Topic 5. EDUCATION AND PEDAGOGICAL THOUGHT IN THE ERA OF RENAISSANCE AND NEW TIME

5.1. General characteristics of the Renaissance

It is impossible to understand the educational achievements of the Renaissance without analyzing the economic and sociocultural situation that developed in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. in Western European countries. The different nature of economic development in different countries (for example, economically powerful Italy and France and the slow development of commercial capital in Germany) determined the unique sociocultural situation in each of them and, as a result, was reflected in different ways in the pedagogical ideas of Italian, German and French teachers. -humanists, and in the educational practice of different countries.

Italy was the birthplace of one of the greatest movements that mankind has ever experienced - the Renaissance. In the XIV-XV centuries. Italy was a state in which political, economic, religious, cultural, and educational life was concentrated. The wide trade and other economic relations of Italy, a number of geographical discoveries made by the Italians, the relatively wide spread of education among the population caused in people other aspirations and demands compared to the Middle Ages: a person awakened faith in himself, the desire for self-knowledge and manifestation of fortitude. The most important prerequisite for the formulation of a new understanding of man compared to the medieval one was the work of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio and others. Close attention to the problems of man, his spirituality, awareness of his place in the world was reflected in the artistic work of Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and others.

Features of the culture and education of the Renaissance were their secular nature, humanistic philosophy, appeal to the ancient cultural heritage. The source of all the ideas of the Renaissance was ancient culture, which was saturated with faith in man. It was she who offered the new era lofty and beautiful examples, ready-made formulas for constructing her worldview. But the main thing is that ancient culture opened to the Renaissance the ideas of humanism and harmony, which permeated the pedagogical theory and practice not only of the new era, but of all subsequent eras. Humanism (from lat. humanus - human, humane) - recognition of the value of the human personality, its right to free development and manifestation of its abilities, the assertion of the good of man as a criterion for assessing social relations.

Upbringing and education for the Renaissance were of vital importance. In addition, public interest in these areas of human activity was facilitated by the significant spread of printing at the end of the XNUMXth century. Humanists understood that new ideals would come into life with the younger generation brought up in the spirit of these ideals, so the issues of education and upbringing of the younger generation became the subject of close attention of humanist educators. Having placed a person at the center of their worldview, the humanists associated the moral and social progress of society with his purposeful education. This explains the special attention to pedagogy in the Renaissance, when pedagogical thought was far ahead of educational practice, which, as a rule, retained its traditional form for the Middle Ages. In the pedagogical writings of the most prominent humanists, a new goal of education was formulated, the conditions and requirements that contributed to the development of a harmonious personality were highlighted. Particular emphasis was placed on the intellectual, moral, aesthetic elements of education. The need and value of physical education of the younger generation were recognized.

The basis of education and upbringing is humanists, based on the ideas of M.F. Quintilian considered the totality of the natural abilities of the child, which develop in learning with the help of guidance, instruction and exercises. Teachers insisted on the need to identify by observing the natural inclinations of children, taking into account their individual characteristics and applying various methods of influencing students, depending on their characters and abilities. In the Renaissance, there was an understanding of the important role of education and upbringing in the formation of morality, the development of good sprouts, and the mitigation and curbing of unwanted inclinations.

The merit of humanists was the development of the content of education, which was based on ancient languages, which made it possible to evaluate the works and philosophy of thinkers of the past, and the study of ancient cultural heritage. Additions were made to the content of the "seven free arts", the trivium expanded to include history, moral philosophy, and poetry. By the XNUMXth century attention to the disciplines of the natural science cycle is increasing, in addition, observation of natural phenomena, acquaintance with various crafts and arts was considered important in teaching. At the same time, a provision was formulated on the need for education in the native language. Thus, an idea was formed about the encyclopedic content of education, which included a wide range of scientific and cultural achievements. In the Renaissance, a new understanding of the learning process as a voluntary, conscious and joyful, which is associated with teaching methods - the principle of "soft hand", the widespread use of moral encouragement. The idea of ​​the humanists about the connection between learning and life made the main criterion of education its usefulness, primarily for preparing a person for life in society.

The ideas formulated by humanist educators were reflected in pedagogical reality, transforming it: new types of educational institutions emerged, imbued exclusively with the ideas of humanism; the content, forms, teaching methods were revised; new textbooks and teaching aids were created. Scholastic education gave way to grammatical-rhetorical (classical), the harsh discipline of the Middle Ages was replaced by a softer and more humane one. The idea of ​​an attentive, careful attitude to the child's personality sounded more and more insistent.

5.2. Pedagogical thought of the Renaissance

The pedagogical thought of the Renaissance is most clearly represented by the works of Italian, German and French humanist scholars. Undoubtedly, their works bear the imprint of national originality. Thus, the works of Italian teachers are characterized by a pronounced humanistic trend, the value of education and upbringing is assessed in their orientation towards universal ideals. In the writings of the German humanists, democratic tendencies are strongly manifested; ideas about universal education, the need to organize a mass public school merge with the idea of ​​national education. French aristocratic humanism is filled with pedagogical ideas of the future: the need for free and individual education, the development of women's education, the importance of including physical labor in the education system.

Among the Italian humanists of the Renaissance, it stands out especially Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446). The son of poor parents, Vittorino, after graduating from the University of Padua, was appointed professor of philosophy. In 1424, da Feltre received an invitation to Mantua, where he was to become the educator of the children of the Duke of Padua Gonzago. This is how the famous palace school "House of Happiness" arose, to which V. da Feltre devoted his whole life. The school was an educational institution of a boarding type, whose activities were subordinated to the main goal - the harmonious development of a person, his "body, mind and character."

V. da Feltre makes classical languages ​​the core of his teaching content; he builds the study of literature on the principle of conscious assimilation and independent creativity. The teacher strives to impart encyclopedic knowledge, so the curriculum includes algebra, astronomy, geometry, drawing, natural history, etc. As one of his contemporaries said about V. da Feltre, “he praised what the Greeks call an encyclopedia, because, according to According to him, science and education are made up of many and varied knowledge."

V. da Feltre paid special attention to the physical development of children. For this purpose, sports games were held, children were taught horse riding, wrestling, fencing, archery, swimming (knightly education). Among the forms and methods of teaching, Vittorino gave preference to those that most fully revealed the capabilities of students, intensified their cognitive activity - these are games, excursions, outdoor activities and conversations with children.

The ideas of self-government were put in the basis of organizing the life of children. At the same time, the school of V. da Feltre retained a strong element of religious education with pronounced medieval asceticism. According to the memoirs of a contemporary, “with the severity of a severe ascetic, he locked himself every morning in his room, where he prayed with kneeling and scourged himself.

Contemporary of Vittorino Pietro Paolo Vergerio (1350-1444) considered moral education to be the main thing in the development of the personality, which he understood in a broad and multifaceted way. It included religious, actually moral and physical components. In the interpretation of P.P. Vergerio mental education has a close connection with moral education and is significant only in this connection: knowledge without moral education is not valuable, even more dangerous. According to the teacher, education is humane only when it is built in accordance with the individual characteristics of the child (this idea was fully expressed in practice much later in the educational systems of J. Korchak, S.T. Shatsky, V.A. Sukhomlinsky and etc.).

German pedagogical thought was represented by the name of the greatest humanist of the Renaissance, whose influence extended far beyond the borders of his homeland, Dysederia Erasmus (Erasmus of Rotterdam) (1469-1536). He received his primary education in a monastery, then at the "school of brothers" in Daventar, later at Paris and Oxford universities, where he deeply mastered languages ​​and literature. For many years, Erasmus of Rotterdam led the life of a wandering scientist, living in France, England, and Italy. He spent the last 25 years of his life in Basel. Erasmus of Rotterdam left a mark in history as a bright publicist, ridiculing the vices of contemporary society ("Praise of stupidity"). He expounded his pedagogical views in the works "Conversations", "Ciceronians", "Method of Study", "Free Education of Children", "On the good manners of children".

Formulating the goal of education, Erasmus of Rotterdam put piety and morality above all else, he put forward the idea of ​​universal education. In his opinion, the broad masses of the population, who have no access to scientific education, need religious education, but in order for everyone to be able to read the Bible, universal education is needed. Determining the content of education, he puts grammar in the first place, followed by history and literature, geography and natural science.

Erasmus of Rotterdam sharply protests against harsh school discipline, beatings, demands that teaching bring joy and pleasure to the child. He insists that education be accessible to both men and women, and that classical languages ​​should occupy a special place in the education of women.

French Renaissance humanism is represented by the name Francois Rabelais (1494-1553). A writer, humanist, a bright and extraordinary personality, he was born into the family of a lawyer, received an excellent education in a monastery, led the life of a wandering scientist, studied ancient languages, archeology, law, natural sciences, medicine, received a doctorate in medicine, in the last years of his life he was a priest . A very accurate description of the contradictory character of F. Rabelais, which determined the originality of his pedagogical views, was given by E.N. Medynsky: "A man who all his life was afraid of being burned at the stake, and at the same time openly mocked religion. A man who rebelled against the church and twice begged for remission of his sins and apostasy from Pope Paul III; then a sworn enemy of monasticism and a white priest, then a doctor, a great old man of the Renaissance, finally a priest again; an encyclopedist by education - a philologist, physician, archaeologist, lawyer and naturalist; an author whose books are either published under the auspices of the king, or are forbidden by parliament, but are a huge success among the bourgeoisie of the time; a writer whose first books are filled with a passionate thirst for a healthy life, unbridled joy and hope for an improvement in social life with the help of royalty, and in the last parts of his novel there is deep disappointment; a writer with deep ideas and, in in particular, with the best pages of world pedagogy; the largest teacher, proclaiming the god of the whole world and the inspirer of all cultures s bottle; now rotating in the royal circle, now forced to flee from France - such is always restless, full of hobbies, extreme exaggerations, doubts and contradictions of Rabelais.

F. Rabelais expressed his pedagogical ideas in his novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel", in which he sharply condemned the medieval school for its formal and purely verbal character, for scholastic methods of teaching, and opposed to it the program of education of a "free and well-behaved person" of the Renaissance. The pedagogical theory of F. Rabelais was based on his belief that a person by nature, regardless of origin, is predisposed to goodness, therefore humanistic values ​​can be reflected in education and passed on from generation to generation. F. Rabelais expressed his ideals of new upbringing and education, describing the upbringing of the hero of the novel: the whole day is divided into a system of classes alternating with games and physical exercises. The leading place in the curriculum is given to ancient and new languages, which open the way to understanding the works of ancient authors, scientific analysis of biblical texts. Therefore, in the novel, Gargantua studies Greek, Latin, Arabic, Hebrew, "ignorance of which is unforgivable for anyone who wants to be known as an educated person." An important place in education is given to the natural-scientific knowledge of man and nature on the basis of the "seven free arts". F. Rabelais was a supporter of visual methods of teaching, therefore the main way of mastering knowledge is the direct observation of a young man of the world around him.

F. Rabelais developed the idea of ​​individual education, since education, carried out through individual lessons of an educator with a student, makes it possible to solve the problem of combining education and moral education. Rabelais attached particular importance to physical education, in which he required a combination of physical exercises with vigorous activity and the development of crafts. His hero "threw a spear, a dart, a beam, a stone, a horn, a halberd, pulled huge crossbows with muscle strength, aimed a musket at the eye, pointed a cannon, fired at a target. He swam in deep water face down, supine, on his side, with his whole body sticking out his hand, he climbed like a cat on trees; hunted, jumped, fenced. The teacher put forward the requirement of alternating study and rest, physical and mental activities. Later, the global ideas of F. Rabelais were developed in the theories of M. Montaigne, Ya.A. Comenius, D. Locke, J.-J. Russo, I.G. Pestalozzi and others.

Lawyer, author of the famous work "Experiments", which reflected advanced humanistic views on the upbringing and education of children, Michel Montaigne (1553-1592) considered the child, his natural features, inclinations, abilities that make up the individuality, as the main guideline in the activities of the educator. Criticizing the school of his day, which retained many features of scholastic education, Montaigne demands that the organization of education be guided by the physical characteristics of children and, above all, not undermine their health. Proclaiming experience as the basis of all knowledge, the teacher in the teaching methodology suggests first introducing children to specific objects and only then to the words denoting these objects, which, according to M. Montaigne, should form an interest in learning based on understanding knowledge. Subsequently, such a logic of knowledge presentation will be considered in the theory of Ya.A. Comenius.

M. Montaigne paid much attention to the development of children's independence, putting forward an imperative requirement: "I do not want one teacher to work and speak in the class. Let the students work, observe, speak." The teacher should develop the mental abilities and skills of independent thinking of students, and not "pouring knowledge like water into a funnel." The thinker spoke out against corporal punishment, widespread in school, opposing violence to the ideal of free and joyful learning, in moral education he proposed to combine gentleness with severity, but not severity, insisted on the harmonious development of the spiritual and physical powers of the child, expressed thoughts about the need to learn the native language.

English humanistic pedagogical thought was represented by the works of a philosopher, public figure, writer, politician Thomas More (1478-1535), who wrote, in particular, the novel "Utopia", in which all citizens inhabiting the city necessarily participate in social work, combined with general education. T. Mor saw the realization of civic duty in labor activity, which becomes an integral part of harmonious development, eliminating the opposition between physical and mental labor, characteristic of the ancient tradition. In his novel, education is associated with participation in productive labor, for example, first utopian children study the theoretical foundations of agriculture at school, and then implement their knowledge in the field. T. Mor expressed the idea of ​​the need for universal, equal for all public education in the native language, which should combine scholastic knowledge and real disciplines.

5.3. The development of the practice of education in Western Europe during the Renaissance

In its mass manifestation, the practice of education in the Renaissance retains the features of the medieval school, but by the XNUMXth century. some humanistic ideas are put into practice and new types of schools appear.

In Western Europe, Latin (urban) schools were especially widespread. In the lower Latin schools, elementary education was carried out, the main subject was Latin: children learned to read the Bible. The program of the higher Latin school was more complicated and consisted of three classes: in the first one they taught to read Latin, write, teach prayers and singing; in the second grade, they studied Latin grammar, read Aesop's fables in Latin, memorized poems, passed the catechism; in the third grade (more often absent) they read the Roman poets Virgil, Ovid, Cicero, continued the study of Latin grammar. This type of school, which gave the ability to read and write in the language of worship, government and trade, was widely used.

From the Latin schools, the secondary classical school-gymnasium gradually developed, which existed without significant changes until the end of the XNUMXth century. The first gymnasiums appeared in Germany. One of the most famous was the teacher's gymnasium Johann Sturm (1507-1589), which united all levels of education - primary, secondary and higher - and assumed 10 levels of education. Later, this school was transformed into an Academy, and in 1621 the University of Strasbourg was opened on its basis. The basis of education in this school was ancient languages, classical ancient literature, especially the works of Cicero, trivium subjects. Thus, the content of education was humanitarian and clearly illustrated the trends that began to take shape at that time within the humanistic current. This phenomenon, called philological humanism, was satirized in the Ciceronians by Erasmus of Rotterdam for replacing the ideal of all-round development with bookish formal education. Despite the obvious neglect of real and natural science disciplines, I. Sturm's gymnasium was very popular in Germany.

An exception against the background of humanitarian-oriented schools of an increased type was an educational institution created by Mikhail Neander in Ilfeld (Germany). The school was designed for a small number of students, the curriculum included traditional subjects and disciplines of a brightly realistic scientific nature: mathematics, history, geography, physics, human anatomy and physiology, botany, zoology, agriculture. In organizing the learning process, the creator of the school went beyond traditional forms and preferred excursions, laboratory and practical classes. While in the classical gymnasium students were punished if they pronounced a phrase in their native language, M. Neander wrote a number of textbooks in German and boldly declared that teaching in the native language is more effective.

By the middle of the XVI century. The schools of Hieronymites, the monastic order of the brothers of common life, received tremendous development. Schools were founded by religious communities, the learning process and its organization were based on humanistic ideas and were headed by prominent humanist teachers. The content of education included classical languages ​​and literature, the native language, various sciences, scholasticism was excluded. Later, new types of educational institutions that arose in the late Renaissance developed and transformed during the Reformation.

The indisputable merit of Renaissance humanism is the recognition of the value of the human person. A person began to be judged not by his belonging to any class, but by the level of his erudition and the degree of participation in the creation of a humanistic culture. Proclaiming man as the center of the universe, humanism reflected the desire of an entire era for the ideal of its harmonious development. However, by the fifteenth century a discrepancy between the ideal and the real possibilities of achieving it is revealed, the ideal of a comprehensively developed personality turns into an illusion. The socially active, spiritual and moral personality is being replaced by a business man-bourgeois. The practice of education requires pedagogy to develop mechanisms and models of mass and accessible education.

Authors: Mazalova M.A., Urakova T.V.

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