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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Culturology. Culturology and philosophy of culture, sociology of culture (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) Culturology and philosophy of culture, sociology of culture 1. Main movements and schools in Western philosophy of culture in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. One of the main directions of philosophical research in the 9th-20th centuries. became the philosophy of culture. This created the conditions for the formation of numerous scientific schools in this area of philosophical knowledge. They not only developed a general range of problems, but also developed original approaches to solving them. The foundations of modern philosophy of culture were laid in the second half of the XNUMXth century. neo-Kantians (followers of the German philosopher I. Kant) and representatives of the "philosophy of life". Neo-Kantians (G. Kogan, P. Natori, E. Cassirer, V. Windelband, G. Riccius) studied the differences between the natural sciences and the humanities. Their research led to the conclusion that the main difference lies in the methods used by each type of science. Natural sciences use paleolithic methods (they generalize individual facts and, on this basis, derive laws for this type of phenomena), and the humanities use the ideographic method (it is aimed at studying not the general, but the individual, unique in cultural phenomena, historical events, personalities). The neo-Kantian philosophy of culture was based on axiology (the philosophical doctrine of values). Ideal (non-material) values attach importance to certain phenomena, turning them into elements of culture, form the spheres of "value goods of culture" - science, art, religion, law. The attention of representatives of the "philosophy of life" (W. Dilthey, G. Simmel, F. Nietzsche, O. Spengler) focused on the relationship of culture to the original being. Research has shown that the forms and limitations of culture fetter the flow of "life" and then are destroyed by it in order to make room for new forms and limitations. "Philosophy of Life" emphasized the tragic nature of the history of culture, which is ultimately doomed to death. Individual representatives of the “philosophy of life” made a huge contribution to the development of cultural theories. V. Dilthey showed the importance of hermeneutics (the science of interpretation) in the study of culture, and developed a method for intuitive understanding of historical and historical-cultural phenomena. F. Nietzsche viewed culture as a harmonious unity of two principles: irrational (“Dionysian”) and rational (“Apollonian”). He also analyzed such a phenomenon, so characteristic of the culture of recent centuries, as “nihilism,” which preached the destruction of the norms and values of culture. A. Bergson described a “closed” (oriented towards collectivism, despotism, traditionalism) type of society and an “open” one (characterized by individual independence, intellectual freedom and democracy). He also came to the conclusion that there are two types of morality and religion: static, based on ritualized worship of God or moral standards, and dynamic, based on the desire for personal communication with God, ethical heroism, and individual activity. A new impetus to the development of the philosophy of culture was given by the ideas of the representatives of psychoanalysis (J. Breuer, Z. Freud, K. G. Jung, A. Adler, E. Fromm, J. Lacan and many others). Despite the fact that psychoanalysis (or Freudianism) emerged as a concept of psychiatry and psychology, it soon showed its philosophical and cultural potential. Z. Freud believed that culture, by and large, is a product of unconscious desires and inclinations of a person, the charge that gives the mental energy of sexual desire - libido. Thus, culture appears through the sublimation of libido, i.e. through the transformation of the sexual and aggressive desires of the individual into something acceptable to other people - art, politics, religion, sports, etc. In the formation of culture, Z. Freud assigned the most important role to mental complexes, neuroses, obsessions, which, even "forced out" from consciousness, constantly strive to return to it. In the late period of his work, Z. Freud came to the conclusion that the crisis of culture is inevitably generated by the progress of culture itself, since its norms come into irreconcilable conflict with people's unconscious drives. Rethinking the ideas of Z. Freud, Carl Gustav Jung created the doctrine of the "collective unconscious" of humanity, which is a kind of repository of the experience of generations of people. The "collective unconscious" has a powerful influence on culture mainly through its "archetypes" (prototypes). Analyzing the differences between the cultures of the West and the East, K.G. Jung came to the conclusion that the East seeks to dissolve the individual in the "collective unconscious", while the West, on the contrary, strives for the autonomy of the individual from the "collective unconscious". All the major trends in Western philosophy of the XNUMXth century created their own versions of the philosophy of culture. Their culturological theories depended on the issues that were developed by these areas. Today, Western philosophy of culture is busy looking for new ways of development. Many of its achievements were adopted by culturology, it was in it that the "center of gravity" of cultural studies shifted. 2. Philosophy of culture in Russia in the XIX-XX centuries. In Russia, the development of the philosophy of culture was influenced by the ideas of the European philosophy of culture, which, however, were creatively rethought by Russian philosophers. From the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. one can already state with certainty the influence of Russian philosophical and cultural thought on Western thought. In Russia, the development of the philosophy of culture was determined not only by Western intellectual influence, but also by the deep roots of its problems in Russian culture. The most important stage in the formation of the Russian philosophy of culture was the disputes between Westerners and Slavophiles in the 30-60s. XNUMXth century A kind of impetus to the beginning of these disputes was P.Ya. Chaadaev, in which he raised questions about the role of Russia among the peoples of the West and East, about the assessment of Petrine reforms, about the relationship between Russian and Western cultures. The philosophy of Western culture (P.V. Annenkov, T.N. Granovsky, K.D. Kavelin, V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, I.S. Turgenev, S.M. Solovyov, etc.) proceeded from the idea of the unity of human civilization and the common path of its development. Russia was considered by Westerners as a European country, lagging behind for various reasons (geographical position on the outskirts of Europe, the Tatar-Mongol yoke, etc.) from other European countries on the path of civilization development. Europe was a model of the progress of civilization for Westerners, and therefore Westerners tried in every possible way to bring Russia closer to it, believing that otherwise it would wallow in savagery and ignorance. In this synopsis, Westerners' assessment of the Petrine reforms was generally positive. Unlike the Westerners, the Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, I.V. Kireevsky, P.V. Kireevsky, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, N.M. Yazykov, etc.) denied the unity of human civilization and the general way of its development. From their point of view, the cultures of individual tribes and peoples are organic entities, whose distinctive features are determined by the "people's soul" inherent in each of them. The Slavophiles saw the Russian people and other Slavic peoples as such an original civilization, based on the religious and moral principle formed by Orthodox Christianity. At the same time, in the West, they believed, a soulless formal-legal principle dominates. Thus, Russia, according to the Slavophiles, is a young culture that has its own path of historical and cultural development. The Slavophiles were generally negative about the reforms of Peter I, believing that they distorted the properties of Russian culture. The revival of these properties of the Slavophiles was considered possible through religious and moral purification and a deep study of the history of the folk culture of Russia, which is the repository of national cultural identity. In the second half of the XIX century. the ideas of Slavophilism were developed by the "late Slavophiles", or "soil" (A.A. Grigorieva, N.N. Strakhova, F.M. Dostoevsky, etc.). The main theme for them remains Russian identity, the essence of which they see in Christian humility. Russia's historical mission is to unite the peoples of Europe into a Christian brotherhood. Resources for the fulfillment of this mission can be provided by the primordially Russian culture of the common people ("soil"), but not by the ideology of the intelligentsia, "torn from the soil." The late Slavophiles believed that the comprehension of the national idea was possible through the study of national art. Theoretically substantiated the views of the late Slavophiles N.Ya. Danilevsky ("Russia and Europe", 1869). He criticized the ideas of humanity, which, in his opinion, is an abstract concept and does not have its own history. The historical reality of N.Ya. Danilevsky declared cultural-historical types. Like biological organisms, cultural-historical types are in a state of constant struggle with the external environment and with each other. During 1000-1500 years of its existence, the cultural-historical type goes through the stages of birth, maturation, decrepitude and death. It is possible to describe the differences between cultural and historical types by highlighting four "foundations" (the most important forms of human activity): 1) religious; 2) cultural (including science and art); 3) political; 4) socio-economic. N.Ya. Danilevsky believed that in the history of the XIX century. two cultural-historical types dominate: 1) Germano-Romance (European); 2) Slavic led by Russia. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. a whole galaxy of remarkable philosophers appears in Russia: V.S. Solovyov, S.N. and E.N. Trubetskoy, N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, P.A. Florensky and others. Their works often touched upon the problems of the philosophy of culture. The main topics of reflection are the religious, spiritual foundations of various types of culture, the philosophy of art, a new understanding of the features of Russian culture, its similarities and differences from the culture of European countries. The Russian "religious-philosophical renaissance" is characterized by a contradictory combination of striving to justify the traditions of Russia's Christian culture and sometimes quite sharp criticism of these traditions. The events of 1917 dramatically changed the course of national history, including intellectual and cultural history. The philosophy of culture found itself under the dominance of Marxist teaching and the dictates of communist ideology. Another group of scientists who emigrated from Russia (N.S. Trubetskoy, P.N. Savitsky, L.P. Karsavin and others) created a Eurasian concept that considers Russia as an original Eurasian civilization, but not European or Asian. 3. Sociology of culture The sociology of culture is a scientific discipline that studies culture from the point of view of sociology and uses all the achievements of modern social science. In this context, culture is studied as part of a social system, social relations, as a certain social institution. The development of the sociology of culture was most influenced by such researchers as K. Marx, M. Weber, E. Durkheim, P. Sorokin, M. Mead, B. Malinovsky and others. Culture itself in this discipline is considered not so much from a substantive, but from a functional point of view. The sociology of culture examines the role (or roles) played by culture in human society. These are such roles as, for example, the educational role of culture (its pedagogical function), the orientation of a person to a certain system of values (value-oriented or axiological function), the role of culture as a necessary prerequisite for communication between people, information exchange (communicative function) and many others. . The sociology of culture pays little attention to the content and history of cultural phenomena. They are of interest to her mainly as a way of streamlining the regulation of social relations. For example, moral norms, law, religious precepts make it possible to mitigate the contradictions between the interests of different social groups, to avoid constant conflicts between them, which otherwise could be resolved by force. However, it should be noted that culture does not always succeed in fulfilling its regulatory functions, especially in the era of wars, revolutions, civil strife. In such periods, culture itself is in crisis and changes its forms. The sociology of culture proceeds from the fundamental fact of the social heterogeneity of human society (classes, estates, groups). And this social heterogeneity inevitably gives rise to social inequality, in which some people are on the "social ladder" above or below other people. Public groups differ from each other not only in their economic, political interests, social status, but also in a number of psychological and cultural characteristics (self-awareness and self-esteem, the ideology of this group, customs, traditions, norms of behavior, ways of spending leisure time, the use of characteristic words and expressions , manner of dressing, preferences in art, etc.). From all this, subcultures are formed, that is, particular forms of culture (or subcultures) conditioned by social differences. Sometimes subcultures are generated not so much by social differences as by age (youth subculture) or some other differences (subcultures of sexual minorities). The sociology of culture studies the elite subcultures (the culture of the "tops" of society), the subcultures of the "middle class", the subcultures of the social "lower classes". It should be noted that these subcultures can be further divided. Some of the most interesting for sociologists are marginal subcultures. Their formation comes from people occupying an "intermediate", "borderline" social position. These people cannot or do not want to find their place in existing social structures. Therefore, their psychology and culture are built on a sharp opposition to society, a more or less aggressive rejection of social norms and values. Usually, criminals, drug addicts, revolutionaries, anarchists are referred to as marginals, and more recently, anti-globalists, skinheads (skinheads), and representatives of certain areas of punk culture, etc. From sociological and culturological points of view, the process of transformation of a marginal subculture into a subculture of quite respectable, and sometimes even elite strata of society (avant-garde art, rock culture) is especially interesting. One of the most important factors in this process is the transformation of a marginal subculture into a profitable business. Culturological aspects are present in all major areas of modern sociology. These include the study of social dynamics (social and socio-cultural changes); study of social mobility (changes by an individual or a social group of their social position); works on social psychology; studies of problems of social statuses and social stratification (social stratification); description of the social environment, social behavior, social experience, social characters. Sociologists study the relationship between culture and other levels and forms of social organization - economics, politics, science, education, etc. All the main directions of scientific work in the field of sociology of culture are united in the concept of "sociocultural system". It allows you to bring together knowledge about individual social and cultural phenomena, build a model of society, an integral part of which are cultural norms, cultural patterns (patterns, paradigms), cultural orientations, cultural organizations. Using the concept of "sociocultural system", we can distinguish various types of these systems in the history of mankind. At present, the sociology of culture is one of the most important and fruitful areas of cultural knowledge. Authors: Islamgalieva S.K., Khalin K.E., Babayan G.V. << Back: Structure and composition of modern cultural knowledge (General characteristics of modern culture. Composition and structure of cultural knowledge) >> Forward: Cultural anthropology. Culturology and cultural history (Cultural anthropology. Culturology and cultural history. Artistic style as a symbolic expression of the soul)
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