Topic 10. FOREIGN SCHOOL AND PEDAGOGY IN THE LATE XIX - EARLY XX century

10.1. The development of pedagogical thought at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries

The turn of the XIX and XX centuries. was marked by a new level of development of industrial, social and economic relations, which required the improvement of all spheres of public life and socio-economic institutions, including education. At this time, there is an increase in public interest in pedagogy and education, the development of various pedagogical theories and systems based on new and traditional approaches to understanding the problems of education and upbringing. Under these conditions, the discrepancy between the existing school and social practice to the level of social development was quite clearly manifested. The old school did not contribute to the development of independence and activity in children, while the industry needed skilled workers who could manage complex technical equipment. The formalism and verbalism of traditional education was reflected in the fact that graduates were not ready to apply the received theoretical knowledge in practice.

In the XNUMXth century In almost all developed countries of the world, original national systems of public education were created, primary education became public and compulsory, its level increased, and the duration of primary education increased. In secondary education, real schools have received decent development, and the approach to teaching in classical educational institutions has changed. However, the national education systems of Western Europe and the United States had a number of common shortcomings that needed to be overcome in the course of reform: strengthening the centralization of school management and funding, the creation of intermediate links between primary and secondary education, which became dead-end vocational schools. Of course, there were also problems specific to each country (in the USA - a sharp lag of rural schools from urban ones, overcrowding of public schools, extreme utilitarianism of primary education; in Germany - verbalism and dogmatism of the content and teaching methods; in France - a lag in the field of vocational education).

The school system was reformed under the influence of a number of external and internal factors. External (social) factors, along with traditional ones, such as school and family, included new ones that had not been studied before - the work activity of students, leisure, personal relationships. Internal factors were associated with the development of pedagogical science and the introduction of new methods for studying pedagogical problems, the strengthening of the differentiation of branches of pedagogical knowledge, and the aggravation of the controversy between philosophical and pedagogical trends in science. The issues of development and self-development of the personality, the child's susceptibility to educational influences, the relationship between freedom and coercion in education, the interaction of the individual and society, etc., were updated.

Based on the ideas of reform, pedagogical periodicals discussed the nature of the secondary school: whether it should be general education or specialized, depending on the future occupation of students. Supporters of the new reform movement saw a solution to the problem in a combination of general and specialized education, believing that at the initial stage all children should study the same subjects, and already in the senior grades, the personal interests of students, their chosen future activities, should be taken into account. The traditional school system and educational institutions that developed in the XNUMXth century could not meet the increased needs of the individual and society. Thus, it was required to reform school practice at all levels.

According to A.N. Dzhurinsky, in all the variety of pedagogical theories and currents of the period under review, two directions in the development of pedagogical thought can be distinguished: traditionalist, which is a continuation of the classical tradition, and reformatory, developing new approaches. Traditional pedagogical theories include social, religious and philosophical pedagogy. Reform pedagogy (new education) is a movement in pedagogy of the late XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries, reflecting the need of society to train diversified, enterprising people through school, ready for active work in various areas of economic, political and social life. Supporters of the reform movement considered themselves the successors of the ideas of J.-J. Rousseau, the pedagogical ideas of the enlightener received a new sound and were updated in this era. Among the currents of the new pedagogy, free education, the labor school, the school of action, progressive education, etc., are best known.

10.2. The main trends and prominent figures of pedagogy of the XIX-XX centuries

Among the currents of traditional pedagogy, the most famous is social pedagogy, one of the founders of which was Paul Natorp (1854-1924), who considered training and education in a broad socio-philosophical context. In the work "Social Pedagogy", he singled out the school as the most important factor in the socialization of the child, since it is here that a model of society is created through a community of students and students. Within the framework of social pedagogy, education and training at school turns into the development of relationships between the individual and society based on a unity of understanding of life values ​​and norms. To this end, P. Natorp proposes to create a single school for all segments of the population, which would lead to the elimination of class contradictions.

French philosopher, writer Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980) was a representative of existential pedagogy - the philosophical direction of pedagogical thought. The analysis of childhood and its role in the formation of a creative personality was reflected in the genre of biography developed by Sartre (G. Flaubert and others), integrating philosophical, cultural-hermeneutical and socio-historical methods. The ideal of personality Zh.P. Sartre considered a free, spiritualized, thinking person and believed that the influence of external factors on the development of the child's inner world is minimal, therefore, self-education should become the main factor in education.

Reformed pedagogy was represented by a wider range of currents and figures, its development was strongly influenced by the philosophical trend of positivism, the founder of which was the French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798-1857). He defined experience and theoretical knowledge as a set of subjective sensations and experiences. Positivists in pedagogy believed that the nature of the pedagogical process is mainly determined by the spontaneous manifestation of the inclinations of children, and therefore, for effective and individualized learning, it is necessary to search for optimal means of determining the inclinations, inclinations and intellectual level of development of each child in order to help him choose his life path.

The ideas of positivism formed the basis of the movement of pedocentrism in reformist pedagogy. Pedocentrism relied on the theory of J.-J. Rousseau about free education and proceeded from the fact that systematic and pre-designed program education is contrary to the nature of the development of the child, therefore, education must be built on the basis of the directly arising interests of children in the process of their activities. Thus, the main thing in the learning process is not a pre-developed methodology, but the free creativity of the teacher. The leading representatives of this trend were E. Kay, M. Montessori, F. Gansberg and others.

Swedish writer, social activist and educator Ellen Kay (1849-1926) was a supporter of free education. The main place in her theory was occupied by the problems of family education, in which she called for the use of the method of "natural consequences". Kay's social activities were primarily associated with the struggle for the recognition of the importance of motherhood, since it is the mother who is able to protect her children from depersonalization. According to E. Kay, any regulated system of education runs counter to the tasks of the harmonious and complete development of the abilities and inclinations of the child. She argued that home education gives scope to the individuality of the child. The school should build upbringing, connecting the educational process with real life, creative activity - with early specialization, based on the individuality of children. Kay insisted that adults not separate their lives from the lives of children, but respect the inviolability of their inner world.

Italian psychiatrist and educator Maria Montessori (1870-1952) developed a system for the early development of the child, proposing to create a free and natural atmosphere in the school that stimulates various manifestations of the child's personality. In the educational institution she opened for preschoolers - the "House of the Child" - she created a special developmental environment based on the theory of "sensory phases" of child development and "normalizing" education. Under the "sensory phases" M. Montessori understood special periods in a child's life that are sensitive for any activity, for example, for the development of motor activity, speech, abstract thinking, etc.

German educator Fritz Gansberg (1871-1950) saw the way for the formation of the creative personality of the child in the development of his activity. In his opinion, cognitive activity should be formed through creative work (writing essays, solving problematic problems).

Nevertheless, for all the originality of the ideas of pedocentrism and free education, the practice of school education and upbringing debunked the expectations of teachers about a high level of personality development, since in such a system it turned out to be flawed, since the pedocentric position led to the rejection of regular systematic classes to master the basics of science. The system of ideas in the child did not spontaneously build up, so this direction was subjected to serious criticism.

Some teachers of that time were sure that the further development of pedagogical science is possible on the basis of positively proven facts from pedagogical practice, which must be additionally verified empirically. This direction became known as experimental pedagogy. Thanks to the ideas and activities within the framework of experimental pedagogy, the concept of pedagogical research was introduced into scientific circulation and the phenomenon of pedagogical experiment was studied. Experimental pedagogy tried to rely on the results of studying children using empirical methods. The result of the activity of this direction was the creation of the theory of mental giftedness.

French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857-1911) developed the basic methods for studying the individuality of children, which make it possible to single out the standards for the education and upbringing of children. In the process of education, he called for relying on the innate data of the child and refused the teacher in a leading role, believing that a personal example could not teach anything.

Representative of experimental pedagogy Wilhelm August Lai (1862-1926) believed that learning should follow the biological stages of a child's development, acting as a mechanism for controlling reflexes according to cultural norms. He believed that the goals and organization of education and upbringing should be built in accordance with the physiological and mental characteristics of children and take into account their interests. V.A. Lai argued that children's interests are formed on the basis of spontaneous reflexes, which means that education should be based on the activity of the child himself. These theoretical positions of the scientist were criticized for excessive biologization of the essence of education.

His pedagogical views V.A. Lai outlined in his work "School of Action. Reforming the School in Accordance with the Requirements of Nature and Culture", in which he formulated the requirement for the organization of a wide social and natural space for the child, creating the possibility of internal expression, harmonization of one's own actions with the requirements of society and other people. In this regard, in schooling, Lai puts forward the most diverse practical activities: modeling from clay, sand, plasticine, experiments in various natural science disciplines, caring for plants and animals, drawing, singing, music, dancing, gymnastics, sports. The teacher developed a system of schools in accordance with the age periodization he proposed, based on the theory of reactions: the first stage is a kindergarten (up to 6 years old), the second stage is an elementary school (from 6 to 12 years old), the third stage is an increased elementary school (from 12 up to 16 years old), the fourth stage is the secondary, or additional, school (from 16 to 18 years old). According to the scientist, the school should be universal and joint, based on taking into account the individual characteristics and inclinations of children.

The achievements of experimental pedagogy became the basis for the creation of a multifaceted science about children - pedology, which is a synthesis of various fields of knowledge, the subject of which is a person and a child: pedagogy, psychology, biology and sociology. Pedologists believed that it was necessary to study and measure the influence of two factors of personality development - biological and social, in order to direct education in the right direction. Pedology tried to develop methods that could comprehensively study the personality of the child. The greatest contribution to the development of this science was made by A. Binet, E. Thorndike, E. Meiman and a number of other researchers.

American psychologist and educator Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) believed that pedagogy would only become a science when it could use quantitative research methods. Being a supporter of behaviorism, he insisted that any incentives can be designed in advance in accordance with the goals of education, and responses - measured and subjected to quantitative analysis. In the work "Pedagogical Psychology" (1903), E. Thorndike expressed ideas that had a great influence on the development of learning theory in the United States and were later reflected in the concept of programmed learning. Education was interpreted by the teacher as a process of adapting the individual to the environment; central to him was the "law of effect" - the dependence of the strengthening of the reaction on subsequent satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

Another law, called by Thorndike "the law of exercise", formulated the relationship between stimulus and response and consisted in the need to repeat this connection, otherwise it disappears. Experimentally investigating the problem of formal education, the scientist proved that only general principles or identical elements can be transferred from one material to another, newly studied. E. Thorndike created works on the psychology of teaching arithmetic, algebra, language, and reading. To quantitatively measure the level of mental development, he developed an original system of tests.

Ernst Meiman (1862-1915) substantiated the position according to which only the inductive path (from the particular to the general, the path of trial and error) provides each educator with an understanding of the pedagogical measures used by him and makes it possible to realize the correct method of influence. E. Meiman defended the status of pedagogy as an independent science, which for its own purposes uses the achievements of other sciences - physiology, psychology, philosophy.

In general, representatives of experimental pedagogy clearly overestimated the role of the biological factor in the development of the child and transferred the laws of the psychophysical development of children to pedagogy.

Another striking trend in reformist pedagogy was pragmatism (from the Greek pragma - deed, action), which was based on the practical significance of a particular phenomenon ("true is what is significant"). The founder of pragmatism was an American philosopher, sociologist, psychologist and teacher John Dewey (1858-1952).

According to Dewey, the child is the sun around which the means of education are concentrated, the starting point, the center of everything. “At present, the beginning change in our education is a change in the center of gravity. This is a change, a revolution, like that called for by Copernicus, when the astronomical center was transferred from the Earth to the Sun. In this case, the child becomes the sun_ in school, the child’s life becomes more and more defining goal_ Education? Of course, but life comes first, and education is only to promote this life and for it, "D. Dewey wrote. The true purpose of acquiring knowledge, according to the teacher, is to find a way to acquire it. Learning by doing is the way that connects the school and the child with social life. Education should be based on a research method that helps the child formulate and solve problems independently, stimulates cognitive activity, connects the development of the world with personal experience.

D. Dewey embodied his ideas in the laboratory school that he opened in 1898 in Chicago. His experimental school was designed to become an educative and educational environment, performing the functions of simplifying the complex phenomena of life, choosing to study the most typical moments of human life, and helping to equalize social differences. At the center of school life was manual labor, which made it possible to organize active social activities for children. According to Dewey, the very organization of learning and interaction between the teacher and students dictates the natural discipline in the school.

The basis of school education should be the correct development of the child at preschool age, therefore, work with young children should pursue the goal of teaching them to do everything on their own.

Taken to the extreme, the idea of ​​pragmatic pedagogy regarding the reliance of learning on practice has led to a narrowing of the circle of knowledge necessary for the development of a scientific worldview in students. In this regard, the phenomenon of concomitant learning arose, the denial of the leading role of the teacher in the school, for example, the "project method" led to the elimination of educational subjects.

Close to social pedagogy is the idea of ​​a labor school, which was developed by a Swiss teacher Robert Seidel (1850-1933). According to Seidel, each student should thoroughly study one of the crafts and have an idea about all the others. Labor requires knowledge and is accompanied by mental activities and artistic and visual activity.

German educator Georg Kershensteiner (1854-1932) after graduating from the University of Munich was a teacher in a real school and gymnasium, received the title of professor. In his pedagogical research, he gave a scientific justification for the ideas of a labor school and civic education. In the era of "automated division of labor" every person should have a vocational education, Kershensteiner believed, so the tasks of the school should be labor education and training, vocational training.

The teacher proceeded from the fact that the children of wealthy parents receive the upbringing that the state needs both at home and in secondary educational institutions, being there until the age of 18, and the children of working people leave folk schools at the age of 13-14, when their character has not yet formed. In this regard, he proposed the creation of compulsory supplementary schools for working adolescents. Such educational institutions, according to G. Kershensteiner, should develop the ability to enjoy work for everyone as a citizen of the fatherland. Additional schools were usually created for workers of one profession, to the needs of which the study of all subjects was adapted, they were supposed to provide vocational training and develop in young people the skills to perform civic duties. A labor school is an educational institution for the children of the people, who, according to the teacher, for the most part have imaginative thinking, so manual labor is more interesting for them. The labor school assumed various forms of practical activity in a strict system and sequence.

G. Kershensteiner attached great importance to the situation outside the school, the activities of various youth organizations. Putting his ideas into practice, the teacher rebuilt the curricula of the folk schools in Munich (mathematics, natural science and drawing were given a large place in them), contributed to the introduction of active teaching methods with the widespread use of visual aids, practical work, and excursions. The ideas of G. Kershensteiner were shared by V.A. Lai, who wrote a lot about the labor school - the school of action.

The course of the new education brought together many teachers who demanded a radical change in the organization of the school, the content and methods of education and training, and played a positive role in the development of pedagogical theory and practice of education in the XNUMXth century. Representatives of the new education were A. Ferrier, O. Decroly, D. Dewey, R. Cousine and other teachers.

According to the concept of new education, the school should be of a boarding type, in which an educational environment has been created that ensures the physical, mental and moral development of children. Such a school will prepare them for a broadly interpreted practical activity. The priority was considered the physical development of children as a prerequisite for the disclosure of their intellectual strengths and abilities, so it was proposed to create a new type of school in rural areas. In the life of pupils, an important place was given to physical labor, sports, games, long-distance excursions. In teaching, the theorists of the new upbringing gave preference to mental development and had a negative attitude towards book education, believing that at school students should assimilate a system of logically connected knowledge that has an outlet for practice. Adherents of the new education put forward the principle of concentration of educational subjects, according to which a limited number of subjects should be studied at the same time, monotony and monotony in educational work are overcome by using a variety of teaching methods and techniques that stimulate the activity of students.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. in some countries of the world, including Russia, a number of "new schools" were opened (the school of E.S. Levitskaya in Tsarskoye Selo, 1900). At the same time, the principles of the life of these educational institutions were formulated: the joint education of boys and girls, the boarding nature of the school, the integration of children into small groups (10-12 people), the widespread use of physical labor, sports, excursions for pedagogical purposes, the construction of an educational process with taking into account the age and individual characteristics of children, the combination of collective and individual forms of work in teaching, children's self-government, etc. All the "new schools" were private educational institutions of secondary education and were intended for children from wealthy families.

In conclusion, we note that what is common to various areas of reform pedagogy was the recognition of the school as a special environment, contact with which should bring happiness to the child's creative development. The school is an organic part of a wider social environment, the basis of which is a broadly interpreted work activity.

Authors: Mazalova M.A., Urakova T.V.

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