomes and expenses.

Profits firms are taxed in accordance with Article 248 of the Russian Tax Code. The income of the organization is: income from the sale of goods and services, income from the sale of property rights, income not related to the sale. When calculating the tax, the reporting (tax) period is taken in which the receipts of funds, property funds or property rights are recorded.

The company's income is classified according to the direction of its activities:

1) from the main activity;

2) from the realization of the firm's investments;

3) from the financial activities of the firm. The expenses of the company are considered to be a decrease in property assets, cash, the assumption of obligations that lead to a decrease in the total capital of the company.

Expenses are not considered those expenses that do not affect the value of the company's capital. These include: the creation of non-current assets, contracts in favor of a commission or agents, contributions to the authorized capital of other firms or companies, the acquisition of shares in other organizations, payment for stocks of materials and work, repayment of loans or credits, payment of advances and deposits.

Expenses in accounting, like income, are classified depending on the direction of the company.

Expenses that are associated with the ordinary activities of the company include:

1) expenses that are associated with the production and sale of the company's products or the provision of services;

2) expenses associated with the provision of leased assets;

3) expenses associated with the participation of the company in the authorized capital of other organizations;

4) expenses on deductions in the form of depreciable assets in order to recover the cost of fixed assets;

5) expenses associated with payment for granting rights under patents for inventions.

Expenses for ordinary activities pass through the account in the amount that was accrued in cash, equal to the amount of the loan or other debt.

Expenses of the current period are subdivided depending on the conditions, direction and nature of the company's activities. There are costs associated with production activities and the sale of goods and services (labor costs, material costs, accrued depreciation, and others) and costs not related to the sale of products.

42. Financial analysis of the company's activities

Financial analysis is based on the study of financial indicators of entrepreneurial activity of firms.

Indicators can reflect general ideas about the state of the company and can highlight the most significant values that have a great impact on the performance of the company.

There are many criteria that are used in the process of financial analysis of a firm. The most commonly used economic criteria are: asset liquidity, which includes the coverage ratio and maturity ratio; profitability, profitability, payback, capital turnover rate, stability criterion.

The liquidity of assets provides the firm with confidence in its solvency by regulating the rapid conversion of the firm's assets into cash. If a firm is short of cash, it can sell its liquid assets to pay off debts.

The level of liquidity is assessed using two ratios: the coverage ratio and the maturity ratio.

The coverage ratio is the ratio of the firm's current assets to the firm's short-term liabilities.

The term ratio is the ratio of highly liquid assets subject to quick sale and short-term liabilities of the firm. Profitability is one of the main factors for the successful operation of the company, as well as an important criterion for the financial condition of the company.

Profitability characterizes the ratio of the amount of profit of the company, which is received for a certain period of time, and the cost of production and other types of funds used by the company in order to obtain this profit.

The Russian economy uses several specific indicators of profitability. These include:

1) return on assets (property of the company);

2) return on equity of the company;

3) profitability of sales;

4) profitability of current costs;

5) return on invested capital;

6) profitability of production;

7) profitability of the firm's fund.

The rate of capital turnover is an indicator of the rate of use of funds invested in the business activities of the company. To determine the value of the indicator of the rate of capital turnover, the ratio of the volume of profit from the sale of goods and the value of the firm's assets in monetary terms is used.

The criterion of stability or reliability of the company shows how reliably the company is provided with its own resources and what is its dependence on external sources of financing. The value of this indicator is determined using the ratio of external investment to the firm's own cash resources.

43. Business and prices

An integral and important component in the business activities of the company is the price of goods and services.

Price serves as the only element in the activities of the firm, which is the producer of profit. The price, in contrast to the quality and properties of the goods, is a very flexible element that can be subject to rapid change.

The price reflects the quality characteristics of the product, which affects the pricing policy.

Pricing policy is to solve one of five tasks, which include:

1) “cream skimming” policy;

2) survival;

3) increase in current profit;

4) the desire to become a leader;

5) increase in market share.

The price of a product depends on the level of consumer demand. An indicator that reflects the dependence of price levels on current demand is called the demand curve. In a normal social environment, price and demand are inversely proportional. This means that an increase in the price of a good reduces the demand for it.

The opposite dynamics is observed in relation to prestigious goods. Some categories of buyers prefer to purchase high quality goods at high prices.

The demand curve characterizes the reaction of buyers who belong to different categories, i.e., determines their sensitivity to price. A firm can use one of three methods to analyze demand curves:

1) statistical analysis of factors affecting the relationship between prices and sales volumes;

2) conducting experiments with prices;

3) a method of surveying buyers, during which the degree of dependence of the quantity of purchased products on the level of prices for it is clarified.

In addition to the demand curve, to determine the sensitivity of demand to the prices of goods, there is the concept of elasticity of demand. If the demand for goods changes even with a slight change in prices, this indicates the elasticity of demand. If, when prices change, demand remains almost unchanged, we can talk about its inelasticity.

There are two types of costs: fixed and variable.

Fixed costs are those costs that do not depend on production volumes and volumes of products sold (payment for energy, heating, rent, salaries to company employees, and others).

Variable costs reflect the costs that are associated with the production level of the firm.

Total costs are the sum of the fixed and variable costs of a firm.

Average cost is the cost per unit of output. Average cost is determined by dividing the total cost by the volume of output produced.

44. Pricing

When choosing a pricing method, it is necessary to take into account three main factors, which include: consumer demand, cost indicators and the pricing policies of competitors.

According to these factors, three price cap levels are determined. The lower level of the price cap is made up of costs, the middle level is determined by the prices of competitors, and the high level of the price cap is the opinion of buyers about the product. In order to choose the right pricing method, at least one of the factors must be considered.

The simplest pricing method is the method of charging a premium to production costs per unit of output.

This method is used for the following reasons: it is much easier to calculate the amount of costs than to estimate consumer demand; firms using this method will set approximately the same price level, which will reduce competition; the application of this method is mutually beneficial for buyers and sellers.

A common method of price formation is the method of price calculation, which is based on compliance with the level of profitability of capital invested in the business.

Pricing methods include a method that uses the perception of the value of the goods by buyers.

When using the price-based method, a high-quality product may be priced at a low price. This method allows you to attract the attention of a larger number of buyers to your products, who will appreciate the affordable prices and good quality of the goods.

You can set the price of goods based on the use of the current price level of competitors. Firms that are engaged in the production and sale of similar products charge approximately the same prices for goods.

The final price is set after consideration of additional factors, which include: the psychological factor of price perception, the pricing policy of the company, the attitude of other market participants to the price.

The attitude to the prices of the company of other market participants is in the reaction to the prices of distributors, dealers, sales representatives.

Adaptation of prices in the market depends on various conditions, including: geographical characteristics, differences in the requirements of individual market segments, order volumes, the use of discounts and offsets, and others.

Having established the initial value of prices, in the process of selling goods, the company may find itself in a situation where it is necessary to raise or lower them.

Any change in prices in the market causes a reaction from consumers, market participants (distributors, dealers), suppliers and competitors.

In the process of entrepreneurial activity, a businessman is obliged to acquire the skills of conducting a pricing policy.

45. Risk: concept and types

The concept of entrepreneurial risk includes the possible loss of money, property, goods, i.e., unforeseen expenditure of resources and a decrease in income. In other words, as a result of a risky situation, there is a loss of possible income with an unforeseen increase in additional costs.

There are differences in concepts in terms of "losses", "losses" and "expenditure". Losses represent unforeseen expenses, as well as expenses that do not bring profit. Losses can be determined by additional costs not provided for by the entrepreneur's action plan. Losses can be associated with moral damage, as a result of which the social status or image of the entrepreneur is lost.

In legal practice, moral damage is compensated in cash.

When an entrepreneur predicts possible losses at the beginning of his activity, he can get a quantitative estimate risk. Often possible losses are random. It is impossible to foresee in advance changes in weather conditions, price volatility, demand for goods, and random events in the process of carrying out a business operation. A random event can have either a favorable or unfavorable effect on the final results of a business operation.

Types of entrepreneurial risk depend on the types of possible losses. Dividing losses into types helps to find ways to reduce risk in each specific case.

There are several types of losses.

1. Material losses expressed in unplanned costs, as well as losses of equipment, goods, material resources, energy, building materials, property, products, etc.

By analyzing the probable losses of certain types of resources, it is possible to determine their total value.

2. Financial losses are determined by the monetary loss that may be associated with additional spending of money on fines, unforeseen payments and taxes.

It can also be finance that the entrepreneur was counting on, but for some reason they were not received, or were not received in full. In addition, financial losses may be associated with inflation, delay or delay in payments.

3. Labor losses may be represented by loss of working time resulting from unforeseen circumstances. The measurement of such losses can be expressed in labor hours and days.

Lost time occurs when the process of a business transaction is not going as fast as planned, i.e. late. Such losses are estimated in certain periods of time (hours, days, weeks, months).

4. Special types losses include damage to the health, reputation of the entrepreneur. These types of losses are difficult to assess and determine their value.

46. Risk factors, their structure

In the process of entrepreneurial activity, it is necessary to monitor the main factors of the macro-environment and the micro-environment.

The factors of the macrosphere include.

1. Demographic environment is an important factor in the macro environment. She represents the people of the country. The number and growth rate of the population of various regions, cities and countries are a constantly changing value.

2. Economic environment represents the purchasing power of the population. The level of income of entrepreneurs depends on the level of solvency of the population.

3. Technological environment presented in the form of the need to create new technologies.

4. Political and legal spheres are presented in the form of events taking place in them, which occur in the field of politics and legislation, have a significant impact on entrepreneurial activity.

5. Sociocultural environment is formed from the formation of public beliefs in matters of values and norms of each person individually.

К microenvironment factors include: consumers, suppliers, distribution channels for products and services, competition.

Consumer behavior is influenced by social factors, which include reference groups, family, statuses and roles of people.

A serious factor in entrepreneurial risk is the problem of competition. If there are already strong competitors in the market segment, the feasibility of a business operation decreases.

The threat is the emergence of new participating firms in the markets.

A threatening factor is the appearance on the market of products that can replace an existing product.

The next important threat to entrepreneurial activity is the threat to the bargaining power of suppliers. The power of suppliers may increase in the event that the buyer does not have the opportunity to refuse to purchase the goods offered by suppliers by reducing its quantity on the market. Risk factors include a huge number of reasons that affect the occurrence of entrepreneurial losses. It is impossible to list them all, but it is possible to form some groups of causes that are the main risk factors. These include:

1) natural disasters;

2) illness or death of the entrepreneur or members of his group;

3) increased material costs;

4) dishonesty, irresponsibility of project participants;

5) discrepancy between factors of production;

6) unfavorable change in market conditions;

7) unforeseen political events;

8) developers' mistakes, their incompetence;

9) unforeseen increase in taxes;

10) unfair competition;

11) insolvency of participants in a business transaction;

12) increase in the level of remuneration of employees.

47. Risk assessment

An analysis of the external business environment allows you to determine the opportunities and threats of the company when deciding to realize its entrepreneurial ideas. The capabilities of the company are the ability to meet the needs of consumers. Threats of the external business environment consist in the unfavorable influence of macro-environment factors (demographic, technological, economic, legal, political, social, cultural) and micro-environment (consumers, competitors, suppliers, distribution channels). Threats and dangers that can cause a company or firm to take a critical and catastrophic risk must be strictly controlled. It is necessary to prepare a strategic plan of action for the company in case of risky situations.

Analysis of the internal business environment includes assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the company's business capabilities, identifying weaknesses in the work of its various departments and finding means and ways to eliminate them.

A general assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of a company or firm is called a strategic analysis, as a result of which a strategic business plan is drawn up. The first step in a strategic plan is to formulate goals. Goals should be clearly and structurally organized, quantifiable, realistic and consistent. There is a choice between two alternative ways to achieve the ultimate goal of the company: the search for new market segments or penetration into existing ones; shortening the time frame for making a profit when setting high prices or long-term prospects for profit growth at low prices; acceleration of growth rates with a high level of entrepreneurial risk or minimization of risks.!

Sales analysis is carried out using two methods: variance analysis and microsales analysis. In the process of analyzing deviations, the influence of various factors on the level of planned and actual sales is determined. In the process of analyzing micro-sales, factors are identified and highlighted, the influence of which adversely affects the achievement of planned targets (territorial features, low sales volumes, pricing features).

The analysis of the market segment is carried out on the basis of taking into account the percentage of sales of the company relative to the total sales in the market. In the case of an increase in the relative share of the company in the market, we can conclude that it is approaching the main competitor in the market.

Analysis of the ratio of costs and sales consists in strict control of the main annual indicators of costs and sales.

Financial analysis is necessary to establish the factors that affect the rate of return on net worth. The analysis of the company's marketing is carried out by assessing consumers and assessing shareholders. Customer evaluation includes the following purchasing criteria: the number of customers, their preferences, the number of regular customers, the number of dissatisfied customers, the availability of information about the product in the markets, the relative assessment of the quality of the product, the relative assessment of service. The system of such market assessments helps to prevent possible dangers in this area.

To determine the correct assessment of the position of competing firms, three components must be examined: market shares, buyer preferences, and associations with the firm. Firms or companies that have large market shares and generate large amounts of profits are leaders in terms of buyer preference.

48. Ways to reduce risk

To reduce the level of possible risk, there are several ways that a successful entrepreneur needs to know. Let's name the main ones:

1) before starting a business operation, it is necessary to assess possible losses in the course of this operation, determine their magnitude and frequency of occurrence;

2) do not avoid risk, but try to reduce its level;

3) if a businessman has decided to take the risk of probable losses, it is necessary to use insurance for the operation.

This method leads to a reduction in risk. Insurance covers property, health, life, commercial operations, safety of transported goods. In the case of insuring a business transaction, the entrepreneur is obliged to make insurance premiums, which in its own way is a certain loss of funds.

If the level of risk is acceptable, i.e. the amount of losses does not exceed the expected profit, a businessman can decide to conduct a business operation:

1) if the probability of a critical risk is sufficiently high, there is a need to conclude an operation agreement, according to which the possible risk is divided among all participants so that later losses can be compensated by joint efforts;

2) with a high level of probability of a critical risk, it is necessary to organize a reserve fund, having determined the sources in advance

compensation for losses;

3) you cannot start a business operation with a high level of probability of catastrophic risk, as a result of which the business activity may end in failure. If a company has a dominant position in the market, it needs to use a strategy such as market expansion. To do this, the company must search for and attract new consumers, new ways to use products, and increase the intensity of use of the company's products.

One of the ways to reduce the level of entrepreneurial risk is to protect market share from the attacking actions of competitors. An effective way to protect is the constant introduction of new products and services. There are defensive strategies that reduce the likelihood of attack by competitors. Defensive strategies include:

1) protection of the flanks;

2) positional defense;

3) pre-emptive defensive actions;

4) counterattack;

5) mobile protection;

6) reduction.

49. Business and Morality

Этика - translated from Greek means the philosophical doctrine of morality, its principles, norms and role in society (E. Hegel).

Morality - this is a set of principles and norms of people's behavior in relation to each other and to society (Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language. M., 2004).

In entrepreneurial activity, ethics and morality are expressed in the highly moral behavior of businessmen in the process of conducting various business operations.

An entrepreneur should create an image of a decent and honest person, following the principles of high morality. Most often, many aspiring entrepreneurs are not sufficiently aware that the observance of the principles of morality and ethics and the creation of the image of a decent person are the key to successful entrepreneurial activity.

Moral norms, first of all, are based on the honor and conscience of a person. You cannot force a businessman to be a highly moral person. He must feel these qualities in himself, have his own convictions in this regard.

Business It is an entrepreneurial activity that generates income.

In the process of entrepreneurial activity, there is an exchange between people of money, goods, resources, services, various results of activity. For both parties involved in the exchange, the first imperative principle of fair business must be the rules of equivalence and equivalence.

As a result of compliance with these rules, there is a fair exchange between participants in a business transaction, as a result of which each participant remains in a winning position.

In business, there should be no deceit, dishonest behavior, non-compliance with the principles of human morality and ethics, since the activity of an entrepreneur is associated with risk.

Many entrepreneurs enter into transactions not documented, but only in words, having secured the word of honor of the participant in the operation. Guaranteeing each other the observance of the rules of honesty and decency in the process of conducting an operation, entrepreneurs have the opportunity to receive not only good profits, but also create an image of decent people and partners for themselves.

Unfortunately, there are people in business for whom there are no rules of respectable relations. They do not observe any civil, religious or human laws of morality. Theft, deceit, bribery and extortion are not vices, but virtues.

Most often, novice entrepreneurs who need to acquire initial capital in order to start entrepreneurial activities resort to deception and theft. People without morals resort to immoral ways of doing business, justifying this by saying that any means are good to achieve goals. Immoral business is an acute problem in the social society.

50. Moral and ethical code of a civilized entrepreneur

Moral and ethical code of a civilized businessman includes principles that should guide every entrepreneur who strives to maintain a successful business and mutual respect with other entrepreneurs.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Russian entrepreneurs identified the basic principles of behavior in the process of entrepreneurial activity.

1. Be honest and truthful.

2. Love and respect the person.

3. Respect authority.

4. Be true to your word.

5. Respect the right of private property.

6. Be purposeful.

7. Live within your means.

By following these simple rules of doing business, a businessman provides himself with confidence not only in the successful future of his business, but also creates a strong reputation as a decent person.

Unfortunately, most often one has to observe disrespect for the authorities, tax evasion, non-compliance with the laws of ethics and morality in business activities.

Businessmen, distinguished by ignorance in matters of morality, see in their clients not full-fledged participants in the exchange of goods, but only a source of profit.

Modern entrepreneurs are condemning dishonest business conduct and violation of the rules of the moral and ethical code, therefore, most often businessmen who are short-sighted in matters of the laws of doing business and the rules of communication in the process of business operations complete their business in complete failure.

A modern entrepreneur must have such a set of qualities as:

1) humanism;

2) trust and respect for other people, respect for their professionalism and competence;

3) the desire to see and appreciate personal qualities not only in oneself, but also in the people around;

4) be convinced that the results of his work will benefit not only the businessman himself, but also the state;

5) perceive business as a creative process;

6) believe in the abilities of the surrounding people and in their desire to develop in the name of business promotion;

7) strive for self-improvement, increasing their knowledge, learning new technologies;

8) be a true connoisseur of science, culture, education;

9) observe laws, social order, respect state power, any form of ownership;

10) not harm the environment;

10) recognize competition as a necessary component in entrepreneurial activity.

51. Entrepreneurial culture

culture - this is a high level of development of any sphere of human activity or the conditions of his life. Entrepreneurial culture is the way entrepreneurs behave and their values. Culture characterizes the level of upbringing, education, communication of people, their spiritual world.

Entrepreneurial culture consists of the internal and external culture of entrepreneurial firms. Internal culture reflects the relationship of business participants within the company.

External culture embodies the observance of the rules of cultural behavior of entrepreneurs in relation to their suppliers, consumers, buyers and other participants in a business operation with whom the entrepreneur contacts in the course of his activities.

There are two components to the culture of entrepreneurship.

1. Entrepreneur's idea of business values.

Each entrepreneur has his own scale of values, his own goals, his own point of view on consumers, the demand for goods, the quality of goods, methods of calculating costs and profits.

2. Rules and norms of conduct during business transactions. Each entrepreneur establishes for himself certain rules and norms of behavior necessary for successful cooperation with participants in operations.

Concrete behavior - the behavior of an entrepreneur in the process of conducting any business operation, where he implements the rules and norms of cultural behavior he has learned.

The culture of entrepreneurship includes several sectors in which it is most often manifested: service culture, trade culture, administrative and managerial culture.

The culture of entrepreneurship is not an independent process, it combines both the culture of the entrepreneur and the culture of other participants in the business operation, the culture of employees, the culture of consumers and buyers.

The lack of an entrepreneurial culture among modern businessmen leads to the formation of intermediary entrepreneurship, in which making small but quick profits is valued by businessmen more than planning and conducting large business operations. In the process of entrepreneurial activity, a businessman has to enter into such a form of communication with partners as business negotiations. In order to properly conduct this business meeting, it is necessary to acquire communication skills during negotiations.

Before you go to an important business meeting, you need to think about what and how to say to your negotiating partners. The next important factor is to create the right atmosphere during negotiations. The meeting begins with a greeting, introduction of business partners to each other. The next stage of the meeting is a statement of the problem, introduction to the course of the matter, determination of the nature of the problem.

You need to start negotiations with important aspects that need to be discussed. If during the discussion the partners come to an agreement, the next stage of communication will be a discussion of the details.

52. Rules for negotiating with foreigners

When negotiating with foreigners, it is necessary to pay attention to their style of behavior, their traditions, which must be taken into account.

Americans tend to discuss not only general issues, but also prefer to discuss details in detail. Usually they treat partners well, they are distinguished by friendliness, while at the same time demanding the same attitude towards themselves.

The Chinese prefer to negotiate in stages.

At the first stage, they clarify the positions, are very attentive to the appearance of the partners, by which they determine their status, to the manner of their behavior. In the process of communication, the Chinese try to highlight people who show sympathy for them. This helps them in the future to influence with their help the position of partners.

At the second stage of negotiations, the problem is discussed. During the discussion, the Chinese are attentive to the mistakes made by partners, which they try to use to assess the capabilities of a partner company.

The third stage of the negotiations is the final one. At this stage, the partners make a decision. The Chinese prefer to make decisions not at the table in a restaurant, but at home.

The French usually avoid discussing the problem, being with a partner face to face. They are distinguished by independence, courtesy, courtesy and courtesy. Attention is paid to preliminary discussion and agreements. They prefer not to confront partners. Negotiations are conducted in their native language.

The Japanese try to avoid discussion, do not like clashes with the positions of partners, pay great attention to establishing personal relationships, and show increased attention to the interlocutor. Very sensitive to public opinion. Differ in accuracy and punctuality.

The Germans prefer to work out their position in partnership in advance. During the negotiation process, all issues are consistently discussed.

The British are distinguished by the fact that they always try to avoid clashes on the issues under discussion, have flexibility in communication, and always meet partners halfway. They prefer a minimum of preparation for negotiations.

Hungarians prefer to negotiate in a formal setting, rather than at a restaurant table. They do not like to bargain, they quickly give way to partners.

The Arabs consider the establishment of trust between partners to be the main condition. They are distinguished by the observance of the traditions of Islam, according to which they constantly turn to their roots, to their past. All the details of the negotiations are worked out in advance.

53. Business correspondence, exhibitions, presentations

After the negotiations are held, it is necessary to certify their content in writing. The results of the negotiations are subject to mandatory discussion in the firm, regardless of the positive or negative result of the negotiations. Business correspondence is also an important component in the process of business communication between a businessman and partners. A businessman must be able to write letters and respond to inquiries.

A business letter has the following structure:

1) justification of the relevance of the request;

2) the content of the request;

3) the expected result with the wording of guarantees. The cover letter consists of the following items:

1) a message about the sent material;

2) clarifying information.

A letter containing a request must state the reasons for the request, the essence of the request, and the expected result. The letter of request must begin with the word "please".

The response letter consists of the following parts:

1) repetition of the request;

2) the reason for the refusal;

3) statement of refusal.

The refusal should be softened with certain phrases, for example: “Unfortunately, your request cannot be granted...”.

If the author of the letter is an organization, the letter is written from a third party.

Written documents such as orders, official letters, statements, reports and explanatory notes are written in the first person.

The content of the letter should be short and concise in content.

In the process of entrepreneurial activity, various exhibitions, presentations, press conferences are held. The purpose of these events is to attract new partners and customers to the company's products.

The exhibition is held as follows:

1) determination of the purpose of the exhibition;

2) drawing up a plan for the exhibition;

3) placement of exhibits;

4) planning the direction of movement of visitors.

The success of the exhibition depends on the professional work of stand attendants. They must be highly qualified, appropriate clothing, have an excellent command of the rules of interpersonal communication, and have tact. An important requirement for stand attendants is their ability to keep official secrets.

The press conference is held in the morning. It is attended by journalists, radio and television correspondents. The list of invitees is compiled and sent out a month before the planned event, and then the mailing is repeated one to two weeks before the event.

Presentations are held to provide consumers with information about the capabilities of the company, its novelties and additional qualities of goods. The presentation is an advertising action. Preparing for a presentation is similar to preparing for an exhibition.

The text of the advertisement should contain short pieces of information about the merits and achievements of the company, the results should be expressed in numbers and percentages in relation to competing firms.

54. Service etiquette

Service etiquette is the norms and rules of conduct in the process of communication with colleagues, the order and forms of relations in the process of official contacts.

The concept of office etiquette includes the rules of greeting, acquaintance, introduction, communication with managers, colleagues, subordinates, rules for conducting business negotiations, rules for correspondence, as well as requirements for appearance, demeanor, style of dress, speech communication.

In international business, the developed rules of the international protocol are applied, according to which businessmen are obliged to comply with the norms of official conduct.

In Russian society, it is customary to address leaders, colleagues and partners by their first and middle names. If the appeal is written, the word "respected" may be added to the name and patronymic.

In business situations, you should refer to partners as "you".

At the first meeting, which is of a business nature, a man must introduce himself to a woman first. Participants of the business meeting are introduced to each other by the organizers of the meeting.

In the process of business relations, it is necessary to observe subordination, which characterizes the behavior of people corresponding to their position.

Compliance with the rules of business etiquette includes the ability to listen to the interlocutor, not to interrupt him.

In the process of business communication, it is necessary to show courtesy and respect to partners.

During negotiations or a business conversation, you should not openly show your emotions.

A typical standard of behavior in a business setting is based on the ability to anticipate the behavior of both parties to a business meeting.

With any result of a business conversation, you must politely say goodbye, while maintaining self-esteem. It is important to remember that a good attitude towards people is the basis of any communication, otherwise no techniques and tactics of negotiating and business conversations will help.

A businessman must master the skills of proper telephone communication. You need to speak in an undertone, not very loudly. It is necessary to start a conversation with the words: "I'm listening to you", followed by a greeting from the interlocutor. During a conversation, it is necessary to observe courtesy, goodwill and attention towards the interlocutor. The first to end the conversation is a woman (when talking with a man), older in age, senior in official position.

Arriving at the workplace, the businessman must make a list of people who need to be called, indicating their contact phone number opposite the names.

Strengthening the authority of the company and its reputation contributes to the correct social policy of its management.

55. Holding formal and informal receptions

In the field of entrepreneurship, it is customary to hold formal and informal receptions. Business breakfasts and lunches are considered informal receptions.

Breakfast is usually scheduled from 8 o'clock in the morning. They last approximately one or one and a half hours. A table in a cafe or restaurant is booked in advance and is usually served with fruits, sausages, dairy products, bread, butter; from drinks juices, tea and coffee are used.

Lunch or second breakfast takes place between 12:00 and 14:00 in the afternoon. At lunch, it is customary to consume various snacks and drinks, among which there may be an aperitif or other low-alcohol drinks.

If an event such as the signing of a contract or the opening of an exhibition is scheduled during the daytime hours, it is customary to serve snacks and drinks such as champagne, dry wine, as well as tea and coffee during the event. The duration of the event is about an hour.

Lunch refers to the evening types of business reception. It can be official or unofficial.

It is customary to start the official dinner at 20 pm. Lunch time is approximately two and a half hours. Guest lists are prepared in advance. At the table, places are allocated using cards with the names of guests. The guests are at the table during the first hour, and during the rest of the time they communicate in the living room. Appropriate attire is required for a formal dinner: men must wear a tuxedo or formal suit, and women must wear evening dress.

In addition to lunch, evening meals include buffet lunch, dinner and tea.

The lunch buffet is less formal than lunch and dinner. It can be done at home or outdoors. Tables are served with snacks, hot dishes and spirits. The table has the character of a buffet table, i.e. guests themselves fill their plates with snacks and sit down at tables of 4 or 6 people. Such activities can be organized after attending cultural events.

Dinner usually starts at 21:XNUMX or later. This event is organized and takes place in a similar way to a dinner.

Tea is organized at 17 pm. It is customary to serve sandwiches, canapes, cookies, sweets, drinks and fruits for tea. No special clothing is required for this event, and it lasts up to an hour and a half.

For any reception, you need to prepare in advance, depending on the type of reception and its purpose. It is necessary to determine the venue for the reception, draw up lists of invitees, send out invitations to them, outline their places at the table, draw up a menu, prepare a program of events at the reception, consider table setting and guest service.

56. Communication rules

In addition to the rules that help win people over, a businessman should know a few basic tricks that help find like-minded people in people.

These include the following communication rules:

1) Don't try to prove a person wrong. By proving to a person that he is wrong, we risk making an enemy. You can prove your case not with words, but with well-thought-out actions.

As a result, a person can independently understand that he was wrong, but in this case it will be his own conclusion, and not imposed by other people;

2) don't try to win an argument. As you know, there are no rights in the dispute. Regardless of the common sense and intellect of people, in a dispute everyone remains in his own opinion;

3) the ability to admit one's wrong. Admitting that you are wrong is always more beneficial than confronting your interlocutors;

4) the ability to listen more to the interlocutor than to speak himself. You need to give the interlocutor enough time to speak. Perhaps you will receive information that will help you establish a mutually beneficial relationship with him;

5) be friendly with people. Friendliness and gentleness help to persuade people to their point of view. A friendly tone can turn any person into an ally;

6) the ability to find common ground with the interlocutor from the very first minute of communication. If in the first minutes of the conversation you come to a common opinion and agreement, in the future it will be difficult for the interlocutor to say “no” to you;

7) the ability to inspire a person that the idea that has arisen in your head actually belongs to him. Forcibly imposing your thought on another person is almost impossible. It is better if a person believes that he does this of his own free will;

8) the ability to understand and accept the position of other people. In order to understand the thoughts of another person, you need to try to put yourself in his place. By understanding the motives of his thinking and behavior, you can find ways to possibly influence his opinion in your interests;

9) the ability to show empathy for people. People tend to seek sympathy and pity from others. By pitying a person and showing sympathy for his situation, you ensure his good attitude towards you and appreciation;

10) the ability to find positive motives in people's behavior. If you treat people with trust, they will strive to strengthen it with noble deeds and a conscientious attitude to the common cause;

11) not be afraid of competition. The desire for excellence gives a person the ability to self-realization, to achieve more successful results of their activities.

Authors: Egorova E.N., Loginova E.Yu.

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