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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Culturology. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
Section I THEORY OF CULTURE Lecture 1. The structure and composition of modern cultural knowledge 1. General characteristics of modern culture Signs of modern culture: dynamism, eclecticism, ambiguity, mosaicism, diversity of the overall picture, polycentricity, a break in its structure and the integral hierarchy of the organization of its space. The development of information technologies, the approval of the media form public opinion and public mood. The mass media reflect the external, consumerist, lifeless life, create certain ideas about the world, form the destruction of traditionally valued qualities, and provide the effect of suggestion. Marshal McLuhan (1911-1980) in his work The Gutenberg Galaxy divides history into three stages: 1) the pre-written stage of communication; 2) codified written communication; 3) cudisvisual. The modern society is called informational, because information provides in it the connection of different levels and plans of its existence and activity. Information processes underlie the functioning of all its systems. The development of mass media has strengthened the quality of mass character, giving it certain features of a sociocultural phenomenon. Profit is provided not through production, but through the circulation of capital, power is exercised through special information operations, information itself acquires the status of a commodity, becoming a valuable object of business. Post-industrial civilization is a civilization of new technologies. The means of communication begin not only to influence the masses, but also to produce them. The last decades of the development of modern society have led to the formation of the phenomenon of mass man. The phenomenon of mass man is characterized by: 1) a man of the mass is a large group in terms of size, which has an impact on socio-cultural processes; 2) the factor of unification into a mass is due to the presence of the information field, the influence of the media; 3) the modern mass person does not feel any cultural insufficiency in terms of the level of his development, etc.; 4) a mass person today is in demand by the modern way of life and is adapted to it. A mass man is a man with a mass consciousness and at the same time an individualist. A person perceives the real reality through the system of creating media myths. Mythologization - a characteristic feature of modern mass culture, being in the sphere of myths is a characteristic feature of the life of a modern person. 2. Composition and structure of cultural knowledge Cultural studies as a science arose in the middle of the XNUMXth century. One of the main tasks of this science is to identify patterns of cultural development that differ from the laws of nature and from the laws of human material life and determine the specifics of culture as an inherently valuable sphere of being. Modern cultural studies are a large complex of scientific disciplines, various areas of scientific work, various approaches to cultural problems, methodology, scientific schools, etc. There is no need to talk about a clear or intelligible structure of cultural knowledge. Very often it is preliminary. Nevertheless, now we can single out the most significant components of the structure of cultural knowledge. Firstly, this is the theory of culture, which shows us all the variety of attempts at a general understanding of culture, versions of the "pictures" of culture, variants of systems of concepts, categories, theoretical schemes, with the help of which one can try to describe culture and its development. In this area, a special place is occupied by the philosophy of culture, which solves the problem of creating a theory of culture with the help of methods and concepts characteristic of philosophy. Secondly, it is the sociology of culture, which is a union of sociology (studying the social system) and cultural science. Research in the field of sociology of culture has both theoretical and practical orientation. In the latter case, one can point to the concepts of cultural policy and the activities of cultural instincts (structures of society associated with culture), sociocultural forecasting, design and regulation, the study of cultural education in Russia and other countries, problems of socialization and inculturation of the individual (a person’s adaptation to the sociocultural system), protection of cultural heritage. Thirdly, these are historical and cultural studies, which are not only based on the achievements of the humanities (history, philology, literary criticism, art history, history of religion, etc.), but also use new cultural approaches. Here we can highlight: 1) historical and cultural studies of a general profile, studies of the culture of mentalities (that is, the ways in which people perceive the world formed in different cultures); 2) studies of the religious aspect of culture; 3) cultural aspects of linguistics, semiotics (the theory of sign systems), art criticism and aesthetics. Fourthly, this is cultural anthropology - a field of cultural knowledge, in many respects close to the sociology of culture, but paying more attention to the ethnic elements of culture, the processes of interaction between cultures of different peoples, studying the features of linguistic and other means of communication (communication, information exchange) in different cultures. The interests of cultural anthropology are not limited to the above issues. In accordance with its name (translated from Greek anthropology - "the science of man"), it sets as its main task the creation of the most complete picture of human life in a cultural environment, that is, in an environment created by man himself. To solve this problem, cultural anthropology widely uses data from the natural sciences dealing with human life, as well as archeology, ethnography, linguistics, sociology, the history of religion and mythology, folklore, and philosophy. All these areas of cultural sciences can be called basic or basic. However, in addition to them, other special and non-traditional areas of research are emerging. Many of them are of particular importance. For example, within the framework of the theory of culture, detailed theories of dynamics (change, development) of culture, morphology (formation of a system of types and forms) of culture, typology (study of types) of cultures, hermeneutics (science of interpretation) of culture, cultural patterns and people (archetypes) appeared. , paradigm, zinversalia). Here the methods of cultural studies are studied separately. Synthesis on the basis of cultural studies, historical-cultural, sociological, psychological knowledge allows us to develop problems of mentalities, psychological characteristics of individual cultures, “somatic” (bodily) culture of different peoples, etc. Comparative cultural (comparative) studies are of great importance for the development of cultural studies . In recent decades, the ecological-cultural direction (“cultural ecology”) has been developing dynamically, studying the relationship of various cultures to the natural environment. The system of cultural knowledge is in constant development. Lecture 2. Culturology and philosophy of culture, sociology of culture 1. Main movements and schools in Western philosophy of culture in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. One of the main directions of philosophical research in the 9th-20th centuries. became the philosophy of culture. This created the conditions for the formation of numerous scientific schools in this area of philosophical knowledge. They not only developed a general range of problems, but also developed original approaches to solving them. The foundations of modern philosophy of culture were laid in the second half of the XNUMXth century. neo-Kantians (followers of the German philosopher I. Kant) and representatives of the "philosophy of life". Neo-Kantians (G. Kogan, P. Natori, E. Cassirer, V. Windelband, G. Riccius) studied the differences between the natural sciences and the humanities. Their research led to the conclusion that the main difference lies in the methods used by each type of science. Natural sciences use paleolithic methods (they generalize individual facts and, on this basis, derive laws for this type of phenomena), and the humanities use the ideographic method (it is aimed at studying not the general, but the individual, unique in cultural phenomena, historical events, personalities). The neo-Kantian philosophy of culture was based on axiology (the philosophical doctrine of values). Ideal (non-material) values attach importance to certain phenomena, turning them into elements of culture, form the spheres of "value goods of culture" - science, art, religion, law. The attention of representatives of the "philosophy of life" (W. Dilthey, G. Simmel, F. Nietzsche, O. Spengler) focused on the relationship of culture to the original being. Research has shown that the forms and limitations of culture fetter the flow of "life" and then are destroyed by it in order to make room for new forms and limitations. "Philosophy of Life" emphasized the tragic nature of the history of culture, which is ultimately doomed to death. Individual representatives of the “philosophy of life” made a huge contribution to the development of cultural theories. V. Dilthey showed the importance of hermeneutics (the science of interpretation) in the study of culture, and developed a method for intuitive understanding of historical and historical-cultural phenomena. F. Nietzsche viewed culture as a harmonious unity of two principles: irrational (“Dionysian”) and rational (“Apollonian”). He also analyzed such a phenomenon, so characteristic of the culture of recent centuries, as “nihilism,” which preached the destruction of the norms and values of culture. A. Bergson described a “closed” (oriented towards collectivism, despotism, traditionalism) type of society and an “open” one (characterized by individual independence, intellectual freedom and democracy). He also came to the conclusion that there are two types of morality and religion: static, based on ritualized worship of God or moral standards, and dynamic, based on the desire for personal communication with God, ethical heroism, and individual activity. A new impetus to the development of the philosophy of culture was given by the ideas of the representatives of psychoanalysis (J. Breuer, Z. Freud, K. G. Jung, A. Adler, E. Fromm, J. Lacan and many others). Despite the fact that psychoanalysis (or Freudianism) emerged as a concept of psychiatry and psychology, it soon showed its philosophical and cultural potential. Z. Freud believed that culture, by and large, is a product of unconscious desires and inclinations of a person, the charge that gives the mental energy of sexual desire - libido. Thus, culture appears through the sublimation of libido, i.e. through the transformation of the sexual and aggressive desires of the individual into something acceptable to other people - art, politics, religion, sports, etc. In the formation of culture, Z. Freud assigned the most important role to mental complexes, neuroses, obsessions, which, even "forced out" from consciousness, constantly strive to return to it. In the late period of his work, Z. Freud came to the conclusion that the crisis of culture is inevitably generated by the progress of culture itself, since its norms come into irreconcilable conflict with people's unconscious drives. Rethinking the ideas of Z. Freud, Carl Gustav Jung created the doctrine of the "collective unconscious" of humanity, which is a kind of repository of the experience of generations of people. The "collective unconscious" has a powerful influence on culture mainly through its "archetypes" (prototypes). Analyzing the differences between the cultures of the West and the East, K.G. Jung came to the conclusion that the East seeks to dissolve the individual in the "collective unconscious", while the West, on the contrary, strives for the autonomy of the individual from the "collective unconscious". All the major trends in Western philosophy of the XNUMXth century created their own versions of the philosophy of culture. Their culturological theories depended on the issues that were developed by these areas. Today, Western philosophy of culture is busy looking for new ways of development. Many of its achievements were adopted by culturology, it was in it that the "center of gravity" of cultural studies shifted. 2. Philosophy of culture in Russia in the XIX-XX centuries. In Russia, the development of the philosophy of culture was influenced by the ideas of the European philosophy of culture, which, however, were creatively rethought by Russian philosophers. From the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. one can already state with certainty the influence of Russian philosophical and cultural thought on Western thought. In Russia, the development of the philosophy of culture was determined not only by Western intellectual influence, but also by the deep roots of its problems in Russian culture. The most important stage in the formation of the Russian philosophy of culture was the disputes between Westerners and Slavophiles in the 30-60s. XNUMXth century A kind of impetus to the beginning of these disputes was P.Ya. Chaadaev, in which he raised questions about the role of Russia among the peoples of the West and East, about the assessment of Petrine reforms, about the relationship between Russian and Western cultures. The philosophy of Western culture (P.V. Annenkov, T.N. Granovsky, K.D. Kavelin, V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, I.S. Turgenev, S.M. Solovyov, etc.) proceeded from the idea of the unity of human civilization and the common path of its development. Russia was considered by Westerners as a European country, lagging behind for various reasons (geographical position on the outskirts of Europe, the Tatar-Mongol yoke, etc.) from other European countries on the path of civilization development. Europe was a model of the progress of civilization for Westerners, and therefore Westerners tried in every possible way to bring Russia closer to it, believing that otherwise it would wallow in savagery and ignorance. In this synopsis, Westerners' assessment of the Petrine reforms was generally positive. Unlike the Westerners, the Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, I.V. Kireevsky, P.V. Kireevsky, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, N.M. Yazykov, etc.) denied the unity of human civilization and the general way of its development. From their point of view, the cultures of individual tribes and peoples are organic entities, whose distinctive features are determined by the "people's soul" inherent in each of them. The Slavophiles saw the Russian people and other Slavic peoples as such an original civilization, based on the religious and moral principle formed by Orthodox Christianity. At the same time, in the West, they believed, a soulless formal-legal principle dominates. Thus, Russia, according to the Slavophiles, is a young culture that has its own path of historical and cultural development. The Slavophiles were generally negative about the reforms of Peter I, believing that they distorted the properties of Russian culture. The revival of these properties of the Slavophiles was considered possible through religious and moral purification and a deep study of the history of the folk culture of Russia, which is the repository of national cultural identity. In the second half of the XIX century. the ideas of Slavophilism were developed by the "late Slavophiles", or "soil" (A.A. Grigorieva, N.N. Strakhova, F.M. Dostoevsky, etc.). The main theme for them remains Russian identity, the essence of which they see in Christian humility. Russia's historical mission is to unite the peoples of Europe into a Christian brotherhood. Resources for the fulfillment of this mission can be provided by the primordially Russian culture of the common people ("soil"), but not by the ideology of the intelligentsia, "torn from the soil." The late Slavophiles believed that the comprehension of the national idea was possible through the study of national art. Theoretically substantiated the views of the late Slavophiles N.Ya. Danilevsky ("Russia and Europe", 1869). He criticized the ideas of humanity, which, in his opinion, is an abstract concept and does not have its own history. The historical reality of N.Ya. Danilevsky declared cultural-historical types. Like biological organisms, cultural-historical types are in a state of constant struggle with the external environment and with each other. During 1000-1500 years of its existence, the cultural-historical type goes through the stages of birth, maturation, decrepitude and death. It is possible to describe the differences between cultural and historical types by highlighting four "foundations" (the most important forms of human activity): 1) religious; 2) cultural (including science and art); 3) political; 4) socio-economic. N.Ya. Danilevsky believed that in the history of the XIX century. two cultural-historical types dominate: 1) Germano-Romance (European); 2) Slavic led by Russia. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. a whole galaxy of remarkable philosophers appears in Russia: V.S. Solovyov, S.N. and E.N. Trubetskoy, N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, P.A. Florensky and others. Their works often touched upon the problems of the philosophy of culture. The main topics of reflection are the religious, spiritual foundations of various types of culture, the philosophy of art, a new understanding of the features of Russian culture, its similarities and differences from the culture of European countries. The Russian "religious-philosophical renaissance" is characterized by a contradictory combination of striving to justify the traditions of Russia's Christian culture and sometimes quite sharp criticism of these traditions. The events of 1917 dramatically changed the course of national history, including intellectual and cultural history. The philosophy of culture found itself under the dominance of Marxist teaching and the dictates of communist ideology. Another group of scientists who emigrated from Russia (N.S. Trubetskoy, P.N. Savitsky, L.P. Karsavin and others) created a Eurasian concept that considers Russia as an original Eurasian civilization, but not European or Asian. 3. Sociology of culture The sociology of culture is a scientific discipline that studies culture from the point of view of sociology and uses all the achievements of modern social science. In this context, culture is studied as part of a social system, social relations, as a certain social institution. The development of the sociology of culture was most influenced by such researchers as K. Marx, M. Weber, E. Durkheim, P. Sorokin, M. Mead, B. Malinovsky and others. Culture itself in this discipline is considered not so much from a substantive, but from a functional point of view. The sociology of culture examines the role (or roles) played by culture in human society. These are such roles as, for example, the educational role of culture (its pedagogical function), the orientation of a person to a certain system of values (value-oriented or axiological function), the role of culture as a necessary prerequisite for communication between people, information exchange (communicative function) and many others. . The sociology of culture pays little attention to the content and history of cultural phenomena. They are of interest to her mainly as a way of streamlining the regulation of social relations. For example, moral norms, law, religious precepts make it possible to mitigate the contradictions between the interests of different social groups, to avoid constant conflicts between them, which otherwise could be resolved by force. However, it should be noted that culture does not always succeed in fulfilling its regulatory functions, especially in the era of wars, revolutions, civil strife. In such periods, culture itself is in crisis and changes its forms. The sociology of culture proceeds from the fundamental fact of the social heterogeneity of human society (classes, estates, groups). And this social heterogeneity inevitably gives rise to social inequality, in which some people are on the "social ladder" above or below other people. Public groups differ from each other not only in their economic, political interests, social status, but also in a number of psychological and cultural characteristics (self-awareness and self-esteem, the ideology of this group, customs, traditions, norms of behavior, ways of spending leisure time, the use of characteristic words and expressions , manner of dressing, preferences in art, etc.). From all this, subcultures are formed, that is, particular forms of culture (or subcultures) conditioned by social differences. Sometimes subcultures are generated not so much by social differences as by age (youth subculture) or some other differences (subcultures of sexual minorities). The sociology of culture studies the elite subcultures (the culture of the "tops" of society), the subcultures of the "middle class", the subcultures of the social "lower classes". It should be noted that these subcultures can be further divided. Some of the most interesting for sociologists are marginal subcultures. Their formation comes from people occupying an "intermediate", "borderline" social position. These people cannot or do not want to find their place in existing social structures. Therefore, their psychology and culture are built on a sharp opposition to society, a more or less aggressive rejection of social norms and values. Usually, criminals, drug addicts, revolutionaries, anarchists are referred to as marginals, and more recently, anti-globalists, skinheads (skinheads), and representatives of certain areas of punk culture, etc. From sociological and culturological points of view, the process of transformation of a marginal subculture into a subculture of quite respectable, and sometimes even elite strata of society (avant-garde art, rock culture) is especially interesting. One of the most important factors in this process is the transformation of a marginal subculture into a profitable business. Culturological aspects are present in all major areas of modern sociology. These include the study of social dynamics (social and socio-cultural changes); study of social mobility (changes by an individual or a social group of their social position); works on social psychology; studies of problems of social statuses and social stratification (social stratification); description of the social environment, social behavior, social experience, social characters. Sociologists study the relationship between culture and other levels and forms of social organization - economics, politics, science, education, etc. All the main directions of scientific work in the field of sociology of culture are united in the concept of "sociocultural system". It allows you to bring together knowledge about individual social and cultural phenomena, build a model of society, an integral part of which are cultural norms, cultural patterns (patterns, paradigms), cultural orientations, cultural organizations. Using the concept of "sociocultural system", we can distinguish various types of these systems in the history of mankind. At present, the sociology of culture is one of the most important and fruitful areas of cultural knowledge. Lecture 3. Cultural anthropology. Culturology and cultural history 1. Cultural anthropology Cultural anthropology (or cultural anthropology) is one of the most important areas of cultural research. It is part of a huge system of knowledge about man, called anthropology (the science of man). Within its framework, there are theological (theological), or religious, anthropology, psychological anthropology, natural-science (biological) anthropology, cognitive anthropology, which studies the problems of human cognition of the world. In this series, cultural anthropology has found a place, exploring culture as a form of life and human activity, the habitat of people. Cultural anthropology, in its origin, is closely related to ethnography - a science that studies the cultures of various tribes and peoples, mainly living in Africa, America, Australia and Oceania. Cultural anthropology still actively uses ethnographic materials, although it has long gone beyond the scope of ethnography. Cultural anthropology includes ethnography, which collects material about individual cultures, ethnology, which theoretically generalizes this material, general anthropological theories, information from the field of linguistics, archeology, the history of society and culture, and religious studies. Knowledge about the cultures of various peoples and tribes has been accumulated over many centuries. They are contained in the monuments of ancient literature, historical and religious thought, stories of travelers. The first attempts to generalize this material were made already in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, but as a science anthropology was formed only by the second half of the XNUMXth century. The first significant scientific school in cultural anthropology can be called the evolutionism of the XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries, or classical evolutionism (G. Spencer, E.B. Taylor, D.D. Fraser, L.G. Morgan, etc.). Evolutionism was formed under the influence of the dominant in the XIX century. ideas of evolution and progress that evolutionary anthropologists have applied to the study of culture. They considered various phenomena of culture and culture of different peoples as stages of cultural evolution, built their single line of evolutionary development. Anthropologists-evolutionists drew analogies between the evolution of the individual (childhood, youth, maturity, old age) and the evolution of culture. The advantages of classical evolutionism include the processing of a colossal amount of information, which was built into clear, convincing schemes developed on the basis of a unified theory. Evolutionary anthropologists left a well-developed terminology, a lot of scientific concepts. However, at the beginning of the XX century. evolutionism is in crisis due to its shortcomings: 1) the desk nature of most studies; 2) the desire to adjust the factual material to speculative evolutionary constructions. As a reaction to the flaws of evolutionism in the cultural anthropology of the first half of the XNUMXth century. new directions emerge. One of them was the historical school, or the Boas school (F. Boas, F. Grebner, A. Kroeber, R. Lone, and others). Its representatives made the main emphasis on specific research, methods of scrupulous description of all the features of any culture. The historical school sought to trace and document the origin of each feature of a culture, to determine whether it originated within a given culture or penetrated it from outside. Various cases of diffusion (interpenetration) of cultures, cultural transformation (changes) were studied. The most important achievement of the Boas school was the development of the theory of acculturation. Acculturation is a process of culture change that occurs with direct contact and interaction of several groups of people who are carriers of different cultures. Three types of relations between these groups can be traced: either the culture of one group is accepted by another partially ("acceptance") or completely ("assimilation"); either there is an adaptation, adaptation of the elements of one culture to the needs of another; or there is a "reaction" - a complete rejection of the forms of a foreign culture. Simultaneously with the historical school, diffusionism, or the school of Ratzel, developed (L. Frobenius, W. Schmidt, W. Rivers, V. G. Child and others). This direction has developed the concept of "cultural circles" ("cultural provinces"), each of which is a combination of a number of cultural features in a particular geographical area. A "cultural circle" can interact with other contemporary "cultural circles" (diffusion), move in space (migration), overlap cultural layers formed by previous "cultural circles" (stratification). In the history of culture, supporters of diffusionism attached particular importance to the migration of "cultural circles", which occurs as a result of trade contacts between countries, the migration of peoples, and colonization. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. there is a French school of sociology and anthropology, headed by E. Durkheim, and then M. Mose. One of the basic principles of Durkheim's school was functionalism. Various social and cultural phenomena must be studied not only from the point of view of their causes, but also from the point of view of their functions, that is, the roles they play in relation to other phenomena and the entire socio-cultural system as a whole. By the middle of the XX century. in cultural anthropology, interest in evolutionism is being revived, a cultural-evolutionary school (neo-evolutionism), or the school of L.A. White. White saw in the concept of "culture" not an abstraction with little content, but a reflection of objective reality in biological reality. He believed that the main function of culture is to serve the adaptation of man to the environment. Culture is a system that develops through certain stages depending on the accumulation or expenditure of energy. White distinguished three subsystems in this system: 1) technological (production tools, weapons, clothing, housing, etc.); 2) social (all types of individual or collective behavior of people); 3) ideological (knowledge, ideas, beliefs). L. White played a key role in the development of cultural studies as an independent science. In the first decades of the XX century. at the junction of cultural anthropology and linguistics, ethnolinguistics began to take shape - a science that studies the features of the functioning of the language in the cultures of different ethnic groups. Prominent figures in ethnolinguistics E. Sapir, B. Whorf and many others developed a hypothesis according to which the structure of human thinking, the ways a person cognizes the world, the characteristic features of culture depend on the structure and features of the language. Everything perceived by a person is perceived by him through language. One of the most influential figures in the history of ethnography, sociology and anthropology of the XNUMXth century. became the English scientist B. Malinovsky. He created a number of theoretical concepts of cultural anthropology. Malinovsky distinguished two types of human needs: 1) primary (physiological and psychological), which a person has from birth; 2) secondary, generated by culture. Culture, according to Malinowski, is a system of social institutions that satisfy primary and secondary needs. The differences between cultures lie in the ways in which needs are met, which are determined by the "cultural imperative" (drive). Cultural anthropology occupies a special place among cultural scientific disciplines. It has no equal in the richness of factual material, the diversity and thoughtfulness of theories, and the breadth of coverage of a wide variety of phenomena. 2. Culturology and cultural history The history of culture is closely connected with cultural studies. These links are multifaceted and systemic. Modern historical and cultural research is conducted on the basis of the latest developments in the field of cultural theory, the sociology of culture, and cultural dynamics. It should be noted that the history of culture has always acted as an almost inexhaustible supply of factual material for cultural knowledge. Culturology performs the function of comprehending this material, systematizing it, modeling the processes that have taken place in the social and cultural history of individual peoples, civilizations and all mankind. In addition, the historical and cultural research itself, conducted on a specific issue, often gives rise to promising cultural theories and scientific approaches. Examples include the game theory of culture, developed by the historian and art critic J. Huizinga, when studying the culture of the late European Middle Ages, the study of mentalities initiated by the French historians of the Annales school and giving rise to a new cultural discipline - historical anthropology. The works of the historical school in cultural anthropology, which, on the basis of extensive ethnographic material, substantiated the theory of acculturation (cultural interaction). Thus, in the system of modern culturological sciences there is a fruitful cooperation between the history of culture, theoretical culturology and other culturological disciplines. One of the most important areas is the creation of historical typologies of culture. 3. Artistic style as a symbolic expression of the soul of culture From the XNUMXth century in the history of artistic culture, the concept of style begins to appear. The artistic style as a system of complex symbolic reflection of the spirit of the time through the images of art arose in the European Middle Ages. The first pan-European style - Romanesque, from the Latin romanus - "Roman". Its features: severity and external simplicity, resemblance to early examples of ancient Roman architecture. The time frame for the dominance of this direction is X-XIII centuries. In many ways, the buildings of this style inherited the features of Roman architecture. Numerous towers, fortresses of the XNUMXth century can serve as an example of this style. These are structures with a small number of windows, thick strong walls, built necessarily in an inaccessible place. Gothic - one of the two leading artistic styles of the European Middle Ages, combining lightness, elegance, decorativeness. It replaced Romanesque art in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. Gothic cathedrals became symbols of the unity of the heavenly and the earthly, the personifications of the viability of the city. Lancet arches, windows, turrets and spiers directed the Gothic temple to heaven, to God; large windows flooded it with light, which embodied divine light for Catholics. Extensive use was made of lavish decor with gold, woodcarving, and religious sculpture. Early Gothic is the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. Later Gothic - Rouen Cathedral, Reims Cathedral. Culture of the XVI-XVIII centuries. represented by baroque and classicism styles. Baroque - the main style direction in the artistic culture of Europe, combining solemnity, splendor, compositional diversity and dynamism of forms. The Baroque style has spread mainly in Catholic countries. Baroque from the Italian barocco - "strange, bizarre". This style is characterized by excessive splendor, idleness. Baroque sought to directly influence the feelings of the audience; it is characterized by fantasticness, enchantment and carnivalism, along with intellectuality and emotionality. A person in baroque art is a multifaceted personality with a complex world of experiences. Center for the development of the Baroque in the XVI-XVII centuries. became Rome. Park and palace ensembles, cult architecture, decorative painting and sculpture, ceremonial portrait, as well as still life and landscape became the main views and genres of the Baroque. The masters of the Roman Baroque are the architect Borromini and the architect and sculptor J. L. Bernini. Many churches were built according to the designs of these architects. The grandiose creation of Bernini is the Cathedral of St. Peter and the design of the giant square near this cathedral. He created many sculptural altars, was the ancestor of the baroque portrait. Classicism (from Latin dassicus - "educated") - a trend in the artistic culture of the XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries, which turned to the standards of ancient Greek classics, cultivating rigor, straightforwardness, harmony, orderliness. The aesthetics of classicism is based on the principle of "ennobled nature", on the desire to idealize reality. The hero in the culture of classicism fulfills his duty to the state, subordinates his personal passions to reason. The main aesthetic postulate of classicism is fidelity to nature, the natural rationality of the world with its objectively inherent beauty, which is expressed in symmetry, proportion, measure, harmony, which should be recreated in art in perfect form. Artistic works were subjected to a certain systematization and hierarchy. In the XVIII century. Western European art was in the process of revising all pre-existing values. The new Rococo style reflected the taste of the court of Louis XV and the aristocracy, being a symbol of satiety and melancholy. Rococo from the French rocail - "shell". This style originated in France. The defining features of the style: the desire for elegance, fine detailing of the form, the contrast between the external severity of buildings and the sophistication of their interior decoration, sculpture and painting are distinguished by sophistication and grace. At the end of the XVIII century. entered the cultural scene romanticism. Romanticism is an ideological and artistic trend in European culture, associated with the absolutization of the sensual principle and interest in extraordinary manifestations of the human being and life. Romanticism symbolized an interest in the unusual and extreme, putting the imagination, emotionality and creative spirituality of the artist at the forefront. Romanticism was interested in everything except the average. The writers' works include: 1) the chanting of beauty; 2) the cult of heroic personalities; 3) the theme of death; 4) mystical motives. Central to the romantics is the problem of personality. Knowledge of the world begins with self-knowledge. Second half of the XNUMXth century marked by the advent of realism. Realism - the ideological and artistic direction of culture, associated with the desire to comprehend reality in all its completeness and diversity, taking into account the most significant and typical features. Realism is opposed to romanticism; it is a symbol of a balanced, calm, critical view of life and a person's place in it. The works of realists are different: 1) a wide range of problems of public life; 2) a careful study of the circumstances of the life of the characters. These features are most fully reflected in the social novel. Acting as the leading method, primarily in literature and painting, realism clearly manifests itself in the synthetic, "technical" forms of art associated with them - theater, ballet, cinema, photography. Naturalism (from Latin natura - "nature") - an ideological and artistic direction in European culture of the last third of the XNUMXth century, characterized by increased attention to the human environment, to its influence on a person. According to naturalists, the artist should depict the world without embellishment, obeying only the truth of positive, experimental science. The main signs of naturalism are photographic and de-aestheticization of the art form. Modernism (from the French modern - "new, latest") - a set of aesthetic schools and trends of the late XIX - early XX centuries. This direction is characterized by a break with the traditions of realism and other previous schools. There are a large number of modernist schools and directions. Particularly widespread are: symbolism, surrealism, abstractionism, futurism. In the late 60s - early 70s. XNUMXth century formed in France impressionism, characterized by the desire to capture the world in all its mobility and variability. The theme and plot of an impressionist work can only be a direct impression of what he saw. Impressionism has become a new artistic vision of the world. Surrealism - this trend has affected almost all types of art. Its specificity lies in the exclusively Freudian approach to creativity. His method is pure psychic automatism, breaking logical connections. In the Surrealist manifesto, the main point was the liberation from the shackles of the intellect, from morality and traditional aesthetics. This direction includes the work of S. Dali, P. Picasso, V. Kandinsky. Symbolism - an ideological and artistic direction in European art at the turn of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, using various symbols as expressive means: ideas-symbols, images-ideas, etc. The symbolists saw their task in the knowledge and artistic reproduction of an essence that can only be understood with the help of intuition. Symbolist artists expressed mood and ideas through the symbolism of colors, lines and shapes. Russian symbolists - V. Ivanov, A. Bely, V. Khlebnikov, A. Blok. Post-impressionism originated at the end of the XNUMXth century. as a reaction to impressionism. It has the following distinguishing features: 1) special attention to form, decorative stimulation; 2) the symbolism of the use of color; 3) new techniques for constructing space and volume. Postmodernism. Postmodern - a set of ideas that characterizes modern culture; a current that embraces philosophy, literature, art, and the humanities. The XNUMXth century is the century of postmodern culture. The term "postmodern" was first used by R. Panwitz to characterize the crisis of European culture. This term is widely used, but there is no unambiguous definition of this term. We can distinguish the main features characteristic of the postmodern worldview: 1) its main values are novelty, freedom in everything, spontaneity, rejection of any authorities; 2) negative perception of the past, the desire to get rid of the power of traditions, neglect of old age, the cult of youth; 3) a critical assessment of the mind's ability to know the truth; 4) the desire to free oneself from the power of language, since words order the world, that is, language is a means of coercion; 5) absolutization of the new, understanding of novelty as a way of obtaining pleasure, striving for the new; 6) electrism (playing with chaos), where values and guidelines are mixed, where opinions and preferences are destroyed and re-created; 7) the principle of deconstruction - the liberation of the text from cultural layers, the "liberation" of culture from history. The binary opposition of the concepts of modern and postmodern suggests that the principles of postmodernism were not borrowed from the previous era. They formed on their own. Postmodernism borrows nothing from tradition. He just breaks up with her. Ortega y Gasset in his work came to the conclusion that the basic principles of art of the XX century. - this is dehumanization, the rejection of the image of living forms, the transformation of creativity into a game, the attraction to irony, the rejection of transcendence. A negative attitude to the past, to the classics, to tradition is the norm for postmodern culture. In its quest, the postmodern went to the extreme: it mixed styles, leveled the sinful and the holy, the high and the low, turned the text into schizophrenic statements, began to play with the language without any rules of grammar. Lecture 4. Theoretical and applied cultural studies 1. Theoretical research in cultural studies Culturology acts as a general theory of culture, seeking to generalize the facts that represent the individual sciences studying culture. That is why theoretical studies and the development of theories that would allow systematizing historical and cultural material are of particular importance in cultural studies. Cultural theory, like any scientific theory, is a complex structure that includes various elements: a conceptual apparatus, logical and research schemes, scientific models, methods of experimental verification of theoretical constructions, and much more. Without affecting other aspects of theoretical culturology, let us consider the basic concepts or categories used by culturological science. These categories form the fundamental basis of theoretical cultural studies. Naturally, they are connected with all elements of cultural theories. Among the most widespread concepts (categories) of the theory of culture are: 1) the functions of culture; 2) cultural phenomena; 3) cultural objects; 4) properties of culture; 5) types of historical development of culture; 6) cultural processes; 7) cultural meanings; 8) symbols of culture; 9) cultural values; 10) cultural behavior; 11) cultural contacts and interactions (acculturation) and their various forms; 12) cultural environment; 13) inculturation (i.e., the entry of a person into the cultural environment); 14) cultural and socio-cultural institutions (i.e. organizations that carry out the functioning of culture); 15) cultural policy; 16) cultural and sociocultural groups; 17) cultural systems; 18) social, national, historical and other types of cultures, etc. Of particular importance for culturological thought is the concept of "civilization", in many respects close in meaning to the concept of "culture". We also note the concepts that are more common than others in the language of theoretical cultural studies. Cultural universals are the most common and most significant forms of social and cultural life (norms, values, ideas, beliefs, stereotypes of thinking and behavior). Cultural patterns, or patterns, are stable models of people's cultural behavior associated with their attitude to certain cultural phenomena, values, and ideas. Cultural archetypes are fundamental, basic models of spiritual, psychological and cultural life in any culture or type of culture (Eastern, Western, etc.). The concept of "archetype" became widely known thanks to the works of one of the classics of psychoanalysis - K.G. Cabin boy. Nowadays, it is used in a variety of meanings, sometimes far from the teachings of Jung. Cultural taxonomy is a system that allows you to organize the various features and elements of a culture and build a model of a culture from them. "Paradigm" of cultural studies. This concept was introduced by the American historian of science T. Kuhn. He designated them as a classical scientific development, which becomes a model for further scientific research (for example, Newton's mechanics), the basis of scientific tradition. From time to time, due to the accumulation of facts that do not fit into the classical theory, a paradigm shift occurs - a scientific revolution. Kuhn's theory is, to a certain extent, applicable to the history of the development of cultural studies. The transition from the concepts of universal (worldwide, universal) culture to the theory of local civilizations and research within the framework of the civilizational approach can be considered as a paradigm shift. Theoretical culturology constantly updates its categorical (i.e., conceptual) apparatus, like other elements of culturological theories. This process is associated with the formation of new trends in cultural thought, new scientific and philosophical directions, new points of view on cultural issues. So, with the appearance in the 70-80s. XX century postmodernism, the language of culturologists included such concepts as: “simulacrum”, “deconstruction”, “virtuality”, “rhizome” (a special type of undirected development, development “in all directions”), etc. Theoretical research in culturology is constantly stimulated by creative exchange between this science and sociology, anthropology, linguistics, history, philosophy and other humanities. Theories of culture are based on a serious factual basis and have a number of practical applications. All this allows theoretical culturology to be a living and fruitful part of culturological and humanitarian knowledge. 2. Applied research in cultural studies In culturological science, one can single out studies of a fundamental theoretical nature, a specific theoretical nature, an experimental or scientific nature aimed at collecting scientific material (like "field" research in ethnography), as well as a number of forms of scientific work intermediate between them. Along with them, there are applied studies in cultural studies, that is, studies that have practical significance and are applied in practice. Practically applied aspects of cultural studies are very diverse. Let's take some of them as examples. Culturological knowledge allows for the examination of various projects of cultural policy, laws and legal documents that are aimed at regulating the activities of cultural institutions (art, science, education). In recent years, culturology has become the basis of the process of the so-called. "culturologization" of Russian education, i.e. saturation of the programs of schools and universities with cultural information. The goal of culturalization of education is to help schoolchildren and students to form a system of cultural guidelines that are necessary in the face of dramatic social and cultural changes both in Russia itself and throughout the world. The applied significance of cultural studies is also manifested in the fact that it participates (along with psychology, sociology, pedagogy) in the study of the phenomena of socialization, culturalization, i.e., "getting used to" a person in a certain socio-cultural system. Another direction of applied cultural research is the protection of cultural heritage, the study of resurgent cultural traditions, for example, the traditions of the Cossack cultures of Russia, forms of religious culture, etc. The high degree of study of the issues of interaction between cultures makes cultural studies an indispensable assistant in the study of the causes of conflicts on national, cultural and religious grounds and the development of measures to prevent such conflicts or eliminate their consequences. Theories of socio-cultural development in cultural studies are an excellent basis for social and cultural forecasting and projection for various periods of time. New areas of applied research in cultural studies are generated by the needs of society, the complex problems that constantly confront it. Culturology is a humanitarian science about the essence, patterns and development of human knowledge and ways of comprehending culture. Since the emergence of philosophy, culturology has taken shape as a specific area of humanitarian knowledge. This definition refers to the New Age and is associated with the philosophical concept of the historical process by D.B. Vico (1668-1714), I. Gerber (1744-1803), G.V. Hegel (1770-1831). The fundamental influence on the development of cultural studies in the XX century. provided by such thinkers as O. Spengler, K. Jung (student of Z. Freud), M. Heidegger, K. Levistros and many others. In Russia, cultural studies is represented by the works of N.Ya. Danilevsky, A.F. Loseva, M.M. Bakhtina, A.Ya. Gurevich, Yu.M. Lotman and a number of other authors. The method of cultural studies is the unity of explanation and understanding, which is why it can be called descriptive-hermeneutical. Each culture is considered as a system of meanings that has its own essence, its own internal logic, which can be comprehended through rational explanation. At the same time, rational explanation acts as a mental reconstruction of the cultural-historical process based on its universal essence, singled out and fixed in the forms of thinking. This involves the use of ideas and methods of philosophy, which are the methodological basis for cultural studies. Culturology, like any humanitarian science, is not limited to explanations, since culture is always addressed to human subjectivity and does not exist in an inanimate connection with it. Therefore, in order to comprehend its subject, cultural studies needs understanding, i.e., in gaining a holistic, intuitive-semantic involvement of the subject in the phenomenon being comprehended. In cultural studies, understanding precedes explanation, supplementing it and at the same time delving into it and correcting it. The task of cultural studies is the implementation of a dialogue of cultures, during which we join other semantic worlds, but do not dissolve in them. Only in this way is the mutual enrichment of cultures. Consequently, cultural studies cannot be reduced only to a system of knowledge. Culturology has not only a system of rational knowledge, but also a system of non-rational understanding, which are internally consistent with each other. Lecture 5. Methods of cultural studies 1. The originality of cultural studies as a complex science Culturology is a complex science that studies all aspects of the functioning of culture: from the causes of origin to historical self-expression. Culture is the subject of cultural studies. The interest of the phenomenon of culture is explained by certain circumstances. 1. The environment, social institutions of everyday life are being transformed by modern civilization. Culture acts as a source of social innovations. There is a desire to reveal the potential of culture, the possibility of its activation. 2. Questions about the relationship between the concepts of culture and society, culture and history, about the impact of culture on social dynamics remain topical. The cultural goals of modern times are changing so rapidly that it puts a person in a difficult position. In this regard, the study of the most significant features of the culture of past centuries is of particular importance in order to avoid the primitivization of modern culture. Categories of cultural studies, which make up its terminological apparatus, include the most essential concepts of patterns in the development of culture as a system, reflect the essential properties of culture. The main components of cultural studies are the philosophy of culture and the history of culture. Together they form the basis of cultural studies. Historical facts are subjected to philosophical analysis and generalization. Philosophy of culture is a section of cultural studies that studies the concepts of the origin and functioning of culture. The history of culture is a section of cultural studies that studies the specific features of cultures of various cultural and historical stages. Sections of cultural studies, the main parameters of which are still being formed, are the morphology of culture and the theory of culture. 2. Methods of cultural studies Methods of culturological research are studied by applied culturology. The evolutionary method is associated with the names of E. Tylor and L. Levy-Bruhl. It appeared along with the birth of cultural studies. This method considers the dynamics of culture as a successive chain of continuous changes, taking into account sharp jumps in its development. The study of the structure of the cultural system, as well as the relationship between its elements, is carried out by the structural method. The functional method examines the functions of a given culture or its form. This approach considers each culture as an internally self-sufficient integral system consisting of functionally interconnected elements. The functional method studies the general functional laws for all cultures that could explain any cultural phenomenon and element. The culture of each nation as a whole is studied by a systematic method. All elements of culture in this approach are interconnected and create such properties that only the system as a whole has. The typological method is aimed at identifying different types of cultures. Based on this method, ethnic and national, eastern and western and other types of cultures can be distinguished. N.Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee adhered to the historical method in the analysis of the development of cultures. Comparing and contrasting the phenomena and phenomena of individual cultures, they revealed the essential characteristics and morphological features of various cultures. Cultural self-identity is the ability of people to relate themselves to a given culture, to its stereotypes and symbols. Through identity, culture is capable of self-development. The process of cultural identification is inseparable from the process of human self-identification. A person needs to be socially in demand and approved by the society surrounding him. Self-identification is the awareness at the rational level of the unity of a given group of people on one or another basis (ethnic, religious, political, etc.). The development of common cultural features (mores, customs, language) presupposes the collective solidarity of people. Identification of oneself with a particular group helps a person in orientation in the socio-cultural space. Social discipline, political loyalty and cultural competence (possession of socio-cultural norms and socially accepted languages of communication) are required from the individual. What makes a person involved in any culture is a set of: 1) learned elements of consciousness, behavior; 2) tastes and habits; 3) languages and other means of communication. The problem of the cultural identity of a person lies in the following parameters adopted by it: 1) cultural norms; 2) patterns of behavior and consciousness; 3) systems of values and language. Cultural self-identity is manifested in: 1) awareness of one's "I" from the standpoint of cultural traditions in a given society and in the manifestation of loyalty to them; 2) self-identification with these cultural patterns. 3. The main forms of spiritual culture Culturology has six truly universal forms of spiritual culture. 1. Myth - this is not only the historically first form of culture, but also a dimension of the spiritual life of a person, which remains even when the myth loses its dominance. The universal essence of myth lies in the fact that it represents the unconscious meaning of the unity of a person with the forces of the direct being of nature or society. Translated from the ancient Greek mifos - "a legend, a story about what happened before." The American ethnographer Malinovsky believed that in ancient societies, myth is not just stories that are told, but real events in which the people of these societies lived. Myths are also characteristic of modern societies, and their function is the creation of a special reality necessary for any culture. 2. Religion - it expresses the need of a person to feel involvement in the fundamental principles of being and the universe. The gods of developed religions are in the sphere of pure transcendence in extra-natural being, thus differing from the original deification of the forces of nature. Such a placement of the deity in an extra-natural sphere eliminates the internal dependence of man on natural processes, concentrating attention on the inner spirituality of man himself. The presence of a developed religious culture is a sign of a civilized society. 3. Moral arises after the myth leaves, where a person internally merges with the life of the collective and is controlled by various prohibitions (taboos). With the increase in the internal autonomy of a person, the first moral regulators appeared, such as duty, honor, conscience, etc. 4. Art is an expression of human needs in figurative symbols experienced by a person of significant moments of his life. This is the second reality, the world of life experiences, initiation to which, self-expression and self-knowledge in it constitute one of the important needs of the human soul, and without this any culture is not conceivable. 5. Philosophy seeks to express wisdom in the form of thought. Arose as a spiritual overcoming of the myth. As thinking, philosophy strives for a rational explanation of all being. Hegel calls philosophy the theoretical soul of culture, since the world with which philosophy deals is also the world of cultural meanings. 6. Science aims to rationally reconstruct the world on the basis of comprehending its laws. From the point of view of cultural studies, science is inextricably linked with philosophy, which acts as a general method of scientific knowledge, and also allows you to comprehend the place and role of science in culture and human life. Lecture 6. Culturology as a science of culture 1. Culture as a subject of cultural studies The word culture comes from the Latin cultura: "inhabit, cultivate, worship" (the latter is reflected in the concept of cultus - "religious cult"). In all early usages, the word "culture" meant the cultivation or rearing of animals and plants. Over time, the original meaning, essentially agricultural, underwent decisive changes and began to be used to characterize the processes of development and improvement of both the individual and society. V. Dahl gives the following definition of the concept of culture: culture - processing and care, cultivation and cultivation, education, mental and moral. An important turn in the interpretation of the word "culture" occurred in the 1744th century. The German philosopher I. Gerber (1803-XNUMX) in his book "Ideas for the Philosophical History of Mankind" proposed to understand culture as a kind of set of certain unique achievements in the history of civilizations, as a result of which it became possible to talk about the culture of Ancient Egypt, the Middle Ages, etc. . In modern European languages, there are four main meanings of the word "culture": 1) an abstract designation of the general process of the intellectual, spiritual and aesthetic development of the individual; 2) designation of the state of society based on the rule of law and moral principles. In this sense, the word "culture" coincides with the concept of "civilization"; 3) indicates the features of the mode of existence or lifestyle characteristic of any society, group of people, some historical period; 4) the designation of forms and products of intellectual and, above all, artistic activity. In domestic cultural studies, two approaches to the study of culture dominate. One of them considers culture as a set of material and spiritual values created by man. This is an axiological interpretation of culture (from the Greek axios - "value"). Here, culture appears as a certain result that precedes human activity, representing a hierarchy of semantic formations that are significant for a particular society and individual. Another direction focuses on the activity-based interpretation of culture, which is also called praxeological (from the Greek praxis - “deed, action”). Here, culture is understood as a set of extra-natural mechanisms, thanks to which the process is stimulated and the activity of people in society is realized. Both of these definitions come from the antithesis "nature - culture", which is druid-mental for all culturologists. If in the public consciousness culture acts as a collective image that unites religion, science, art, etc., then culturology uses the concept of culture, which reveals the universal relationship of a person to the world, through which a person is aware of the world and himself. The universal relation of man to the world, which characterizes culture, is determined by meaning. Meaning serves as an intermediary between a person and the world, and the world of culture in which we live is, first of all, a world of meanings. These meanings can be rational and irrational, conscious or unconscious, but if the meaning is generally valid, then it is related to culture. It is through meaning that one can define culture as a subject of cultural studies. Culture is a universal way of creative self-realization of a person through the positing of meaning, the desire to reveal and affirm the meaning of human life in its correlation with the meaning of everything that exists. Culture appears before a person as a semantic world, which, being passed down from generation to generation, determines the way of being and the worldview of people. 2. Formation of the concept of "culture" and its philosophical understanding The concept of "culture" is one of the fundamental concepts in the language of Western civilization. Concepts of this kind are always difficult to define, because a particular concept, as a rule, is defined through a more general one. In addition, the definition involves the selection of a number of features that characterize this concept. When we come across basic concepts that are extremely general in themselves and are characterized by a huge variety of different features, they have to be defined in a different way. In such a situation, it is important to trace the history of such a concept, to identify the terms correlating with it and supplementing it, to describe the field of phenomena that it designates. The concept of "culture" comes from the Latin language. Initially, the word "cultyra" meant "cultivation, care, cultivation of the land, farming." It was also close in meaning and origin to the method of "cult" (cultus). Both of them point to the worship of the gods, religion. Starting from the XNUMXst c. BC e. the word "culture" began to mean the upbringing of a person, the development of his soul, education. For the first time such use of the term "culture" is found in the writings of the great Roman orator and philosopher Cicero. Knowing perfectly the ancient Greek language, he brought the meaning of the Latin word "culture" closer to the meaning of the Greek concept "paideia". The Greeks saw in "paydeia" (good manners, education) their main difference from the barbarians. Thus, culture (education) through opposition turned out to be connected with the concepts of barbarism, savagery, and ignorance. Another concept, which even in ancient philosophy was at the same time opposed and complementary to the word "culture", was the concept of "nature", "nature" (from Latin natyra - "nature"). Nature opposed culture as a world of naturalness, and not artificiality, innate instincts, and not laws and moral norms established by the human mind. In III-V centuries. n. e., in the era of the late Roman Empire, the concept of "culture" came close in meaning to the word "civitas" (civitas), which the Romans denoted a society of citizens, a state living by fair laws, an urban lifestyle that was opposed to rural savagery and ignorance. These meanings, the main of which were "education", "education", were assigned to the word "culture" for a very long time. The Middle Ages (V-XVII centuries AD) and the Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries AD) introduced little new into the development of this concept. However, it should be noted that during the Renaissance, "culture" became more associated with signs of personal perfection, with conformity to the humanistic ideal of man, based on examples of the ancient era. In the Age of Enlightenment (XVIII - early XIX centuries AD), the word "culture" finally came into use as a philosophical concept. During this period, it was used together with the closely related term "civilization". The Enlightenment believed that the civilization, or culture, of European nations lies in the desire to organize their lives on a reasonable basis, and civilization is manifested in the achievements of Europeans in the field of crafts, sciences and arts. This was opposed by the savagery and barbarism of the ancient and non-European peoples. Representatives of the late Enlightenment, the German philosophers I. Herder and G. Hegel, developed the concept of the historical development of culture, its progress. They considered culture as the spiritual evolution of mankind, the gradual improvement of language, customs, government, scientific knowledge, art, religion. The ideas of progress, evolutionary development became dominant in the worldview of the people of the XNUMXth century, who began to see the progress of culture as an endless process of constant and ever-increasing improvement. And only in the twentieth century. the futility of these hopes became clear. Thus, the philosophical concept of "culture" fixes the general difference between a person, his life activity, the world of artificial things and phenomena created by man, and natural phenomena. Culture is what man has created, nature is what exists independently of him. The concepts of "culture" and "nature" are correlative, that is, they complement each other and are defined through difference from each other. One of the most difficult tasks is to draw the line between natural and cultural phenomena. And, perhaps, nowhere is this boundary so unclear and indefinite as in man himself. 3. The concept of "culture" in the languages of various sciences and in spoken language In the modern sense, the origin of the concept of "culture" is associated with the areas of pedagogy (culture as education, upbringing) and philosophy (culture as an artificial, man-made world that differs from the natural world, nature). In addition, this concept has long been used not only in these areas, but also in colloquial speech and dictionaries of various sciences. This is most characteristic, first of all, for European languages, including Russian, since all of them, to one degree or another, were influenced by the ancient tradition. It is also important that the Latin language is the basis of international scientific and philosophical terminology, and the word "culture" (in various forms) is borrowed from Latin by languages that are widespread throughout the world: French, English, Spanish, etc. The spoken language used in everyday communication is characterized by an insufficiently clear definition of the meanings of the concept. This is the main difference between this type of language and the language of science, which seeks to most accurately and unambiguously form the meaning of its terms, while in colloquial speech and in the literary language based on it, the meaning of a word is rather associated with some signs, qualities. The concept of "culture" in the Russian language (in its colloquial, literary and journalistic versions) is associated with such qualities as education, upbringing, morality. Often the word "culture" denotes certain areas of human activity - art, science, education, religion, philosophy, as well as the interest in them of any person. This understanding of the word "culture" is close in meaning to the characteristic phrases "cultured person" (a well-mannered, educated and polite person, following moral standards, interested in literature, theater, cinema, music, etc.), "cultural figure" (most often a person of art, a teacher, a scientist, a philosopher, a priest), "cultural institutions" (theaters, philharmonic societies, libraries, educational institutions, etc.), "cultural events" (performances, concerts, lectures, film screenings, etc.). In addition to colloquial speech and literary and journalistic use, the word "culture" is widely used as a scientific term. Most often, this term is used in the humanities (philosophy, history, philology, etc.). However, in some situations the word "culture" is applied to physics, astronomy or mathematics. One can speak, for example, of "high culture of scientific research", "culture of experiment", meaning by "culture" a high degree of perfection of experiment, research. In agronomy, “culture” refers to a variety of a plant grown by a person, combinations of “cultivated plants”, “cereal crops”, etc. are used. This is due to the original Latin meaning of the word cyltura - “agriculture”, “tillage”. Consider as examples of the use of the term "culture" in some humanities. В ethnography - a science engaged in the comparative study of the cultures of various peoples, for example, the tribes of Africa, America, Australia, Oceania, Siberia, etc., the concept of "culture" is used in an extremely broad sense. The culture of a tribe is a system of customs, norms of behavior, methods of communication (language, gestures, facial expressions), kinship relations, social relations, labor skills, religious beliefs and rituals that are characteristic of it. Some ethnographers believe that culture should be understood only as the results of human activity, things or phenomena created by him. В sociology - the science of society - the concept of "culture" is used in a variety of meanings. As a rule, "culture" for a sociologist is certain social institutions, organizations of artists, etc. "Culture" can refer to socially significant activities such as science, art, religion, education, and sometimes sports. In some cases, "culture" means the norms and ideas that help manage society and mitigate conflicts between social groups (religious precepts, moral precepts, legal norms, customs, etc.). A specific meaning is given to the term "culture" in archeology - a science that studies the remains of the life of people of the past. In this context, "culture" is the totality of archaeological finds made in some area and attributed to any particular historical period, attributed to some kind of people (Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons) or tribe. All the remains of human activity form what archaeologists call the "cultural layer". Often, but not always, an archaeological culture gets its name from the modern settlement, next to which a historical burial place was discovered. В art criticism (science that studies the art of the past and present) there are different trends in the interpretation of the concept of "culture". On the one hand, some art historians tend to equate culture and art, to understand by "culture" primarily art in all its diversity. On the other hand, "culture" in art studies often forms a kind of environment surrounding any phenomenon of art, a direction in art, the personality of the author. Finally, in philology, or linguistics (the science of language), there is a section called "culture of speech". He studies the norms of oral and written literary language. Possession of these rules puts a person on a certain level of "language culture". Thus, the concept of "culture" is widely used both in colloquial and literary, and in the scientific version of the language. Lecture 7. The relationship of culture and civilization 1. Formation and main meanings of the concept of "civilization" The concept of "civilization" is one of the key terms of the Western humanitarian tradition, a system of sociological and cultural knowledge. The origins of the word "civilization" date back to ancient times, the culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The main type of political system in antiquity was the self-governing community of free citizens, the city-state, which the Greeks called "polis" and the Romans - "civitas". The concept of "civitas" was associated among the Romans with ideas about the well-organized life of a free state, the foundation of which are reasonable and fair laws established by wise people. The Latin noun civitas itself means "citizenship, civil society, state, city". And it is quite natural that from the point of view of the Romans, the model of "civitas" was Rome itself. Beyond the boundaries of the Roman state extended the world of barbarians and Eastern despot kings. The former are characterized by the naturalness, savagery and ignorance of people who exist according to the laws of nature, and the latter by injustice and cruelty, which stem from ignorance of true wisdom, lack of education, good breeding and humanity. It is also noteworthy that the Romans associated "civitas" with a city that was sharply different from an "uncivilized" village. The very concept of "civilization" appears in the XNUMXth century, during the Enlightenment, and bears the imprint of the culture and worldview of this era. Her ideals were rationality, science, citizenship, justice, which were to become the foundations of public and private life of people. The figures of the Enlightenment believed that all this was opposed by the dark world of barbarism, ignorance, prejudice, and religious fanaticism. It was as the opposite of this world that the concept of civilization was put forward. Just as in the time of the Roman state, in the Age of Enlightenment, civilized Europe, modern to the Enlighteners, and the uncivilized peoples of antiquity, the Middle Ages, all non-Europeans, were opposed. The civilization of the European nations is evidenced, according to the enlighteners, not only by their desire to follow the laws of reason, but also by their achievements in the development of crafts, technology, science, and art. So, as we see, initially in the concept of "civilization" the motive of the superiority of Europeans over other people was very strong. The whole history of the concept of "civilization" is closely connected with the history of the concept of "culture". For the last two centuries, these concepts in most cases act as synonyms, unambiguous terms. Just like "culture", "civilization" means non-biological forms of human reality, a system of phenomena that distinguishes a person from nature, a set of things and ideas artificially created by man. In addition, the concept of "civilization" (as well as the concept of "culture" in some cases) indicates one or another form of the historical life of people, limited by the spatial framework or boundaries of an epoch. For example, they talk about "Eastern civilization", "European civilization", "ancient civilization", etc. A scientific approach based on the desire to accurately establish the geographical and historical coordinates of civilization (more precisely, civilizations) is called the theory of local civilizations. One of the meanings of the concept of "civilization" is the level, stage of social and cultural development. From this point of view, the "pre-civilized" stage and the era of civilizations stand out in the history of mankind. However, they not only follow each other, but can exist simultaneously in the face of civilized and uncivilized (wild, primitive) peoples. This interpretation goes back to the ancient opposition of the cultured Greeks and Romans to the barbarians. American anthropologist L.G. Morgan in the XNUMXth century singled out savagery, barbarism and civilization as periods of evolution of society and culture. At the first stage of this evolution, people lived by appropriating the finished products of nature (hunting, fishing, gathering), at the second, agriculture and cattle breeding appeared, and at the third, craft, trade, and the state. Morgan's periodization has long been recognized as obsolete, but the understanding of civilization as a stage of historical development is preserved. "Civilization" can also be interpreted in the sense of the totality of the achievements of the material and spiritual culture of certain living beings or beings endowed with intelligence, not necessarily people. For example, supporters of ufology (the science that studies unidentified flying objects) talk about "extraterrestrial civilizations", science fiction writers talk about "robot civilization", "insect civilization", etc. 2. Types of civilizations In cultural studies, the question of the typology of civilizations is raised. Civilizations are divided into: 1) the dominant type of economic activity - agricultural and industrial or coastal and continental; 2) the principle of the natural geographical environment - "open" and "closed", introvert and extrovert; 3) religious principle. E. Toffler singles out millennial civilizational cycles: agricultural civilization, industrial, post-industrial. Yu.V. Yakovtsev represents seven world civilizations: Neolithic, early slave-owning, ancient, early feudal, late feudal, industrial, post-industrial. Such a typology plays the role of an external factor, leaving "outside" the specifics of cultural development. J. Stewart's concept of multilinear evolution more clearly expresses the current stage of interdisciplinary research. J. Stewart put forward the idea of cultural ecology, generalizing the parallelisms in the development of cultures in similar geographical conditions. V.S. Stepin created the concept of two types of civilizational development in the history of mankind: traditional and technogenic. Differences between technogenic and traditional civilizations originated from differences in the understanding of man, nature, truth, power, personality, etc. These types of civilizations exist simultaneously. 3. Specificity and main features of technogenic civilization European civilization began to acquire a technogenic character due to the rapidly expanding process of technocratization. The technogenic nature of modern civilization is determined by the following features: 1) a special idea of nature as a field for the application of human forces; 2) a person is considered as an active being, called to transform the world; 3) understanding of human activity as a direction for the transformation of objects, and not for the person himself; 3) emphasis on the technical and technological optimality of the development of technology and technology beyond their human, sociocultural dimension. Technogenic civilization is based on: 1) a rapid, geometric progression change in the objective world that affects the way of life, the dynamics of social ties; 2) the dominance of scientific rationality; 3) Puritan ethics; 4) focus on the autonomy of the individual, his rights, freedoms; 5) a special understanding of power, strength, their character and nature. There is a process of globalization of lifestyles: culture, food, clothing are becoming mass. The process of globalization is facilitated by the means of mass communication and modern transport. The globalization of lifestyles raises the question of the struggle to preserve the uniqueness of national cultures. Most thinkers of the XNUMXth century came to the conclusion about the crisis of technogenic civilization. However, there are ways to overcome: 1) a conscious change in priorities in the scale of cultural values, the creation of a new attitude to nature, the formation of an ecological culture; 2) a change in the principles of measurement of technology, its criteria and assessments, the inclusion in the system of these assessments, along with technical and technological optimality and economic efficiency, of the sociocultural, proper human dimension; 3) global changes in engineering thinking and actions that appeared at the turn of the XNUMXth and XNUMXth centuries. Engineering thinking is designed to understand the nature of the principles of operation of technical devices. At the present stage, engineering thinking is associated with the socio-cultural understanding of technology. This makes it possible to overcome technocratic one-sidedness. 4. The relationship between the concepts of "culture" and "civilization" The most important place in modern culturological knowledge is occupied by the concepts of "culture" and "civilization". Both of these terms are closely related both in origin and in basic meanings. Nevertheless, there are significant differences between these concepts in meaning, in their use in certain cases in various contexts. Due to the fact that the terms "culture" and "civilization" are unusually ambiguous, it is not possible to consider all their possible semantic similarities and differences. Let's highlight only the main ones. Both "culture" and "civilization" can equally mean the general difference between man and nature, human society and the natural environment. Both concepts can be used as antonyms (words that have the opposite meaning) of the concepts of "savagery", "barbarism", "ignorance", etc. Both "culture" and "civilization" are used to designate certain historical types of culture, epochs in the history of culture, which have a specific geographical reference of forms of culture. "Ancient culture" and "ancient civilization", "Asiatic culture" and "Asiatic civilization", as well as other similar expressions, mean the same thing, unless the author specifically distinguishes between them. Both words can indicate the process of development of mankind, which has passed from life according to the laws of nature to a cultural state or a civilized state. However, as a rule, culture is thought of as something that arose earlier than civilization. For example, one almost always speaks of "primitive culture", but not of "primitive civilization", although sometimes, extremely rarely, one can come across a similar expression. However, the term "civilizations of the Ancient East" is widely used, applied to the ancient cultures of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, etc. The differences between the meanings of the concepts "culture" and "civilization", the shades of their meaning are largely related to their origin. Since the concept of "culture" comes (if we leave aside its original meaning "agriculture") from the sphere of religion (worship of the gods), pedagogy and philosophy (education, upbringing, training), it is more often applied to the phenomena of the so-called. "spiritual culture": education, science, art, philosophy, religion, morality. The concept of "civilization" originates from the political and legal vocabulary of ancient Rome, and it was created by the philosophers of the Enlightenment, whose focus was on the social problems of their time. It is not surprising that the word "civilization" usually refers to the phenomena of the so-called. "material culture" (technology, productive forces, economy, housing, transport and communications, etc.) and to social life. It is characteristic that when one speaks of "civilized countries", they mean countries with a high level of economic, technical and social development. At this stage, these are the USA, Western European states, Japan. However, a relatively poor country with a low or medium level of socio-economic and technical development can also be called a "cultural country", "a country of high culture". For the same reason, modern political scientists and political observers usually speak of a "clash of civilizations" (for example, Western, Islamic, and Far Eastern) rather than a "clash of cultures." Also, the term "cultural conflict" is often used by culturologists and sociologists who study the processes of interaction between different cultures (acculturation), which often lead to fierce enmity between their representatives. The interest of political scientists extends primarily to the clash of economic and political interests, the way of life of various civilizations. The concept of "civilization" most often refers to the features of the socio-cultural system, and the concept of "culture" - cultural national features, although such word usage is not strict. For example, one speaks of "English culture" and "European civilization"; however, it is possible to say in the same sense about "European culture". Some culturologists deliberately make a clear distinction between "culture" and "civilization". The most famous example of this kind is the concept that O. Spengler developed in his book "The Decline of Europe". According to Spengler, culture and civilization represent the early and late stages of the development of local "culture-organisms". The era of a late, dying culture (or civilization) is characterized by the decline and degradation of religion, philosophy, art and the simultaneous flourishing of machine technology and technology, people management, the desire for comfort, the accumulation of huge human masses in cities - megacities, extermination wars. Civilization is a period of decay of the organicity and integrity of culture, foreshadowing its imminent death. Lecture 8. Basic concepts of cultural studies 1. Cultural genesis (origin and development of culture) cultural genesis, or the formation of culture, is the process of forming the main essential characteristics. Cultural genesis begins when a group of people needs special general forms of life, adapted to the specific conditions of place and time, and ends with the emergence of forms and standards fixed in mores and customs. In modern science, there are many different interpretations of the genesis of culture: there is a tool-labor concept (culture arose due to a person’s ability to work and his ability to create technical devices), evolutionary (culture originates from the progressive development of living matter), psychoanalytic, symbolic, sociocultural, playful, religious, etc. Let's look at some of them in more detail. Tool-labor concept (F. Engels): according to this theory, humans are distinguished from animals by the ability to work. All social and cultural development is directly related to the formation of human labor, which transforms human life into social and cultural activity. It is assumed that labor activity significantly expands the space of culture. S. Chernyshev, interpreting the labor theory, wrote that a person acts as a “social animal, that is, an animal whose behavioral stereotypes are embedded not in him, but outside him, in the social form of communication. The essence of man is not in his genotype, but in the totality of all social relations. Therefore, one is born as an animal, but only becomes a human being." The labor concept of the genesis of culture and anthropogenesis states that the creation of artificial tools gave rise to the emergence of speech, language, consciousness, thinking, and finally culture. The symbolic hypothesis of Cassirer: due to the fact that a person is biologically weaker than an animal, he unconsciously imitated him. This led to the gradual development of a certain system of guidelines, which is built on top of the instincts, supplementing them. This is what symbolic adaptation to the world is all about. Symbols primarily have a functional value, and the secret of cultural genesis is rooted in the formation of man as a symbolic animal. The game theory of Gadamer, Fink, Huizinga: the source of culture is in the natural ability of a person to play activity. According to this theory, the game is much "older" than culture. Although it is also inherent in animals, it is in humans that this is a meaningful function with many facets of meaning. The moving forces of cultural life are born in myth and cult. Play is primarily a free activity that is disinterested. Before changing the environment, man has already done so in his own imagination, in the realm of play. Freud's psychoanalytic theory: the disclosure of the genesis of culture through the phenomenon of primitive culture, i.e., great importance in this concept is given to the system of prohibitions - taboos. Man has a feature that is not inherent in the animal world. This property arises unexpectedly, by chance, and yet the very possibility of its appearance is inherent in a person. This quality is conscience. It was she who singled out man from the animal kingdom and created culture. The phenomenon of conscience, according to Freud's theory, originates from original sin - the murder of the primitive "father". This act led to repentance, birth from animal man, and the emergence of culture as a means of overcoming obsessive visions. Thus, only by committing a collective crime did the primordial people acquire the capacity for social life. Human culture is everything that elevates human life above natural conditions and how it differs from animal life. Culture has two sides: 1) it covers all the acquired knowledge and skills that enable a person to master the forces of nature and receive material benefits from it to satisfy their needs; 2) it includes all the institutions necessary to streamline the relationship between people. Thus, culture is created by suppressing and forcing natural instincts, cultural genesis is due to the imposition of prohibitions, and the main task of culture is to protect the individual and society as a whole from nature. A follower of this theory, E. Fromm, makes another emphasis: it is history and culture that are called upon to reveal destructive abilities in a person. 2. Cultural values and norms 1. Actually culturological characteristics of cultural values suggest two approaches to their definition: 1) this is the sum of the most outstanding works of intellectual, artistic and religious creativity (archaeological and art criticism approach); 2) it is some quintessence of social experience, which has absorbed the most effective principles for the implementation of life (mores, stereotypes of behavior and consciousness, assessments, opinions, etc.). With this approach, cultural values are the fundamental norms of behavior and judgment that lead to an increase in the social integration of society, to an increase in mutual understanding of people, etc. This is the core of the social life of society, which has absorbed folk wisdom and intellectual revelations. 2. cultural norms is a category that reflects the laws and standards of people's social life. This concept is most fully revealed in its typology. Norm types: 1) institutional - norms as a system of permits and prohibitions on the commission of any actions, the expression of any opinions. They are fixed in official documents, and control over their execution is carried out by the state; 2) statistical - norms that are formed spontaneously in the form of a mass custom to act in a specific way, to think and evaluate this way and not otherwise. Folk traditions serve as an example of such norms; 3) conventional - norms that appeared as a result of a social contract, but did not enter into force of the law. It can be the norms of friendly, neighborly, love relationships. The implementation of these norms is at the discretion of a particular person; 4) reference - norms created specifically as a role model. This type of norm is primarily addressed by art and religion. 3. Dynamics of culture 1. The most important properties of culture are its mobility and ability to develop. Changes of culture in time and space describes cultural dynamics. The first signs of culture appeared in primitive society. The engines of cultural dynamics were inventions and discoveries. Opening provided people with new knowledge, which, then, connecting with the results Inventions, generate new elements. The very first inventions were the transformation of a stick and stone into a means of defense, the transformation of a weapon into a tool of labor, the "taming of fire." The origins of the culture go back to the moment when Neanderthals began burying their ancestors 80-100 million years ago. This was the first thing that distinguished a person from an animal. 2. The main forms of dissemination of culture: 1) cultural borrowings; 2) cultural diffusion; 3) independent discoveries. Cultural borrowings refers to the voluntary imitation of one culture to the values of another. People and culture borrow what is close and understandable; something that will bring any benefit; something that meets the internal needs of this ethnic group, which cannot satisfy their own cultural artifacts and complexes. A country or a people that borrows something else - recipient culture; country or people, giving their own, - donor culture. cultural diffusion - this is the mutual penetration of cultural features and complexes from one society to another during their distribution (cultural contact). Diffusion channels: migrations, wars, trade, tourism, scientific conferences, missionary activities, exhibitions and tours, etc. Cultural intergroup diffusion is the horizontal spread of cultural innovations between several ethnic groups, groups or individuals of equal status. Stratified cultural diffusion - vertical distribution of cultural elements between subjects with unequal status. Stratification diffusion can be expressed in two ways: 1) the middle and lower classes borrow from the upper classes elements of prestigious consumption, high fashion, literary language, etc.; 2) the upper class adopts relaxed behavior patterns, manners of dressing and eating from the lower ones. 3. About progress cultures say if the sum of the positive effects of change outweighs the negative ones. O regression say otherwise. social progress - this is a global world-historical process of the ascent of human societies from the state of savagery to the heights of civilization. Social progress has gradual (reformist) and spasmodic (revolutionary) types. Reform - this is a partial improvement in any sphere of life, not affecting the foundations of the existing social order. Revolution is a complex change in most aspects of social life. Revolutions are not only socio-political in nature, but also scientific, religious, managerial, technical, economic. The most important revolution in the history of mankind is the Neolithic - the domestication of animals and the cultivation of plants. 4. Cultural dynamics is also described by a number of the following concepts: 1) "cultural lag" - a situation in which some parts of the culture change faster, while others slower; 2) cultural transmission - transmission of culture from previous generations to the next through training. Thanks to it, the continuity of culture is carried out; 3) cultural accumulation - adding new elements to the accumulated cultural heritage; 4) cultural exhaustion - a process in which more cultural features disappear than are added; 5) cultural integration - unification of various cultural elements into a certain integrity; 6) culture diversification - division of the dominant culture into many subcultures; 7) cultural expansion - expansion of the sphere of influence of the dominant (national) culture beyond the original or state borders. 4. Modernization of culture 1. An important process in the dynamics of culture is cultural modernization. The authors of the theory of modernization believe that this term refers only to the current stage of social progress. The essence of modernization is associated with the spread of values and achievements of capitalism: rationalism, prudence, urbanization, industrialization. Modernization is a revolutionary transition from pre-industrial to industrial, or capitalist, society, carried out through complex reforms extended over time. 2. There are two types of modernization: 1) organic modernization - this is the moment of the country's own development, prepared by the whole course of the previous evolution. This kind of modernization starts with culture and social consciousness, and then affects the economy. An example is the countries of Western Europe, where capitalism arose as a result of natural changes in the worldview, way of life, and traditions of people; 2) inorganic modernization - this is the answer of any country to the external challenge of more developed countries, which is a way of "catching up" development. It is undertaken by government agencies in order to overcome historical backwardness and avoid dependence. Inorganic modernization begins with economics and politics, not with culture. As a result, it does not always receive social support from society. 5. Morphology of culture The branch of cultural studies that studies the structural elements of culture as a system, their structure and features is called culture morphology. Among such components are: national culture, world culture, urban culture, Christian culture, social culture, artistic culture, personal culture, etc. The most significant for cultural studies are such structural subspecies as material and spiritual culture, perceived as antipodes. Material culture - the culture of everyday life and work - is associated with purely physical comfort, with the need to satisfy the needs of mankind. Spiritual culture is the most important type of culture, including the intellectual and aesthetic activities of mankind. Often, material and spiritual cultures are interconnected. The structure of culture is viewed in different ways. Some culturologists distinguish in it such subsystems as social culture, technological culture, behavioral culture, ideological culture. Soviet culturologists singled out two levels as the main ones: specialized and ordinary. The specialized level includes such subsystems of culture as economic, political, legal, philosophical, scientific and technical, and artistic. The everyday level includes housekeeping, mores and customs, morality, practical technology, ordinary worldview and ordinary aesthetics. 6. Cultural traditions 1. cultural traditions are the main accumulators and translators of the standardized social experience of society. They accumulate: 1) a set of norms and patterns of social behavior; 2) established forms of social organization, communication and regulation; 3) manners and customs, rites and rituals. Tradition functions: 1) regulation of interpersonal and intergroup relations; 2) transmission of social experience. 2. Traditions can appear on the basis of special cases, having gone through the process of selection in the future. This allows you to expand existing traditions with some socio-cultural innovations. Another, more common mechanism for the addition of traditions is the process of centuries-old experience of repeating typical life situations recorded in the memory of the people. 3. In traditional societies, traditions are the dominant means of social regulation. The degree of this dominance depends on the level of development of society. In modernized countries, traditions that perform the functions of social regulation and transmission of cultural patterns are localized mainly in the area of everyday culture. In the field of education and public life of modernized communities, these traditions have been replaced by institutionalized regulators and translators. They become laws, constitutions, professional charters, state institutions, etc. Lecture 9. Models of culture 1. Classical and modern models of culture In the development of European cultural studies, one can distinguish an important period of the establishment of Western culture (from the Renaissance to the middle of the XNUMXth century). This period is characterized by a sense of historical optimism, faith in progress, conviction in the final triumph of reason and freedom, which were expressed in the ideology of the Enlightenment. These ideas formed the basis of the classical model of culture. The insufficiency of such a model is recognized at the present stage of the existence of culture (disappointment in the results of cultural development, revision of the legacy of the Enlightenment). Principles of the classical model of culture: 1) eurocentrism - the idea of Europeans about the features of their culture and its unconditional superiority over all other cultures, a way to judge the culture of other peoples by their compliance with the European model; 2) humanism - awareness of the surrounding world as a product of one's own creative, productive activity. The idea of man as a free and independent person, capable of going beyond the limits of his physical nature at the cost of his own efforts, was called the "discovery of man"; 3) rationalism. Man, by virtue of his rationality, has made himself the end of nature, and nature - a means in relation to himself as an end. Since the Renaissance, philosophers have recognized the presence of "supernatural" in man, allowing him to create his own world. Reason is the ability of a person to act in accordance with his own, and not imposed goals. The humanistic ideal of a person is a free-thinking person endowed with reason; 4) historicism. Culture is directly related to history. Its various stages reflect the development of the cultural process. The classical model recognizes not only the boundary delineating the area of human existence in the surrounding world, but also its historically changeable nature. At each stage of history, this border gives a person a new image and a unique individuality. Principles of the modern model of culture: 1) criticism of humanism. The Age of Enlightenment gave rise to the cult of an autonomous person, capable of soberly and deeply assessing phenomena and ideas, moral deeds and their consequences. In the modern model of culture, the search for a specific human principle (evidence of its autonomy) is lost. Man is not the crown of creation, but only a link in the development of the rest of the natural world. Neoclassical theory rejects the uniqueness of man and puts forward the idea that man is not only not a special link in nature, but also falls out of its entire chain. Man is declared to be a being who has lost the sense of true life, its basic values and laws; 2) criticism of rationalism. The modern tradition explains the world and man on the basis of irrational principles that play a greater role than reason. The new tradition rejects normativity, values are given the status of personal, individual quests. Critical attitude to any established prescriptions; 3) criticism of historicism and Eurocentrism. Schlegel viewed history as a panorama of autonomous events. From this point of view, all cultures are equal. Subsequently, the idea of equality of cultures was strengthened, each of which has its own dignity and perfection. 2. Mass and elite culture The time of the birth of mass culture is 1870 (a law on universal literacy was adopted in the UK). In the further development of mass culture contributed to: 1) in 1895 - the invention of cinema; 2) in the middle of the twentieth century. - the emergence of pop music. Society is a unity of the majority and the minority. A mass is a multitude of people without special merit. A man of the mass is one who does not feel in himself any gift or difference from everyone else. Minority - a group of people who have set as their goal the service of a higher norm. Literary production and fiction novels are in great demand in popular culture. Cinema and radio played a decisive role in the formation of mass culture, since cinema is the foundation of the aesthetic principles of mass culture. He developed ways to attract viewers, the main thing was the cultivation of illusions. A special quality of mass culture is the ability to save the consumer from any intellectual effort, paving for him a short path to pleasure. Signs of mass culture: 1) serial nature of products; 2) primitivization of life and relations between people; 3) entertainment, amusingness, sentimentality; 4) naturalistic depiction of certain scenes; 5) the cult of a strong personality, the cult of success. Positive aspects of mass culture: 1) a wide range of genres, styles; 2) meeting the requirements of many sectors of society. Negative aspects of mass culture: 1) mass culture depends on ideological politics; 2) is entertaining; 3) a small number of works is the question of the purpose and meaning of life, its values; 4) far from all works are made at a high professional level and have aesthetic value; 5) forms a mass worldview with uncritical beliefs and views. The opposition to mass culture is elitist culture, the main task of which is to preserve creativity in culture, form values and create new aesthetic forms. The creative elite is a dynamic socio-culture of education, small in number but influential. These are active, brightly gifted people, capable of creating new forms. Everything they create is frighteningly new, breaks existing stereotypes and rules, and is perceived by society as something hostile. The elite culture is diverse, multidirectional, with a high percentage of complex experimentation. Generates both discovery and motivation, but only it is capable of generating something new. Mass culture does not recognize such an elitist type of culture, denying it elitism and culture, and evaluates it as unprofessionalism, inhumanity, lack of culture. Mass culture is a special phenomenon, it has its own laws of the emergence and development of forms. She prefers monotony and repetition, has a selective memory. However, mass culture is an obligatory component of any cultural and historical process; it has its own laws. Classical culture is a cross between elite and mass culture. According to the method of creation, classical culture is elitist, but in the process of development it acquired the features of mass character. 3. Subculture and counterculture In cultural studies, along with other humanities, the concept of subculture is used. A subculture is a partial cultural subsystem of the "official" culture that determines the lifestyle, value orientation and mentality of its bearers. Subcultures are divided into traditionalist и innovative avant-garde. Traditionalist are professional subcultures that are a positive reaction to the needs of society. Innovative avant-garde subcultures reject the "main" culture of society (counterculture). A subculture can be the culture of any social or demographic group. Subcultures can be distinguished based on the stages of human life: 1) children's subculture; 2) youth subculture; 3) the culture of the elderly. The concept of "subculture" is associated with the concept marginal culture. Marginality refers to the intermediate position of a person between social groups. marginal culture - this is a border culture that arises on the verge of cultural and historical eras, worldviews, languages, ethnic cultures or subcultures. Marginality is a modern phenomenon. Marginal is usually characterized by belonging to two or more cultural groups. Causes of marginal culture: 1) major social upheavals; 2) urbanization; 3) emancipation of ethnic minorities; 4) the changing mode of production; 5) activities of informal movements and public organizations. Counterculture - these are socio-cultural attitudes that oppose the fundamental principles of the "main" culture. The emergence of counterculture is due to the fact that local cultural values penetrate into wider social groups, going beyond their own cultural environment. 4. Culture as a system of signs Culture has its own language, which carries a supernatural essence; it is created artificially. This is a special sphere that occupies the cultural space of society. This area is considered by the semiotic definition of culture. Semiotics - a science that studies the properties of signs and sign systems in human society, in nature or in man himself. Sign - this is an object, action or event that replaces another object, action, event. Sign language was one of the early sign systems, in which each word is a sign that replaces the object that this word denotes. There are several types of signs in society, such as: 1) signs-copies, reproduce what is in reality (photo); 2) signs-signs that carry information about the subject (high temperature of the patient); 3) signs-signals - information not related to the objects (phenomena) they inform about (school bell); 4) signs-symbols that carry information about an object (phenomenon) based on its essence (national emblem); 5) linguistic signs. There are sign systems. The simplest is a sign system of greetings: various kinds of bows, handshakes, kisses, pats on the shoulder, etc., accompanied by verbal formulas ("hello", "very nice"). Known sign systems: street signs, Morse code, etc. A complex sign system is language. Unlike other signs, language signs are polysemantic. The whole culture as a whole is transmitted from generation to generation through signs and their systems, the task of each person is to understand the meaning and meaning of as many signs as possible so that the world of culture reveals its depths. The sign has a material, ideal form, content, complex and multifaceted. The semiotic approach considers culture as a world of symbols. Of particular interest are the works of E. Cassirer and Y. Lotman. They focus on the semiotic (structural-symbolic) nature of art in all its varieties (music, painting, entertainment). The German philosopher Ernst Cassirer (1874-1945), the author of the work "Philosophy of Symbolic Forms", lays the human ability for systematic and constant symbolization as the basis of his concept of culture. Symbolic concept of the origin of culture - cultural theory, which considers culture as a synthesis of various symbols (language, writing, art, science, etc.). Cassirer looks for the origins of culture in the ability of a person to create a kind of artificial world. Reality is denoted by certain symbols. The specificity of human life is that a person lives in a symbolic system created by him. As symbolic activity increases, physical reality becomes secondary for a person (comparison: European scientist, African savage). A civilized person interacts with things with the help of artificial means, linguistic forms, artistic images, mythical symbols, religious rites. Based on this, Cassirer proposed to call a person a "symbolic animal" and not a "thinking animal", as has already become traditional. 5. Information definition of culture In cultural studies, there is an informational definition of culture, according to which culture is information accumulated by society, contained in the activities of people and objectified in the results of this activity, a system of meanings created by people. The concept of information is ambiguous: 1) a message about something transmitted by people; 2) reduction of uncertainty as a result of obtaining any data; 3) signals in their meaning, practical use. In 1948, a theory of information was created, investigating the question of its quantity, the methods, means and forms of its transmission and preservation. A. Mol, a modern researcher of the forms of existence of cultural information, states the following: “Culture acts as a necessary material of thought, as something mastered and present, as content. As a material of thought, culture is something given, and thought is something that is created from it; thinking is thereby the formation of culture. In this statement, culture acts as knowledge, information about the world, as a system of knowledge of society. Albert Schweitzer, a famous Swiss thinker, said that culture is the result of the achievements of all people, humanity as a whole, in all areas of relations with the world. Continuity is a necessary condition for the existence of culture. At any stage of the existence of society, there are three stages of culture: 1) includes everything that was created by previous generations; 2) the degree of development of cultural wealth by the living generation; 3) creative activity of the living generation. Cultural memory is not transmitted genetically. All knowledge, skills, ways of labor and other activities, traditions live only in the system of culture. It is important that this information does not disappear, being in demand by each subsequent generation. Related to this is the problem of cultural preservation. Degradation is the loss of cultural information. Lecture 10. Typology of cultures 1. Typology of culture Typology of culture - this is a method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the division of socio-cultural systems and objects and their grouping using description and comparison. The typology of culture has become necessary due to the ambiguity and plurality of the socio-cultural world. The task of the typology of culture is an ordered description and explanation of a heterogeneous set of cultural objects. Various bases can be used for the typology of culture. Typological grounds - a set of indicators, which includes significant indicators of the cultures under study. There are several such grounds, so the choice of each of them is important for culturologists. The main principles of the typology of cultures are: 1) geographical (localization of cultures in the territorial space); 2) chronological (localization in time, allocation of stages in historical development); 3) national (relative features of ethnic and national characteristics of culture). O. Spengler proposed the theory of local civilizations. It lies in the fact that there are different, but equivalent types of cultures; existing next to each other, but not influencing each other. There are eight such cultures (Egyptian, Indian, Babylonian, Chinese, ancient, Arabic, Mayan culture, Western European). Hegel's theory of "evolutionary monism" is as follows: all countries are included in a single scheme of historical development from lower to higher forms of culture; those who have not passed from mythological consciousness to rational consciousness belong to the "pre-Axial time." The axis of world history is the time between 800 and 200 AD. BC e. The theory of "axial time" was created by K. Jaspers. The typology of culture also uses the East-West approach, which is considered by many theorists. 2. Ethnic and national types of culture Ethnic and national types of culture contain cultural systems of tribal and ethnic types and national cultures as transformed variants of ethnic culture. Cultural systems of this type arise in connection with the joint experience of people living in adjacent territories for the convenience of economic activity and defense from enemies. There are common features of such groups: 1) language; 2) elements of lifestyle and everyday culture; 3) a system of mythological (religious) and rational ideas; 4) internal economic and social relations. As a result, a tribal (or intertribal) cultural system is formed - the ethnic culture of a given people (ethnos). The very first basis of identity was blood relationship. It was replaced by a commonality of customs and mores. Ethnic culture was influenced by the emergence of cities and states. The social stratification of culture is the formation of the culture of new urban estates. Culture acquires two more dimensions: political and religious. This stage includes the culture of early urban civilizations (from the III-II millennium BC to the middle of the II millennium AD). The principle of territorial-neighborly solidarity remains the dominant sign of consolidation. This type of culture is transformed with the appearance of bourgeois nations into a national type of culture. National culture is a synthetic type of culture based on territorial unity and national economic interest. The basis of the organization of people is the nation-state. The national type of culture is relevant, i.e., focused on solving current social problems, and prognostic, i.e., aimed at achieving the future. 3. "East - West" in cultural studies Eastern and Western cultures have always been seen as polar to each other. This division takes into account not only the territorial and geographical location, but also the characteristics of the methods and ways of knowing the world, value orientation, basic worldview attitudes, socio-economic and political structures. European and American cultures are invested in the concept of "the West". The countries of Central, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, North Africa represent the culture of the East. Eastern civilization includes such cultures as the culture of the Jewish people, China, India and the Arab-Muslim world. In philosophical and historical understanding, the East is presented as the first historical stage in the global development of mankind. In the theories of closed cultures and local civilizations, the linear historical scheme was discarded and the seemingly homogeneous eastern world appeared as a scattering of original cultural formations. In modern typological systems, Chinese, Indian and Middle Eastern civilizations were recognized as three main and independent forms of culture and society. This led to a rethinking of the East-West paradigm itself. The idea of the traditional character of the civilizations of the East took the place of the idea of their mutual dialectical connection. According to this point of view, it was the East in the broad sense of the word that became the cradle of world civilization and human culture. All of its local socio-cultural formations were characterized by the desire to maintain a rigid norm, a stable social order, and religious and moral standards of behavior. The essence of these social systems is determined by the Asian mode of production and is reduced to conservative stability. This is the concept of L.S. Vasiliev. Another point of view on this problem is the concept of R. Genon, according to which Eastern civilizations do not essentially contradict each other by virtue of following the initially common higher principle. With both explanations, we see that in the modern world, on the one hand, civilizations that remain on traditional positions (such are the civilizations of the East), on the other hand, openly anti-traditional civilizations or the civilization of the West. L.S. Vasiliev identifies three giant structures: Chinese, Indo-Buddhist and Arab-Muslim. R. Guenon represented the Eastern world by the following classification: the Far East - Chinese civilization, the Middle East - Hindu, the Middle East - Islamic. In the works of L.I. Sedov, who accepted the sociological concept of T. Parsons, on the basis of the thesis about the possibility of hypertrophied development of one of the four social subsystems with its transformation into the foundation of society - civilization - this classification received a new basis. The West represents the economic type of society in it, while the three Eastern civilizations correspond mainly to the "value", "societal" and "political" types. The Western type of culture is characterized by an orientation towards: 1) the values of technical development; 2) dynamic, active lifestyle; 3) improvement of culture and society. The idea of the significance of the individual, the priority of creativity and initiative are constitutionally fixed. Characteristic features of the sociodynamics of Western culture: uneven, undulating. The transition to the new means the breaking of pre-existing or outdated value systems, socio-political and economic systems. The East, on the contrary, does not reject the old, traditional, organically fitting into it. Characteristic features of Eastern culture: 1) immersion in the inner world of a person; 2) the conviction that the improvement of the world is based on the acquisition by a person of integrity and harmony in himself; 3) harmony with nature; 4) development not with the help of technology and technology, but in a natural way. Today, Eastern cultures are losing their isolation and closeness, perceiving the influence of Western culture, but at the same time remaining individual and original. If the East is represented in culture by a number of local civilizations or three main ones, then the West is represented by a number of changing eras: 1) classical Hellenic culture; 2) the Hellenistic-Roman stage; 3) Romano-Germanic culture of the Christian Middle Ages; 4) new European culture. The last three stages can also be considered as peculiar variant forms of Westernization of the traditional culture of the Romans and Germans, and then of the entire Romano-Germanic Europe. At the origins and in the very foundations of all societies and cultures of the European civilizational tradition there is something unimaginable: economy, society, state, culture, entirely lying on the shoulders of one single person: a person - society, a person - a state, a person - a worldview, a truly integral personality, free and independent in thought, word and deed. The most important inventions of European culture are philosophy and science as a way of understanding the world. Very often, only two periods are distinguished in the development of European culture: 1) from the middle of the XNUMXst millennium BC. e. until the XNUMXth century; 2) the period of the XVII-XX centuries. Two main terms are used to designate it: the period of the new European culture or the period of technogenic civilization. Taking into account other criteria, this periodization becomes more complicated. They talk about the eras of ancient, Greek, Roman culture, the culture of the Middle Ages and the culture of the Renaissance. Within the framework of the second large period, the culture of the Enlightenment, romanticism and the classical German cultural era of the late XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries are often distinguished. Second half of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries characterized in different ways. But it is quite obvious that over these one and a half centuries the situation in the culture and public spheres of Western technogenic civilization has stabilized, including in relation to the wide coverage of non-European cultures by the value orientations of Western civilization. 4. Russia and the type of its culture Many researchers of the history of Russian culture tend to believe that the formation of Russian culture was largely influenced by Christianity. But there is no doubt that Russia is a European country, and the Western beginning has played a big role in its cultural life. An important role in the development of Russian spiritual culture was also played by the fact that in geographical and socio-economic terms - with all the differences from the classical countries of the East - it turned out to be a society whose material foundation more and more acquired the features of the Asian mode of production: a mass of rural communities and a huge state, forced at the stage of centralization of power and administration to resort to "enslavement" of both the taxable and service classes, including because of the constant military danger to the country. The main contradiction of Russian socio-cultural life, its civilizational type was originally set by two factors: on the one hand, its belonging to the European-Christian civilization, which received in the XI-XVI centuries. the most striking expression on Russian soil, and on the other hand, in socio-economic terms, the representation in the social system of the traditional, Asian mode of production. This contradiction is significantly modified under the conditions of Russia's inclusion in the world market, acquiring a pronounced dynamic connotation. This contradiction and its modification in the public consciousness of post-Petrine Russia was reflected in the opposition: Orthodoxy - secularism, conservatism - progressivism. Lecture 11 1. Local cultures as a model of human development. The concept of cultural and historical types (N.Ya. Danilevsky) In philosophy and cultural studies, an important problem is the question of what constitutes the historical and cultural process: the development of world culture as a whole or the change of local cultures, each of which lives its own, separate life. From the point of view of the theory of local cultures, the scheme of history is not a unidirectional linear process: the lines of development of cultures diverge. This position was held by N.Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, L. Frobenius, A. Toynbee, E. Meyer, E. Troelch and others. These thinkers opposed their concepts to the idea of universality and world history (the concepts of Voltaire, Montesquieu, G. Lessing, I. Kant, I. G. Herder, V. Solovyov, K. Jaspers and others). Russian sociologist Nikolai Yakovlevich Danilevsky (1822-1885) developed the concept of local cultural-historical types, or civilizations, successively passing through the stages of birth, flourishing, decline and death in their development. Cultural-historical types are the subjects of human history. However, the history of culture is not exhausted by these subjects. Unlike positive cultural-historical types, there is also the so-called. "negative figures of mankind" - barbarians, as well as ethnic groups, which are not characterized by either positive or negative historical roles. The latter make up ethnographic material, being included in cultural-historical types, but not reaching historical individuality. N.Ya. Danilevsky identifies the following cultural and historical types: 1) Egyptian culture; 2) Chinese culture; 3) Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician; 4) Chaldean, or ancient Semitic, culture; 5) Indian culture; 6) Iranian culture; 7) Jewish culture; 8) Greek culture; 9) Roman culture; 10) Arabian culture; 11) Germano-Roman, or European, culture. A special place in Danilevsky's theory is given to the Mexican and Peruvian cultures, which were destroyed before they could complete their development. Among these cultures, "solitary" and "successive" types stand out. The first type is Chinese and Indian cultures, and the second is Egyptian, Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician, Greek, Roman, Jewish and European cultures. The fruits of the activity of the latter were transferred from one cultural type to another as nourishment or "fertilizer" of the soil on which another culture subsequently developed. Each original cultural and historical type evolves from the ethnographic to the state state, and from it to civilization. All history, according to Danilevsky, demonstrates that civilization is not transmitted from one cultural-historical type to another. It does not follow from this that they did not mutually influence each other, but this influence cannot be considered as a direct transmission. The peoples of each cultural-historical type do not generally work; the results of their labor remain the property of all other peoples who have reached the civilizational period of their development. Under the period of civilization, Danilevsky understood the time during which the peoples that make up the type manifest mainly their spiritual activity in all those directions for which there are guarantees in their spiritual nature. Danilevsky singles out the following basis of cultural typology: directions of human cultural activity. The Russian sociologist divides all sociocultural human activity into four categories that are not reducible to one another: 1) religious activity, including a person's attitude to God - the people's worldview as a firm faith, which forms the living basis of all human moral activity; 2) cultural activity in the narrow sense (actually cultural) of this word, embracing the relationship of a person to the outside world. This is, firstly, theoretical-scientific activity, secondly, aesthetic-artistic and, thirdly, technical-industrial activity; 3) political activity, including both domestic and foreign policy; 4) socio-economic activity, in the process of which certain economic relations and systems are created. In accordance with the categories of human cultural activity, N.Ya. Danilevsky distinguished the following cultural types: 1) primary cultures, or preparatory. Their task was to work out the conditions under which life in an organized society becomes possible at all. These cultures have not shown themselves sufficiently fully or clearly in any of the categories of sociocultural activity. These cultures include Egyptian, Chinese, Babylonian, Indian and Iranian cultures, which laid the foundations for subsequent development; 2) monobasic cultures - historically followed the preparatory ones and showed themselves quite brightly and fully in one of the categories of sociocultural activity. These cultures include Jewish (creating the first monotheistic religion that became the basis of Christianity); Greek, embodied in the actual cultural activity (classical art, philosophy); Roman, which realized itself in political and legal activities (classical system of law and state system); 3) dual-basic culture - German-Roman, or European. Danilevsky called this cultural type the political-cultural type, since it was these two directions that became the basis for the creative activity of European peoples (the creation of parliamentary and colonial systems, the development of science, technology, art). Indeed, in economic activity, Europeans succeeded to a much lesser extent, since the economic relations they created did not reflect the ideal of justice; 4) four-basic culture - a hypothetical, just emerging cultural type. Danilevsky writes about a very special type in the history of human culture, who has the opportunity to realize in his life four most important values: true faith; political justice and freedom; culture itself (science and art); a perfect, harmonious socio-economic system, which all previous cultures failed to create. The Slavic cultural-historical type can become such a type if it does not succumb to the temptation to adopt ready-made cultural forms from Europeans. The destiny of Russia, Danilevsky believed, is not to conquer and oppress, but to liberate and restore. Danilevsky's philosophy of history is based on the idea of denying the unity of mankind, a single direction of progress: a universal civilization does not exist and cannot exist. Universal means colorlessness, lack of originality. Without doubting the biological unity of mankind, Danilevsky insists on the originality, self-sufficiency of cultures. The true creators of history are not the peoples themselves, but the cultures created by them and having reached a mature state. 2. Local cultures and local civilizations (O. Spengler and A. Toynbee) The development of the problem of locally developing cultures was continued by Oswald Spengler (1880-1936). In The Decline of Europe, he defends the idea of the discrete nature of history. Spengler argues that there is no progressive development of culture, but only the circulation of local cultures. Likening cultures to living organisms, Spengler believes that they are born unexpectedly, being absolutely isolated and devoid of common ties. The life cycle of every culture inevitably ends with death. Spengler identifies eight types of cultures that have reached their completion: Chinese; Babylonian; Egyptian; Indian; antique (Greco-Roman), or "Apollo"; Arabic; Western European, or "Faustian"; the culture of the Mayan people. In a special type, which is still at the stage of emergence, Spengler singled out the Russian-Siberian culture. Contrasting the concepts of culture and life, under culture Spengler understands the external manifestation of the internal structure of the soul of the people, the desire of the collective soul of the people for self-expression. Each culture, each soul has a primary worldview, its own "primary symbol", from which all the richness of its forms flows; inspired by him, she lives, feels, creates. For European culture, the "first symbol" is only its characteristic way of experiencing space and time - "aspiration to infinity". Ancient culture, on the contrary, mastered the world, based on the principle of a visible limit. Everything irrational is alien to them, zero and negative numbers are not known. The historical and cultural type is closed in itself, exists separately, in isolation. Culture lives its own, special life; it cannot absorb anything from other cultures. There is no historical continuity, no influence or borrowing. Cultures are self-sufficient, and therefore dialogue is impossible. A person belonging to a certain culture not only cannot perceive other values, but is also unable to understand them. All norms of human spiritual activity make sense only within the framework of a particular culture and are significant only for it. According to Spengler, the unity of mankind does not exist, the concept of "humanity" is an empty phrase. World history is an illusion generated by the European cultural type. Each type of culture, with the inevitability of fate, goes through the same life stages (from birth to death), gives rise to the same phenomena, painted, however, in peculiar tones. Russian philosopher Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev (1874-1948) substantiates the idea of the gradual transformation of the "human race" into "humanity". A huge role in the way of humankind's awareness of its community belongs to Christianity, which historically arose and revealed itself during the period of the universal meeting of all the results of the cultural processes of the Ancient World. During this period, the cultures of the East and the cultures of the West merged. The fall of great cultures, according to N. Berdyaev, testifies not only to their experience of the moments of birth, flourishing and dying, but also to the fact that culture is the beginning of eternity. The fall of Rome and the ancient world is a catastrophe in history, not the death of culture. After all, Roman law is eternally alive, Greek art and philosophy are eternally alive, like all other principles of the Ancient World, which form the basis of other cultures. Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975) in his work "Comprehension of History" develops the concept of local civilizations. Civilizations are divided by him into three generations. The first is primitive, small, non-literate cultures. There are countless of them, and their age is small. They are characterized by one-sided specialization, adaptability to life in a certain geographical environment; social institutions - the state, education, church, science - they do not have. These cultures breed like rabbits and die spontaneously unless they merge, through a creative act, into a more powerful second generation civilization. The creative act is hampered by the static nature of primitive societies: in them, the social connection (imitation), which regulates the uniformity of actions and the stability of relations, is directed to deceased ancestors, to the older generation. In such cultures, custom rules and innovation is difficult. With a sharp change in living conditions, which Toynbee calls a "challenge", society cannot give an adequate response, rebuild and change its way of life; continuing to live and act as if there was no "challenge", as if nothing had happened, culture is moving towards the abyss and perishing. However, some cultures bring forth a "creative minority" from their midst who are aware of the challenge and are able to respond satisfactorily to it. This handful of enthusiasts - prophets, priests, philosophers, scientists, politicians - with the example of their own disinterested service, carries away the bulk, and society moves on to new tracks. The formation of a subsidiary civilization begins, which inherited the experience of its predecessor, but is much more flexible and versatile. According to Toynbee, cultures that live in comfortable conditions, do not receive a challenge from the environment, are in a state of stagnation. Only where difficulties arise, where the mind of people is excited in search of a way out and new forms of survival, conditions are created for the birth of a civilization of a higher level. According to Toynbee's Law of the Golden Mean, the challenge should be neither too weak nor too harsh. In the first case, there will be no active response, and in the second, difficulties can stop the emergence of civilization. The most common answers are: the transition to a new type of management, the creation of irrigation systems, the formation of powerful power structures capable of mobilizing the energy of society, the creation of a new religion, science, and technology. In second-generation civilizations, social bonding is directed towards creative individuals who lead the pioneers of a new social order. Civilizations of the second generation are dynamic, they create large cities, they develop the division of labor, commodity exchange, the market, there are layers of artisans, scientists, merchants, people of mental labor, a complex social stratification system is established. Attributes of democracy can develop here: elected bodies, legal system, self-government, separation of powers. The emergence of a full-fledged secondary civilization is not a foregone conclusion. In order for it to appear, a combination of a number of conditions is necessary. Since this is not always the case, some civilizations turn out to be frozen, or "underdeveloped". The problem of the birth of civilization from a primitive culture is one of the central ones for Toynbee. He believes that neither racial type, nor environment, nor economic structure play a decisive role in the genesis of civilizations: they arise as a result of mutations of primitive cultures, which occur depending on combinations of many causes. Predicting a mutation is difficult, as a result of a card game. Civilizations of the third generation are formed on the basis of churches. In total, according to Toynbee, by the middle of the XNUMXth century. Of the three dozen civilizations that existed, seven or eight survived: Christian, Islamic, Hindu, etc. Like his predecessors, Toynbee recognizes the cyclic pattern of development of civilizations: birth, growth, flourishing, breakdown and decay. But this scheme is not fatal, the death of civilizations is probable, but not inevitable. Civilizations, like people, are not far-sighted: they are not fully aware of the springs of their own actions and the essential conditions that ensure their prosperity. The narrow-mindedness and selfishness of the ruling elites, combined with the laziness and conservatism of the majority, lead to the degeneration of civilization. In contrast to the fatalistic and relativistic theories of Spengler and his followers, Toynbee is looking for a solid foundation for the unification of mankind, trying to find ways of a peaceful transition to the "universal church" and "universal state". The pinnacle of earthly progress would be, according to Toynbee, the creation of a “community of saints.” Its members would be free from sin and capable, by cooperating with God, even at the cost of hard effort, to transform human nature. Only a new religion, built in the spirit of pantheism, could, according to Toynbee, reconcile warring groups of people, form an ecologically healthy attitude towards nature, and thereby save humanity from destruction. 3. The theory of cultures-civilizations by S. Huntington The theory of culture-civilizations of our contemporary Samuel Huntington is consonant with the general concepts of cultures presented above. It also promotes the idea of the importance of cultural characteristics; Huntington declares the confrontation between the modern and the traditional to be the fundamental problem of the modern era. S. Huntington revives a civilized approach to the analysis of the historical and cultural process. He uses the research method used by A. Toynbee, N. Danilevsky, O. Spengler. Huntington believes that the main conflict of the era is the confrontation between modernity and traditionalism. The content of the modern era is the clash of cultures-civilizations. The leading culture-civilizations Huntington includes the following: Western, Confucian (China), Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Orthodox Slavic, Latin American and African. According to S. Huntington, identity (self-awareness, self-identification) will have an increasingly decisive significance in the near future precisely at the level of identified cultures-civilizations, or metacultures. This is also connected with the awareness of the conflict nature of the world and the upcoming clashes of civilizations along the "lines of cultural faults", that is, the spatial boundaries of metacultural communities. At the same time, S. Huntington is pessimistic about the prospect of historical development and believes that the fault lines between civilizations are the lines of future fronts. S. Huntington proceeds from the idea that the differences between civilizations-cultures are enormous and will remain so for a long time to come. Civilizations are not similar in their history, cultural traditions and - most importantly - religions. People of different cultures-civilizations have different ideas about the world as a whole, about freedom, models of development, about the relationship between the individual and the community, about God. Fundamental for the general cultural concept is S. Huntington's position that intercultural differences are more fundamental than political and ideological ones. A special role in determining the image of the modern world is played by fundamentalism (strict observance of archaic norms, a return to the old order), primarily in the form of religious movements. S. Huntington assesses the return to traditional cultural values as a reaction to the expansion of Western industrial culture into developing countries. This phenomenon has embraced, first of all, the countries of Islamic orientation, which play a significant role in the modern world. The scientist sees the main "cultural fault" in the opposition of the West to the rest of the world; the Confucian-Islamic union plays a decisive role in defending their cultural identity. S. Huntington sees one of the possible options for the development of the conflict of the era in the fact that Euro-Atlanticism, being at the peak of its power, will be able (more or less organically) to assimilate the values of other cultures. In principle, the reorientation of modern industrial culture to a more introverted one, facing the inner world of man, has already been under way in recent decades. This was expressed in a huge interest in personal improvement, in religious systems of Buddhist and Taoist orientation, in the younger generation’s rejection of a rational-material approach to life, the emergence of a counterculture and the search for the meaning of existence in Western culture. These trends have existed in Western culture since the early 1970s. They influence the internal functioning of industrialism. Lecture 12. The place and role of Russia in world culture 1. Russian culture and Russian national character Despite its rich history and culture, one can observe a lack of an average level of culture in Russia. Russian philosopher Nikolai Berdyaev noted that Russians are maximalists: they need everything or nothing. This is the main reason why material culture has always been at a rather low level in Russia. To this day, vast undeveloped territories remain in Russia. In modern culturological thought, the doctrine of border cultures arose. They arise on the periphery of stable, large civilizations, in zones where they cross their borders and interact with other civilizations. Russian culture can be considered as a zone of such a transition. For her as a "borderline" education is characterized by: 1) internal tensions and contradictions as a constant constitutive factor that determines the nature of culture-forming mechanisms and their functioning; 2) cyclic "breaks" in the process of formation, the same "discontinuity" that was mentioned above and the presence of which N. Berdyaev pointed out; 3) inability to self-development, coexistence in the structure of culture of phenomena belonging to different historical chronologies - from the archaic to the present, the constant activation of archaic phenomena; 4) extensive character, inability for dynamic development, painfulness of any modernization. Frontier cultures are in constant search of their identity. The present is always characterized by uncertainty, fragmentation, a split between the opposing traditional and modern principles. Will and thinking in Russia are not disciplined, they are not complete. Dostoevsky noted that the most specific feature of the Russian national character is its ability to perceive the features of any national character. The Russian writer called this ability the "universal responsiveness" of Russians. Without sufficiently appreciating material culture, the needs of daily life, Russians are capable of carrying out the destruction of already existing cultural values. Here the maximalism of the Russian soul is manifested: on the one hand, the highest manifestations of holiness, on the other, satanic evil. Dostoevsky explained this by the excessive giftedness and talent of Russians. The European nations are mature enough to give up this versatility of their youth. Insufficient attention to the needs of everyday life is, of course, the negative side of Russian life. Russians still need to discipline their will and mind. Without such self-restraint, a Russian person inevitably turns into a helpless dreamer, an anarchist, an adventurer, a playboy, even if he retains his kindness. Features of the culture of Russia were largely determined by its geopolitical position: 1) middle position between East and West; 2) spatial characteristics of "distance" and "space" as attributes of the Russian mentality; 3) the problem of Russia's "cultural backwardness" in the Middle Ages: foreign invasions, the mastery of vast expanses of the country, the temptation of large spaces, a kind of "iron curtain" between Russia and other countries. A. Toynbee argued that every nation and every culture manifest itself in constant "challenges" such as invasions, wars, conquests. Russian lands were repeatedly conquered and devastated by the eastern hordes. East and West met not only in the vast expanses of Russia, but also in Russian culture itself. N. Berdyaev noted that two streams of world history collide in Russia - East and West. Russian culture cannot be considered purely European or purely Asian: two principles have always fought in it - eastern and western. At different periods of its development, Russian culture borrowed the customs and traditions of different peoples: pagan deities of Scandinavian origin, then Byzantine Christianity (Orthodoxy), in the 18th century. the nobility adopted the language and customs of the Germans in the 19th century. - French and English nobility. One of the significant historical and cultural problems is the problem of Russia's cultural backwardness in the Middle Ages. By the beginning of the XVIII century. in Russia there was no secular literature, architecture, music, philosophy and science, while Europe by this time had already created a huge array of scientific, philosophical knowledge, had experience in all areas of culture and a more progressive state system. Young Peter the Great, while traveling through Europe, was struck by the difference in the structure of their life and the life of the Russian people. 2. Slavic element of Russian culture Among the Eastern Slavs, echoes of fetishism and animism, refracted for millennia, worshiped, for example, stones, trees, groves. The cult of stone fetishes is very ancient. It is quite possible that among the ancient Slavs it arose from the veneration of stone tools necessary in hunting and farming. Separation of the "double" spirit from the object to which it is inherent, along with totemism, gives rise to faith in the souls of the dead, as well as in the cult of ancestors. Probably, one of the forms of this cult was the veneration of the Family and women in childbirth, which arose in connection with the growth and strengthening of the clans and the strengthening of the clan organization. Rod was the supreme deity of the Slavs before Perun. But in the conditions of the political and economic disunity of the ancient Slavs, the isolation of the clans, the existence of a supreme god among the Slavs, subjugating all the rest, is doubtful. Another social factor in the emergence of the cult of ancestors was the allocation of the age group of the oldest in the tribal structure. Their reverence in earthly life also affected the attitude of relatives towards them after death. The ancestral cult is indicated by the preserved custom of commemorating deceased parents on certain days of the year. Invisible spirits (souls of ancestors and relatives), twins of fetish objects and phenomena, objects of a totemic cult gradually make up the world surrounding the ancient Slavs. The object itself is no longer the object of veneration. Worship refers to the spirit that lives in it, the demon. Not the object itself, but it is they that have a positive or negative impact on the course of events in the world and on the fate of people. Paganism rises to the stage of polydemonism. Demons are previously twins of real things and phenomena of the objective world, as well as people, but they left their real carriers and became independent beings. They take on an anthropomorphic image. Now the forest, and the river, and the dwelling become inhabited, demons settle in them. They differ in their attitude towards a person, divided into evil and good. In the water element, the ancient Slavs believed, the banks and water ones lived. Beregini (later - mermaids) - female spirits of rivers, lakes, ponds, wells, etc. According to popular beliefs, in spring, mermaids come ashore, swing on branches, comb their long green hair, sing songs, lure passers-by and try to tickle them to of death. Demonic beliefs brought the Eastern Slavs closer to the next stage in the development of pagan religion - polytheism, that is, belief in gods. Nestor writes in The Tale of Bygone Years that at the conclusion of treaties between Rus' and Byzantium - important events in the history of the Eastern Slavs in the 10th century. - the Russians swore by their weapons and the gods Perun and Veles. According to mature Slavic mythology, the thunder god Perun pursues his enemy Veles for the abduction of cattle or people. Pursued by the Thunderer, Veles hides. Perun celebrates his victory with rain that brings fertility. With the beginning of Vladimir's reign in Kyiv, a harmonious pantheon of ancient Russian pagan gods was formed. A number of other deities are added to Perun and Veles. Stribog is the god of the wind, storm, whirlwind, blizzard. Mokosh is a female deity, the earthly wife of the Thunderer Perun. Mokosh originates from mermaid pitchforks and the "mother of damp earth". In ancient Russian times, she was the goddess of fertility, water, later the patroness of women's work and girlish fate. Simargl is a zoomorphic creature; it is a sacred winged dog. He is a lower deity who guards seeds and crops. 3. Orthodox motifs of Russian culture: original and borrowed The baptism of Rus' is connected with the activities of Prince Vladimir. In 978, this Novgorod prince seized power in Kyiv. Quite unexpectedly, Vladimir - a frantic adherent of paganism - begins to look for the "true" faith and sends ambassadors to different countries. Vladimir's assessment of various faiths and cults is frankly epic in nature: the prince's conversion to Christianity occurred under the influence of internal and external factors, and not as a result of some external accident. The baptism of the people was universal and swift. The baptism of Rus' went, as they say, "from above". Soon the history of Orthodoxy in Rus' was marked by one characteristic feature - asceticism, especially in the first centuries of its existence. In the history of the Russian church and Russian culture, they have become reverends, holy fools and elders. The three aforementioned categories of ascetics did not always fit into the framework of official religiosity: some of them occupied a certain place in the church hierarchy, while others might not. The phenomenon of eldership served the prosperity of Russian monasteries, but the elders created their own "internal" monastery inside the monastery. Often their authority was higher than the authority of the abbot. In the first centuries of Christianity, there were two forms of monastic hermit life: Egyptian and Syrian (ascetic and severe) and Palestinian - softer, more moderate and cultured. It was precisely a more moderate form of hermitage that took root in Rus'. Gradually, the monasteries expand, acquire stone walls, surround themselves with villages and peasants. No less unique than the phenomenon of asceticism, another iconic element of Russian Orthodox culture is the icon. In the system of Christian culture, it occupies a truly unique place: it has never been considered exclusively as a work of art. An icon is, first of all, a religious text, which is designed to help communion with God. The religious function of the icon was emphasized by the holy fathers; they attributed iconography to the field of theology. The icon was originally conceived as a sacred text that required certain reading skills. The icon is for the Orthodox a kind of window into the spiritual world. It has a certain language in which every sign is a symbol. And this symbol means something more than itself. With the help of a sign system, an icon conveys information no worse than a book. However, even after the adoption of Christianity, Ancient Russia was not a model of ideological and socio-practical unity. For a long time (and partly now), in parallel with Orthodoxy, powerful layers of pagan culture (including religious culture) have been preserved. Most pagan beliefs and customs continued to be observed without or with little introduction of Christian norms into them in the XNUMXth, XNUMXth, and XNUMXth centuries, and sometimes even at a later time. The final mixing of pagan and Christian religions takes place already in Muscovite Russia. 4. "Moscow - the third Rome" as the embodiment of the ideas of messianism in Russian culture In Russian church circles, the idea of the "sacred mission" of Russian Orthodoxy took shape with particular force after the fall of Constantinople (1453). When Byzantium fell, the idea began to strengthen in the Russian public consciousness that henceforth the “God-chosen” kingdom was precisely the Russian one. At the end of the XV century. in the messages of the monk Philotheus, the famous theory about Moscow as a "third Rome" is developed. This theory was a historiosophical concept. She followed the eschatological expectations of her time (the end of the world, according to the calculations of that time, was expected in 1492). This would be the end of the world and the end of history, the advent of the Kingdom of God on earth. But after 1492, the eschatological concept takes on a different form: the final destinies of the world are connected only with what happens in Christian countries. Philotheus presents the historical process as a change of three states, the capital of which is the symbolic Rome. The first Rome, mired in heresy and debauchery, fell under the blows of barbarian tribes. The second Rome - Constantinople, converted to Catholicism, was captured by the Turks in 1453. Moscow became the only stronghold and guardian of the true Christian faith, Orthodoxy. She will preserve the Orthodox faith until the end of time, until the end of the world, and even then there will be no next Rome. Filofei's concept contains elements of the emerging imperial thinking, and although the real state of affairs did not meet the ideological appetites of the Moscow princes, the idea of God's chosenness of Moscow and Russia as a whole was firmly entrenched in the public mind. In the context of Filofei's reasoning, the concept of Holy Russia turns out to be almost a cosmic category. Russian church ideologists took from Byzantium the idea of the sacred mission of tsarist power: in the letters of Philotheus, the tsar is called "the guardian of the Orthodox faith," that is, he has ecclesiastical authority. The "mysterious", i.e., the combination of the divine and human principles inaccessible to rational awareness, is affirmed in the king, historical being is consecrated in him. Support for the strong power of the Grand Duke of Moscow led to a significant increase in the influence of the Orthodox Church. The church quickly grew rich at the expense of granted and acquired lands (in addition, it was freed from tribute during the Tatar yoke) and became not only a real economic force, but also a political one. The claims of the spiritual authorities to interfere in worldly affairs were expressed in the emergence of opposition within the Church itself. Two opposing groups were named Josephites (after the hegumen of the Volokolamsk monastery Joseph Volotsky) and non-possessors (their ideological inspirer was the monk of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Nil Sorsky, Vassian Kosoy and the monk of the Athos monastery Maxim the Greek). The nonpossessors opposed the accumulation of excessive material goods by the Church, urging her to take care of the spiritual life, and not of the worldly condition. They believed that the clergy should live by what their own work brings them, and not appropriate the results of someone else's work. The nonpossessors were especially sharp against the monastic land tenure, when the greed of the monks leads them to violate God's commandments and turns them away from their true destiny - good deeds and purification of the soul. Non-possessors carried out the idea of some limitation of royal power, urging the sovereign to consult with his confidants - princes and boyars. Thanks to the support of the idea of the God-givenness of royal power, its absolute and indisputable character, the Josephites defeated the associates of Nil Sorsky. The power of the tsar, according to Joseph Volotsky, partially extends to spiritual power: the tsar protects and preserves the Church and its property, protects it from heretics. The Josephites explained the need for material values by the fact that without money and land, priests would not be able to help the poor and destitute, to snatch people from the clutches of heresy. As a result, within the framework of political and church discussions, the Josephites won: it was they who were supported by the highest church hierarchs and secular power in the person of Ivan III. 5. Westernizers and Slavophiles about Russian culture and the historical fate of Russia In the history of Russian political thought of the XIX century. a striking contrast is presented by two mutually opposite directions - Slavophile and Westernism. The efforts of the Slavophiles were aimed at developing a Christian worldview based on the teachings of the fathers of the Eastern Church and Orthodoxy in the original form that the Russian people gave it. They idealized the historical and cultural past of Russia and the Russian national character. The Slavophils highly valued the original features of Russian culture and argued that the history and culture of Russia have developed and will continue to develop along their own path, completely different from the path of Western peoples. In their opinion, Russia is called upon to revitalize Western Europe with the spirit of Orthodoxy and Russian social ideals, to help Europe in resolving its internal and external problems in accordance with general Christian principles. Slavophilism appeared in the early 1840s. Its ideologists were philosophers and writers A.S. Khomyakov, brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, K.S. and I.S. Aksakovs, Yu.F. Samarin and others. The Westerners, on the contrary, were convinced that Russia should learn from the West and follow the same path of development. They wanted Russia to assimilate European science and culture and the fruits of centuries of enlightenment. Westerners had little interest in religion. If there were religious people among them, they did not see the merits of Orthodoxy and had a tendency to exaggerate the shortcomings of the Russian Church. Westernism took shape as an ideological trend in the works and activities of historians, lawyers and writers T.N. Granovsky, K.D. Kavelina, P.V. Annenkova, B.N. Chicherina, V.P. Botkin, V.G. Belinsky. The reason for the emergence of discussions between the Westerners and the Slavophiles was actually the publication of the "Philosophical Letter" by Pyotr Yakovlevich Chaadaev (1794-1856) in the journal Teleskop. It became an important event in the public life of Nikolaev Russia: it raised a number of important socio-political, historical and cultural problems. Considering the history of Russia, Chaadaev believed that it had been torn out of the world historical process. It relies on both Europe and the East, but must combine these two principles. Such isolation is a consequence of the adoption of Orthodoxy by Russia. Chaadaev believed that if Catholicism in its essence is a deeply social phenomenon, then Orthodoxy instills in a person such qualities as humility, humility, asceticism. Chaadaev resolutely defends the freedom of man, his responsibility for history (although the historical process is mysterious and driven by providence) and therefore against the superstitious idea of God's daily intervention. The more strongly Chaadaev feels the religious meaning of history, the more insistently he affirms the responsibility and freedom of man. Like Chaadaev, Westerners considered Western Europe their ideal of social development. One of their leaders was Professor Timofei Nikolaevich Granovsky (1813-1855). Granovsky carefully analyzes the history of the countries of Western Europe, paying great attention to the Middle Ages. He is forced to admit that Russia has not yet emerged from its Middle Ages; she did not survive the feudal civilization, and consequently, the freedom of the individual, person. But Granovsky's optimism lies in the belief that Russia will follow the path of Europe, since it is already on its threshold and all the movements of European life find echoes in it. The key figure of the Slavophile movement is Ivan Sergeevich Aksakov (1823-1886). He directed the edge of his criticism against the bureaucratic apparatus of the Russian state, which, in his opinion, was cut off from the people, from the people's spirit. One of the main dangers for society is the incredibly increased bureaucratic apparatus of the state - the army of officials, class privileges of the nobility destroy social unity, paralyze social activity. According to Aksakov, the state should be, to a certain extent, abstracted from the life of the people and society. At the same time, he also acts as an opponent of the class division of society. Konstantin Sergeevich Aksakov (1817-1860) put forward the idea of the superiority of the Russian people over others. He argued it by the fact that in the Russian national character the ethical principles of Christian humanism are most developed, there is no national egoism and hostility towards other peoples. The Russian people, the Slavophil believed, could fairly resolve disputes, but not on the basis of the suppression of private interests, but on the basis of the interests of the whole world, that is, the community. Not alien to the Russian people, in his opinion, is the feeling of unity with the kindred Slavic peoples. Aksakov believes that the unity of Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality is necessary in the form in which they existed before the reforms of Peter I. Aksakov calls the Russian people non-state in the sense that he does not require the government to participate in government and no political freedoms. He explains this by the fact that for the Russian people the state is not an end, but a means; he does not strive for power, but preserves it, without changing religious and moral ideals for political freedoms alien to the people's spirit. Westernizers and Slavophiles have fixed those fundamental problems that are still worrying Russian society. What are the historical and cultural vectors of Russia's development? The followers of the Slavophiles in the 1990th century also tried to answer this question. Eurasians (G. Florovsky, G. Vernadsky and others), supporters of Leninism, liberal reformers of the XNUMXs. and nationalists (RNU, NPSR, etc.). In each specific case, their own opinion and assessment of both Russian culture and history as a whole, its place in the world cultural and historical process, and all kinds of models for the future of our country are put forward. Lecture 13 1. Factors and mechanisms of culture transformation For ten thousand years of its development, human culture has gone from a stone ax to space exploration. It never remained motionless: having originated, it developed and spread from one region to another, passed on from past generations to the present and future, and was constantly replenished with new material and spiritual products. Changes are an integral property of culture and include both the internal transformation of cultural phenomena (their changes over time) and external changes (interaction with each other, movement in space, etc.). Thanks to this, there is a progressive movement of culture, its transition from one state to another. In the process of cultural change, various elements of cultural experience are born, fixed and distributed. The value, influence and extent of distribution of these elements depend largely on the source of their occurrence. The values and symbols embodied in the monuments of the past become an important factor in the new culture. At the same time, they should not only be preserved, but also reproduced, revealing their meaning to new generations. The appeal to the cultural heritage of the past is designed to ensure the maintenance of the usual meanings, norms and values that have developed in society. These meanings, norms and values turn into canons or patterns, tested by many years of practice; following them provides the usual conditions of life. Those elements of cultural heritage that are passed down from generation to generation and preserved for a long time provide the identity of culture. The content of identity is not only the traditional phenomena of culture, but also its more mobile elements: values, norms, social institutions. A significant role in cultural dynamics is played by cultural borrowing, i.e., the use of objects, norms of behavior, values created and tested in other cultures. This kind of cultural dynamics develops when one culture is influenced by another, more developed one. However, at the same time, most people of a less developed culture, despite borrowing elements of another culture, retain many of the customs, norms and values inherent in their native culture. Cultural borrowings are the most common source of cultural change compared to all others. This source of cultural dynamics can be both direct (through intercultural contacts of individuals) and indirect (through the action of the media, consumer goods, educational institutions, etc.). However, in the process of borrowing, the recipient people do not borrow everything, but only what is close to their own culture, can bring obvious or hidden benefits, give advantages over other peoples, and meets the internal needs of this ethnic group. The nature, degree and effectiveness of cultural borrowings are determined mainly by the following factors: 1) the intensity of contacts (frequent interaction of cultures leads to the rapid assimilation of foreign cultural elements); 2) the conditions of intercultural contacts (violent contacts give rise to a reaction of rejection); 3) the degree of differentiation of society (the presence of sociocultural groups ready to accept innovations); 4) susceptibility to a foreign culture (the ability to change one's behavior depending on the change in the cultural context). The sources of cultural dynamics also include synthesis, which is the interaction and combination of heterogeneous cultural elements, as a result of which a new cultural phenomenon arises that differs from both of its components and has its own quality. Synthesis takes place in the event that a culture masters achievements in those areas that are not sufficiently developed in itself, but at the same time retains its original basis and remains original. In modern conditions, synthesis is an important source of cultural transformation in many developing countries. Japan, as well as a number of countries in East and Southeast Asia (South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, etc.) are usually cited as the most striking example of a fruitful combination of their own national and foreign cultural elements. 2. Universalization and transformation of culture in the era of globalization Cultural diffusion as a process of spontaneous and uncontrolled borrowing of cultural values has both positive and negative aspects. On the one hand, it allows peoples to communicate more with each other and learn about each other. Communication and knowledge contribute to the rapprochement of peoples. On the other hand, excessively active communication and borrowing is dangerous for the loss of cultural identity. The spread of the same cultural patterns around the world, the openness of borders to cultural influence and the expanding cultural communication make us talk about the process of globalization of modern culture. The globalization of culture is the process of integrating individual ethnic cultures into a single world culture based on the development of vehicles, economic ties and means of communication. In intercultural communication, it is expressed in the expansion of cultural contacts, the borrowing of cultural values and the migration of people from one culture to another. Currently, the process of globalization has covered the most diverse areas of our lives. Finance, ideas and people are now more mobile than ever. It is natural that global financial and commodity markets, media and migration flows have led to a rapid growth of cultural exchanges, which are expressed in a rapidly increasing number of direct contacts between state institutions, social groups and individuals of different countries and cultures. In the course of these contacts, many traditional forms of life and ways of thinking disappear. But at the same time, the process of globalization leads to the emergence of new forms of culture and ways of life. Due to the wide availability of certain goods and ideas, local cultures change and enter into unusual combinations with each other. The boundaries between insiders and outsiders are blurred. This mixture of cultures is observed not only in the life of individual individuals - it is increasingly becoming a characteristic feature of entire societies. That is why the United Nations declared 2001 the year of dialogue among cultures. New forms of culture and identity are not easy to understand in terms of conventional ideas about what culture is. Cultural differences between people are usually determined by their distinctive historical roots. However, modern technological progress and global political, economic and cultural changes have led to the fact that our planet is permeated with a dense network of communications, preoccupied with common global problems of survival. The states and peoples that make it up, despite the contradictions and fundamental differences between them, are successfully finding ways and means of mutual understanding, and are increasingly gravitating towards the establishment of a single global culture on the planet. Within this emerging system, differences are already being established, similarities are being revealed, the diversity of the world is being realized, and therefore it becomes extremely important to be able to determine the cultural characteristics of its constituent elements in order to understand each other and achieve mutual recognition. Structures and ideas become global, such as ideals of beauty, human rights, or organizational principles. However, their practical design or implementation can vary significantly in each case. From a cultural point of view, globalization is a dialectical process. Integration and differentiation, conflicts and cooperation, universalization and particularization are not mutually exclusive, but are mutually presupposing development trends. In the course of globalization, some of the ideas and structures of modern life are indeed spreading all over the world. At the same time, the cultural characteristics of individual peoples against the backdrop of global processes are becoming more and more sharply outlined or are generally recognized as such for the first time. Globalization is not an automatic process that will end in a conflict-free and ideal world. It is fraught with both new opportunities and new risks, the consequences of which for us may be more significant than in all previous eras. The end of the confrontation between East and West did not lead to the establishment of a stable world order. The process of globalization has a pronounced tendency towards the unification of cultures. This causes in some nations the need for cultural self-affirmation and the desire to preserve their own cultural and individual values. A number of states and cultures demonstrate their active, often aggressive and explosive self-determination, liberation from paternalistic influence from traditionally dominant states and cultures, and categorical rejection of global cultural changes. To the general process of opening various frontiers, they oppose the growing impenetrability of their own and the exaggerated sense of pride in their cultural identity. All this is aggravated by the presence of unresolved historical problems, mainly geopolitical ones, leading to a change in the boundaries of political and economic spaces, the emergence of "hot spots", and the transformation of borders between cultures into military lines. Historical practice shows that in the very process of cultural globalization, a certain conflict potential was initially laid down, since it is often necessary to revise or abandon some of the traditional principles and values of one's own culture. Different societies react to alien changes in different ways. The range of resistance to the process of merging cultures is quite wide - from passive rejection of the values of other cultures to active opposition to their spread and approval. As a result, we are witnessing numerous ethno-religious conflicts, nationalist sentiments in politics, and regional fundamentalist movements. This applies to a large extent to the traditional cultures of the Caucasus, to Islamic culture, to the archaic cultures of Africa, some countries of Latin America and Asia. 3. Routinization and virtualization of culture Recently, supporters of the culturological approach are increasingly saying that unity in diversity, pluralism of cultures and common ethical principles of human society have ceased to be dilemmas of value choice. Thus, in particular, the authors of the World Report on Culture, who, based on an analysis of data on the degree of satisfaction of people, their hopes for the future, the level of trust and tolerance, the geographical parameters of self-identification, attitudes towards the gender problem, marriage and family etc. a fairly wide range of values, consider the current state of "a stage of evolution" towards a higher level of cultural unity. Noting that the international value system is not internally divided by impenetrable partitions, they list the following components of the "dominant cultural climate": 1) the ideal of democracy (despite the lack of universal commitment to human rights); 2) the ideal of tolerance (although it is only partially manifested in relation to foreigners and does not always apply to some minorities, such as homosexuals); 3) orientation to the local level of articulation of interests (city, to a lesser extent - the country); 4) the idea of female emancipation and rather liberal views on marriage; 5) recognition of the existence of problems related to the environment (but not as pronounced as environmentalists used to think); 6) the desire to protect children from the impact of adverse factors. In our opinion, the conclusion about the unequivocal dominance in the globalizing world of the trend towards the growth of cultural unity is hardly justified. The formation of a single information space and the universalization of consumer standards do not remove the problem of maintaining "diversity" (as a characteristic of identity), and the apparent lack of options for globalization according to the neoliberal scenario stimulates the search for alternatives. The question of what they will be remains open, although studies of "global civil society" state the formation of qualitatively new structures at the transnational level. What is the role of sociocultural factors in the development of development alternatives and how to assess the main directions of sociocultural dynamics in a single space of information and communications? The diversity of modern social experience and the choice of lifestyles and cultural models stimulates the fall of inhibitions and the routinization of this experience. The rapid growth of needs does not at all mean a comparable degree of their satisfaction, just as expanding access to cultural achievements does not directly lead to either an increase in their demand or a noticeable breakthrough in the quality of education. Rather, we can talk about the "desacralization" of culture. As a result, the importance of general humanitarian knowledge decreases. It loses the functions of a factor structuring the space of communication, yielding them to information carriers. The expansion of cinema, television, the Internet increases the role of visuality, visual perception of cultural patterns, contributes to the replacement of the latter with signs and symbols. Virtual cultural models are gaining an ever stronger place in popular culture. Attempts to go beyond the network world constantly return to it. Being formed at the junction of modernist and traditionalist orientations, the vector of Russian sociocultural dynamics lies in the coordinate system of globalization and the search for one's place in the world order. The choice of specific development strategies depends on the preferences of the power elite, and the institution of political leadership performs the functions of a real social integrator. National interests are identified with state interests, and the latter are often replaced by the interests of elite groups in power. A high level of social disunity hinders the accumulation of cultural resources for modernization. The parameters of socio-cultural dynamics are set by the interaction of unstable cultural models and the social experience of a transforming society, split along numerous lines. All of the above can be expressed in the words of the Russian thinker A. Dugin. He identifies the following trends in culture at the threshold of the XNUMXst century: 1) mondialization (globalization) of Americanism as an ersatz culture. The leveling of the economic and political model on a planetary scale presupposes the establishment of a single cultural stereotype. According to the logic of things, the modeling of such a stereotype should be carried out by those forces and poles that are sponsors and curators of the entire process of globalization. The American way of life, stamps of the Americanized ersatz culture, broadcast through the global mass media, are gradually replacing local cultural projects, adjusting the historical diversity to one-dimensional predetermined patterns. At the same time, the reverse phenomenon also exists: the consolidation of regional national and religious enclaves to resist cultural expansion; 2) postmodern phenomenon. The general trend of changing the quality of civilization, the emergence of new factors of human existence and a significant modification of habitual forms of life, associated with the seriousness of historical transformations, are manifested in the organization of a new type of culture or a common denominator in the development of culture. This phenomenon is called postmodern. We are not talking about a specific artistic style, we are talking about a general trend that will affect all cultural trends in the future; 3) universalism and differentialism in postmodernity. At the same time, the final vector of postmodernity in culture has not yet been determined. This phenomenon can undergo a serious evolution and most likely will develop along a complex trajectory. In postmodernity, one can certainly distinguish between the unification aspect, associated with the mondialization of civilizational stamps under the auspices of the West, and the differential aspect, associated with the reaction of geo-economic zones, national and religious cultures to the challenge of "globalism"; 4) alternative cultural projects (fundamentalist, neoconservative, ecological). As part of the search for an alternative to the globalization of American ersatz culture, one can distinguish the contours of other cultural projects that are opposite in their main orientation; 5) the role of mediacracy. The role of the media and new information technologies (the Internet or similar projects of an interactive virtual type) in the cultural process will increase geometrically. The spectacular side displaces the semantic coloring of the object. Gradually, the information function of the media will expand to culture-forming. The model of the "society of the spectacle" (Guy Debord), established in Western countries, will be transferred to other regions. 4. Globalization as a basis for intercultural dialogue Despite pessimistic forecasts, different positions and points of view are formed and coexist within the global culture, and this does not make all people the same. Globalization does not eliminate the diversity of people's ways of life, it only creates new forms that partially integrate the previous ones. The process of globalization of culture is currently being implemented in various forms in all areas of human activity: economics, politics, science, art, sports, tourism, personal contacts, etc. No culture, social group or ethnic community remains aloof from this process. At the same time, the most significant changes occur in the three most important areas of human life: 1) in the field of new technologies and information systems (communication system); 2) in the field of ethnic relations on the planet; 3) in the process of development of the world economic system. Modern technological advances have significantly expanded intercultural contacts through the creation of new vehicles and new forms of communication. The mobility of people has sharply increased: today supersonic aircraft can deliver a person to any part of the planet in a matter of hours. The result of this was the availability of direct contact with cultures that previously seemed mysterious and strange. In direct contact with them, differences are realized not only in clothing, diet, kitchen utensils, but also in the perception of time and space, in relation to women and the elderly, in the ways and means of doing business, etc. However, new media have played a particularly important role in the development of cultural interaction. Space satellites have allowed people to receive information from all regions of the world. The importance of this form of communication is convincingly demonstrated by the following data: today there are 1,2 billion televisions and 180 million personal computers in the world. Today, the ABC world television system with round-the-clock broadcasting is being intensively created, the transmissions of which will initially be received by viewers in 90 countries of the world. In turn, the development of satellite communications led to the creation of the Internet, which is currently the fastest growing communication system. Thus, over the past two years, the scale of the Internet has tripled, and users of this system are located in more than 100 countries around the world. In addition, the ethnic factor has become a necessary and vital determinant of global cultural changes, which is reflected in the rapid growth of the planet's population. The dynamics of this process had the following statistics: in 1965 there were 3,3 billion people in the world, by 1995 the population increased to 5,7 billion people, and in October 1999 the total population of our planet exceeded 6 billion. Human. These figures mean that in recent years population growth has averaged 100 million people per year. In turn, on a global scale, this also means that its population is increasing by 3 people per second, by 10 people per hour and by 600 per day. Modern population growth rates entail the aggravation of a number of global problems of the existence of all mankind. Today, about 1 billion people in the world do not receive adequate nutrition, and the lack of food, accordingly, pits one nation against another. The 100 million people who appear annually in corresponding proportions exacerbate the shortage of resources and can cause a struggle for the possession of them to preserve their lives. For many countries and peoples, the problem of clean drinking water, which in fifty years will become the most valuable natural resource, is becoming increasingly acute. Already today, there is a shortage of fish in the oceans, etc. The ever-increasing aggravation of these problems requires preventing impending conflicts and encourages all peoples to mutual understanding and cooperation. The processes of globalization and cultural dynamics, as practice shows, do not lead to the formation of a single world culture. Modern culture remains a multitude of original cultures that are in dialogue and interaction with each other. Cultural changes lead only to universalization, but not to monotony. But these processes force us to take a critical look at our own culture and the type of person inherent in it, to identify their intercultural boundaries. Modern studies of cultural anthropology show that the cultural identity of any people is inseparable from the cultural identity of other peoples, that all cultures are subject to the laws of communication. Therefore, the ability to understand a foreign culture and points of view, a critical analysis of the foundations of one's own behavior, recognition of a foreign cultural identity, the ability to include other people's truths in one's position, the recognition of the legitimacy of the existence of many truths, the ability to build dialogic relations and make a reasonable compromise are becoming increasingly important. The ongoing cultural changes are increasingly subject to the logic of cultural communication. The coexistence of people in modern civilization is impossible without the desire for harmony between cultures, which can only be achieved through dialogue between them. In this dialogue, no culture can claim the right to an exclusive voice or the only true worldview. Relations between cultures should be based on the principles of consensus and pluralism. The real basis for this type of relationship is the presence in each culture of positive universal values that can be used for intercultural consensus. Thus, the cultural dynamics develops in the direction of cooperation between cultures based on cultural pluralism. Cultural pluralism is the adaptation of a person to a foreign culture without abandoning one's own. It involves mastering the values of another culture without compromising the values of one's own culture. With cultural pluralism, no culture loses its identity and does not dissolve into a common culture. It implies the voluntary mastery by representatives of one culture of the habits and traditions of another, enriching their own culture. Lecture 14. Culture and society 1. Culture and nature Culture includes everything man-made, everything created by human hands, but there are contradictions in this view. Such a culture as something built on top of nature creates the effect of mutual alienation of these spheres: the creation of culture requires the utmost distance from nature. And in this sense, they really oppose each other. But there is another side of their mutual attraction and interaction. The phenomenon of culture must always be based on a series of natural conditions, thanks to which culture becomes possible. At the same time, natural phenomena must have a number of cultural conditions for their understanding, that is, how a person perceives the world, nature. In this sense, the culture that a person recreates asserts itself as a person, proving to itself that it belongs to the world of culture. The contradiction between nature and culture is overcome through the category of activity. Culture is defined as the result of all human activity. However, this view is subject to critical scrutiny. Human activities are varied. In it, one can single out such acts of a person that are associated with a breakthrough into a new spiritual space in search of meaning - this also applies to culture as a form of ideal development of the world. It is realized in the form of values, but much of the activity is the replication of a pattern once found, and in this case we are dealing with such a form as civilization. 2. Culture and society Determining the relationship between culture and society is a complex theoretical problem. The correlation of these concepts depends on how society and culture are understood. For example, a separate cultural system - language, science, religion or culture - can be considered as a global integrity, which constitutes the intrinsic value of biological, social, territorial factors. Anthropological dimensions of culture and society consider a person as a person, as a social subject. In all cases, the intersection of culture and society has the scale of the cultural type of personality, which corresponds to a certain type of social relations. For example, the culture of nomadic peoples cannot create an industrial society that involves the development of science, the knowledge of a rational education system, and many other cultural factors. V. Zanetsky defines society as a series of coexisting groups within which society coincides with a certain type of cultural orientation. P. Sorokin draws attention to the diversity of cultural orientations in the same social group. Justification of a certain model of the final relations between culture and society requires taking into account the personal nature of the reproduction of cultural values. The personal factor of culture implies the study of both social life and a special area of cultural creativity. Culture opens the way to society, and it also makes the very existence of society possible. Therefore, a distinction is made between culture and society in the field of cultural dynamics, cultural self-determination of the individual. The assimilation of the language, customs is only the way to the use of legal norms, state institutions that society has. Accordingly, it is necessary to distinguish both the ways in which culture and society influence a person, and the ways a person adapts to them. Society is a system of relations and ways of objectively influencing a person. The inner life of man is not filled with social demands. They cannot exercise total control over the preferences, values, interests of the individual. Forms of social regulation are accepted as certain rules of the game, accepted by all members of society and necessary for the individual in order to take a place in the social hierarchy. In order to meet social requirements, cultural prerequisites are necessary, which represent the cultural world of man. Culture is formed on a reflexive basis, requires reflection and self-awareness of the individual. Society as a stable social system is preserved to the extent that cultural prerequisites are reproduced that allow it to be preserved as a system of relations between individuals. 3. Culture and global problems of our time In the XX century. Man is faced with problems on the solution of which the fate of civilization depends. These problems are called global. Global issues include: 1) overcoming the ecological crisis associated with the catastrophic consequences of human activity (greenhouse effect, reduction of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, etc.); 2) the problem of preventing war with the use of weapons of mass destruction (thermonuclear, chemical, biological); 3) overcoming hunger, poverty, illiteracy, the gap between the rich North and the poor South; 4) the problem of finding new sources of raw materials, preventing the negative consequences of the scientific and technological revolution; 5) the problem of urbanization - the concentration of huge masses of the population in large and super-large cities with the decline of the village; 6) the problem of the crisis of culture, i.e. lack of culture with disastrous consequences for society; 7) the problem of public health, which raises the question of decreasing chances of survival due to the deterioration of the gene pool; 8) the problem of antisocial phenomena - drug addiction, alcoholism, crime. Causes of global problems: 1) world wars; 2) the crisis of world civilization: the increased economic power of man; 3) uneven development of countries and culture. From the historical experience of the development of society and culture, it is known that mankind has always set itself only those tasks that it could solve. In the 1960s-1970s. there are centers uniting scientists working in this field. Futurology appeared and began to spread - the totality of human knowledge, ideas about the future of mankind. In futurological studies, the Club of Rome (founded in 1967), which included scientists from 30 countries of the world, became famous. The main research problem is global modeling in the relationship of various aspects of human life (social, political, cultural, economic). 4. Culture and personality The concept of "personality" originally meant a ritual mask, a role performed by an actor in the theater. In the Middle Ages, the idea of the uniqueness of the individual, its uniqueness and self-esteem appears. The modern understanding of personality in cultural studies is based on sociological, psychological and general philosophical interpretations. The concept of "personality" is closely related to the concepts "individuality" и "individual". The concept of "individual" refers to a single person, a representative of a particular social group. But social position is not a sign of personality. The concept of "individuality" indicates the originality, uniqueness of a person, the diversity of his abilities. The concept of "personality" emphasizes independence, a conscious-volitional beginning in a person. The problem of personality is the problem of free choice and social responsibility. In the history of mankind, the concept of "personality" has changed. For ancient Greek philosophy, personality is unreal, that is, in antiquity, personality acts as a relationship. In Christianity, a person is like an immaterial soul. According to the reasoning of I. Kant, thanks to self-consciousness, a person becomes a personality. In the history of philosophy, there were separate problems in the study of personality: the influence of biological and social factors on the formation of personality, the degree of freedom of the individual in relation to nature, society, and himself. In the Marxist interpretation, personality is the totality of all social relations. Personality in culture is considered as an individual carrier of culture. culture - this is a way of internal regulation, it is not only what is reproduced by a person. To learn to understand the world means to expand one's attitude towards the world. Creative attitude - the desire to be a participant in the creation of something new. Culture, understood in this sense, most clearly reveals the content of the personality. Personality is a whole world with its secrets, discoveries and problems. In the choice between needs and interests, the scale of values adopted by the individual is manifested. Values are the regulators of personal aspirations and actions and determine the social preferences of the individual. An individual, relying on a system of values, remains within the limits of behavior patterns established in society. Existence and following patterns testify to a certain stability of society. Thus, the individual is at the center of culture, at the intersection of the mechanisms of reproduction, storage and renewal of cultural life. 5. Socialization and inculturation Socialization - the process of mastering and reproducing by a person a certain system of knowledge, norms, values, traditions, etc. They are necessary for a person to become a full member of society and interact with others. Socialization is the adoption and use of socio-cultural experience. Such socialization is carried out through purposeful education and training. There are two stages of socialization: 1) primary (childhood and adolescence, a person masters the most necessary socio-cultural norms); 2) secondary (an adult learns new knowledge, skills, etc. during his life). The concept of socialization is widely used in sociology, social psychology, and anthropology. This concept appeared in the 30s of the XX century. Enculturation - the process of introducing a person to a culture, assimilating the values, norms, behavior patterns characteristic of a given culture. This term is widely used in American cultural anthropology. Representatives of this trend (M. Herskovitz, K. Klakkon) believe that the term "inculturation" in comparison with the term "socialization" more fully meets the problem of introducing a person to culture. Today, socialization and inculturation are two sides of a single process of a person entering the socio-cultural system. Section II. HISTORY OF WORLD ART CULTURE Lecture 15. Features of ancient cultures 1. Primitive culture The period of cultural antiquity (primitive culture) is determined by the following framework: 40-4 thousand years BC. e. Within this period are: 1) the ancient stone age (paleolithic): 40-12 thousand years BC. e.; 2) Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic): 12-7 thousand years BC. e.; 3) New Stone Age (Neolithic): 7-4 thousand years BC. e. A common feature of all primitive cultures is syncretism (syncretism) - the indivisibility of different types of human activity, characteristic of an undeveloped, primitive state of culture. Life processes were presented as a whole. The ritual preceding the hunt, the image of the animals being killed, the process of hunting itself are equivalent links in one process. Totemism is intertwined with syncretism - a complex of beliefs and rituals of a tribal society associated with ideas of kinship between groups of people and totems (certain animals, plants). There were totems of a particular person, clan, tribe. Totems were designed to protect people. The emergence of totemism is associated with the inability of primitive people to cope with the unpredictable behavior of animals with the help of rational means. Primitive culture is a culture of taboos (prohibitions). The custom of taboo appeared along with totemism. Taboo played the role of the most important mechanism of control and regulation of social relations. Gender and age taboo regulated sexual relations in the team, food taboo determined the nature of the food intended for a particular person. Other taboos are connected with the inviolability of the home or hearth, with the rights and obligations of each of the representatives of the tribe. The taboo was formed as a result of the need for survival (the introduction of certain mandatory laws and orders for all). Exogamy arose on the basis of the taboo system. Exogamy is a system in which the closest relatives (parents and children, siblings) are excluded from marital relations. Exogamy contributed to the social regulation of marriage, the emergence of clan and family. Ritual in the primitive era is the main form of human social existence, the main embodiment of the human ability to act. The ritual became the basis of industrial-economic, spiritual-religious and social activities. The ritual takes the form of prayer, chants and dances. Sign systems appear within the ritual, which later became the basis for art and science. Myth is born from ritual. Myth - this is a kind of universal system that determines the orientation of a person in nature and society. The myth fixes and regulates the ideas of a person about the world around him, touches upon the fundamental problems of being. In the primitive era, there were many forms of art. The magical concept of the origin of culture states that the origin of art is magical rites and beliefs. The emergence of art in the primitive era is associated with labor activity and the development of communication. Communication became possible thanks to articulate sound speech, through drawing, gesture, singing, dancing. The oldest form of fine art is graphics. Then came painting, the first samples of sculpture, the first works of architecture (megaliths - places of worship made of huge unprocessed stone blocks). 2. Features of the great cultures of antiquity (Sumer and Ancient Egypt) Culture of Sumer. The period of great archaic cultures (4-6 centuries BC) includes primarily: 1) the formation of the first centers of high culture in Mesopotamia: Sumer and Akkad - 4 thousand years BC. e.; 2) the origin of the ancient Egyptian civilization - the end of the XNUMXth millennium BC. e. The next after the primitive stage in the history of world culture is connected with Mesopotamia. It was Sumer that became the first center of statehood. The Sumerians, working tirelessly, laid the foundations for the further economic and cultural development of Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia). They invented the wheel to the wagon, the potter's wheel, and bronze. In the field of mathematics, the Sumerians knew exponentiation, they could extract roots, use fractions. The Sumerians used visual arts to convey important moments in history. Thanks to the creation of cuneiform writing - the oldest known type of writing, a variety of ideographic writing - they were able to record oral stories, becoming the founders of literature. One of the most famous literary works of the ancient Sumerians is the Tale of Gilgamesh, the mythical Sumerian king. Schools first appeared among the Sumerians - "tablet houses". The students read and wrote on clay tablets. In parallel with Ancient Sumer, the Ancient Egypt. In it, the rules of Maat, the goddess of the world order, were essential. These rules were taught to people from early childhood. They contained the foundations of a culture of behavior, accustomed to discipline, restraint and modesty. If a person can adapt to all the rules of Maat, then he will be happy. Happiness for the ancient Egyptians is a great value; on the basis of this, the most ancient system of hedonism (ethics of pleasure) was developed. Life, its joyful moments were valued so that the Egyptians created their own version of the afterlife (in the kingdom of Osiris, only the best that was in their earthly life awaits them). The Old Kingdom is the early period of Ancient Egypt. A written language was formed, which was due to the presence of large farms and the need to conduct state office work. The figure of a scribe occupies a prominent place; scribes were specially trained in schools attached to temples. Thanks to the invention of writing, the development of ancient Egyptian literature became possible (ancient myths, fairy tales, fables, philosophical dialogues, didactics, hymns, lamentations, love lyrics, etc.). Specific Institute of Ancient Egypt "House of Life". It performed the following functions: 1) hymns and sacred songs were created in it, reflecting certain philosophical concepts; 2) didactic literature was developed; 3) magic books containing medical information were systematized, stored, made available there; 4) developed theoretical and practical guidelines for the activities of artists, sculptors and architects; 5) there were classes in mathematics and astronomy. Lecture 16 1. Culture of antiquity The culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome is usually called ancient culture. The culture of Ancient Greece is divided into 5 periods: Aegean or Cretan-Mycenaean period, Homeric period, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic. The culture of Ancient Greece reached its greatest flourishing during the classical period. The first three periods are very often combined into the Preclassic period. The term "antiquity" appeared during the Renaissance. It was coined by humanists to define Greco-Roman culture, which was the oldest at that time. "Antique" means "ancient" (from the Latin antiguus). Many achievements of ancient Greek culture formed the basis of subsequent European culture. The ancient Greeks created a science that many researchers call "thinking in the way of the Greeks." In Greece, the first philosophical system called "Natural Philosophy" appeared. It is characterized by materialism and the search for objective patterns: Thales (624-546 BC) considered water to be the fundamental principle of all things, Anaximenes (about 585-525 BC) - air, Anaximander (about 611- 546 BC) - apeiron. Among the outstanding personalities of Greece are the following: playwrights - Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides; historians - Herodotus, Thucydides; philosophers - Democritus, Plato, Aristotle. In Greece, a new art form arose - drama theatre. New genres arose in literary art - comedy and tragedy. The history of ancient Rome is divided into three main periods: royal, republican and the period of the empire. The most powerful period in terms of cultural achievements was the last period - the period of the empire. Enlightenment and science achieved great success in Rome, especially the education system, which consisted of three stages - primary education, a school of rhetoric and a school of grammar. 2. Ancient Greece The oldest civilizations in Greece are civilizations of Crete and Mycenae. This period dates back to c. BC e. Let us consider these civilizations in more detail, since they were the origins of the Greek civilization that arose later. The culture of Crete, or the Minoan culture, has come down to us as the remains of palace structures on the island of Crete. One of the largest and most well-studied structures was the Palace complex at Knossos. This building is built on the principle of a labyrinth. The legendary myth of the Minotaur finds a direct reflection here. There were no temples in Crete. Separate rooms were used for prayers and other religious ceremonies. The frescoes very often depicted scenes with bulls. The cult of the bull-god was very widespread in Crete. The destructive forces of nature were depicted in his image. The palace simultaneously served as an administrative, economic and religious center. As is characteristic of the Minoan culture, the palace was not surrounded by a defensive wall. This is due to the open spaces around the island. Culture of Achaean Greece. Otherwise, the culture of this period is called the Mycenaean culture. A distinctive feature of this culture was a peculiar attitude to the security of an object. Palaces were always built on impregnable spaces or on top of mountains. Shakhty tombs in Mycenae became monuments of this culture. During the excavations of these tombs, gold jewelry, and many household items, weapons, gold death masks were found. Palaces in Mycenae, Pylos, Athens, Ilok, Tiryns became centers of culture. The Achaeans adopted a syllabary from the Minoans, which still cannot be deciphered. XNUMXth century BC e. was a turning point in the history of the peoples living on the shores of the Aegean Sea. Achaean cities perish from the invasion of the Dorian tribes. This is the time of the development of Greece in the Homeric period. A new type of culture in general and artistic culture in particular is being formed. This era is marked by the appearance of Homer's works - the Iliad and the Odyssey. Greece enters from the Bronze Age into the Iron Age. Strict arithmetic calculation embodies the idea, which is later embodied in a strict system of numbers, calculations, theories. Small plastic art is developing - terracotta, bone and bronze figurines depict animals, scenes from the life and life of warriors, heroes. Monumental sculpture begins to develop. Sculptors are looking for the possibility of a lively and free image of the human body. 3. The era of the archaic and its cultural achievements The archaic period dates back to the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. BC e. At this time, the Greek lyric arose. One of the first lyricists was Archilochus. After the works of Homer, a number of new poems in the Homeric style appear. The work of Hesiod "Works and Days" appears. The work of Sappho became widely known. In the XNUMXth century stone buildings appear. Most of them were temples. The Greeks considered the temple to be the dwelling place of God and likened it to the main premises of the royal palace. In the process of the formation of Greek culture, three directions were formed: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. Doric was predominantly distributed in the Peloponnese and is distinguished by simplicity of forms and severity. The Ionic direction symbolizes lightness, harmony, decorativeness. The Corinthian direction is refinement. Each of these directions had its own order. The most famous temples of the archaic period are the temple of Apollo in Corinth and Hera in Paestum. The sculpture of this period was dominated by the image of a man. The Greeks tried to calculate the correct forms of the human body. Two main directions in sculpture are designated - kouros and bark. Kouros is an image of a young man. One leg slightly forward, hair wavy, falling to the shoulders. The gaze is directed forward. The athletic body was covered only by a small bandage on the hips. The bark personified the girl. Look straight ahead, eyes wide open. There is always a smile on the face, which is called archaic. During this period, ceramics began to develop. Two trends prevailed: red-figure vase painting and black-figure vase painting. At first, black-figure vase painting dominated. Figures were depicted in black varnish on a yellow background. Vase painters developed skills that allowed them to convey movement and depict everyday scenes. The geometric sign-symbol is replaced by a visual artistic image. Images of Achilles and Ajax, Dionysus and Hercules adorn the vases. However, the black silhouettes of the figures could not adequately convey the volume and space, and the silhouette black-figure painting was replaced by the red-figure style. In it, the background was covered with black varnish, and the figures of people retained the red color of the clay. Against such a background, it is easier to depict the figures of people, to convey space and turns. Philosophy has become a generalization of knowledge about the world around. Thales was the founder of the Milesian school. He considered water to be the fundamental principle of the world, from which everything arises and into which everything turns. Pythagoras - philosopher and mathematician - founded a philosophical school in southern Italy. According to his theory, the world consists of numerical relations, an established series of quantitative relations. 4. Classic period The chronological framework of this period is 480-323. BC e. This is the time of the conquest of vast areas by Alexander the Great. In the worldview of the Greeks, a new approach to the perception of the external world and new forms of its artistic expression was outlined. Greek culture was not characterized by narrow professionalism. Mathematics, astronomy, sculpture, painting achieved great success. Dramaturgy developed during this period. The emergence of the Greek theater was associated with the cult of Dionysus, the god of winemaking. Actors performed in goatskins, and therefore this genre was called "tragedy". Famous playwrights of this time were Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. Of the prose genres, rhetoric flourished. In tragedy, such a concept as catharsis (from the Greek "purification") received the most complete expression: the ennoblement of people, the liberation of the soul from "filth" or painful affects. Of the philosophical problems, the problem of man's place in the world came to the fore. Other philosophical problems were also touched upon, for example, the problem of being or the fundamental principle of the world. Athens 5th century amaze with their sweeping monumental construction. The Parthenon, the Propylaea, and the Temple of Athena the Victorious were erected. The creators of the Parthenon, Ictinus and Callicrates, managed to achieve true harmony and perfection. The Acropolis towered over the city and symbolized the freedom of a democratic state. The sculpture of this period became an example of classical perfection. The ideal of the human personality is embodied by the sculptor Phidias in the statues of Athena Parthenos and Olympian Zeus. Contemporaries of Phidias were Myron - the author of the statue "Discobolus" - and Polykleitos, the creator of the statue "Canon", where a person is depicted as he should be in real life. New traditions in art permeate almost all areas and industries. The Erechtheion (late 5th century) was built in a slightly different style. It is complex and asymmetrical and must be walked around to appreciate its architectural forms. The requirements for sculpture are changing, as reflected in the works of Praxiteles, Scopas and Lysippos. Praxiteles' sculptures "Hermes with the Child Dionysus" and "Athena of Cnidus" meet primarily aesthetic needs. They are bearers of refined beauty and grace. The images of Skopas express the new attitude of the Greeks to the world, the loss of its clarity and harmony. The person began to acutely feel the tragic conflicts. The fragmentation of the Greek cities led in the second half of the XNUMXth century. to their conquest by Macedonia. Artists of this time began to depend entirely on private orders. The court master of Alexander the Great was Lysippus. He developed a new canon of art, which was fully embodied in the sculpture "Apoxiomen". The proportions of the human body have become new. Lysippus shows a man excited by an unsuccessful struggle and tired of it. Both states acquire the right to plastic expression. A feature of Greek culture is the competitive nature. The Greek agon - struggle, competition - personified the characteristic features of a free Greek. The most striking expression of the ancient agon was the Olympic Games. In the Greek agon, dialectics originates - the ability to fight. 5. Hellenic culture The time frame of this period is the second half of the XNUMXth - the middle of the XNUMXst centuries. BC e. This period is associated with the development of all artistic forms associated with religion, science, technology, philosophy. The boundaries of the worldview of the Greeks are changing to more extensive ones. This was largely due to the conquests of the Greeks. The policy has lost the importance it had some time ago. The world needed to be known, understood and expressed in artistic forms. Architecture is evolving. This was largely due to the desire of the rulers to show their power and superiority. Libraries, baths, stadiums, palestras, bouleuterias are being built. Famous structures such as the Pharos lighthouse in Alexandria and the Tower of the Winds in Athens appear. Art forms such as mosaics, decorative sculpture, and painted ceramics flourish. Artists have ceased to admire the majestic beauty of the human body. Now both decrepit old people and small children began to be depicted. Artists sought to convey purely human feelings in artistic forms. This is the Laoocoon of the sculptors Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenadorus. This plot was taken from Homer's Iliad. In the field of sculpture, three schools can be distinguished: the Rhodian school (Laocoon, Farnese bull); Pergamon School (sculptural frieze of the altar of Zeus and Athena in Pergamon); Alexandrian school (the image of the goddess Aphrodite). This period was the final in the development of Greece. Ancient Greek culture had a huge impact on the formation of the further culture of Europe. 6. Culture of Ancient Rome From the end of the XNUMXst century BC e. Roman art acquires leading importance in the ancient world. The culture of Ancient Rome adopted a lot from the culture and art of Ancient Greece. The artistic culture of Rome was distinguished by a great variety and diversity of forms. Roman art developed on the basis of the original culture of local tribes. But the main influence was Greek culture. The history of ancient Rome is usually divided into three periods: royal, republican and the period of the empire. Architecture played a leading role in Roman art. The Romans marked the beginning of a new era of world architecture. Mostly they built public buildings designed for a huge number of people. The Romans introduced engineering structures - aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses - as architectural objects in urban and rural ensembles. Roman culture acquired a very distinctive feature - the exaltation of the emperor, imperial power. Hence large-scale exaggerations, huge sizes. The Romans developed historical and household reliefs that made up the bulk of the architectural decoration. The best legacy of Roman sculpture was the portrait. The Romans brought a lot of new things to this genre. They studied the face of an individual in its uniqueness. Roman portraits historically recorded changes in the appearance of people, their customs and ideals. The civic ideals of the republican era are embodied in monumental full-length portraits - statues of Togatus. The Orator statue is widely known. At the end of the XNUMXst century BC e. The Roman state from an aristocratic republic turned into an empire. The names of the architect Vitruvius, the historian Titus Livius, the poets Virgil, Ovid, Horace are associated with this time. The most gigantic Roman building, the Colosseum, a place of gladiator fights and grandiose spectacles. The walls of the Colosseum are divided into four tiers. The Pantheon competes with the Colosseum. Built by Appolodor Domassky, it represents a classic image of a central-domed building. In the era of the empire, relief and round plastic were further developed. A monumental marble altar was erected on the Campus Martius on the occasion of the victory of Augustus in Spain and Gaul. The leading place in sculpture was still occupied by the portrait. During the reign of Augustus, the character of the image changed dramatically, it reflected the ideal of strict classical beauty. This is the type of new man that republican Rome did not know. Full-length court portraits appeared. Later, life and convincing works are created. The desire for individualization sometimes reached the grotesque in its expressiveness (portrait of Nero, Marcus Aurelius). The late period of the development of the portrait is marked by an external coarsening of the appearance and increased spiritual expansion. In Roman art, a new system of thinking arose, in which the aspiration to the sphere of the spiritual principle, characteristic of medieval art, triumphed. Roman art completed a large period of ancient artistic culture. In 395, the Roman Empire split into Western and Eastern. However, the image of Roman culture remains to live in later eras. For example, the Roman masters inspired the masters of the Renaissance. Lecture 17. Cultures of the East 1. Culture of the Arab Caliphate Classical Arab-Muslim culture occupies one of the most important places in the history of great cultures. The Arab caliphate is a state that was formed as a result of the Arab conquests of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. With the advent of the Caliphate, Arab culture was born. Arab-Muslim culture has absorbed much of the culture of the Persians, Syrians, Copts, Jews, and the peoples of North Africa. The Arabs adopted a lot from the Hellenistic-Roman culture. Nevertheless, Arab culture has retained its originality and its own ancient traditions. Islam predetermined the culture of Islam - a phenomenon completely different from the culture of both European and Jewish. Islam became a system that organized the whole world of the societies that existed then, subordinate to the power of the Caliphate. The Quran is the main sacred book of Muslims, a collection of sermons, spells, prayers uttered by the Prophet Muhammad in the cities of Mecca and Medina. Allah is absolute perfection, and the set of laws and moral rules dictated by him is absolute truth, eternity. They are suitable "for all times and peoples." Under the banner of Islam, the Arab people began their great history, created a vast empire, Arab-Muslim civilization and culture. Islam has formed a certain specific Muslim mentality, independent of the folk, cultural and religious previous traditions. For the self-consciousness of Muslims, state-national affiliation played a lesser role than belonging to Islam. A Muslim does not realize his own personality as a value in itself, because for him everything that is "given" is an attribute of Allah. Islam contributed to the development of philosophy, art, the humanities and natural sciences, and the creation of an artistic culture. The main centers of medieval culture and science were in Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordoba. The Arabic language is inextricably linked with the Koran and is an essential element of the Arab-Muslim culture. Because of the need to comment on the Qur'an, philological studies of the Arabic language developed. Arabic has evolved into the official language of scientists and philosophers in less than a century. The Arabic language has been a single language since the XNUMXth century, and for seven centuries the Arab-Muslim culture has been at a high level, leaving far behind the European science and culture of that period. Mosques are a kind of universities. They taught all religious and secular sciences. In accordance with the tradition of Arab-Muslim construction, mosques, schools, and hospitals were erected in the new city. In the field of exact sciences, the achievements of Arab scientists were enormous. The Arabic counting system was adopted and spread in Europe. The sciences of chemistry and medicine, which also found recognition in Europe, reached a high level of development among the Arabs. The trend towards the synthesis of different areas of knowledge is presented in the collection of Arabic fairy tales - "A Thousand and One Nights", which reflects the theme of the values of the secular Arab culture of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. Poetry of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries sang military exploits, fun, wine, love. The Arab-Muslim culture did not create plastic arts, since Islam had a negative attitude towards the depiction of any living being in painting, sculpture, which is believed to lead to idolatry. In Islamic painting there is ornament and abstraction. Calligraphy is the most noble visual art of Islam. Muslim art is characterized by: 1) repetition of expressive geometric motifs; 2) change of rhythm and diagonal symmetry. The arabesque is a specific Muslim ornament, a typical example of the Arab-Muslim artistic culture. The Arabs learned the achievements of Iranian, Roman architecture. The art of miniature developed. Miniatures adorned handwritten, medical works, collections of fairy tales, literary works. 2. Culture of Ancient India The culture of Ancient India has its origins in ancient times, covering the period from the XNUMXrd millennium BC to the XNUMXrd millennium BC. e. until the XNUMXth century n. e. The specificity of ancient Indian culture was determined by the peculiarities of mythology and religion. Sacred and today in India are the hymns of the Vedas. The mythology of Brahmanism spread at the beginning of the XNUMXst century. BC e. The collections of these myths are the poems "Ramayana" and "Mahabharata". In the future, Brahmanism was replaced by Buddhism, defined as a philosophical and religious culture "without a soul and without God." The postulates of Buddhism are the necessary movement of the soul to nirvana and the improvement of man through a series of rebirths. Such branches of science as medicine, astronomy, linguistics, philosophy, and mathematics achieve great success in ancient India. Ancient Indian scientists were the first to determine the value of pi, found an effective way to solve linear equations, developed theorems in algebra and geometry, and the decimal system. Already at that time, doctors in India could perform complex surgical operations. In the first centuries of our era, stone religious architecture began to develop in India. During the reign of the Guptas, developments in the theory of art were created. Theorists considered it necessary to depict spiritual experiences and feelings, and also noted the importance of beauty in art and life. In treatises on theatrical art, the tasks of the theater, theatrical performances, and the acting of actors were set and analyzed. During the period of fragmentation that followed the fall of the Gupta Empire, the influence of religion on art and culture increased. Hinduism dominates. Then, after the establishment of the power of the Delhi Sultanate, the ideas of Islam penetrated into India, which had a certain influence on the development of culture. During the emergence of the Mughal Empire, the process of interpenetration of Muslim and Hindu cultures begins. New architectural trends became noticeable during the construction of mausoleums (Taj Mahal). The Mongolian school of miniature and mural painting reached a high level of development. At the same time, inter-religious relations were aggravated during this period, which led to the need to search for new religious views that could reconcile Hinduism and Islam. 3. Chinese culture A characteristic feature of Chinese culture is that it developed in conditions of isolation from other cultures. The world for the Chinese is a celestial empire, which is surrounded by "barbarians of the four corners of the world." This was the result of China's remoteness from Central Asia and other countries. The originality of Chinese culture is expressed in hieroglyphic writing. Its principle is a direct connection between a real object and a symbol that reflects its non-attachment to the linguistic features of pronunciation. The Chinese Middle Ages is characterized as a period of flourishing of culture, expressed in the spiritual upsurge of the country, the development of large cities, the construction of luxurious temples, palaces and parks. New genres emerge in literature, such as the urban novel and the novel. New phenomena in artistic culture - narrative painting and portraiture. It was in China that the world's first landscape compositions arose. Thanks to the development of science, Chinese painters were able to use a wide variety of paints: from ink to mineral paints. The characteristic features of Chinese painting are the use, in addition to paper, silk, the use of linear perspective. The most important discoveries in the era of feudalism were the invention of porcelain and gunpowder, as well as the emergence of printing. Chinese writing was further developed thanks to the invention of the ink. The so-called. the reference style of writing, he laid the foundations of modern writing of hieroglyphs. The development of the education system is associated with the name of Confucius (551-449 BC). Characteristic features of the teachings of Confucius: 1) the predominance of practical philosophy, which solves the problem of the harmony of social life, issues of moral education; 2) attention to the formation of a comprehensively developed personality capable of taking a worthy place in society; 3) recognition of the regulatory activities of the state. A worthy place in the development of world culture is occupied by ancient Chinese science, which owns many important discoveries and inventions. Astronomy, geometry, mathematics were leading in the Chinese knowledge system. The most important achievements of ancient Chinese scientists: 1) creation of a globe; 2) an idea of the planets of the solar system; 3) discovery of "spots" on the Sun; 4) the invention of paper, gunpowder and porcelain; 5) creation of agricultural science; 6) the invention of lacquer production and sericulture; 7) use of decimal fractions and negative numbers. The main phenomena hindering the development of Chinese art and science: 1) the Mongol invasion of the end of the XNUMXth century; 2) feudalism in its later stages of existence; 3) the colonial policy of Western European countries. Despite all this, China's contribution to the development of world culture remains invaluable. 4. Culture of Japan 1. Features of the culture of Japan are determined by its isolated insular position. It caused: 1) features of the national mentality; 2) the specifics of relations with nature and society; 3) the specifics of religion and art. The culture of Japan arose and took shape during the Middle Ages. Behavioral forms were fixed by traditions and laws, largely borrowed from Confucianism and Legalism. In the 12th century were created "Table of 17 ranks", "Law of XNUMX articles", containing the principles of power and the state. The sovereign was identified with the sky, all the rest (servants) - with the earth. Japanese society included free farmers, semi-free artisans and slaves. Above them stood the nobility, who came from the tribal aristocracy. 2. In Japanese culture, there is no "nature - culture" antagonism, since the surrounding world does not oppose man, but merges with him. The Japanese are constantly looking for points of contact with it, ways of harmony. This determined the inherent sense of beauty in Japanese culture. Japan's oldest religion Shinto reflected these ideas. Shinto explains the divine origin of power from the sun goddess Amaterasu and the rest of the Japanese from other deities (kami). Shinto principles: 1) the world is perfect in itself; 2) understanding of the natural power of life, the absence of division into pure and impure; 3) the unity of nature and history, nature and culture; 4) recognition of polytheism; 5) Shinto - the religion of only the Japanese, because only the Japanese are the descendants of the goddess of the sun. Shinto accepted religious Chinese teachings, dissolving them in itself. In the VI century. Taoism and Buddhism come to Japan. The result of the assimilation of Buddhism was Zen Buddhism. Its essence is in self-deepening, as a result of which insight comes. The most powerful was the influence of Confucianism, which spread to the entire system of human behavior in society. The artistic traditions of Japan did not perceive the influence of other cultures. Lecture 18. Culture of Europe 1. Culture of Byzantium The culture of Byzantium is a unique phenomenon in the history of European culture. This culture arose in a state that officially existed from the XNUMXth century BC. to the middle of the XNUMXth century. with the capital Constantinople after the division of the Roman Empire into two parts: Eastern and Western. The uniqueness of Byzantine culture is that it arose and existed in a border situation. Byzantium is part of the ancient world, but it was in it that the Orthodox branch of medieval culture developed. Characteristic features of Byzantine culture: 1) solemn splendor; 2) spirituality, depth of thought; 3) elegance of form. Features of Byzantine culture: 1) the synthesis of Western and Eastern elements with the primacy of Greco-Roman traditions; 2) the preservation of the traditions of ancient civilization, which became the basis of European culture of the Renaissance; 3) strong state foundations that contributed to the preservation of secular art; 4) the formation of Orthodoxy, which influenced the system of Christian ethical and aesthetic values, philosophical and theological views; 5) a mixture of pagan mythology and Christian personality. Byzantine philosophers raised the question of the meaning of human existence, the place of man in the universe and his capabilities. The thinkers of Byzantium - writers, preachers, theologians - borrowed all the best that ancient culture gave mankind. In art, the Byzantines saw, first of all, an instrument of purposeful positive influence on the spiritual world of man. Music, painting, architecture, verbal art are the mediators of comprehension of the truth, the sources of the moral perfection of man. Compared with antiquity, the architectural forms of Christian churches have changed. A Christian church is a place where a community of believers gathers, so the architects first of all solved the problem of organizing the internal space. The highest achievement of Byzantine culture is the Hagia Sophia. The main forms of Byzantine painting: 1) monumental temple painting (mosaic and fresco); 2) icons; 3) book miniature. Mosaic - a type of monumental painting - an image or a pattern made of smalt (multi-colored stones) - received special significance in Byzantium. Icon painting, Christian easel painting, which became an instrument of the ideological influence of the Church, is being formed. The accumulated knowledge is summarized, encyclopedias on history, agriculture, medicine, etc. are created. Byzantium influenced the formation of early Italian humanism. It became a bridge between Western and Eastern cultures, and had a profound impact on the culture of many European countries, primarily on the countries where Orthodoxy was established. 2. Culture of medieval Europe The cultural life of the European society of this period is determined by Christianity. It has worked out a new ethic of holding, determined a new view of the world, of man's place in it. God is the creator of all visible forms. History is the realization of the divine plan. Philosophy is the handmaid of theology. Theology is a generalization of the social practice of a person in the Middle Ages. Even mathematical symbols are theological. Fundamentals of Christian Ethics: 1) people are perceived as initially equal; 2) the church addresses each member of the community individually; 3) perception of reality in grammatical complexity; 4) the doctrine of the existence of two worlds: the higher divine (spiritual) and the lower earthly, which is just a reflection of the first. Visual arts and architecture are closely related to religion. The Christian temple is a model and image of the universe. In the visual arts, the main thing is the narrative of plots associated with Christian symbols. Achieving the Middle Ages - the concept of the synthesis of the arts. This is manifested in the development of monumental forms of architecture associated with other art forms. The next cultural achievement of the Middle Ages is the emergence of an artistic style. Romanesque became the first pan-European style, then it was replaced by Gothic, associated with the development of urban culture. The flourishing of cities demanded educated people. This contributed to the emergence of schools and universities. The first universities arose in Bologna, Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge. The leading faculty in them was theological. Scholasticism is a type of religious medieval philosophy, the purpose of which is the theoretical justification of the religious worldview. In secular culture, a special place is occupied by the knightly environment, which has developed a special framework of etiquette, a kind of knightly code. One of his provisions was the worship of a beautiful lady. A special place is occupied by the poetry of vagants - wandering students, which had satirical anti-clerical notes. A monument to the French heroic epic of the XNUMXth century. is the Song of Roland. In the early Middle Ages, heresy arises - a special doctrine that contradicts the basic tenets of the Christian religion, the Inquisition is created - a judicial and police institution created by the Catholic Church to combat heresies. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. in line with medieval culture, there is a gradual formation of a new culture - the culture of the Renaissance. 3. Culture of the Renaissance Renaissance (Renaissance) - This is a period in the history of European culture associated with the establishment of humanistic philosophy and an attempt to recreate the ideals of antiquity. The name of the era was due to interest in the ancient heritage. The birthplace of the Renaissance is Florence. Circles of educated people (humanists) formed there. Humanists were called so from the circle of sciences, the object of study of which was man. Humanists sought out, copied, studied literary and artistic monuments of antiquity. The culture of the Italian Renaissance is divided into four periods: 1) XIII century. - proto-renaissance, pre-revival; 2) XIV century. - early Renaissance; 3) XV century. - High Renaissance; 4) XVI century. - Late Renaissance. In the pre-Renaissance period, Gothic still dominates, but features of a new style are already appearing. Dante in The Divine Comedy creates deeply individual and psychologically authentic images. Psychological authenticity has become one of the features of Renaissance art. Humanism was proclaimed precisely in this era. Humanism is a philosophical worldview based on the recognition of the value of the human person. Man is the center of the universe, its most valuable creation. The ideal of a harmonious, comprehensively developed, creative personality is being formed. An example of such a person was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). The work of Raphael Santi (1483-1520) reflects a sense of joy and beauty of earthly life. The ideal of man acquires sublimely heroic, titanic features in the work of the sculptor and artist Michelangelo Buanorotti (1475-1564). As part of the Renaissance, the Reformation took place - a social movement for the renewal of the Catholic Church. The result was the victory of Protestantism in Germany. The most significant features of Protestantism: 1) the idea of a person's personal connection with God without the cooperation of the church and the priest; 2) translation of the entire service into the believers' native language. In Germany, during the Renaissance, Albrecht Dürer worked - a portrait painter, graphic artist, creator of the graphic series "Apocalypse". The beginning of the Renaissance in the Netherlands - the work of Jan van Dyck. The golden age of Spanish painting and theater - the end of the XNUMXth - the end of the XNUMXth centuries. (Miguel Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Velasquez and others). Spanish culture is characterized by the strongest adherence to Catholicism. The English Renaissance created examples of philosophical literature, poetry and drama. The work of Thomas More "Utopia" (1516) marked the beginning of the literary and philosophical direction of social utopia. The "titan" of the English Renaissance is William Shakespeare (1564-1616), who reflected in his work the conflict between the high ideals of the Renaissance and reality. The last development of humanism was in France - only at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. A striking example of the French Renaissance is the novel "Gar-gantua and Pantagruel" by Francois Rabelais (1494-1553). 4. European culture of the Enlightenment The chronological framework of the era was defined by the German scientist W. Windelband as the century between the Glorious Revolution in England (1639) and the Great French Revolution (1789). The European Enlightenment is a very specific set of ideas that gave rise to a certain system of culture. The culture of the Enlightenment has a number of specific features. 1. Deism (a religious and philosophical doctrine that recognizes God as the creator of nature and does not allow other ways of knowing God, except for reason). Deism made it possible to speak out against religious fanaticism. 2. Cosmopolitanism (condemnation of any nationalism and recognition of equal opportunities for all nations). The spread of cosmopolitanism led to a decline in the feeling of patriotism. The idea arose about the unity of mankind and culture (interest in the life, customs and culture of the countries of the East). 3. Science, revival, natural science. An independent and integral scientific worldview entered the historical arena. The formation of modern science with its ideals and norms, which determined the development of technogenic civilization, has been completed. 4. Vera that with the help of reason the truth about man and the surrounding nature will be found. Enlightenment is the age of reason. Reason is the source and engine of knowledge, ethics and politics: a person can and must act reasonably; society can and must be rationally organized. 5. Idea of progress. It was during the Enlightenment that the concept of "belief in progress through reason" was created, which for a long time determined the development of European civilization. 6. Absolutization the importance of education in the formation of a new person. A bet on a new person, free from the heritage of one or another philosophical, religious or literary tradition. "An Essay on the Human Mind" - a philosophical treatise by John Locke - a kind of manifesto of the Enlightenment. It contains ideas about the education of the human personality and the role of the social environment in this process. The French Enlightenment consisted of doctrines that varied in political and philosophical radicalism. Representatives of the older generation - Sh.L. Montesquieu and Voltaire gravitated towards the gradual reformation of feudal society along the lines of England. A constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which the power of the monarch is limited by the framework of the constitution and a strong parliament. D. Diderot, J.O. Lamerty, K.A. Helvetius, P.A. Holbach denied feudal property and feudal privileges, rejected monarchical power, while advocating an enlightened monarchy, the embodiment of an idealistic belief in the possibility of improving monarchical power through active enlightenment of monarchs in the spirit of new ideas of the time. The encyclopedia became the code of the French Enlightenment. It was a body of scientific knowledge, a form of struggle against social prejudices. Enlighteners viewed art as a means of popularizing moral and political ideas. Literature relied on public opinion, which was formed in circles and salons. Voltaire (1694-1778) - the recognized leader of the enlighteners of all Europe. His work expressed the social thought of the century. The rationalist movement is compared with the activities of Voltaire and is called Voltairianism. The greatest representative of the French Enlightenment was Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755). He developed a theory of the dependence of social relations on the degree of enlightenment of society, on the mental state of the people, on the general warehouse of civilization. The democratic trend in the Enlightenment is "Russoism" named after Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). Rousseau idealized the "natural state" of humanity and glorified the cult of nature. He denied the progress of civilization. France in the second half of the XNUMXth century. an artistic style was formed - rococo, reflecting the taste of the court of Louis XV and the aristocracy. The founder of critical realism in painting is the English artist William Hogarth (1697-1764). Entire series of paintings are united by one plot. They were translated into engravings and became available to a wide range of people. More democratic and cheaper than painting, engraving became the bearer of the ideas of the Enlightenment. European sculpture of the 1741th century reflected a shift in public sentiment. Jean Antoine Houdon (1828-XNUMX) is the most interesting sculptor of the era, the creator of a whole portrait gallery of his contemporaries. The theater of the Enlightenment reflected a new view of the world in dramaturgy and stage techniques. Playwrights and actors in England, France, Germany were united in their desire to present modern life as accurately as possible. In the work of the Austrian composer V.A. Mozart (1756-1791) reflected progressive ideas in music. Lecture 19 1. Culture of Ancient Russia The most important stage in the development of the culture of Ancient Russia is the Novgorod period, dating back to the middle of the 862th century. By XNUMX, the reign of Rurik, the founder of the Rurik dynasty, began in Novgorod. Long before the beginning of the period of Kievan Rus, Rus was called Gardarika in the West - "a country of cities and castles." She found a place at the crossroads of the most important trade and cultural routes. What became a phenomenon for Western European culture only in the Gothic period of the Middle Ages was characteristic of Rus' much earlier: 1) activation of urban culture; 2) mass wooden urban planning; 3) an abundance of public places; 4) the development of a large number of crafts and folk crafts; 5) active trading. The worldview of the ancient Slavs characterizes anthropotheocosmism - indivisibility of the spheres of human, divine and natural. The ancient Slavs sacredly believed in the spirits that inhabit the world around them, accompanying a person from birth to death; in the struggle between light and dark forces. Eastern Slavs at different stages of their development worshiped various gods. The gods personified the most important forces of nature. Used to write texts proto-cyrillic (recording of Slavic words using the Greek alphabet). At the turn of the IX-X centuries. Cyrillic appears. At the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries. The process of Christianization of Rus' begins. It is associated with the name of the Novgorod prince Vladimir the Red Sun. Baptism contributed to the development of the country and culture: 1) construction of stone buildings and temples; 2) organizing schools and spreading literacy; 3) improved chronicle writing; 4) the emergence of new types of monumental painting: mosaics and frescoes; 5) the emergence of easel painting (icon painting). The first place among the monuments of ancient Russian culture belongs to the chronicle. Russian chronicles appear in the 10th century. and continues until the 17th century. Chronicles are monuments of social thought and literature, a kind of encyclopedia of knowledge. A striking example of such a chronicle is “The Tale of Bygone Years,” created in the 11th century. monk of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra Nestor. The "Sermon on Law and Grace" by Priest Hilarion is a kind of political treatise, created in the form of a church sermon. He contrasts Christianity ("grace") with Judaism ("law"). A common genre of church literature is life (hagiography). The main idea of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbthe work "The Legend of Boris and Gleb" is the unity of the Russian land, the condemnation of princely civil strife. Vladimir Monomakh's Teaching touches upon social, political and moral problems. "Instruction" is regarded as a vivid example of didactic literature. The most outstanding work of ancient Russian literature is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", an epic reflection on the fate of the Russian land, which is its central image. By the beginning of the XIII century. a highly developed Christian culture developed in Ancient Russia. A commonality of the Old Russian people appears, expressed in: 1) the development of a literary language; 2) national sense of unity; 3) the formation of common cultural forms. 2. Culture of the Moscow state (XIV-XVII centuries) At the end of the XIV century. an active revival of Russian culture begins, the huge damage to which was caused by the Tatar-Mongol yoke. After the victory at the Kulikovo field, the leading role of Moscow in the unification of Russian lands is determined. Mid XNUMXth century characterized by the process of secularization - secularization, the liberation of public and individual consciousness from the influence of the church. The creation of the "Great Chet Menaia" had a significant cultural significance. A large team of authors, editors, and copyists has been working on a grandiose collection of original and translated literary monuments for more than twenty years. Stone construction began in Moscow in the second quarter of the 1367th century. In 1532, a stone Kremlin was erected in Moscow. The search for new architectural forms led to the emergence of the hip style. The idea of aspiration upwards, embodied primarily in the Church of the Ascension (the village of Kolomenskoye, XNUMX), became a reflection of the spiritual atmosphere of the first half of the XNUMXth century. At the end of the century, the so-called. Baryshkin baroque. Its main feature is a combination of external splendor and decorativeness with clarity and symmetry of the composition. "The golden age of wall painting" - the second half of the XIV - the beginning of the XV centuries. Theophanes the Greek worked in Novgorod and Moscow. His best work was the fresco painting of the Novgorod Church of the Savior. The appearance of the author's icon painting is associated with the name of Andrei Rublev. In painting, interest in a person is shown, the appearance and development of art in the XNUMXth century is connected with this. parsuna - portrait painting. New genres appear in literature - democratic satire, everyday story. The first higher institution in Moscow was the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Printing is widely and ubiquitously used. "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" is an outstanding monument of Russian literature of the second half of the XNUMXth century. Its distinctive features are the innovation of the artistic form, the individual style of writing, the denunciation of social injustice and the arbitrariness of the new church authorities. In the XNUMXth century the first theaters appear: court and school. Prior to this, theaters in Russia were replaced by buffoons. Court performances were distinguished by great splendor, sometimes they were accompanied by music and dances. 3. Russian culture of the XNUMXth century. The radical reforms of Peter I affected primarily culture. Signs of Petrovsky time: 1) approval of a new view of human life; 2) the "compression" of the cultural process; 3) the development of "secularization". School reform marked the beginning of secular education. There are professional schools: artillery, mountain, medical, engineering. The result of Peter's reforms was the opening of the Academy of Sciences (1725), which combined research and teaching functions. In 1775, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna opened the Moscow University (today - Moscow State University). Peter's transformations concerned not only politics and economics, but also public and private life. New forms of secular leisure and rules of behavior for young people were introduced. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. genre prevails in literature stories - to lead. The heroes of these stories are energetic young nobles who declare themselves to be Europeans. Mv Lomonosov (1711-1765) became one of the most prominent representatives of this time - a scientist in the field of natural sciences and humanities, a poet and artist, the initiator of the creation of Moscow University. In the middle of the XVIII century. account for the flourishing of Russian fine arts and architecture. The architecture of this period is characterized by three-dimensional compositions. The development of Russian classicism became a phenomenon of special significance. He brought Russian culture to the European arena. Great success, having absorbed European traditions, was achieved by painting, especially portraiture. This was due to the understanding of man as a versatile personality. The portrait becomes the leading genre of the Russian school of painting. A feature of Russian classicism in literature was an interest in national themes, a connection with folklore traditions. A. Kantemir, V. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov created the foundation of a new literature. Social thought found expression in the ideas of the Enlightenment. The activities of the publisher and journalist N.I. Novikov (1744-1802), writer and publicist A.N. Radishcheva (1749-1802). The formation of the national composer school began in the last third of the XNUMXth century. Opera was the leading genre. Composers were also close to folk traditions. Along with the formation of Russian national culture, there was an intensive growth of national self-consciousness. The assertion of the original features of Russian art took place simultaneously with the assimilation of the traditions of Western European culture of modern times. 4. The golden age of Russian culture Culture of Russia in the XNUMXth century. - this is an unprecedented rise to the heights of its achievement. At no other time in Russia have so many world-class geniuses been born. Let's remember their names: A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, M.I. Glinka, I.S. Turgenev, K.P. Bryullov, N.V. Gogol, N.N. Nekrasov, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, I.N. Kramskoy, I.E. Repin, M.P. Mussorgsky, N.S. Leskov. This is not a complete list of those great masters whose names illuminated the golden age of Russian culture. The golden age was prepared by all the previous development of Russian culture, and in particular by the Petrine reforms. Since the beginning of the century, an unprecedented rise in patriotism has been observed in society. Even more intensified with the outbreak of the war of 1812, it contributed to a deeper understanding of the national community. The development of realistic tendencies and national features of culture intensified. A cultural event of tremendous importance was the appearance of the "History of the Russian State" by N.M. Karamzin. The author was the first to feel that the most important thing in the coming century in Russian culture would be the solution of the problem of national self-identity. Pushkin followed Karamzin, solving the problem of correlating his national culture with other cultures. Then came the "Philosophical Letter" P.Ya. Chaadaev. A special place in the culture of the XIX century. occupied by literature. The classics of Russian literature have always gravitated toward a three-dimensional worldview. Classical literature of the XNUMXth century became more than just literature. It has become a synthetic phenomenon of culture. Many enlightened people built their lives on the basis of literary images. By the middle of the century, Russian culture is becoming more and more known in the West. N.I. Lobachevsky, who laid the foundation for modern ideas about the structure of the Universe, became the first Russian scientist to become famous abroad. P. Merimee opened Pushkin to Europe. Gogol's The Inspector General was staged in Paris. In the second half of the XIX century. European and world fame of Russian culture is enhanced primarily through literature. The works of I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky received worldwide fame. For the first time, cultural exchange between Russia and Europe acquired a bilateral character. Russian culture has acquired European and world significance. But, despite all the grandiose achievements of the culture of the golden age, a deep cultural split was not overcome. According to the Russian census in 1897, there were only a little over 20% of the literate population. The terror of March 1, 1881 became fatal for the country. The balance in culture was disturbed. Radical modernist ideas prevailed in their destructive form. The golden age of Russian culture has come to an end. Early XNUMXth century - this is the silver age of Russian culture. Russian belles-lettres have never known such a rich poetic diversity: A. Blok, S. Yesenin, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov, V. Bryusov, I. Severyanin, N. Gumilyov. The course of cosmism, which was formed in the second half of the XNUMXth century, finally took shape. Representatives of this trend were writers, philosophers, scientists: D.I. Mendeleev, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, V.S. Solovyov. N.F. Fedorov, P.A. Florensky, V.I. Vernadsky and others. They were united by the conviction that the development of mankind is becoming more and more global in nature. Space and man, nature and man turn out to be inseparable, and one must be able to study the future of mankind and the future of nature together. The pinnacle of the scientific direction in cosmism was the teaching of V.I. Vernadsky about the noosphere, which is very relevant today. According to this doctrine, humanity becomes the main force that determines the evolution of the Earth by its activity, and at a certain stage it will have to take responsibility for the future of the biosphere in order to maintain the possibility of its existence and further development. The biosphere must turn into the noosphere, that is, into the sphere of the mind. A distinctive Russian philosophy emerged. Its outstanding representatives were N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, L.I. Shistov, P.A. Florensky, I.A. Ilyin et al. One of the features of Russian philosophy, according to A.F. Losev, was "purely internal, intuitive knowledge of existence, its hidden depths, which can be comprehended not through reduction to logical concepts and definitions, but only in a symbol, in an image through the power of imagination." Russian culture in the XIX - early XX centuries. was on the verge of major changes that did not take place due to the revolution. Lecture 20. Culture of the Soviet state 1. The specifics of culture in Russia in the post-revolutionary period One of the most controversial periods in the development of Russian culture is the period of post-revolutionary culture. Negative features of this time: 1) destruction and destruction of cultural monuments of the past; 2) the division of Russian culture into directly Soviet culture and the culture of the Russian abroad; 3) the death of many people. Also positive were: 1) development of education; 2) electrification and industrialization; 3) active government support for the development of a "new" culture. The culture of the new state was called upon to serve the people and, above all, the proletariat. 20-30s XNUMXth century marked by the functioning of the Proletcult. An integral part of the program of the cultural revolution was the question of attitude to the cultural heritage and to the native intelligentsia. The most important tasks of the "cultural revolution": 1) elimination of illiteracy throughout the country; 2) familiarizing the people with the spiritual wealth developed by mankind; 3) the creation of a new Soviet intelligentsia from among the working people. The program of the Communist Party stipulated measures for the broad democratization of culture. In 1917, the Hermitage, the Russian Museum, the Tretyakov Gallery, the Armory, etc. passed into the ownership and disposal of the people. At the same time, revolutionary upheavals caused damage to national culture, expressed in: 1) mass renaming of cities, streets, squares, etc., which had a rich history; 2) the destruction of monuments that allegedly symbolized the power of the old regime; 3) the destruction of Orthodox churches, monasteries, the burning of icons, church handwritten books, the organized opening of holy relics; 4) seizure of church property; 5) the abolition of ancient cemeteries. From the very first days, the Soviet government sought to limit the ability of the intelligentsia to participate in the public and political life of the country. Approved in 1922, Glavlit was called upon to exercise control and prevent "hostile attacks" against the Bolsheviks. The repertoire of theaters and entertainment events was controlled by the Glavrepertkom. In 1919, the State Publishing House was founded, the film industry and theaters were nationalized. At the same time, one cannot speak of a decline in the level of cultural products. Artistic symbols of the new era: 1) the first Soviet poem about the revolution "The Twelve" by A. Blok; 2) the first performance on the Soviet theme "Mystery-buff" by V. Mayakovsky; 3) painting by B. Kustodiev "Bolshevik"; 4) Moor's poster "Have you signed up as a volunteer?" etc. The masters of culture were involved in the process of creating the cult of the Soviet state. People who initially did not accept the Russian revolution were forced to emigrate. Almost the entire color of the Russian intelligentsia ended up abroad. Among them are writers I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, I. Shmelev, M. Tsvetaeva, I. Severyanin, K. Balmont and others, composers I. Stravinsky, P. Prokofiev, S. Rachmaninov and others, artists L. Bakst , K. Somov, N. Roerich, A. Benois and others, outstanding figures of the theater. They increased the glory of Russian culture already abroad. 2. Culture of the USSR in the 1930s-1950s. The beginning of this period was marked by mass repressions in the 1930s. The poets O. Mandelstam, N. Klyuev, the writer B. Pilnyak, the philosopher P. Florensky, the breeder N. Vavilov and many other cultural figures became their victims. At the same time, this period is characterized by success in the field of education, achievements in the fundamental branches of knowledge, and the development of aviation. Despite strict censorship, the most interesting literary works by M.A. Bulgakov, M.A. Sholokhov, A.A. Fadeeva, B.L. Pasternak, A.T. Tvardovsky, K.G. Paustovsky, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, Yu. Olesha and others. Music 1930-1950s represented by the names of S.S. Prokofiev, D.D. Shostakovich, I.O. Dunayevsky, G.V. Sviridova, A.I. Khachaturian and others. Outstanding representatives of the performing arts: S. Richter, D. Oistrakh, L. Oborin. Opera and ballet art is on the rise: singers L. Sobinov, I. Kozlovsky, N. Ozerov and others perform; dancers and dancers O. Lepeshinskaya, G. Ulanova, L. Lavrovsky, A. Messerer and others. The drama theater of that time is associated with the names of outstanding directors and actors. Among them are V. Meyerhold, K. Stanislavsky, V. Nemirovich-Danchenko, I. Moskvin, V. Kachalov. Painting, sculpture and architecture were developed. During the Great Patriotic War, Russian culture was called upon to serve the victory and defense of the Motherland. During the war, many works by K. Simonov, L. Leonov, the poem “Vasily Terkin” by A. Tvardovsky, the seventh symphony by D. Shostakovich, the story “The Science of Hatred” by M. Sholokhov, songs by composers A. Alexandrov, M. Blanter, M. Fradkina and others. Full of faith in victory were the feature films "Heavenly slug", "Air cab", etc. After the war, in connection with the need to restore domestic industry, science was widely developed. On October 4, 1957, the first launch of an artificial Earth satellite was carried out, and on December 5, 1957, the world's first nuclear icebreaker Lenin was launched. All this predetermined the further development of science in the 1960s, the result of which, first of all, was a breakthrough in the field of astronautics. 3. Culture of the Soviet state in the 60-80s. XX century. The beginning of this period was marked by the first manned flight into space in the history of mankind. The flight took place on April 12, 1961. Yu.A. Gagarin. In 1956, Stalin's personality cult was condemned, but the authoritarian-bureaucratic regime was preserved in society. The pace of economic production has dropped significantly. The coming 1970s are called "the era of stagnation". Recognizing the backlog of the USSR from Western countries, the authorities in the 1980s. embarked on a restructuring. Nevertheless, this time cannot be called lost for the culture of the country. In the literature of the 60-80s. XNUMXth century there are several main areas. The theme of the Great Patriotic War is devoted to the works of Y. Bondarev, A. Chakovsky, K. Simonov, V. Rasputin. The problem of preserving the cultural heritage, careful attitude to cultural domestic traditions is becoming important. The works of Academician D.S. Likhachev, V.A. Soloukhina, D.A. Granina. At this time, the talent of V.M. Shukshin, in the 1960s-1970s. Vampilov's theater appears. Soviet cinema also addresses the theme of "man and war" ("They fought for the Motherland", "The Dawns Here Are Quiet", "Twenty Days Without War", etc.). Theatrical art is developing. Overcoming obstacles, performances were staged by Y. Lyubimov, O. Efremov, V. Pluchek, A. Efros, I. Vladimirov and others. Khachaturian at the Bolshoi Theatre. In 1975, the premiere of I. Grigorovich's ballet "Ivan the Terrible" was held with great success. Despite all the ideological costs of Soviet censorship and strict party control, the culture of the Soviet period met the 1990s. in a holistic and harmonious state. 4. The problem of modern Russian culture In our time, culture is increasingly recognized as the center of human existence. The conviction is being strengthened that any people or nation can exist and develop only if they retain their cultural identity, while not isolating themselves from other nations, interacting with them, exchanging cultural traditions and values. Under the prevailing historical and natural conditions, Russia withstood, created its original original culture, which absorbed the influence of the West and the East. Modern culture is faced with the task of developing its strategic course for the future in a rapidly changing world. There is an important prerequisite for this - the achievement of universal literacy, a significant increase in the education of the people. Nevertheless, the solution of this global task is extremely difficult, because it rests on the need to recognize the deep contradictions inherent in our culture throughout its historical development. The mysterious antinomy of Russian culture, literally in everything, was perfectly described by N.A. Berdyaev in the work "Russian idea". Russia, on the one hand, is the most stateless, the most anarchic country in the world, on the other hand, the most state-owned, the most bureaucratic country in the world. Russia is a country of boundless freedom of spirit, the most non-bourgeois country in the world and at the same time a country devoid of consciousness of individual rights, a country of merchants, money-grubbers, unprecedented bribery of officials. In the Russians, endless love for people is combined with cruelty, slavish disobedience. The time of troubles that Russia is now experiencing is far from being a new phenomenon, but constantly recurring, and culture has always found one or another answer to the challenges of the time, and continued to develop. Moreover, even in the most difficult periods, the greatest ideas and works were born, new traditions and value orientations arose. The peculiarity of the present time of troubles lies in the fact that it coincides with the global crisis. The Russian crisis is a part of the global crisis, which is felt quite acutely in Russia. At the end of the XX century. Russia again faced a choice. Today, culture, like the country, has once again entered an intertime, fraught with different perspectives. The material base of culture is in a state of deep crisis. Libraries are destroyed and burned, there is a shortage of concert and theater halls, and there are no appropriations aimed at supporting and disseminating the values of folk classical culture. The complex problem of the present time is the interaction of culture and the market. There is a certain commercialization of culture, when the so-called. non-commercial works of artistic culture go unnoticed, the possibility of mastering the classical heritage suffers. With the huge potential accumulated by previous generations, there is a spiritual impoverishment of the people, mass lack of culture. One of the main problems in the economy is environmental disasters. On the basis of lack of spirituality, crime and violence are growing, there is a decline in morality. The danger for the present and future of the country is the plight of science and education. Russia's entry into the market led to many unforeseen consequences for spiritual culture. Many of the representatives of the old culture were out of work, unable to adapt to new conditions. The assertion of freedom of speech has deprived many branches of art of the opportunity to speak the truth, improving the "Aesopian language". There is a commercialization of culture, which is now forced to focus not on a spiritual person, but on an economic person, indulging his lowest tastes and passions. The definition of ways for further cultural development became the subject of heated discussions in society, because the state ceased to dictate its requirements to culture, the centralized management system and a unified cultural policy disappeared. One of the points of view is that the state should not interfere in the affairs of culture, and culture itself will find the means to survive. Another point of view seems to be more reasonable, the essence of which is that, while ensuring freedom of culture, the right to cultural identity, the state assumes the development of strategic tasks of cultural construction and the obligation to protect the cultural and historical national heritage, the necessary financial support for cultural values. The state must be aware that culture cannot be left to businessmen. An analysis of the state of the contemporary cultural situation reveals the absence or weakness of stable cultural forms that reproduce the social system. The collapse of the totalitarian regime quickly exposed the underdetermination, the lack of manifestation of many forms of our life, which was characteristic of Russian culture before. BUT. Lossky pointed out that the lack of attention to the middle area of culture, no matter what justifying circumstances we find, is still the negative side of Russian life. Hence the extremely wide range of good and evil. On the one hand, colossal achievements, on the other hand, amazing destruction and cataclysms. Our culture may well respond to the challenge of the modern world, but for this it is necessary to move on to such forms of its self-consciousness that would cease to reproduce the same mechanisms of irreconcilable struggle. It is absolutely necessary to get away from thinking oriented towards materialism, a radical upheaval and reorganization of everything and everyone in the shortest possible time. The process of forming a cultural environment is the basis of cultural renewal, without such an environment it is impossible to overcome the actions of social and psychological mechanisms that divide society. Academician D.S. Likhachev believes that the preservation of the cultural environment is no less important than the preservation of the natural environment. The cultural environment is just as necessary for spiritual, moral life, as nature is necessary for a person for his biological life. Culture is a holistic and organic phenomenon. We need to learn that it is not artificially constructed or transformed, such experiments only lead to its damage and destruction. With great difficulty in the minds of many people, the idea of the specificity and diversity of the development of different cultures is affirmed, each of which develops in its own way and is integrated into the global process. The human world is multicolored and interesting precisely because the basis of the culture of each of the peoples is their cult shrines. They are not subject to any rationale and are not translated into the language of another culture. Section III. APPENDIX 1. The concept of the origin of culture F. Nietzsche Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) is considered to be one of the main representatives of the “philosophy of life”. Therefore, when considering culture, Nietzsche sees its origins in the foundations of life, in the very depths of existence. Nietzsche's original cultural philosophy was reflected in his philosophical essay "The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music", as well as in the works "Human, All Too Human", "The Gay Science", "Thus Spoke Zarathustra". For Nietzsche, culture is first and foremost a means of human self-realization. He tried to unravel the mystery of the origin of culture by turning to the culture of Ancient Greece. In the great sorrow and great delight expressed in the creativity of the Hellenes, Nietzsche saw the root causes of creativity. His cultural philosophy is also addressed to the era of paganism. In culture, Nietzsche contrasted the Dionysian and Apollonian principles - two primary stages of the existence of artistic culture, which are in constant confrontation and at the same time in interaction. The Dionysian principle is associated with uncontrolled human reactions to manifestations of reality. In contrast, Apollonian culture is associated with harmony, tranquility, beauty and clear form. The Apollonian principle embraces the images of high poetry, fine and plastic arts, the Dionysian principle embraces music. The first principle corresponds to the dream state, and the second to the state of intoxication. Only by uniting can these spheres restore the lost unity of nature and man. The opposing elements, personified by Dionysus and Apollo, are found in all cultures. Nietzsche became the creator of the first holistic and organically correct, despite all the contradictions, concept of the origin of culture. It was Nietzsche who first expressed the idea that the higher the level of a person's culture, the less happy he feels. This idea was thoroughly and diversified developed in the writings of the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud. 2. Views of A. Toynbee on the theory of human civilization A. Toynbee as a representative of the cyclic concept of the development of human civilization. Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975) - English historian, author of the twelve-volume work "Comprehension of History". Like other supporters of the cyclic concept of the development of human culture, he believes that it is impossible to talk about the unity of human civilization. Toynbee identifies 13 developed civilizations: Western, Orthodox, Islamic, Indian, ancient, Syrian, Chinese, Indus civilization, Aegean, Egyptian, Sumerian-Akkadian, Andean, Central American. Each civilization, according to Toynbee, goes through four stages of its development: emergence, breakdown and decay, as a result of which another civilization takes its place. This cyclic concept considers the existence of cultures as a succession of civilizations - cycles independent of each other. Toynbee argues that civilization is based not on ethnic or linguistic characteristics, but primarily on religious affiliation. The development of civilization is possible due to the existence of "challenge" and "response" impulses. The mythologeme "challenge - response" is given a leading place in Toynbee's picture of human relations. Toynbee defines the growth of civilization as the progressive internal self-determination or self-expression of civilization. The growth of civilization is expressed in the transition from crude forms of religion to more sublime and complex forms of religious consciousness and culture. An important problem posed in Toynbee's work is the question: how and why do civilizations break, decompose and disintegrate? In his opinion, the stage of decomposition is characterized by the fact that civilization cannot successfully respond to new challenges. He explains the breakdown of civilization by three reasons: 1) the decline of the creative forces of the minority; 2) reciprocal weakening of mimesis (voluntary imitation); 3) the loss of social unity in society as a whole. The breakdown of civilization is usually accompanied by social confrontation. The decline phase includes three sub-phases: 1) the breakdown of civilization; 2) the decomposition of civilization; 3) the disappearance of civilization. 3. Theory of culture N. Berdyaev Nikolai Berdyaev (1874-1948) outlined his views on culture in general and on the specifics of Russian culture in the works Self-Knowledge, The Fate of Russia, The Meaning of History, The Crisis of Art, The Philosophy of the Free Spirit, and others. In the works of Berdyaev, all the most significant philosophical and cultural problems of that time were illuminated and comprehended, when there was an active search for new forms of self-realization. Berdyaev puts a free creative person above culture. In this he opposes Spengler, who argues that a specific culture forms a person corresponding to it. Berdyaev believes that culture limits the creative impulse of the spirit. The cultural form is the "cooled-down freedom" of the spirit. As a result, the spirit is embodied in object-symbolic forms that fetter it. The article "The Will to Life and the Will to Culture" (1922) is devoted to this topic. Defining the relationship between culture and civilization, Berdyaev contrasts the significance of the "will to culture" with the pragmatic "will to live." Life here at Berdyaev is synonymous with unspiritual improvement. Absolute for the religious philosopher Berdyaev is the cult, sacred basis of culture. He was one of the first to pose the most significant problems for modern culturological thought: the relationship between capitalism and socialism as forms of consciousness; nation and culture; universal and national in culture; war and culture, etc. 4. Z. Freud and his concept of the conscious and the unconscious The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) became the founder of psychoanalysis, a new direction in psychiatry, designed to restore a person's sense of inner harmony and tranquility. Freudianism - a philosophical understanding of psychoanalysis - has become a doctrine that has entered not only the field of medicine, but also philosophy and cultural studies. Freud discovered the unconscious in man as an independent, impersonal beginning of the human soul, independent of consciousness, which is the basis of human desires and actions. The unconscious "it" - this is the world of instincts and uncontrolled desires inherent in the human psyche that affect human activity. Conscious "I" is a sphere that provides contact between the objective world and the unconscious. "It" - many people. The world of culture is formulated as a result of the interaction of the conscious selves of many people. This world consists of clear socio-cultural attitudes and rules. The third level - "super-ego" - is a kind of projection of the settings of the world of culture into the human psyche, also carried out in an unconscious form. In the human psyche, the "unconscious id" and the "super-ego" oppose each other, being instinctive-natural and socio-cultural principles in the human subconscious. "I" comes from the reality principle, "it" from the pleasure principle. Provided that the mind and culture can subdue "it", a person can survive. The method is sublimation. Sublimation - this is the use of the sexual-biological energy concentrated in the "it" not directly for biological pleasure, but in accordance with the goals of reason and culture. Freud believes that the human "I" is enclosed between two poles - the natural elements and the requirements of culture. These poles tend to subjugate themselves to the "I" as well as each other. And therefore, Freud argues, the higher the level of general cultural attitudes in a person, the more grounds he has for neurosis, depression or rebellion. A person is forced to be torn between the natural psychic elements and cultural norms. As a result, his mental health is affected. According to Freud, culture is the sum total of achievements and institutions that distinguish human life from animal life. Culture serves two purposes: 1) protection of man from nature; 2) regulation of human relationships. 5. Cultural concept of N.Ya.Danilevsky N.Ya. Danilevsky (1822-1885), long before O. Spengler, in his main work "Russia and Europe" (1869) substantiated the idea of the existence of the so-called. cultural and historical types (civilizations), which, like living organisms, are in constant struggle with each other and with the environment. Cultural-historical types are the main phases in the development of world culture according to the concept of N.Ya. Danilevsky. He singled out 10 cultural-historical types: 1) Egyptian; 2) Chinese; 3) Assyrian; 4) Indian; 5) Iranian; 6) Jewish; 7) Greek; 8) Roman; 9) Arabian; 10) Germano-Romance (European). Each of these cultural-historical types or civilizations has its own history, and therefore one cannot speak of a common world history of all mankind in the spirit of G. Hegel or positivist science. Each of the ten types has its own ancient history, its own Middle Ages and its own modern times, and some of the civilizations have already completed their cycle, while others are at different stages of development. Danilevsky formed 5 laws of historical development arising from the ideas of cyclism: 1) any tribe is characterized by a separate language, or a group of related languages, constitutes an original cultural and historical type; 2) in order for the civilization characteristic of this cultural-historical type to be born and develop, it is necessary that the peoples belonging to it enjoy independence; 3) the beginnings of a civilization of one cultural-historical type are not transmitted to peoples belonging to another type. Each type develops its civilization only for itself, with more or less participation of other civilizations; 4) civilization, characteristic of each cultural-historical type, only reaches prosperity, fullness and wealth when the ethnographic elements that make it up are diverse; 5) the course of development of cultural-historical types resembles the growth of plants, the flowering and fruiting of which is relatively short in comparison with the time of ripening and depletes their strength once and for all. 6. The philosophical concept of the functioning of culture by O. Spengler The German thinker O. Spengler is the author of the famous book "The Decline of Europe" (1918). This is a diagnosis book, a prognosis book. The author raises the question of the future of European culture and himself gives a disappointing answer to it. Spengler's ideas were developed into a cyclical (civilizational) concept of the existence of culture. This is a philosophical concept that considers the existence of culture as a succession of cycles and civilizations independent from each other. Spengler denies a single world culture, recognizing only different cultures, each of which has its own unique destiny. The primary soul is the soul of culture, non-rational and not reducible to any logic. Logic, art, politics, science are secondary to this soul. The essence of culture cannot be reduced to reason. According to Spengler, there are several types of soul (Apollonian, magical, Faustian). They lie, respectively, at the basis of ancient Greek, medieval Arab and European culture. Every culture is equal and unique. According to Spengler, culture is a living organic manifestation of vital nature, and, like all living things, it is mortal. The death of a culture is its state when it ceases to develop organically and its spiritual images cease to inspire people. As a result, human activity is directed towards the implementation of utilitarian-mercantile tasks. Civilization is advancing, interpreted by Spengler as the death of culture. If culture ceases to attract and inspire human souls, then it perishes. Spengler is one of the first who felt the tragedy of culture in the alien world of civilization. Not surprisingly, the book "The Decline of Europe" became an event in European culture. 7. P.A. Sorokin’s theory of supersystems A significant place in the sociology of culture is occupied by the theory of supersystems by the American sociologist P.A. Sorokin (1889-1969), considering the problems of social integrity. P. Sorokin represented the historical process as a process of cultural development. Society creates various cultural systems: cognitive, religious, ethnic, aesthetic, legal, etc., which are combined into systems of higher ranks. As a result, cultural supersystems (supersystems) are formed - the fundamental phases of the development of culture that organically replace each other, absorbing various cultural subsystems and differing depending on the supreme values. Value, according to Sorokin, is the basis and foundation of any science. Depending on the nature of the dominant value, he divided all cultural supersystems into three types: ideational, idealistic, sensual. The ideational system of culture is based on the principle of supersensibility and superreason of God as the only reality and value. This type is represented by medieval European culture, the culture of Brahmin India, Buddhist and Greek culture from the XNUMXth century. at the end of the VI century. BC e. Between the ideational and the sensual is the idealistic system of culture. The dominant values of this culture are oriented towards both Heaven and Earth (Western European culture of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, ancient Greek culture of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries BC). P. Sorokin refers the modern type of culture to the sensory system of culture. Its objective activity and meaning are sensuous. Only what a person perceives through the senses is real. Having begun to develop in the 16th century, this culture strives for liberation from religion, morality and other values of ideational culture. The values of sensory culture are concentrated in everyday life in the real earthly world. According to Sorokin, modern "sensual" culture is doomed to decline, because it gives relativity to values. This does not mean her obligatory death. Culture can change into a new form. As long as a person lives, culture will not die. Supersystems are phases of the historical cycle. According to Sorokin, the dominant sensory supersystem should be replaced by an ideational type of culture. 8. Overcoming the ideas of catastrophism by K. Jaspers The German thinker Karl Jaspers (1883-1963) made an attempt to overcome relativism and catastrophism in assessing the fate of culture. He considers the confrontation between history and culture as a reflection of internal human potentialities. The central concepts in his work "The Meaning and Purpose of History" are the unity of history and the unity of mankind. Jaspers, unlike Danilevsky, Spengler, Sorokin and Toynbee, believes that human culture has common origins and a single goal. He divided the path of the formation of culture into four successive periods: prehistory, ancient cultures, the period of the "axis of time", the technical age. Prehistory is the time of the creation of man, his biological properties, the period of accumulation of skills and existing spiritual values. Since one can speak about history only from the moment of the appearance of written sources, the time under consideration lies beyond the limits of history. The stage of ancient cultures is associated with the almost simultaneous emergence of the most ancient archaic cultures (Sumerian-Babylonian, Egyptian and Aegean; pre-Aryan culture of the Indus Valley; archaic world of China). Jaspers dates the axial time to about 500 BC. e. This is the most important stage in the concept of K. Jaspers, the sharpest turn in history dates back to this time, when a person begins to comprehend being as a whole and his place in it. Axial time is a special period in the world history of China, India, Greece and Western Asia between 800 and 200 years. BC e. Jaspers finds similarities between them: 1) a person is aware of being in general, himself and his boundaries; 2) goals and problems are set; 3) a person strives for freedom, for the comprehension of absoluteness. As a result, individual consciousness develops; 4) for the first time in history, self-consciousness arises; 5) the time of universal reason and religion. Universal, fundamental categories of thinking and substantiation of world religions appear; 6) the onset of the time of reflection, skepticism, criticism of traditions; 7) the end of the mythological period, implying the obviousness of the basic principles. There is a desire for a monotheistic religion. Feeling dissatisfied, a person is open to new possibilities of experience, but problems are not resolved to the end. This unsolvability, according to Jaspers, is universal, transcultural in nature; 8) the emergence of philosophers as outstanding individuals with general spiritual autonomy and the ability to consider things from a distance. According to Jaspers, the values that emerged synchronously in this era form an "ideal axis" around which the real history of mankind "circles". The technical age begins in the XNUMXth century. The foundations of the scientific and technological revolution were laid, which developed rapidly in the XNUMXth century. Jaspers believes that it is possible for mankind to move towards a new "axial time", which will lay the foundations of a true human history. 9. The concept of cultural archetypes by E.G. Jung The concept of cultural archetypes was based on the ideas of the analytical psychology of C. Jung, the cultural-historical theory of L.S. Vygotsky, the idea of culture as a value-symbolic system and spiritual intention of people's life. Analytical psychology claims that, in addition to the individual subconscious, there is a collective unconscious reflection of the experience of previous generations. This experience is embodied in archetypes - universal prototypes. Archetypes perform the functions of the fundamental principles of the world and the fundamental structures of the psyche, setting the general structure of the personality and the sequence of images. Archetypes appear as a result of unconscious activity in the form of deep prototypes-symbols. Archetypes resist consciousness, they are inaccessible to direct observation, they cannot be adequately expressed in language. The cultural-historical theory states that the main feature of the ontogenesis of the human psyche is the internalization of the structure of its external, socio-symbolic activity. The “natural” structure of mental functions becomes “cultural”. The mechanism of socialization is associated with the assimilation of sign-symbolic (linguistic) forms. The task of symbolic interactionalism is the study of social interactions in their symbolic content. Modern culturology presents two approaches to understanding culture. The active approach understands culture as a spiritual code of human life, the basis of adaptation and self-determination of the individual. The value approach considers culture as a complex hierarchy of ideals and meanings. Meaning is a specific form of expression of human activity in accordance with certain values. The synthesis of these ideas gives the definition of cultural archetypes. Cultural archetypes are archaic cultural prototypes, representations are symbols of a person, his place in the world and society, normative-value orientations, "live" in modern culture. Cultural archetypes characterize stability and unconsciousness. 10. Cultural concept of D.B. Vico In 1725 D.B. Vico published his famous book "The basis of a new science" on the general nature of nations. In the book, Vico criticized the then dominant idea of the progressive development of man and put forward his own theory, which was called the "cycle theory". D.B. Vico argued that there is such a thing as an eternal ideal of history, which proceeds in accordance with God's plan. In accordance with this history, all the other histories of nations flow in time, with their rise, rise, decline, and end. Vico finds the basis for his eternal theory in ancient Egypt. From the Egyptians, he borrowed the division of history into three epochs: the age of the gods, the age of heroes, the age of people. Accordingly, people spoke three varieties of languages: 1) in the divine language through hieroglyphs (sacred signs). In fact, this is the language of the priests and the system of public administration of that era - theocracy; 2) in the symbolic language of the heroic era, that is, through metaphors - this is the language of the aristocracy; 3) in a written language established by agreement for essential needs of life. This is the language of the common people, and it corresponds to democracy. Vico showed that the first epoch and the first language exist in the times of families, which in all nations preceded cities and on the basis of which cities arose. The fathers of such families ruled, submitted to the rule of the gods, and established laws through the interpretation of God's omens. Time or time history begins only after the field processing period begins. For many centuries, years were counted by grain harvests, which was the world's first gold. This golden age corresponds to the Roman age of Saturia (from Latin sata - “crop”). In this era, simultaneously, various peoples, without knowing anything from each other, raised gods to the heavens and heroes to the stars. Accordingly, there were: 1) myths about gods; 2) myths about heroes; 3) human history. Myths about the gods, according to Vico, are the history of those times when people called all things necessary for existence deities, for example, the gods of fire, sowing, grotto. Heroic myths are the true stories of heroes and descriptions of their heroic ways. The era of citizenship for all peoples begins with religion, the essence of which Vico considers the need for prediction. Therefore, the high role of the prophets in the religion of the ancient Jews is not accidental. 11. Johan Huizinga. Homo ludens Experience in determining the game element of culture. From the section "Game and competition as a function of the formation of culture" (translated by V.V. Oshis). The game element of culture does not mean here that games occupy an important place among the various forms of cultural life. It does not mean that culture comes from the game in the process of evolution. Culture arises in the form of a game; culture is initially played out. Those types of activity that are directly aimed at satisfying vital needs, such as hunting, in an archaic society prefer to find a playful form for themselves. Culture in its initial phases is characterized by something playful, which is represented in the forms and atmosphere of the game. In this dual unity of culture and play, play is the primary fact, while culture is only a characteristic that our historical judgment attaches to a given case. In the forward movement of culture, the original ratio of play and non-play does not remain unchanged. The game element as a whole recedes into the background as culture develops. For the most part and to a large extent, it has dissolved, assimilated into the sacred sphere, crystallized in various forms. At the same time, the playful quality in cultural phenomena usually went out of sight. However, at all times and everywhere, the game element can manifest itself in full force. From the point of view of culture, solo playing for oneself is fruitful only to a small extent. All the fundamental factors of the game already existed in the life of animals. This is a duel, a demonstration, a challenge, boasting, arrogance, pretense, restrictive rules. Collective play is predominantly antithetical. It is most often played between two sides. However, this is not required. A dance, a procession, a performance can be completely devoid of an antithetical character. Antithetical in itself does not have to mean adversarial, agonistic or agonistic. Tension and unpredictability can be noted among the common features of the game. The question always arises: will I be lucky or not, will I win or not? Even in a single game of skill, guessing or luck, this condition is met. In the antithetical game of the agonal type, this element of tension, luck, uncertainty reaches an extreme degree. The desire to win takes on such a passion that it threatens to completely negate the easy and careless nature of the game. In a pure game of chance, the tension of the players is transmitted to the audience only to a small extent. The situation is different when the game requires skill, knowledge, dexterity or strength. As the game becomes more difficult, the tension of the spectators increases. With equal success, physical, intellectual, moral or spiritual values can elevate the game to the rank of culture. The more the game is able to increase the intensity of the life of an individual or a group, the more it dissolves into the culture. Sacred ritual and celebratory competition are two constantly and everywhere renewed forms within which culture grows like a game within a game. Competition, like any other game, should be considered aimless to some extent. It flows within itself. Its outcome is not part of the necessary life process of the group. The final element of the game action, its goal-setting, first of all, lies in the very process of the game. The result of the game as an objective fact is in itself insignificant and indifferent. Very often the game is "for fun". "Interest" is not the material result of the game, but the fact of an ideal order that the game is successful or well played. Luck brings satisfaction to the player. A pleasant feeling of satisfaction is enhanced by the presence of spectators, but their presence cannot be considered a sine qua non of the game. Closely connected with the concept of the game is the concept of winning. In a single player game, reaching the goal does not mean winning. The concept of winning comes into force only when the game is played by one against the other or by two opposing parties. Winning means taking over others. Honor won, honor deserved. They benefit the entire group from which the winner emerged. Here you should pay attention to such a property of the game as the transition of success from one person to the whole group. Primary is the desire to surpass others, to be the first and, as the first, to be honored. And only secondarily is the question of whether the individual or the group will expand its material assistance as a result. People play and win for something. First or last, they play to win. First of all, victory is enjoyed as a celebration, a triumph. Honor, honor, prestige flow from this as a long-term consequence. In defining the terms of the game, more than honor is associated with winning. Every game has a bet. The bet may be purely symbolic, it may be of purely ideal value, or it may be of material value. The bet can be a golden goblet, a jewel, a king's daughter or a copper coin, a player's life, or more. It could be a mortgage or something else. A pawn is a purely symbolic object that is placed or thrown into the playing space. The prize can be a laurel wreath or a sum of money. The word "reward" etymologically goes back to the sphere of exchange of values. In the sense of this word, the concepts "in exchange for something" are hidden, but subsequently it shifts towards the concept of the game. It is hardly possible to draw an etymologically clear line between the spheres of meaning price, gain, reward. Remuneration lies entirely outside the gaming sphere: it means fair material compensation, payment for a service rendered or work performed. They don't play for rewards. They work for him. The English language borrows the word "reward" from the game sphere. The concept of winning lies both in the economic and gaming spheres. The concept of price refers to a competitive game, to a lottery, and in the literal sense - to the price list of a store. Risk, luck, uncertainty about the outcome, tension are the essence of game behavior. Tension determines the consciousness of the importance and value of the game and forces the player to forget that he is playing. 12. Umberto Eco. From the Internet to Guttenberg (translated by M.S. Atchikova) Umberto Eco (born in 1932) is a famous medievalist, semiotician, mass culture specialist, professor at the University of Bologna and honorary doctorate from many universities in Europe and America. Umberto Eco is the author of many works on the history of culture and semiotics. The main theme of this work is the relationship of a new means of communication with the previous one. Eco begins his analysis by listing the fears that have emerged with the invention of new modes of communication throughout human history. According to the Italian philosopher, new technologies can destroy the old way of communication. According to Plato, writing can destroy memory. The printed book will destroy the imagery and visibility of visual culture, which was represented by medieval cathedrals. In the second half of the XX century. Canadian culturologist Humbert Marshall McLuhan expresses similar fears: radio and television could destroy the printed book. Will hypertext be able to replace the book - this is the main question that worries Eco in this work. Let's go back to Plato's statement and think a little about it. Plato is a bit ironic. Having written his arguments against writing, he put them into the mouth of Socrates, who himself never wrote. These days, no one shares these fears for two reasons. First, books are not a way to make others think the way we do. This is a mechanism that makes you think differently, differently, encourages further reflection. Secondly, once upon a time people needed memory training in order to remember facts. With the advent of writing, they can train their memory in order to memorize books. It took time for the media to accept the idea that our civilization was becoming image oriented, which would lead to a decline in literacy. This is now a common principle for any weekly magazine. What's interesting, Eco notes, is that the media began to note the decline in literacy and the huge impact of imagery at the very moment that the computer appeared on the world stage. A computer is a device through which an image can be produced and edited. But it is equally true that the first computers served as tools for writing. Teenagers, if they want to program, must know logical procedures and algorithms, they must type words and numbers on the keyboard at a very high speed. In this sense, we can say that the computer takes us back to the days of Gutenberg. The people who spend their nights chatting on the Internet are mostly dealing with words. The computer screen can be seen as a book in which one can read about the world through words and pages. The classical computer provided a linear view of written communication. The screen displayed written lines. It was a fast read book. But now there are hypertexts. Hypertext is a multi-dimensional network in which every point or node can potentially be connected to any other node. Nowadays, people are becoming more and more convinced that hypertext will replace the book in the near future. Even after printing was invented, the book was not the only way to acquire information. There were paintings, engravings, oral teaching. Books were the best scientific way to convey scientific information, including information about historical events. Books were the best material. With the development of cinema and the media, the situation has changed. Thanks to cinema and television, our children know much more than their parents, because they have much more information than books. A good popular science movie can explain genetics much better than any textbook. It is better to listen to Chopin's music than to read multi-volume textbooks or encyclopedias. In the Middle Ages, the cathedral served as a kind of television for its time. It was only necessary to understand it and interpret it in a different way, not as it is now. Visual communications were combined with verbal ones, primarily with written ones. Eco suggests that in the near future humanity will be divided into two camps: those who watch exclusively TV, that is, they receive ready-made images and a ready-made judgment about the world without the right to critically select the information received, and those who look at the computer screen, i.e., those who are able to filter and discard unnecessary information. Thus begins the division of cultures characteristic of the Middle Ages, when the world was divided into those who could read manuscripts and make their own judgment, and those who were brought up by means of images in cathedrals, selected and processed by the creators. A similar situation occurs with the Internet, when a certain idea is presented as perfect. Many facts are perceived by people as indisputable, at a time when it is necessary to argue with them and express only one's point of view. 13. Jean-François Lyotard. Post-modern condition (translated by N.N. Efremov) Jean-Francois Lyotard is the author of many works on philosophy. By the time this work was written, he was very well known among philosophical writers. In The Postmodern State, he first raises the question that postmodernism is the state of philosophy as a whole. First of all, postmodernism reflects the state of spirituality of the European type in our days, associated with the departure of the term "modern" into the past, in the sense of the modern era. Postmodernism is a set of philosophical doctrines that one way or another proclaim the end of history. Also, postmodernism is the state of contemporary artistic practice. Lyotard defines postmodernism as the state of culture after changes that have affected the rules of the game in science, literature, and art since the end of the XNUMXth century. Lyotard says that the main meta-narratives have lost their legitimating power, that is, the main stories, narratives have lost their modernity. Lyotard attaches great importance to the narratives of the Enlightenment and Christianity. Modern narratives are different from myths, although they are very similar to them. Myths find their basis in the past, and narratives in the future. Exhausted narratives in the modern world crumble into clouds of linguistic elements, while each of them carries spontaneously generated pragmatic meanings. Each of us exists at the intersection of these meanings. Postmodern science creates a theory of its own evolution as paradoxical, catastrophic and incorrigible dynamics. It changes the very meaning of the word "know" and indicates how this change is possible. The main problem of culture is to find transitions between heterogeneous "language games". These are knowledge, ethics, economics, politics, etc. The project of modernity was aimed at building a sociocultural unity where all elements must find their place. Postmodernity, according to Lyotard, begins with the death of the main metanarratives connecting the heterogeneous diversity of culture. But this does not mean that all metanarratives disappear. They move into a different state, continuing to connect reality through transitions between language games. They avoid the fate of macro-narratives because they are pagan. Science is a model of an open system in which the correctness of what is expressed is that it gives birth to ideas, other expressed and other rules of the game. There is no common language in science by which all facts can be explained. Language games are divided into denotative (or cognition) and descriptive (or actions). Scientific pragmatics is concentrated on denotative expressions, it is for them that it provides a place in the institutions of knowledge. Postmodern social pragmatics is particularly opposed to the "simplicity" of scientific pragmatics. This fact is formed by layers of classes of heteromorphic statements. There is no point in believing that we can today identify common meta-prescriptions across all language games. Let us turn to the theory of Habermas, who proposes to reach a universal consensus through what is called discourse. This means two things. The first is that all people who form expressions can agree on rules or meta-prescriptions, recognizing them as suitable for all language games. The second assumption is that the end of the dialogue is the consensus. Consensus is the state of the dialogue, but not its end. Consensus, according to Lyotard, has become an obsolete and suspicious value. What it is not is justice. It is necessary to address the idea and practice of justice, which should not be associated with the idea and practice of consensus. The concept of heteromorphicity of language games is the first step in this direction. The second step is to argue that if there is a consensus for the rules that define each game and the “shots” that are struck in it, then that consensus must become local. This orientation corresponds to the evolution in our days of social interactions, when the temporary doctor is actually replacing continuous education, training in the spheres of professional, emotional, sexual, cultural, family. Evolution is an ambiguity: the system favors the temporary contract because of its greatest flexibility, the least cost of motivations that accompany it. In other publications of this period, Lyotard develops the ideas expressed in The Post-Modern State. He turns to the living tissue of linguistic practice and pays special attention to the fate of the pagan micronarratives he identified - such are his works “Pagan Instructions”, “Pagan Elements”, “Trembling Stories”. Later, in his work "Strife", Lyotard develops in detail the idea he expressed about the agonistic nature of the world of language practices. Lyotard's book The Postmodern State aptly represents the postmodern type of consciousness. She shows that it includes the traditional understanding of culture, using it as one of the versions of the postmodern universe rich in variants. 14. Michel Foucault. Supervise and punish. The Birth of Prison (translated by V.A. Shkuratov) The scientific heritage of M. Foucault, a French historian and philosopher of culture, consists of substantiations of the research method and its use in the analysis of various spheres of European civilization. Foucault is usually ranked among the leading representatives of structuralism. Foucault's works are purely individual in terms of subject matter, terminology, and style of presentation. In fact, we are talking about pre-conceptual connections within written culture, isolated on the basis of a very subtle reading of heterogeneous material. M. Foucault's book "Supervise and Punish. The Birth of Prison" (1975) marked Foucault's transition from the "archeology of knowledge" to the "genealogy of power." The book consists of four sections: "Torture", "Punishment", "Discipline", "Prison". In this book, Foucault puts forward the following tasks and hypotheses: 1) identify the social function of punishment; 2) to identify its specificity in a number of other influences of power; 3) to find a general matrix of the process of folding the "epistemological-legal formation", i.e., how the technology of power is involved in the humanization of punishment and in the knowledge of a person; 4) to establish whether the acquisition of such an object as the human soul, and thereby its "scientificization" is not a criminal right, is a consequence of new relations of power to the body. The components of a human being remain the same: it is the body and the soul. But the social institutions supervising them have changed. The body moves to the center of the concerns of power, while the soul turns out to be an epiphenomenon of the political technology of the body. Foucault summarizes his thought in a biting aphorism: "The soul is the prison of the body." The study of power in this perspective is of direct epistemological and even scientific interest. Talking about the soul, we descend to the body, to the question of its use and submission. The second chapter of the first part of the "Explosion of Torment" is devoted to the darkest, tortured side of medieval justice. There are many ways to prove guilt, but the main thing is to get a confession from the accused himself. The principle of the presumption of innocence is alien to feudal law. The suspect cannot be innocent at all. In medieval legal proceedings, several points are mixed: 1) there is a duel between the accused and the judge. The truth, which the inquiry has, the criminal must voluntarily confirm; 2) the investigation already contains punishment. Confessing under torture, the villain receives punishment for his crimes; 3) recognition and punishment should be visual and symbolic. Punishment corresponds to its form of crime. Blasphemers' tongues are cut off, thieves' hands are cut off, arsonists are burned. The spread of torture justice in the pre-industrial era is explained by the non-market attitude to physical labor in an agrarian society, the low value of individual human life, the widespread crime, and the repressive nature of the ruling regimes. Truth and power converge over the body of the tortured in an immediate, visible and symbolic way. The reformers did not use imprisonment among the universal methods of punishment. Long-term imprisonment was considered by them as a manifestation of tyranny, contrary to the educational function of punishment. Already in the first decades of the XIX century. prison became the main and essentially the only punishment for all criminal offenses that did not provide for the death penalty. By the end of the XVIII century. There were three types of punishment: 1) old, with a ritual of torture marks on the body of the prostrate; 2) a new one, with a procedure for re-creating a subject of law, with symbolic management of representations, with a soul as an object of law; 3) new, utilitarian, with an individual forced into immediate submission, with a drawing of a trained body and a system of educational and training relations. Thus, of these three ways of power, one is dying out, the other has not taken root, the third is in the stream of the socio-economic development of European civilization. In the third part - "Discipline" - Foucault describes the structure of the political technology of modern times. Automata, which are so fond of at that time, are at the same time mechanical devices, scientific models and images of an obedient, well-trained performer. The fundamental discovery of science and practice, which is the basis of political technology, is the fixation of dynamic processes. If we transfer the experience of controlling mechanical forces into the social modality of obedience and usefulness, then we get discipline in understanding the new time. Discipline appears when obedience is combined in one respect with utility: the higher the obedience, the greater the utility, and vice versa. The crudest forms of violence are dying out, and in return, positive coercion is spreading everywhere, acting "microphysically". Discipline penetrates psychophysiology and recreates the fabric of culture on a utilitarian and positive basis. The political technology of the new time, as Foucault describes, uses the space-time coding of individuals and groups, the laws of combining elements in a composition. Control methods are divided into levels. The first level is cellular - the individual is attached to his physical and social place. The art of division divides individuals into jobs, functions, positions. Cells - positions for the supervised are compiled into a "live table". Discipline acts as an instrument of knowledge. The second level of disciplinary control has an organism as an object and is based on coding its activity. The body is determined in time by the rhythm and mode of activity. The coding of an action in time is justified by the principle of utility. No movement should be in vain. A trained body is a well-organized machine, each gesture is no longer elemental, but is in the operator context of a human device. Power denatures the organic and transforms it into a more simple and usable quality, but also socially individualizes it. The third level of the disciplinary approach is historical. A person must not just do something, but perform a series of operations united in evolutionary genetic lines. Historical sequences of behavior make it possible to develop a cycle of exercises, to keep the action in the development scheme. In these temporal sequences, a historical individuality arises, which is the same product of power as the cellular and organismic individuality. The fourth level of control is combinatorial. He joins forces. The most obvious example is an army made up of subdivisions, battalions, and regiments. Here discipline rests on tactics. Ready-made results are taken: localized bodies, programmed activities, formed attitudes. In order to be combined with others, an individual must fulfill several conditions: to move accurately in an organized space, to be included in the process of general activity in a timely manner, to accurately execute orders during regroupings. The formation of these skills means the operation of disciplinary control in the management of group dynamics. Disciplinary punishment is reduced to five operations: 1) determining the place of an individual act in the ensemble of collective behavior; 2) differentiation of individuals according to their functional qualities; 3) quantitative and qualitative assessments of individuals, their actions; 4) establishing the level of proper comfort; 5) separation of normal and abnormal. Discipline shifts the political axis of individualization. Under feudalism, socio-political individuality was the privilege of the upper classes. It was created by hereditary rules, genealogies, rituals. The "hereditary individuality" of feudalism is ascending, the "disciplinary individuality" is descending. Under feudalism, the lower classes are remembered only when it is no longer possible to ignore them. In the case of a descending individuality, power is predominantly occupied by the lower classes: the child more than the adult, the madman more than the normal, the criminal more than the law-abiding. Not every person manages to get into the ranks of "abnormal" or delinquents. But everyone goes through schooling, medical procedures, official sanctions and incentives, i.e., falls under the normalizing action of the authorities. This is the disciplinary background of the progress of individuality in modern times. It is difficult to find a special public institution that maintains discipline. Discipline is a universal technology of power, it is everywhere: in the family, at school, in a factory, in a hospital. In this, New Time differs from the Middle Ages, when the power was the most restrictive. Now the government is firmly connected with a positive, productive beginning and therefore refrains from demonstrative influence. The discipline cannot be identified either with a separate institution or with a separate apparatus. It is a type of power, the modality of its distribution through an ensemble of tools, techniques, techniques. It uses either special institutions, or specialized institutions, or the means invented by the discipline itself. The fourth and final section of the book is called "Prison". This section shows power in a remote way from other systems of society. The prison combines the characteristics of all modern institutions: the barracks, but without layoffs, the school, but without indulgence, the factory, but without qualifications. Prison is a true laboratory of power-knowledge. In places of detention, a person is isolated from horizontal ties, instead vertical ties are emphasized, the actual power relationship. Labor is not of an economic nature, it is also subject to discipline. The most important condition in prison is forced normalization. A person's stay in a place of detention is seen as an intensive adjustment of personality and behavior. The social function of imprisonment is that it becomes possible to reduce the risk of the criminal's danger. A person who has served a sentence very rarely becomes a respectable citizen. However, now he is registered with the police, and the attitude of society towards him is already different. In this part there is a whole chapter that is devoted to the punishment cell. Foucault calls it "a prison within a prison". The solitary confinement cell was introduced so that "the trained body becomes an individual, a person obedient to the state or power." Here the apparatus of power is fully manifested, when a person was completely subordinated to the laws of society or power. The solitary confinement cell is borrowed from the psychiatric hospital and hospital medicine. This concludes the research of M. Foucault in the field of this topic. However, the issues that he raises in this book do not die and are explored by the author further in subsequent works. 15. Robert Burton. Anatomy of melancholy (translated by V.A. Shkuratov) The book was published in England in 1621 in English. The author Robert Burton (1577-1640) adopted the high-profile pseudonym Democritus the Younger. After graduating from Oxford University, he was a priest. "Anatomy of melancholy" is a scientific work about a person and a medical instruction. This work allows you to study a person without going beyond the art form. Burton describes the Renaissance, more precisely, the man of this era. The author expresses uncertainty about the future and human capabilities. Public pessimism is personified by the figure of melancholy. Here melancholy is not just an allegory of human weakness portrayed by artists and poets. This is a disease that a doctor treats. The book opens with a detailed description of the state of melancholy. Every person has this condition to one degree or another. In a more technical sense, melancholia is a disease that manifests itself in the fact that melancholic states intensify, become more frequent and turn into a permanent illness. The author emphasizes that there were two approaches to this disease. Mental illness was interpreted as demonic possession and as something else of the brain. According to Hippocrates' explanation of the disease, melancholia is the poisoning of the brain with black bile. There is melancholy from nature, but there are other factors that cause this disease. The author defines the scope of these "other" factors very broadly, for example, the influence of planets, stars, comets. During the Renaissance, astrological subjects were very widely used. It was believed that the doctor could not cure the patient if he did not know the location of the stars. The heavens are the instrument of God, and the stars are the letters by which the messages can be read. Burton also lists among the causes climate, nutrition, lifestyle, physiological causation. One of the chapters of the book is devoted to medical demonology. Burton studied this topic in the works of other authors of various eras: Plato, Plotinus, Porfiry, Proclus. He came up with the following classification of evil spirits: 1) false idols of the ancients. Their prince is BELZEBUB; 2) the creators of ambiguity and deceit, like the Greek soothsayers - Pythia, led by APOLLO; 3) vessels of anger like the ancient Egyptian Theta. Their prince is BETIAL; 4) harmful slow spirits. Their prince is ASMODEUS; 5) sorcerers and magicians under the leadership of SATAN; 6) air spirits. They spoil the air, cause plague, thunder, lightning. Their prince is MERESIN; 7) destroyers, sending warriors, unrest, rebellions. Their prince is ABADONNA; 8) malicious slanderers who plunge a person into despair. Their prince is THE DEVIL; 9) tempters led by MAMMON. Along with this, Burton gives another classification, where spirits are subdivided according to natural environments. Air demons, water demons, earth demons, fire demons, underground demons stand out. The author does not just study and classify demons, but applies the knowledge of demonology accumulated by that time to medicine. The mixture of demonology and medicine was embedded in the language of the treatise. At that time there was no division of spirits into spirits as supernatural beings and as the air-corporeal basis of life. In English, these concepts are denoted by the same word. Not only the body, but also a part of the human soul can be attacked by the devil. The most vulnerable place in a person is the imagination. Burton tells that the demonic invasion can be avoided. Weak bodies and unstable minds are susceptible to external infection. Melancholy also develops from external causes. The soul lives in the body. There are only three showers: vegetable, animal, reasonable. In the vegetable kingdom - the lowest - the liver rules. She is in charge of nutrition, reproduction, that is, the lower, vegetable appetites. Blood acts as the most important element, without it the work of the liver is impossible. In the middle kingdom, the heart dominates - the "sun of the body." This is a nest of passions. The heart, receiving blood from the liver, emits from it moving parts, like steam or wind, - vital spirits. The heart also controls other properties of the body. It slows down and speeds up. The structure of the nervous system in Burton's time had not yet been studied. The nerves were represented as hollow tubes for animal spirits. The brain was represented as the abode of wisdom, memory, judgment, reason. The brain is also characterized by imagination, memory. Imagination is intermediate in its position. The ability of fantasy is to retain and combine images. When the mind is awake, the world is perceived correctly; when it sleeps, images begin to pile up and turn into dreams. The relation of the mind to the other faculties of man is confused and unclear. If humors overwhelm the heart, they rise higher and begin to fill the brain. In this case, the brain ceases to control the body. Burton's portrait of a melancholic is an artistic and psychological generalization of the era. The main feature of Burton's hero is fantasy. It is present in every person. Some groups of people are more melancholy than others. These are artists, schoolchildren, actors. Also, melancholy is characteristic of girls and widows. They cry very often and think they are possessed by demons. At the end of his narrative, Burton deals with religious melancholy. He explains it as a disorder of heavenly love, love of God. The most dangerous thing for such a patient is to fall into despair, that is, to doubt God and renounce him. At the time, this fact was explained as an act of Satan. However, religion calls for everyone to be forgiven, for every deed finds its justification in the world of life. БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ 1. Actual problems of cultural studies of the XX century. M., 1993. 2. Almanac of old and new culture. M., 1994. 3. Bart R. Selected works. M., 1994. 4. Berdyaev N. Philosophy of creativity, culture, art: In 2 vols. M., 1994. 5. Burton R. Anatomy of melancholy. New York, 1948. 6. Borodai Yu.M. Erotica - death - taboo: the tragedy of human consciousness. M., 1996. 7. Bystrova A.N. World of Culture (Fundamentals of Cultural Studies): Textbook. M., 2002. 8. Vasiliev L.S. History of the Religions of the East. M., 1983. 9. Guenon R. The crisis of the modern world. M., 1991. 10. Georgieva G.S. Russian culture. History and Modernity: Textbook. M., 2001. 11. Gorelov A.A. Culturology: Textbook. M., 2002. 12. Gumilyov L.N. Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe. M., 1989. 13. Gumilyov L.N. From Russia to Russia. M., 1992. 14. Erygin A.N. East - West - Russia. Rostov-on-Don, 1993. 15. Esin A.B. Introduction to cultural studies. M., 1999. 16. Ilyin I. About the coming Russia. M., 1993. 17. Culturology: A short thematic dictionary. Rostov-on-Don, 2001. 18. Lossky N.O. Character of the Russian people. Book. 2. M., 1990. 19. Lyotard J-F. post-modern state. M., 1979. 20. Likhachev D.S. Declaration of the rights of culture // Culturology. 21. Scientific review bulletin. 1996. No. 1. 22. Lotman Yu.M. On the problem of typology of cultures. Yerevan, 1979. 23. Petrov M.K. Language, sign, culture. M., 1991. 24. Petrov M.K. Self-consciousness and scientific creativity. Rostov-on-Don, 1992. 25. Polikarpov V.S. Lectures on cultural studies. M., 1997. 26. Rudnev V.P. Dictionary of culture of the XX century. M., 1998. 27. Struve N. Orthodoxy and culture. M., 1992. 28. Toynbee A. Comprehension of history. M., 1991. 29. Ten I. Philosophy of art. M., 1996. 30. Flier A.Ya. Culturology for culturologists. M., 2002. 31. Philosophy of culture: Interuniversity collection of scientific articles. Samara, 1993. 32. Foucault M. Words and things. Archeology of the Humanities. M., 1977. 33. Huizinga J. Experience in determining the game element of culture. M., 1992. 34. Man. Culture. History: Collection of articles. Saratov, 1993. 35. Spengler O. Decline of Europe. T. 1. M., 1993. 36. Jung K.G. Archetype and symbol. M., 1994. Authors: Islamgalieva S.K., Khalin K.E., Babayan G.V.
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