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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Culturology. Culture of Europe (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) European culture 1. Culture of Byzantium The culture of Byzantium is a unique phenomenon in the history of European culture. This culture arose in a state that officially existed since the 4th century. to the middle of the 15th century. with the capital Constantinople after the division of the Roman Empire into two parts: Eastern and Western. The uniqueness of Byzantine culture is that it arose and existed in a border situation. Byzantium is part of the ancient world, but it was in it that the Orthodox branch of medieval culture developed. Characteristic features of Byzantine culture: 1) solemn splendor; 2) spirituality, depth of thought; 3) elegance of form. Features of Byzantine culture: 1) synthesis of Western and Eastern elements with the primacy of Greco-Roman traditions; 2) preservation of the traditions of ancient civilization, which became the basis of European culture of the Renaissance; 3) strong state foundations that contributed to the preservation of secular art; 4) the formation of Orthodoxy, which influenced the system of Christian ethical and aesthetic values, philosophical and theological views; 5) a mixture of pagan mythology and Christian personality. Byzantine philosophers raised the question of the meaning of human existence, the place of man in the Universe and his capabilities. The thinkers of Byzantium - writers, preachers, theologians - borrowed all the best that ancient culture gave to humanity. The Byzantines saw art, first of all, as a tool for purposeful positive influence on the spiritual world of man. Music, painting, architecture, verbal art are mediators of comprehension of truth, sources of moral improvement of man. Compared to antiquity, the architectural forms of Christian churches have changed. A Christian church is a place where a community of believers gathers, so the architects first of all solved the problem of organizing the internal space. The highest achievement of Byzantine culture is the Hagia Sophia. The main forms of Byzantine painting: 1) monumental temple painting (mosaic and fresco); 2) icons; 3) book miniature. Mosaic - a type of monumental painting - an image or pattern made of smalt (multi-colored stones) - received special significance in Byzantium. Iconography and Christian easel painting were formed, which became an instrument of ideological influence of the Church. Accumulated knowledge is summarized, encyclopedias on history, agriculture, medicine, etc. are created. Byzantium influenced the formation of early Italian humanism. It became a bridge between Western and Eastern cultures and had a profound impact on the culture of many European countries, primarily on countries where Orthodoxy was established. 2. Culture of medieval Europe The cultural life of European society of this period is determined by Christianity. It developed a new ethics of conduct, defined a new view of the world, of man’s place in it. God is the creator of all visible forms. History is the implementation of the divine plan. Philosophy is the “handmaiden of theology.” Theology is a generalization of the social practice of man in the Middle Ages. Even mathematical symbols are theological. Fundamentals of Christian Ethics: 1) people are perceived as initially equal; 2) the church addresses each member of the community individually; 3) perception of reality in grammatical complexity; 4) the doctrine of the existence of two worlds: the higher divine (spiritual) and the lower earthly, which is just a reflection of the first. Fine art and architecture are in close connection with religion. The Christian temple is a model and image of the universe. In fine art, the main thing is the narration of plots associated with Christian symbolism. Achievement of the Middle Ages - the concept of synthesis of arts. This is manifested in the development of monumental forms of architecture associated with other forms of art. The next cultural achievement of the Middle Ages was the emergence of an artistic style. The first pan-European style was Romanesque, then it was replaced by Gothic, associated with the development of urban culture. The rise of cities demanded educated people. This contributed to the emergence of schools and universities. The first universities arose in Bologna, Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge. The leading faculty in them was theological. Scholasticism is a type of religious medieval philosophy, the goal of which is the theoretical substantiation of a religious worldview. In secular culture, a special place is occupied by the knightly environment, which has developed a special framework of etiquette, a kind of knightly code. One of his provisions was the worship of a beautiful lady. A special place is occupied by the poetry of vagants - wandering students, which had satirical anti-clerical notes. A monument to the French heroic epic of the 12th century. is "The Song of Roland". In the early Middle Ages, heresy arose - a special teaching that contradicted the basic tenets of the Christian religion; the Inquisition was created - a judicial and police institution created by the Catholic Church to combat heresies. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. In line with medieval culture, there is a gradual formation of a new culture - the culture of the Renaissance. 3. Culture of the Renaissance Renaissance (Renaissance) - this is a period in the history of European culture associated with the establishment of humanistic philosophy and an attempt to recreate the ideals of antiquity. The era received its name due to interest in the ancient heritage. The birthplace of the Renaissance is Florence. Circles of educated people (humanists) formed there. Humanists were called so from the circle of sciences, the object of study of which was man. Humanists found, copied, and studied literary and artistic monuments of antiquity. The culture of the Italian Renaissance is divided into four periods: 1) XIII century. - proto-renaissance, pre-revival; 2) XIV century. - early Renaissance; 3) XV century. - High Renaissance; 4) XVI century. - Late Renaissance. In the pre-Renaissance period, Gothic still dominated, but features of a new style were already appearing. Dante in The Divine Comedy creates deeply individual and psychologically reliable images. Psychological authenticity became one of the features of Renaissance art. Humanism was proclaimed precisely in this era. Humanism is a philosophical worldview based on recognition of the value of the human person. Man is the center of the universe, its most valuable creation. The ideal of a harmonious, comprehensively developed, creative personality is formed. An example of such a person was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). The works of Raphael Santi (1483-1520) reflect the feeling of joy and beauty of earthly life. The ideal of man acquires sublimely heroic, titanic features in the work of the sculptor and artist Michelangelo Buanorotti (1475-1564). As part of the Renaissance, the Reformation took place - a social movement for the renewal of the Catholic Church. The result was the victory of Protestantism in Germany. The most significant features of Protestantism: 1) the idea of a person's personal connection with God without the cooperation of the church and the priest; 2) translation of the entire service into the native language of the believers. Albrecht Dürer, a portrait painter, graphic artist, and creator of the graphic series “Apocalypse”, worked in Germany during the Renaissance. The beginning of the Renaissance in the Netherlands - the work of Jan van Dyck. The Golden Age of Spanish painting and theater - the end of the 16th - the end of the 17th centuries. (Miguel Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Velasquez, etc.). Spanish culture is characterized by the strongest commitment to Catholicism. The English Renaissance created examples of philosophical literature, poetry and drama. Thomas More's work "Utopia" (1516) marked the beginning of the literary and philosophical direction of social utopia. The “Titan” of the English Renaissance is William Shakespeare (1564-1616), who reflected in his work the conflict between the high ideals of the Renaissance and reality. The last development of humanism was in France - only at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. A striking example of the French Renaissance is the novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" by Francois Rabelais (1494-1553). 4. European culture of the Enlightenment The chronological framework of the era was defined by the German scientist W. Windelband as the century between the Glorious Revolution in England (1639) and the Great French Revolution (1789). The European Enlightenment is a very specific set of ideas that gave rise to a specific cultural system. The culture of the Enlightenment has a number of specific features. 1. Deism (a religious and philosophical doctrine that recognizes God as the creator of nature and does not allow other ways of knowing God other than reason). Deism made it possible to oppose religious fanaticism. 2. Cosmopolitanism (condemnation of all nationalism and recognition of equal opportunities for all nations). The spread of cosmopolitanism led to a decline in the feeling of patriotism. The idea arose about the unity of humanity and culture (interest in the life, customs and culture of the countries of the East). 3. Science, revival, natural science. An independent and integral scientific worldview entered the historical arena. The formation of modern science with its ideals and norms, which determined the development of technogenic civilization, has been completed. 4. Vera that with the help of reason the truth about man and the surrounding nature will be found. The Enlightenment is the age of reason. Reason is the source and engine of knowledge, ethics and politics: a person can and should act reasonably; society can and should be organized rationally. 5. Idea of progress. It was during the Enlightenment that the concept of “faith in progress through reason” was created, which for a long time determined the development of European civilization. 6. Absolutization the importance of education in the formation of a new person. The bet is on a new person, free from the heritage of one or another philosophical, religious or literary tradition. "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" is a philosophical treatise by John Locke - a kind of manifesto of the Enlightenment. It contains ideas about the education of the human personality and the role of the social environment in this process. The French Enlightenment consisted of teachings that varied in political and philosophical radicalism. Representatives of the older generation - Sh.L. Montesquieu and Voltaire gravitated towards the gradual reform of feudal society on the model of England. A constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which the power of the monarch is limited by a constitution and a strong parliament. D. Diderot, J.O. Lamerty, K.A. Helvetius, P.A. The Holbachs denied feudal property and feudal privileges, rejected monarchical power, while advocating an enlightened monarchy, the embodiment of an idealistic belief in the possibility of improving monarchical power through the active education of monarchs in the spirit of new ideas of the time. The encyclopedia became the code of the French Enlightenment. It was a body of scientific knowledge, a form of struggle against social prejudices. The Enlightenment saw art as a means of popularizing moral and political ideas. Literature was based on public opinion, which was formed in circles and salons. Voltaire (1694-1778) is a recognized leader of educators throughout Europe. His work expressed the social thought of the century. The rationalist movement is compared with the activities of Voltaire and is called Voltairianism. The largest representative of the French Enlightenment was Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755). He developed a theory of the dependence of social relations on the degree of enlightenment of society, on the mental state of the people, on the general structure of civilization. The democratic direction in the Enlightenment is “Rousseauism” named after Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). Rousseau idealized the “natural state” of humanity and glorified the cult of nature. He denied the progress of civilization. In France in the second half of the 18th century. An artistic style was formed - Rococo, reflecting the taste of the court of Louis XV and the aristocracy. The founder of critical realism in painting is the English artist William Hogarth (1697-1764). Entire series of paintings are united by one plot. They were translated into engravings and became available to a wide range of people. More democratic and cheaper than painting, engraving became the bearer of Enlightenment ideas. European sculpture of the 1741th century. reflected a change in public mood. Jean Antoine Houdon (1828-XNUMX) is the most interesting sculptor of the era, the creator of an entire portrait gallery of his contemporaries. The theater of the Enlightenment reflected a new view of the world in dramaturgy and stage techniques. Playwrights and actors in England, France, and Germany were united in their desire to present modern life as accurately as possible. In the work of the Austrian composer V.A. Mozart (1756-1791) reflected progressive ideas in music. Authors: Islamgalieva S.K., Khalin K.E., Babayan G.V. << Back: The culture of antiquity. Culture of the East (The culture of antiquity. Ancient Greece. The Archaic era and its cultural achievements. The classical period. Hellenic culture. The culture of Ancient Rome. The cultures of the East. The culture of the Arab Caliphate. The culture of Ancient India. The culture of China. The culture of Japan) >> Forward: Culture of Russia 9th-19th centuries (Culture of Ancient Rus'. Culture of the Moscow state (XIV-XVII centuries). Russian culture of the 18th century. Golden age of Russian culture)
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